Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani K.K. Birla Goa Campus
1 Definition
2 Algebraic Properties
4 Complex functions
1 Definition
2 Algebraic Properties
4 Complex functions
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x , Observe
that from the definition it is clear:
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x , Observe
that from the definition it is clear:
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x , Observe
that from the definition it is clear:
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x , Observe
that from the definition it is clear:
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x , Observe
that from the definition it is clear:
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x , Observe
that from the definition it is clear:
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )
q
|z| = x2 + y2
1 Definition
2 Algebraic Properties
4 Complex functions
1 |z|n = |z n |.
2 Triangle inequality: |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
3 |z1 + z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||.
4 Conjugate: For a complex number z = a + ib, the complex number
a − ib is called the conjugate of z and it is denoted by z.
5 Using the conjugate one can write |z|2 = zz.
6 |z| = |z|.
7 Observe that z 6= 0 if and only if |z| =
6 0.
8 The conjugate satisfies z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
z1 z1
9 For z2 6= 0 we have z2 = z2 .
10 Parallelogram Law: |z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 − z2 |2 = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 ).
1 Definition
2 Algebraic Properties
4 Complex functions
Euler’s formula
The expression e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ is called Euler’s formula.
Example
1
Find all the values of (1 − i) 3 .
Im(z)
Re(z)
Im(z)
Re(z)
Im(z)
Re(z)
Re(z)
1
:n∈N
n
1 Definition
2 Algebraic Properties
4 Complex functions
1 1
f (r , θ) = r + cos θ + i r − sin θ.
r r
1 Definition
2 Algebraic Properties
4 Complex functions
Definition
Let the function f be defined on a deleted neighborhood of a point z0 then
we say
lim f (z) = w0
z→zo
, if for each positive real number there is a positive real number δ such
that |f (z) − w0 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ
Definition
Let the function f be defined on a deleted neighborhood of a point z0 then
we say
lim f (z) = w0
z→zo
, if for each positive real number there is a positive real number δ such
that |f (z) − w0 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ
As we “move” closer to the point z0 the value of the function moves closer
to the value wo . Note that a limit may or may not exist. But if it exists
then one can show as in the next theorem that it is unique.
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
≤ |z − 1| + |z − 1| using triangle inequality and |i| = 1
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
≤ |z − 1| + |z − 1| using triangle inequality and |i| = 1
= 2|z − 1| since |z − 1| = |z − 1|
< 2δ
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
≤ |z − 1| + |z − 1| using triangle inequality and |i| = 1
= 2|z − 1| since |z − 1| = |z − 1|
< 2δ
Therefore
|f (z) − (1 + i)| < if we chose δ ≤ 2 .
Hence lim f (z) = 1 + i.
z→1
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
= |z − i + i(z + i)|
= |z − i + i(z − i)|
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
= |z − i + i(z + i)|
= |z − i + i(z − i)|
≤ |z − i| + |z − i| using triangle inequality and |z| = z
= 2|z − i| < 2δ
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
= |z − i + i(z + i)|
= |z − i + i(z − i)|
≤ |z − i| + |z − i| using triangle inequality and |z| = z
= 2|z − i| < 2δ
Therefore
|f (z) − (1 + i)| < if we chose δ ≤ 2 .
Hence lim f (z) = 1 + i.
z→i
Example
z
Let f (z) = Re(z) . What about lim f (z) ?
z→0
To prove the assertion let us assume if possible there are more than one
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits.
To prove the assertion let us assume if possible there are more than one
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits. So for each positive there are
δ1 , δ1 positive
To prove the assertion let us assume if possible there are more than one
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits. So for each positive there are
δ1 , δ1 positive such that |f (z) − w1 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and
|f (z) − w2 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 .
To prove the assertion let us assume if possible there are more than one
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits. So for each positive there are
δ1 , δ1 positive such that |f (z) − w1 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and
|f (z) − w2 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 . So whenever we have
|z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 }
To prove the assertion let us assume if possible there are more than one
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits. So for each positive there are
δ1 , δ1 positive such that |f (z) − w1 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and
|f (z) − w2 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 . So whenever we have
|z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 } we have
< 2
To prove the assertion let us assume if possible there are more than one
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits. So for each positive there are
δ1 , δ1 positive such that |f (z) − w1 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and
|f (z) − w2 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 . So whenever we have
|z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 } we have
< 2
Note that above inequality is available to us for arbitrary positive real
number .
To prove the assertion let us assume if possible there are more than one
limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits. So for each positive there are
δ1 , δ1 positive such that |f (z) − w1 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and
|f (z) − w2 | < whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 . So whenever we have
|z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 } we have
< 2
Note that above inequality is available to us for arbitrary positive real
number .
We choose an smaller than |w1 − w2 |/2 we arrive at a contradiction
|w1 − w2 | < |w1 − w2 |.
J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Introduction 28 / 36
Examples
Example
z 2 −z 2
Let f (z) = z . Find lim f (z).
z→0
Example
z 2 −z 2
Let f (z) = z . Find lim f (z).
z→0
Example
1−z
Let f (z) = 1−z . Find lim f (z) if exists ?
z→1
if and only if
lim u(x , y ) = u0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
and
lim v (x , y ) = v0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Note:
This theorem will help disproving existence of limits.
Example
z
Find lim if exists.
z→0 z
Solution:
x 2 −y 2
Since f (z) = z
z = + i x 22xy
x 2 +y 2 +y 2
. So the non existence of the limit
z
lim v (x , y ) implies the non existence of lim .
(x ,y )→(0,0) z→0 z
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Then:
1 lim (f (z) + g(z)) = w0 + p0
z→z0
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Then:
1 lim (f (z) + g(z)) = w0 + p0
z→z0
2 lim f (z)g(z) = w0 p0
z→z0
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Then:
1 lim (f (z) + g(z)) = w0 + p0
z→z0
2 lim f (z)g(z) = w0 p0
z→z0
f (z) w0
3 If p0 6= 0 then lim =
z→z0 g(z) p0
Theorem
1
1 lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if lim =0
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)
Theorem
1
1 lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if lim =0
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)
1
2 lim f (z) = w0 if and only if lim f = w0 .
z→∞ z→0 z
Theorem
1
1 lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if lim =0
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)
1
2 lim f (z) = w0 if and only if lim f = w0 .
z→∞ z→0 z
1
3 lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if =0
z→∞ lim f (1/z)
z→0
Example
1
Show that lim = ∞.
z→1 (z − 1)3
Solution:
1
lim = lim (z − 1)3
z→1 f (z) z→1
= 0.
1
So by part (1), of the above theorem, we get lim = ∞.
z→1 (z − 1)3
Solution:
4
1
z2
lim f = lim
2
z→0 z z→0 1
−1
z
Solution:
4
1
z2
lim f = lim
2
z→0 z z→0 1
−1
z
lim 4
z→0
= 2
lim (z − 2z + 1)
z→0
4
= = 4.
1
4z 2
So by part (2), of the above theorem, we get lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Introduction 35 / 36
Examples
Example
z2 + 1
Show that lim = ∞.
z→∞ z − 1
Solution:
1 1/z − 1
lim = lim
z→0 f (1/z) z→0 (1/z)2 + 1
Example
z2 + 1
Show that lim = ∞.
z→∞ z − 1
Solution:
1 1/z − 1
lim = lim
z→0 f (1/z) z→0 (1/z)2 + 1
1−z
= lim z
z→0 1 + z2
= 0 × 1 = 0.
z2 + 1
So by part (3), of the above theorem, we get lim = ∞.
z→∞ z 2 − 1