BICOL UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LEGAZPI CITY

TECHNICAL REPORT IN ALTERNATIVE ENERGY RESOURCES

(COALS)

SUBMITTED BY:
BOS, ANALIZA
MOSATALLA, NEIL IAN
OLAYES, ARNEL O.
TIAMSON, KATHLYN P.
ZUBELDIA, GABRIEL JULIUS

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. MELVIN BALLARES
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR IV
COAL: GENERAL OUTLOOK

WHAT IS COAL?

 Coal is a hard black substance found mainly in underground deposits and widely used as fuel.
 Coal is formed from plants that have been fossilized through oxidation. It is formed from plant
remains that have been compacted, hardened, chemically altered, and metamorphosed by heat
and pressure over geologic time. The result is a black brownish-black hard substance that gives
off carbon dioxide when burned.
 Coal is readily combustible and has a composition that, including inherent moisture, consists of
more than 50 percent by weight and more than 70 percent by volume of carbonaceous material.
 Coal is currently the most widely used substance to generate electricity and heat. Due to the
harmful gases that it releases into the environment, the use of coal is constantly being reduced
as people search out alternative fuels.
 Coal is found all over the world including our country, predominantly in places where forests
and marshes existed prehistorically, before being buried and compressed over millions of years.
Some of the largest deposits, though, are located in areas of the Appalachian basin in the
eastern U.S., the Illinois basin in the mid-continent region, and throughout the Rocky Mountain
basins in the western U.S.
 Coal is classified as a non-renewable energy source because it takes millions of years to form.
Coal contains the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago in swampy
forests.

TYPES OF COAL

Category Attributes Flame

Lignite Brown color, woody structure Low heating value

Subbituminous Black and dull Higher heating value than lignite

Bituminous Black and banded Smoky yellow flame

Anthracite Black and lustrous Burns without flame
Coal is classified into four main types, or ranks: anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, and
lignite. The ranking depends on the types and amounts of carbon the coal contains and on the amount
of heat energy the coal can produce. The rank of a coal deposit is determined by the amount of pressure
and heat that acted on the plants over time.

The general sequence of coalification is from Lignite to Subbituminous to Bituminous to

Anthracite. Since microbial activity ceases within a few metres of Earth’s surface, the coalification
process must be controlled primarily by changes in physical conditions that take place with depth.
 1. Anthracite
Contains 86%–97% carbon and generally has the highest heating value of all ranks of
coal. Anthracite is mainly used by the metals industry.
It is a hard, brittle, and black lustrous coal, often referred to as hard coal, containing
a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter.
2. Bituminous
Coal contains 45%–86% carbon. Bituminous coal is the most abundant rank of coal
found in the United States, and it accounted for about 46% of total U.S. coal
production in 2017.
Bituminous coal is a middle rank coal between subbituminous and anthracite.
Bituminous usually has a high heating (Btu) value and is the most common type of
coal used in electricity generation in the United States. Bituminous coal appears
shiny and smooth when you first see it, but look closer and you may see it has
layers.
3. Subbituminous
Coal typically contains 35%–45% carbon, and it has a lower heating value than
bituminous coal.
Subbituminous coal is black in color and dull (not shiny), and has a higher heating
value than lignite.
4. Lignite-
Contains 25%–35% carbon and has the lowest energy content of all coal ranks.
Lignite coal deposits tend to be relatively young and were not subjected to extreme
heat or pressure. Lignite is crumbly and has high moisture content, which
contributes to its low heating value.
Lignite coal, aka brown coal, is the lowest grade coal with the least concentration of
carbon.

Three major physical factors—duration, increasing temperature, and increasing pressure—may

influence the coalification process. In laboratory experiments artificially prepared coals are influenced
by the duration of the experiment, but in nature the length of time is substantially longer and the overall
effect of time remains undetermined. In general, temperature increases with depth.

Maturity
••Ti
•Temp
[Ran]Pres
m
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sure by:
incurred
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HOW COALS ARE FORMED?

WHERE IS COAL FOUND?

Coal reserves are available in every country worldwide, with rec recoverable reserves in around
70 countries. The biggest reserves are in the USA, Russia, China and India.

WHAT IS THE AMOUNT OF WORLD COAL RESERVES?

There are an estimated 1.1 trillion tonnes of proven coal reserves worldwide. This means that
there is enough coal to last us around 150 years at current rates of production. In contrast, proven oil
and gas reserves are equivalent to around 50 and 52 years at current production levels.

After centuries of mineral exploration, the location, size and characteristics of most countries'
coal resources are quite well known. What tends to vary much more than the assessed level of the
resource - i.e. the potentially accessible coal in the ground - is the level classified as proved recoverable
reserves.

 Five countries had about 74% of the world's coal reserves. The top five countries and their share
of world proved coal reserves:

United States—22%
Russia—16%
Australia—14%
China—13%
India—9%
HISTORY OF COAL

 The earliest recognized use is from the Shenyang area of China where by 4000 BC Neolithic
inhabitants had begun carving ornaments from black lignite Coal from the Fushun mine in
northeastern China was used to smelt copper as early as 1000 BC. Marco Polo, the Italian who
traveled to China in the 13th century, described coal as "black stones which burn like logs", and
said coal was so plentiful, people could take three hot baths a week. In Europe, the earliest
reference to the use of coal as fuel is from the geological treatise On stones by the Greek
scientist Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BC), Among the materials that are dug because they are
useful, those known as anthrakes [coals] are made of earth, and, once set on fire, they burn like
charcoal. They are found in Liguria and in Elis as one approaches Olympia by the mountain road;
and they are used by those who work in metals.

 Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), where it formed part of
funeral pyres In Roman Britain, with the exception of two modern fields, "the Romans were
exploiting coals in all the major coalfields in England and Wales by the end of the second century
AD". Evidence of trade in coal, dated to about AD 200, and has been found at the Roman
settlement at Heron Bridge, near Chester; and in the Fenlands of East Anglia, where coal from
the Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain. Coal cinders have been
found in the hearths of villas and Roman forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around
AD 400. In the west of England, contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent
brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath), although in fact easily
accessible surface coal from what became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite
lowly dwellings locally. Evidence of coal's use for iron-working in the city during the Roman
period has been found In Eschweiler, Rhineland, deposits of bituminous coal were used by the
Romans for the smelting of iron ore.

 No evidence exists of the product being of great importance in Britain before about AD 1000,
the High Middle Ages Mineral coal came to be referred to as "sea coal" in the 13th century; the
wharf where the material arrived in London was known as Sea coal Lane, so identified in a
charter of King Henry III granted in 1253. Initially, the name was given because much coal was
found on the shore, having fallen from the exposed coal seams on cliffs above or washed out of
underwater coal outcrops, but by the time of Henry VIII, it was understood to derive from the
way it was carried to London by sea. In 1257–1259, coal from Newcastle upon Tyne was shipped
to London for the smiths and lime-burners building Westminster Abbey. Sea coal Lane and
Newcastle Lane, where coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet, still exist.

 These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing
demand) by the 13th century, when underground extraction by shaft mining or adits was
developed. The alternative name was "pit coal", because it came from mines. The development
of the Industrial Revolution led to the large-scale use of coal, as the steam engine took over
 from the water wheel. In 1700, five-sixths of the world's coal was mined in Britain. Britain would
have run out of suitable sites for watermills by the 1830s if coal had not been available as a
source of energy. In 1947 there were some 750,000 miners in Britain but the last deep coal mine
in the UK closed in 2015.

 A grade between bituminous coal and anthracite was once known as "steam coal" as it was
widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives. In this specialized use, it is sometimes known as
"sea coal" in the United States. Small "steam coal", also called dry small steam nuts (or DSSN),
was used as a fuel for domestic water heating.

COAL: SYSTEM PROCESS DESCRIPTION

 Coal is originally buried plant matter called PEAT BOGS. Peat bogs store massive amounts of
carbon many meters underground. Peat itself can be burned for fuel, and is a major source of
heat energy in countries such as Scotland, Ireland, and Russia.

 The conditions that would eventually create coal began to develop about 300 million years ago,
during the Carboniferous period. During this time, the Earth was covered in wide, shallow seas
and dense forests. The seas occasionally flooded the forested areas, trapping plants and algae at
the bottom of a swampy wetland. Over time, the plants (mostly mosses) and algae were buried
and compressed under the weight of overlying mud and vegetation. 
As the plant debris sifted deeper under Earth’s surface, it encountered increased
temperatures and higher pressure. Mud and acidic water prevented the plant matter from
coming into contact with oxygen. Due to this, the plant matter decomposed at a very slow rate
and retained most of its carbon (source of energy). 

 Under the right conditions, peat transforms into coal through a process called carbonization.

 What are the right conditions? Carbonization takes place under incredible heat and pressure.
About 3 meters (10 feet) of layered vegetation eventually compresses into a third of a meter (1
foot) of coal! 

 Coal seams exist on every continent. The largest coal reserves are in the United States, Russia,
China, Australia, and India.

 Coal resources are scattered throughout the Philippines, but 52% is in the tiny island of Semirara
between the islands of Panay and Mindoro. The Philippine Department of Energy reports that
the largest coal producer in 2005 was the Semirara Mining Corporation (SMC) which produced
approximately 92% of the total. Smaller mining operations were based on deposits in Cebu,
Zamboanga Sibuguey, Albay, Surigao and Negros Province.

PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION

 The fundamental objective of coal prospecting is to discover coal resources through a search. In
areas where coal mining has not been previously practiced, the search process should result in
obtaining coal samples that give reasonable evidence of the existence of a coal seam. Once a
 seam has been discovered, considerable further work is necessary in order to advance
knowledge of the particular geologic aspects and the extent of the coal deposit.

 Coal exploration includes activities and evaluations necessary to gather data for making
decisions on such issues as the

 desirability of further exploration,

 the technical feasibility of mining (including favourable and unfavourable factors),
 and economic feasibility (including size of mine, coal quality assessment, marketability,
 and preparation of mined coal for market requirements).

 Geologic mapping is an important task in exploration. Mapping involves compiling detailed field
notes on coal seams, strata above and below the seam, rock types, geologic structures, stream
data, and man-made structures. Good maps and mapping techniques provide a means for
planning and accomplishing exploration, development, reclamation, day-to-day operations, and
equipment moves. Calculation of material volumes, location of physical elements, and
determination of mining conditions are expedited by the use of maps. Maps also provide a
method for recording data so that they can be organized and analyzed for ready reference.

 Aerial photography and mapping methods (photogrammetry) are increasing in usefulness,

particularly in the exploration and mining of surface deposits. Photogrammetric methods are
relatively easy and inexpensive, can be adjusted to any scale, and are highly accurate in any
terrain. Aerial photography can be conducted at an altitude designed to produce maps that
show drainage configuration, roads, buildings, lakes, streams, timber, power lines, railroads, and
fences or other features that may be missed by a ground survey.

 Drilling is the most reliable method of gathering information about a coal deposit and the
mining conditions. It provides physical samples of the coal and overlying strata for chemical and
physical analysis.

 A second factor associated with a drilling program is the choice between core drilling
and rotary drilling. In core drilling, a hollow drill bit is attached to a core barrel so that cylindrical
samples of the strata can be obtained. (Since the drill bit is faceted with diamonds for cutting
the strata, this method is also called diamond core drilling.)

 In rotary drilling, the samples obtained are the chips and pulverized rock produced by
the abrasive and chipping action of the drill bit. Rotary drilling is faster and comparatively less
expensive than core drilling. In fact, it is not uncommon to drill down to the top of the coal seam
by rotary drilling and then replace the drill tools for core drilling.

 In geophysical exploration, the seismic, electric, magnetic, radiometric, and gravitational

properties of earth materials are measured in order to detect anomalies that may be caused by
the presence of mineral deposits.

MINING

 Surface and underground coal mining are broad activities that incorporate numerous variations
in equipment and methods, and the choice of which method to use in extracting a coal seam
depends on many technological, economic, and social factors. The technological factors include,
 at a minimum, the number of seams, the thickness and steepness of each seam, the nature and
thickness of the strata overlying the seams, the quality of the coal seams, the surface
topography, the surface features, and the transportation networks available. Economic factors
include energy demand and its growth, the supply and cost of alternative sources of energy, coal
quality and the cost of coal preparation, the selling price of coal, advancements in technology
that affect costs of production, and environmental legislation. Social factors include prior history
of mining in the area, ownership patterns, availability of labour, and local or regional
government support.
 It is a general rule that technological factors dictate a clear choice between surface and
underground mining, whereas economic and social factors determine whether a coal reserve
will be mined at all. Some coal reserves, however, are surface-mined first and then deep-mined
when the coal seam extends to such great depths that it becomes uneconomical to continue
with surface mining. The point where it becomes economically necessary to switch from one
method to the other can be calculated with the aid of stripping ratios, which represent the
amount of waste material that must be removed to extract a given amount of coal. Stripping
ratios can also consider the selling price of coal, and a certain minimum profit can be added to
the total cost of producing and marketing the coal for a more thorough cost-benefit analysis.

 If coal is less than 61 meters (200 feet) underground, it can be extracted through surface
mining. 

In surface mining, workers simply remove any overlying sediment, vegetation, and rock,
called overburden. Economically, surface mining is a cheaper option for extracting coal than
underground mining. About two and a half times as much coal can be extracted per worker, per
hour, than is possible with underground mining. 

 Surface coal mining generally involves

1 clearing the land of trees and vegetation

2 removing and storing the top layers of the unconsolidated soil (topsoil),
3 drilling the hard strata over the coal seam,
4 fragmenting or blasting the hard strata with explosives,
5 removing the blasted material, exposing the coal seam, and cleaning the top of the coal seam,
6 fragmenting the coal seam, as required, by drilling and blasting,
7 loading the loose coal onto haulage conveyances, (8) transporting the coal from the mine to the
plant, and (9) reclaiming lands affected by the mining activity

 Contour mining is commonly practiced where a coal seam outcrops in rolling or hilly terrain.
Basically, the method consists of removing the overburden above the coal seam and then,
starting at the outcrop and proceeding along the hillside, creating a bench around the hill. In the
past, the blasted overburden spoil was simply shoved down the hill; currently, soil is either
carried down the mountain to fill a chosen valley in horizontal layers or is replaced on the
working bench itself in places where coal has been removed. If the break-even stripping ratio
remains favourable, further cuts into the hillside will be made. Otherwise, if there are sufficient
reserves under the knob of the hill, the coal may be recovered by underground mining or by
augering.
 Area mining, applied where the terrain is flat, commences with a trench or “box cut” made
through the overburden to expose a portion of the coal seam. This trench is extended to the
limits of the property in the strike direction. After coal removal, a second cut is made parallel to
the first one, and the overburden material from this cut is placed in the void of the first cut. The
process is repeated in successive parallel cuts until the stripping ratio indicates that continued
surface mining is uneconomical.

 Open-pit mining, where thick coal seams are overlain by thick or thin overburden; also used for
mining steeply pitching coal seams, several benches are established in both the overburden
strata and the coal seam.

 Auger mining is usually associated with contour strip mining. With this method, the coal is
removed by drilling auger holes from the last contour cut and extracting it in the same manner
that shavings are produced by a carpenter’s bit. Coal recovery rates approach 60 percent with
this method. Highwall mining is an adaptation of auger mining. Instead of an auger hole, an
entry into the coal seam is made by a continuous miner, remotely operated from a cabin at the
surface. The cut coal is transported by conveyors behind the miner to the outside.

IN UNDERGROUND COAL MINING, the working environment is completely enclosed by the

geologic medium, which consists of the coal seam and the overlying and underlying strata.
Access to the coal seam is gained by suitable openings from the surface, and a network of
roadways driven in the seam then facilitates the installation of service facilities for such essential
activities as human and material transport, ventilation, water handling and drainage, and power.
Room-and-pillar mining. A number of parallel entries are driven into the coal seam. The entries
are connected at intervals by wider entries, called rooms that are cut through the seam at right
angles to the entries. The resulting grid formation creates thick pillars of coal that support the
overhead strata of earth and rock. There are two main room-and-pillar systems, the
conventional and the continuous. In the conventional system, the unit operations of
undercutting, drilling, blasting, and loading are performed by separate machines and work
crews. In a continuous operation, one machine—the continuous miner—rips coal from the face
and loads it directly into a hauling unit. In both methods, the exposed roof is supported after
loading, usually by rock bolts.

In the long wall mining method, mine development is carried out in such a manner those large
blocks of coal, usually 100 to 300 metres wide and 1,000 to 3,000 metres long, are available for
complete extraction. A block of coal is extracted in slices, the dimensions of which are fixed by
the height of coal extracted, the width of the long wall face, and the thickness of the slice
(ranging from 0.6 to 1.2 metres). In manual or semi mechanized operations, the coal is undercut
along the width of the panel to the depth of the intended slice. It is then drilled and blasted, and
the broken coal is loaded onto a conveyor at the face. The sequence of operations continues
with support of the roof at the face and shifting of the conveyor forward. The cycle of cutting,
drilling, blasting, loading, roof supporting, and conveyor shifting is repeated until the entire
block is mined out.

In the short wall mining method, the layout is similar to the longwall method except that the
block of coal is not more than 100 metres wide. Furthermore, the slices are as much as three
metres thick and are taken by a continuous miner. The mined coal is dumped onto a face
conveyor or other face haulage equipment. The roof is supported by specially designed shields,
 which operate in the same manner as long wall shields. Although a great future was envisioned
for short wall mining, it has not lived up to expectations.

 Thick-seam mining. Coal seams as much as five metres thick can be mined in a single “lift” by
the long wall method, and seams up to seven metres thick have been extracted by conventional
mining systems in one pass.

TRANSPORT

 Coal can be transported from mines and processing plants to consumers in several different
ways. Conveyors, trams, and trucks move coal around mines, short distances from mines to
consumers close to the mines, or to other modes of long-distance transportation. Trains
transport nearly 70% of coal deliveries in the United States for at least part of the way from
mines to consumers. Barges transport coal on rivers and lakes. Ships transport coal on the Great
Lakes and the oceans to consumers in the United States and other countries. Slurry pipelines
move mixtures of crushed coal and water. This method is not currently in use in the United
States. Transporting coal can be more expensive than the cost of mining coal. Some coal
consumers, such as coal-fired electric power plants, are near coal mines to lower transportation
costs.

PROCESSING COAL

 During the formation of coal and subsequent geologic activities, a coal seam may acquire
mineral matter, veins of clay, bands of rock, and igneous intrusions. In addition, during the
 process of mining, a portion of the roof and floor material may be taken along with the coal
seam in order to create adequate working height for the equipment and miners. Therefore, run-
of-mine (ROM) coal—the coal that comes directly from a mine—has impurities associated with
it. The buyer, on the other hand, may demand certain specifications depending on the intended
use of the coal, whether for utility combustion, carbonization, liquefaction, or gasification. In
very simple terms, the process of converting ROM coal into marketable products is called coal
preparation.

 Levels of cleaning
 Coal preparation results in at least two product streams, the clean coal product and the reject.
Generally, five levels of preparation can be identified, each being an incremental level of
cleaning over the previous one:
 LEVEL 0 : At this level, no coal cleaning is done; ROM coal is shipped directly to the
customer.
 LEVEL 1: ROM coal is crushed to below a maximum size; undesirable constituents
such as tramp iron, timber, and perhaps strong rocks are removed; the product is
commonly called raw coal.
 LEVEL 2: The product from level 1 is sized into two products: coarse coal (larger than
12.5 millimetres) and fine coal (less than 12.5 millimetres); the coarse coal is
cleaned to remove impurities; the fine coal is added to the cleaned coarse coal or
marketed as a separate product.
 LEVEL 3: Raw coal of less than 12.5 millimetres is sized into two products: an
intermediate product (larger than 0.5 millimetre) and a product smaller than 0.5
millimetre; the intermediate product is cleaned to remove impurities; the smaller
product is added to the cleaned intermediate product or marketed separately.
 LEVEL 4: Cleaning is extended to material less than 0.5 millimetre in size
 Reasons for cleaning coal are to:

 Remove inorganic material (ash) – thus reducing ash handling in coal plants
 Increase the heating value of coal
 Reduce the transportation cost per unit weight of coal
 Meet customers’ specifications
 Why coal processing is important:
 Remove extraneous, non-combustible material
 Ash reduction
 Lower particulates
 Reduced ash handling at power station
 Sulfur reduction
 Carbon emission reduction
 Reduced transportation costs per unit of heat
 Guaranteed consistent heat value
  Improved plant efficiency
COAL SEAM METHANE
 Methane (CH4) is a gas formed as part of the process of coal formation. When coal is mined,
methane is released from the coal seam and the surrounding disturbed rock strata. Methane
can also be released as a result of natural erosion or faulting
 Methane is highly combustible – its release can have serious implications for the safety of mine
operations. It is also a potent greenhouse gas (GHG)
 The methane content in coal seams generally increases the deeper the seam, and also with age.
As the depth of the coal seam increases, so does the pressure level. This in turn reduces the
level of permeability, causing the methane to be much more tightly bound to the coal and
surrounding rock strata. Underground mining can therefore produce substantially greater levels
of methane than surface mining. In fact, underground mines account for the overwhelming
majority (up to 90%) of all methane emissions from the coal sector.
 Methane is highly combustible – its release can have serious implications for the safety of mine
operations. It is also a potent greenhouse gas (GHG).
 Tackling methane emissions is therefore an important step in meeting the challenge of climate
change and in ensuring the safety of mining operations. Methane can also act as a valuable
source of energy- it is the principal constituent of natural gas - allowing countries to further
diversify their energy supplies.
 Methane adsorbed into a solid coal matrix (coal macerals) will be released if the coal seam is
depressurized. Methane may be extracted by drilling wells into the coal seam. The goal is to
decrease the water pressure by pumping water from the well. The decrease in pressure allows
methane to desorb from the coal and flow as a gas up the well to the surface. Methane is then
compressed and piped to market.

Recovering Methane from coal

 Coal Bed Methane (CBM)-Methane recovered from un-mined coal seams. The coal seams may
be mined in the future but this is largely dependent upon geological factors, such as coal depth
and quality.
 Coal Mine Methane (CMM)-Methane recovered during mining activities as the coal is in the
process of being extracted and thus emitting significant quantities of the gas.
 Abandoned Mine Methane (AMM)-Methane recovered from mines that have been abandoned
following the completion of mining operations. Significant amounts of methane may remain
trapped in the mine or may continue to be emitted from openings.

COAL: TECHNOLOGIES
Viable, highly effective technologies have been developed to tackle environmental challenges,
including the release of pollutants – such as oxides of Sulphur (SOx) and nitrogen (NOx) – and particulate
and trace elements, such as mercury. More recently, the focus has been on developing and deploying
technologies to tackle carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.

Technologies are now available to improve the environmental performance of coal-fired power
stations for a range of pollutants. In many cases a number of technologies are available to mitigate any
given environmental impact.
 Coal Washing

Mined coal is of variable quality and is frequently associated with mineral and chemical
material including clay, sand, Sulphur and trace elements. Coal cleaning by washing and
beneficiation removes this associated material, prepares the coal to customer specifications and is
an important step in reducing emissions from coal use. While coal preparation is standard practice
in many countries, greater uptake in developing countries is needed as a low-cost way to improve
the environmental performance of coal.

 Particulates
Particulate emissions are finely divided solid and liquid (other than water) substances that
are emitted from power stations. A number of technologies have been developed to control
particulate emissions and are widely deployed in both developed and developing countries,
including:

Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) are the most widely used particulate control
technology and use an electrical field to create a charge on particles in the flue gas
in order to attract them to collecting plates.
Fabric filters collect particulates from the flue gas as it passes through the tightly
woven fabric of the bag. Both ESP and fabric filters are highly efficient, removing
over 99.95% of particulate emissions.
Wet scrubbers are used to capture both particulates and SO2 by injecting water
droplets into the flue gas to form a wet by-product. The addition of lime to the
water helps to increase SO2 removal.
Hot gas filtration systems operate at higher temperatures and pressures than
conventional particulate removal technologies, eliminating the need for cooling of
the gas, making them suitable for modern combined-cycle power plants such as
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). A range of hot gas filtration
technologies have been under development for a number of years but further
research is needed to enable widespread commercial deployment.
 Acid rain
A number of technologies, collectively known as flue gas desulphurization (FGD), have been
developed to reduce SO2 emissions from coal use. These typically use a chemical sorbent, usually
lime or limestone, to remove SO2 from the flue gas. FGD technologies have been installed in many
countries and have led to enormous reductions in emissions.

 Reducing Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emissions

The combustion of coal in the presence of nitrogen, from either the fuel or air, leads to the
formation of nitrogen oxides. Technologies to reduce NOx emissions are referred to as either
primary abatement and control methods or as flue gas treatment. Primary measures include the use
of low NOx burners and burner optimization techniques to minimize the formation of NOx during
combustion. Alternatively technologies such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and Selective
Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) lower NOx emissions by treating the NOx post-combustion in the
flue gas. SCR technology has been used commercially for almost 30 years and is now deployed
throughout the world, removing between 80-90% of NOx emissions at a given plant.
  Trace elements
Coal is a chemically complex substance, naturally containing many trace elements including
mercury, selenium and arsenic. The combustion of coal can result in trace elements being released
from power stations with potentially harmful impacts to both human health and the environment. A
number of technologies are used to limit the release of trace elements including coal washing,
particulate control devices, fluidized bed combustion, activated carbon injection and FGDs.

 Waste
The combustion of coal generates waste consisting primarily of non-combustible mineral
matter along with a small amount of unreacted carbon. The production of this waste can be
minimized by coal cleaning prior to combustion. Waste can be further minimized through the use of
high efficiency coal combustion technologies. There is increasing awareness of the opportunities to
reprocess power station waste into valuable materials for use primarily in the construction and civil
engineering industry.

COAL: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES:

1. Easy to transport.
Though coal is only found in certain locations in the world, it is very easy to transport from one
location to the next and is cheaper. Unlike oil, it does not go through high-pressure pipelines that
require expensive upkeep. The abundance of coal also means extra security is unnecessary when it
is being transported. All of the energy is stored inside the coal so (unlike other energy sources such
as hydropower, which needs to be tapped into on site), coal can be brought in trucks from one end
of the world to the next before it is ignited and its energy released.

2. Powerful energy source

Coal provides plenty of energy per unit, making it great for powering heavy-duty machinery.
Coal produces enough power to run large machinery and equipment. A few decades back, coal
based trains were in vogue. However, they have now been replaced with electric powered trains.
Unlike solar or win, you can burn coal 24/7 to produce energy. This means it is a reliable power
source that offers predictability for a modern society. There is no need to counter intermittence as
there is with other power technologies that are being developed right now.

3. Abundant Supply
Coal is one of the most abundant energy sources in the world, with China being in the lead. India
is the third largest producer of coal. Industrialized countries, including the United States, India,
China, and Russia, have a large amount of coal that is available to them. Some estimates have the US
holding enough coal that has already been mined to fuel current resources for the next 400 years.
That means we have access to this fuel in abundance, allowing societies to focus on other
infrastructure needs.

4. Inexpensive energy source

Coal is also a pretty cost effective source of energy. Many of our fuel and power generation
technologies are already designed to use coal. This limits the amount of a capital investment which
is required to create a new societal resource, especially when compared to nuclear or renewable
energy resources.
5. Plenty of Applications
As already mentioned, coal is very versatile, not just for electricity generation. Even its by-
products have amazing uses. Refined coal tar, for example, is used to produce phenol, creosote oil,
naphthalene and other chemicals. Aspirin, soap, dyes and fabrics also make use of coal’s by-
products. Coal itself is also used on specialist products, including activated carbon that is used to
manufacture water filters, air purifiers and kidney dialysis machines. Shampoos and toothpaste
would not be the same without them. As well as providing energy, coal can also be used for
purposes such as refining metals.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Environmental Impact
Burning coal may produce useful by-products, but it can also emit harmful wastes, such as carbon
dioxide, sulfuric acid, arsenic, ash, nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide. Emissions of CO2 from coal burning
also accounts for the additional 65% of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, increasing greenhouse gases.
To anyone’s books, this means climate change and global warming. The pollution it causes has also led
to acid rain in some areas. Although there are a lot of causes of acid rain, burning coal is a major
contributor because it releases sulfur dioxide, and acid rain has higher than normal amounts of sulfuric
and nitric acid.
The coal extraction process results in some toxic by products – carbon dioxide, for example.
A byproduct of burning coal for power, called “coal ash,” produces radiation. This ash then settles
around the surrounding areas of the coal plant. According to Scientific American, a coal power plant can
produce up to 100 times more radiation than a nuclear power plant. Coal combustion can also produce
mercury, nitrous oxide, heavy metals, and other potential environmental dangers.

2. Hazardous working conditions

Coal miners face some very hazardous working conditions, that include breathing in toxic coal
dust and risking their lives in collapsing tunnels underground.
People who are exposed to coal and its emissions have an increased risk of experiencing asthma
and other air passageway inflammation conditions. Breathing in coal dust or ash is also known to be a
cause for lung cancer development over time. A coal mining disease called “Black Lung” can impact total
lung capacity, is incurable, and is often fatal. People with Black Lung literally die of suffocation.
Constant exposure to harmful chemicals can lead to respiratory diseases, lung cancer, black lung
due to coal dust, congestive heart failure, nervous system damage due to mercury, and low-birth
weight. Because emissions and particulates from coal mining can also degrade and soil buildings, human
health is also inadvertently affected.

3. Damage to the Environment leading to Global warming. 

When burned, coal emits CO2 as well as sulfides and other toxic gases. These gases contribute
to the greenhouse effect and hence to global warming. Further, Coal mines can leave large scars across
the landscape.
Scientists believe that one of the greatest contributors to global warming is carbon dioxide that
is manually produced. When comparing all forms of energy and power production that we use today,
coal contains the most carbon dioxide for every BTU that is produced. According to the EIA, coal with a
carbon content of 78% and a heating value of 14,000 BTU would produce about 204.3 pounds of CO2
per 1 million BTU.
 4. Pollution.
Many coal mines use an open-cast method, which causes local animal habitats to be destroyed.
Green spaces, waterways, and other spaces are impacted by coal pollution, which can eliminate fields
and forests with fast devastation. Fires connected to coal mining create underground burning that can
be difficult to remove. Established communities sometimes need to move to avoid the pollution of the
coal mines as well, displacing people from their homes.

5. It is not a renewable resource.

Since coal has multiple uses, it is widely used across various industries. Coal based thermal
power plants are among the most important means for energy generation. Our coal reserves may run
out within dozens of years, estimates suggest, meaning that we cannot rely on this energy source
forever.
At some point, if we are continuously using coal for our power and energy needs, it will
eventually become depleted. As a fossil fuel, there is a finite supply. We may have centuries of
stockpiles available in some regions, but at some point, there must be a backup plan in place that can be
implemented.

COAL: SOURCES AND APPLICATIONS

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock with a high amount of carbon and
hydrocarbons.
Coal is classified as a nonrenewable energy source because it takes millions of years to form. Coal
contains the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago in swampy forests.

COAL RESERVES

Coal reserves are available in almost every country worldwide, with recoverable reserves in around 70
countries.
The biggest reserves are in the USA, Russia, China and India.

America has plenty of coal. Its mines produced about 900 million tons in 2015, nearly all of it destined
for domestic electricity generation, but also some for export. That is only a tiny fraction of U.S.
recoverable coal reserves, which are estimated at about 257 billion tons.
In fact, more than one-fourth of the world’s total known coal reserves are located in the United States.

SAFETY AT COAL MINES

Coal mining deep underground involves a higher safety risk than coal mined in opencast pits.
However, modern coal mines have rigorous safety procedures, health and safety standards and worker
education and training, which have led to significant improvements in safety levels in both underground
and opencast mining. The major fatalities and accidents occur in China.

Coal Mining and the Wider Community

It is estimated that the coal employs over 7 million people worldwide, 90% of whom are in developing
countries
Not only does coal mining directly employ millions worldwide, it generates income and employment in
other regional industries that are dependent on coal mining.

Large-scale coal mines provide a significant source of local income in the form of wages, community
programmes and inputs into production in the local economy.

GLOBAL COAL MARKET

Coal production

Over 4030 Mt of coal is currently produced - a 38% increase over the past 20 years.
Most of global coal production is used in the country in which it was produced, only around 18% of hard
coal production is destined for the international coal market.

Coal consumption

Consumption of steam coal is projected to grow by 1.5% per year over the period 2002-2030.
Demand for coking coal in iron steel production is set to increase by 0.9% per year over this period.

Many countries do not have natural energy resources sufficient to covert their energy needs,
and therefore need to import energy to help meet their requirements.mJapan,ChineseTaipeiand Korea,
for example, import significant quantities of steam coal for electricity generation and coking coal for
steel production.
It is not just a lack of indigenous coal supplies that prompts countries to import coal but also the
importance of obtainingmspecific types of coal. Major coal producers such as China, the USA and india,
for example, also import quantities of coal for quality and logistical reasons.

Coal Trade

Coal is traded all over the world, with coal shipped huge
distances by sea to reach markets.
Overall international trade in coal reached 718 Mt in 2003;
while it is a significant amount of coal it still only accounts for
about 18% of total coal consumed.

Transportation costs account for a large share of the total

delivered price of coal, therefore international trade in steam
coal is effectively divided into two regional markets - the
Atlantic and the Pacific.
The Atlantic market is made up of importing countries in
Western Europe, notably the UK, Germany and Spain.

The Pacific market consists of developing and OECD Asian

importers, notably Japan, Korea and Chinese Taipei.

South Africa is a natural point of convergence between two

markets.

Australia is the world's largest coal

exporter; exporting over 207 Mt of hard coal in 2003, out of its total production of 274.

>>Coal has an important role to play in maintaining these curity of the global energy mix.

- Coal reserves are very large and will be available for the foreseeable future without rising geopolitical
or safety issues.

- Coal is readily available from a wide variety of sources in a well-supplied worldwide market.

- Coal can be easily stored at power stations and stocks can be drawn on in emergencies.
COAL: ENERGY PRODUCTION/ GENERATION
Coal and Electricity
Coal plays a vital role in electricity generation worldwide. Coal-fired power plants currently fuel 38% of
global electricity and, in some countries, an even higher percentage.

Coal’s role in electricity generation worldwide

Modern life is unimaginable without electricity. It lights houses, buildings, streets, provides
domestic and industrial heat, and powers most equipment used in homes, offices and machinery in
factories. Improving access to electricity worldwide is critical to alleviating poverty. Coal plays a vital role
in electricity generation worldwide. Coal-fueled power plants currently fuel 38% of global electricity and,
in some countries, coal fuels a higher percentage of electricity.

How coal is converted to Electricity?

Steam coal, also known as thermal coal, is used in power stations to generate electricity. Coal is
first milled to a fine powder, which increases the surface area and allows it to burn more quickly. In
these pulverised coal combustion (PCC) systems, the powdered coal is blown into the combustion
chamber of a boiler where it is burnt at high temperature (see diagram). The hot gases and heat energy
produced converts water – in tubes lining the boiler – into steam.
The high pressure steam is passed into a turbine containing thousands of propeller-like blades.
The steam pushes these blades causing the turbine shaft to rotate at high speed. A generator is
mounted at one end of the turbine shaft and consists of carefully wound wire coils. Electricity is
generated when these are rapidly rotated in a strong magnetic field. After passing through the turbine,
the steam is condensed and returned to the boiler to be heated once again.
The electricity generated is transformed into the higher voltages (up to 400,000 volts) used for
economic, efficient transmission via power line grids. When it nears the point of consumption, such as
our homes, the electricity is transformed down to the safer 100-250 voltage systems used in the
domestic market.

Coal and Electricity

Coal plays a vital role in electricity generation worldwide. Coal-fired power plants currently fuel 38% of
global electricity and, in some countries, an even higher percentage.

Coal’s role in electricity generation worldwide

Modern life is unimaginable without electricity. It lights houses, buildings, streets, provides
domestic and industrial heat, and powers most equipment used in homes, offices and machinery in
factories. Improving access to electricity worldwide is critical to alleviating poverty. Coal plays a vital role
in electricity generation worldwide. Coal-fueled power plants currently fuel 38% of global electricity and,
in some countries, coal fuels a higher percentage of electricity.

How coal is converted to Electricity?

Steam coal, also known as thermal coal, is used in power stations to generate electricity. Coal is
first milled to a fine powder, which increases the surface area and allows it to burn more quickly. In
these pulverised coal combustion (PCC) systems, the powdered coal is blown into the combustion
chamber of a boiler where it is burnt at high temperature (see diagram). The hot gases and heat energy
produced converts water – in tubes lining the boiler – into steam.
The high pressure steam is passed into a turbine containing thousands of propeller-like blades.
The steam pushes these blades causing the turbine shaft to rotate at high speed. A generator is
mounted at one end of the turbine shaft and consists of carefully wound wire coils. Electricity is
generated when these are rapidly rotated in a strong magnetic field. After passing through the turbine,
the steam is condensed and returned to the boiler to be heated once again.
The electricity generated is transformed into the higher voltages (up to 400,000 volts) used for
economic, efficient transmission via power line grids. When it nears the point of consumption, such as
our homes, the electricity is transformed down to the safer 100-250 voltage systems used in the
domestic market.

Figure 11: Simplified block diagram of a coal-fired electric generated plant.

STEEL PRODUCTION
Global steel production is dependent on coal. Over 71% of the steel produced today uses coal.
Metallurgical coal – or coking coal – is a vital ingredient in the steel making process. World crude steel
production was 1.6 billion tons in 2017.
Manufacturing steel delivers the goods and services that our societies need – healthcare,
telecommunications, improved agricultural practices, better transport networks, clean water and access
to reliable and affordable energy. Steel is an alloy based primarily on iron. As iron occurs only as iron
oxides in the earth’s crust, the ores must be converted, or ‘reduced’, using carbon. The primary source
of this carbon is coking coal.

Raw Materials

Coke making
 Coking coal is converted to coke by driving off impurities to leave almost pure carbon. The
physical properties of coking coal cause the coal to soften, liquefy and then re-solidify into hard
but porous lumps when heated in the absence of air. Coking coal must also have low Sulphur
and phosphorous contents. Almost all metallurgical coal is used in coke ovens.
 The coking process consists of heating coking coal to around 1000-1100ºC in the absence of
oxygen to drive off the volatile compounds (pyrolysis). This process results in a hard porous
material - coke. Coke is produced in a coke battery, which is composed of many coke ovens
 stacked in rows into which coal is loaded. The coking process takes place over long periods of
time between 12-36 hours in the coke ovens. Once pushed out of the vessel the hot coke is then
quenched with either water or air to cool it before storage or is transferred directly to the blast
furnace for use in iron making.
Iron making
 Iron ore is mined in around 50 countries – the largest producers are Australia, Brazil and China.
Around 98% of iron ore is used in steel-making. During the iron-making process, a blast furnace
is fed with the iron ore, coke and small quantities of fluxes (minerals, such as limestone, which
are used to collect impurities). Air which is heated to about 1200°C is blown into the furnace
through nozzles in the lower section. The air causes the coke to burn, producing carbon
monoxide which reacts with the iron ore, as well as heat to melt the iron. Finally, the tap hole at
the bottom of the furnace is opened and molten iron and slag (impurities) are drained off.

Coal and Transport

Coal-derived fuels, as well as coal-based electricity, can play a significant role in responding to the
growing energy needs of the transport sector.

Liquid fuels from coal

The pressure to provide transport infrastructure and fuels is immense. Globally the ownership of
motor vehicles has increased from around 250 million in 1970 to over one billion today. Coal-derived
fuels and energy carriers, as well as coal-based electricity, can play a significant role in responding to the
growing energy needs of the transport sector. Coal is also an important raw material and source of
primary energy for the manufacturing of materials used to build transport infrastructure, such as steel,
cement and aluminum.
Liquid fuels from coal provide a viable alternative to conventional oil products and can be used
in the existing supply infrastructure. Several coal-to-liquids (CTL) demonstration plants are being
developed in China. CTL currently provides 20% of South Africa’s transport needs including 7.5% of jet
fuel.

Converting coal to a liquid fuel

A process referred to as coal liquefaction – allows coal to be utilized as an alternative to oil.
There are two different methods for converting coal into liquid fuels:
1. Direct liquefaction
 This works by dissolving the coal in a solvent at high temperature and pressure.
This process is highly efficient, but the liquid products require further refining to
achieve high grade fuel characteristics.
2. Indirect liquefaction
 Gasifies the coal to form a ‘syngas’ (a mixture of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide). The syngas is then condensed over a catalyst – the ‘Fischer-Tropsch’
process – to produce high quality, ultra-clean products.
 Coal-derived liquid fuels are also Sulphur-free, low in particulates, with low
levels of oxides of nitrogen, providing local and regional air quality benefits in
comparison to oil. Over the full fuel cycle, CO2 emissions of liquid fuels from
coal can be reduced by up to 46%, compared to conventional oil products, if co-
processing of coal and biomass is undertaken and combined with carbon
capture, use and storage (CCUS).
 International Energy Agency (IEA) data shows that CTL can be produced at a
much lower cost than gasoline and, together with natural gas, is the only
 alternative transport fuel able to compete with gasoline even at very low crude
oil prices of around US$60 per barrel (bbl).

CEMENT MANUFACTURING

The cement industry requires energy to produce cement. Coal is an important source of the
energy needed. Cement is critical to the construction industry – mixed with water and gravel it forms
concrete, a key construction material.
Varying the mix of cement, sand and aggregate enables concrete to be used in a range of
applications. Products can be designed, colored and shaped to accommodate a variety of environmental
conditions, architectural requirements and to withstand a wide range of loads, stresses and impacts. 4.2
billion tons of cement were produced globally in 2016. China’s cement production alone reached 2.4
billion tons.
Coal is used as an energy source in cement production. Large amounts of energy are required to
produce cement. It takes about 200 kg of coal to produce one tons of cement and about 300-400 kg of
cement is needed to produce one cubic meter of concrete. Coal combustion products (CCPs), such as Fly
Ash also play an important role in cement manufacture and in the construction industry generally.

OTHER USES OF COAL

Other important users of coal include:

- alumina refineries
- paper manufacturers
- chemical and pharmaceutical industries

Chemical products that can be produced from the by-products of coal:

- Refined coal tar
- creosote oil - phenol
- naphthalene - benzene
- Ammonia gas recovered from coke ovens is used to manufacture ammonia salts

Different products used coal as components

- soap - dyes
- aspirins - plastics and fibers
- solvents

COAL AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Coal mining–particularly surface mining– requires large areas of land to be temporarily disturbed.
This raises a number of environmental challenges, including:

 Soil erosion
 Dust and noise pollution
 Water pollution, and
 impacts on local biodiversity
Steps are taken in modern mining operations to minimise these impacts.

Land Disturbance

In best practice, studies of the immediate environment are carried out several years before a coal mine
opens in order to define the existing conditions and to identify sensitivities and potential problems.

Mine Subsidence
A problem that can be associated with underground coal mining is subsidence, where by the
ground level lowers as a result of coal having been mined beneath.

Water Pollution

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is metal-rich water formed from the chemical reaction between water and
rocks containing sulphur-bearing minerals.
The run off formed is usually acidic and frequently comes from areas where ore-or coal mining activities
have exposed rocks containing pyrite, a sulphur-bearing mineral.

Dust & Noise Pollution

Dust at mining operations can be caused by trucks being driven on unsealed roads, coal crushing
operations, drilling operations and wind blowing over areas disturbed by mining.
Dust levels can be controlled by:
» spraying water on roads, stockpiles and conveyors
» fitting drills with dust collection systems
» purchasing additional land surrounding the mine to act as a buffer zone between the mine and its
neighbours.

One of the most obvious (perhaps least harmful) environmental effects of coal mining is noise pollution.
Coal mining is a loud, day- and night-long process that disrupts the lives of those in the surrounding
communities, reduces the quality of life and can go on for decades.

Noise can be controlled through the careful selection of equipment and insulation and sound enclosures
around machinery.
In best practice, each site has noise and vibration monitoring equipment installed, so that noise levels
can be measured to ensure the mine is within specified limits.

Loss Of Wildlife

Coal mining requires a large expanse of territory. When a mining operation moves in, it invades and
destroys sizable ranges of wilderness area, displacing the native fauna and removing habitat and food
sources. This eventually results in an imbalanced ecosystem -- and even the endangerment or extinction
of entire species.

Sink Holes
Another environmental effect of coal mining is "mine subsidence" -- the earth sinking as a result of a
disturbance to its foundation. This occurs when the coal deep below our planet's surface is removed
from its bed.

Topographical Alteration

Coal mining irreparably damages plant life and soil, creating barren patches of land that are not only
aesthetically unpleasing but contribute to loss of valuable topsoil, erosion and dust storms.

Flooding

Coal mining and preparation generates millions of gallons of highly toxic, semi-solid waste called
"slurry." To contain the slurry, dams are often built in between the mountains from where the coal is
being mined. There are several documented instances in which slurry dams have failed, resulting in
deadly floods and ensuing environmental disaster..

Air Pollution

Coal dust, in addition to being dirty and unpleasant smelling, is dangerous if inhaled over an extensive
period of time. People with prolonged exposure to coal dust are at high risk of contracting "Black lung
disease," which left untreated can lead to lung cancer, pulmonary tuberculosis, and heart failure.

Fires

Since coal is combustible, the threat of fire is another example of the environmental effects of coal
mining. If a fire occurs in a coal bed, it can last for years or even decades, potentially spreading and
releasing noxious fumes into the surrounding community.

Toxicity

Coal and coal waste contain heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic, which are highly toxic both
to plant and animal life.

Acid Rain

Possibly one of the scariest environmental effects of coal mining is the threat of acid rain. The high
acidity of AMD remains in the water supply even through evaporation and condensation, which enables
it to stay in the atmosphere and eventually return in the form of "acid rain," thus perpetuating the cycle
of pollution.

Radiation

Coal contains trace elements of radium and uranium, which, when released into the environment, can
lead to radioactive contamination. While it's true that these elements occur in small amounts, enough
coal is routinely burned at coal processing plants to produce dangerous levels of radioactive waste.

Climate Change

High levels of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, are released during the mining process, contributing
to the destruction of the ozone layer. Carbon dioxide, another greenhouse gas, is released in the
combustion (burning) process, when coal is used to fuel electric generators and steam engines. As a
result, global warming is probably one of the most significant and widely-felt environmental effects of
coal mining.

References:
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.php?page=coal_home
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.php?page=coal_use
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.php?page=coal_environment
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.php?page=coal_prices
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal#History
https://www.eia.gov/kids/energy.php?page=tl_coal
https://www.worldcoal.org/coal/coal-mining
https://www.worldcoal.org/coal/where-coal-found
https://www.worldcoal.org/coal/coal-mining/mining-safety
https://www.worldcoal.org/coal/coal-market-pricing
https://www.worldcoal.org/reducing-co2-emissions/carbon-capture-use-storage
https://www.worldcoal.org/reducing-co2-emissions/gasification