School of Business Administration

College of Business and Management

University of Technology, Jamaica
Module: Organizational Behaviour (MAN2005)
Sem 2 – AY 2019-2020

Note From Oswy Gayle

1. The following pages contain contents on leadership and the links
to the OB Dependent Variables from students of previous
Academic Years.

2. This is for general reading purposes only.

3. The paper contains a bit of application, research findings and

some references from students. These were all individually
researched by students and were delivered as class presentations.
Over time, I have made this compilation.

4. The readings are arranged in the order as presented in the table

below.
# Topic/Theme/Concept to Focus on
1 Leadership, Power and Organizational Behaviour
2 Traits Theory
3 Leaders are born; leaders are made
4 Leadership and Productivity -
5 Initiating structures-Task oriented behaviour -
6 Consideration- People oriented Behaviour
7 Employee-Centered leadership
8 Production oriented or Job centered leaders
9 The Leadership Grid/Managerial Grid (Blake and Mouton)
10 Leader Member Exchange Theory
11 Situational leadership theory
12 The Path Goal Theory
13 Inspiration Leader and Framing
14 Transactional Leadership
15 Charismatic Leader
16 Transformational Leader
17 Cognitive resource Theory
18 The situational leadership – Hersey and Blanchard
19 Gender and Leadership
20 The Attribution Theory of Leadership
21 Mentoring; online leadership and the environment

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University of Technology, Jamaica Lecturer: Oswy Gayle
College of Business and Management AY 2014-15
School of Business Administration Date: November 2014
Organizational Behaviour (MAN2005)
Group–All Groups
Tutorial # 11 – Leadership
.

Leadership Reader - Student Responses

1. Leadership, Power and Organizational Behaviour - Shawneil Bailey

In an organization direction is needed as well as a goal. An organization is a social unit that is

structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals (Definition - Organization).

Often time misguidance within any social unit can lead to destruction or derailing of the original

plans. Leaders are everywhere but leaders are not everyone. This phrase simply means that an

individual desire to inspire the team forward differs from their ability to actually annunciate this

to team members. Leadership is the act of inspiring subordinates to perform & engage in

achieving a goal (Definition - Leadership). Leadership in an organization needs a balance of

power in order to ensure employees exuberates good organizational behaviour. Organizational

behaviour is actions and attitudes of individuals and groups toward one another and toward the

organization as a whole and its effect on organization‘s functioning and performance (Definition

- Organizational Behaviour). If an employee is misguided then it may lead to low productivity or

even deviant behaviour. A leader needs to understand that with their title comes responsibility as

well as self-motivation. Power is a capacity A has to influence the behaviour of B so that B acts

in accordance with A‘s wishes (Stephen P. Robbins). In an organization the legitimate power of

an individual within its structure is more highlighted. This is the power an individual receives as

a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization (Stephen P. Robbins,

Legitimate Power).

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An Authentic leader knows who they are, know what they believe in and value, and acts on these

values and beliefs openly or candidly (Stephen P. Robbins, Authentic Leader). A leader of this

caliber will know exactly what they want done and how to achieve it. They know how to

communicate well with their subordinates and encourage productivity. With Trust and ethics,

this leader ensures the employee is working towards the goal of the social unit. For example if an

employee isn‘t satisfied with their job then this may lead to absenteeism and unavoidably low

productivity of both the employee and organization. As the leader (or manager in this case) it is

your duty to get to the bottom of it and fix this issue and maintain order within the organization

(or department). Interpersonal skills of the manager (leader) will also come in play as they now

need to interact with staff and inspire performance. This way of leading may be effective and

falls under transformational leadership (supportive leader). A supportive leader is one who is

encouraging, friendly, informative and considerate to subordinates while a directive leader

(transactional leader) is adept in giving instructions, setting expectations and establishing

timelines and performance standards. A mixture of both leadership styles are ideal however

more traits from a supportive leadership style may prevail more.

In conclusion, leaders are needed to ensure guidance and with this there needs to be a balance of

power. Supportive leadership style will see better response from employees than directive

leadership style this conclusion was drawn from the research paper ―Relationships between

leadership styles and dimensions of employee organizational commitment: A critical review and

discussion of future directions‖ by Imen Keskes The paper discussed these two main leadership

styles and gave employee perspective based on style brought to them.

References

Definition - Leadership. (n.d.). Retrieved November 6, 2014, from Business Dictionary:

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/leadership.html

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Definition - Organization. (n.d.). Retrieved August 28, 2014, from Business Dictionary:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/organization.html

Definition - Organizational Behaviour. (n.d.). Retrieved Ausgust 28, 2014, from Business
Dictionary: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/organizational-behavior.html

(n.d.). Authentic Leader. In T. A. Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour 15 Edition (p.

386).

(n.d.). Legitimate Power. In T. A. Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour 15 Edition (p.

415).

(n.d.). Power. In T. A. Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behvaiour 15 Edition (p. 413).

2. Traits Theory - Shantell Bramwell

The traits model of leadership is based on the characteristics of many leaders both successful and

unsuccessful and is used to predict leadership effectiveness and also focuses on identifying

different personality traits and characteristics that are linked to successful leadership across a

variety of situation.

One of the earliest types of investigation into the nature of effective leadership and tied to the

―Great Man‖ theory of leadership first proposed by Thomas Carlyle in 1800‘s. According to

Carlyle history is shaped by extraordinary leaders stated that the ability to be a leader are not

something an individual can developed it was something that ones have to born with.

Leadership traits can be defined as integrated pattern of personal characteristics that reflects a

range of individual a range of individual differences and foster consistent leader effectiveness

across a variety of group and organizational situation.

There are some traits that are characteristics of which are Physical-high energy level, physical

stamina , tolerance for stress, Emotional- self confidence, risk takers, self-awareness, Social-

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well adjusted, honest, ability to influence others, Intellectual/Intelligence- decisive, effectively

plans, organizes, Communication- ability to communicate, eager to explore, Experience-has

competency and Trustworthy-caring, consistency.

Leadership Effectiveness

The Big Five Theory

In the1960‘sreachers have examined whether there is a relationship between the basic agreed-on

factors that make up personality and leadership. They are Conscientiousness, Extraversion and

agreeableness. According to the researchers these three factors have a stronger relationship with

leadership and personality.

Conscientiousness this can be said to be an individual‘s tendency to be organized, thorough,

controlled, decisive and dependable. Of the Big Five factors it is the personality factor that has

been related to leadership second most strongly in previous research. Extraversion is the

personality factor that has been most associated with leadership. It may be defined as the

tendency to be sociable and have a positive energy, this is also determined that it‘s the most

important personality trait of a effective leader. Agreeableness is an individual tendency to be

trusting, nurturing, conforming and accepting. This is weakly associated with leadership.

Impact of Leadership Effectiveness in the organization

In the organization effective leaders knows the organization‘s overall purpose and goals and the

agreed-upon strategies to achieve these goals. They know how to fits into the big picture, and the

part they play in helping the organization grow and thrive. It impacts the organization by

helping with its performance. Help or guide the staff of that particular organization to help

building the organisation to make it a success.

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References

 Managementstudyguide.com

 Psychology.about.com

 En.wikepedia.com

 www.ala.org

 www.sagepub.com

3. Leaders are born; leaders are made- Terri Anderson

A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal (Wong,

2007). An individual that holds a dominant or superior position within its field and is able to

exercise a high degree of control or influence over others. Can an individual only be born with

such attributes or is it possible to learn and adopt those characteristics? Employers have a great

deal finding the answers to this question. However, I strongly believe that leaders were born and

also leaders are made. Firstly, we will look at evidence of born leaders as well as the individuals

who have adopted such attributes.

Trait theorist believes that leaders were born, that is, people were born with the natural instincts

and ability to influence a group of people towards the achievement of a goal. Great leaders such

as Martin Luther King, Abraham Lincoln and Nelson Mandela, works and effective leadership

skills and styles has contributed to the ―great man theory‖. Erika Andersen in her November 21st,

2012 article, a publication of Forbes Magazine states that in observing and asking interviewers

the famous question ―Are leaders born or made?‖ many replied saying some people are indeed

born leaders. There is no doubt however, that this can be true. Everyone is unique and has

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different personalities. Scientists found a gene ―rs4950‖ that influences whether someone is

likely to rule or be ruled. This was after analyzing some four thousand DNA samples (Prigg,

2013).

However, even though it is believed that being a leader is natural, (Locke, 2014) believes, an

individual can be trained to be a leader. He states in his article when posed the question to HR

professionals and executives ―Are Leaders born or made?‖ a vast majority say leaders are made.

Which I would like to second that motion. It is possible for a person to learn how to control a

group of individuals and place major influence over them. In contrast to the trait theorist, also

believed that leadership traits were not innate but could be developed through experience and

learning (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2008).

Do effective leaders learn to become superior communicators and relationship builders? Or do

people with exemplary communication and teamwork abilities naturally have an aptitude for

leadership? (Carl Stephenson, 2004). In an organization, employers and managers do not give a

leading job position based on an individual‘s DNA sample but based on an employee‘s

productivity, conduct, and tenure. It would be therefore, unfair to say that there are only born

leaders. Some people take their jobs seriously and always give a hundred percent in everything

they do which increases productivity level. An individual not being able to carry out their

leadership roles does not mean they are not born leaders but simply because of low job

satisfaction. Productivity and job satisfaction play an important role in an employees work

performance and influences how good or bad they are as a leader or just an employee overall.

Leaders are without doubt are born and are made. Employers do not issue leadership job roles

simply because you have gene rs4950 present in your DNA but because through observation and

work performance, seeing you fit for the job. It cannot be stated if all the great leaders of the

world wears the gene rs4950. It is known though they have done a great job. It can be difficult

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with differentiating born leaders from made leaders. As each type of leader; whether made or

naturally born, can effectively and efficiently carry out their jobs.

References

Andersen, E. (2012, November 21). Leadership. Retrieved from Forbes:

http://www.forbes.com/sites/erikaandersen/2012/11/21/are-leaders-born-or-

made/?optimizely=a

Carl Stephenson, O. (2004). Are Leaders Born or Made. Ivey Business Journal.

Kinicki, A., & Kreitner, R. (2008). Organizational Behaviour; Key Concepts, Skills and Best

Practice 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw- Hill Comapnies.

Locke, C. C. (2014). Asking Whether Leaders Are Born or Made Is The Wrong Question.

Harvard Business Review.

Prigg, M. (2013). The Secret to Being a Great Leader? It's in Your Genes Researchers Say. Daily

Mail.

Wong, A. S. (2007, July). Definition of a Leader. Retrieved from Alan's Gleanings:

http://www.vtaide.com/gleaning/leader.htm

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4. Leadership and Productivity - Raheem Foster

Leadership can be defined as the ability to influence a group towards achievement of a vision or

a set of goals. Leadership has a major impact on the work rate/ productivity of employee‘s in an

organization as it can provide motivation to them. The production level of an organization is

dependent on how satisfied an employee is and the satisfaction of an employee would come from

how well the managers of the organization deal with situation within the organization involving

the employee and the policies they put in place. It is often said that managers tell their employees

they need to working harder, this is not a very motivating factor as it tell the employees they are

not working hard enough. In this case this it is just the actions of a lazy leader trying to get

his/her team to work harder, but there is a big difference between working harder and being

productive, a real leader would try and make sure that his/her employee has the necessary

resources, training and tools to carry out their task effectively and efficiently. Leaders have the

ability to take an underperforming organization to the top with just the ability influence others

and the strategies used, if a leader takes his/her time to analyze the situation and find ways to

work smarter the employees will learn to appreciate his/her leadership, this can be linked to job

satisfaction as the more you are motivated the more likely you are to satisfied with your job and

your performance on the job. On many occasions the source of leadership may be from high

managerial ranks in an organization but I want to make it clear that all leaders are not managers,

this is so because leaders can emerge from groups as well as formal appointments. When an

organization is performing well which will be as a result of great leadership strategies, it is more

likely to be embraced by it employee‘s which is widely known as organization citizenship, this is

a good sign for managers as it shows that the employees are appreciating the work they have

being putting in to ensure that the organization and its member are happy and its targets are

being met. A research finding that can be linked to leadership and productivity can be the misuse

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of resources which may also be a major challenge for the management to be more productive.

One such example of the misuse of resources in Jamaica is the Kingston and St Andrew

Corporation (KSAC) approving water parties despite water shortage caused by then an ongoing

drought (Johnson J 2014), leadership plays an important role in this situation as the leaders

would have the right to decide whether or not the go ahead should be given to the relevant

authorities. This however would affect the productivity of the National Water Commission

(NWC) as it won‘t be able to get water to its customers in quantified amount. The next research

finding that can relate to leadership and productivity would be the standoff the nurses had with

the government over delayed wage payment. Several disgruntled nurses across the Corporate

Area took to the streets in a two-hour protest to press for better wages after what they claimed is

Government's ambivalence to long-delayed salary negotiations (Sterling,Y 2006), in this instance

it clearly shows that the nurses had a leader who was supportive of their decision to demonstrate

for their rights. The protest by the nurses would have had a major impact as it would see them

affecting the productivity of the health care sector because the nurses are off the job. So it is

clear to say that the impact of leadership on an organization is very much influential as it can

help the organization positively or negatively depending on the type of leader it has and the type

of strategies he/she can put in place.

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5. Initiating structures-Task oriented behaviour Jodi-Kaye Freckleton

Initiating structures according to Robins and Judge (2012) is the extent to which a leader is likely

to define and structure his or her role and those of subordinates in the search for goal attainment.

Task oriented behavior is a style of leadership. Bass (1990) said task oriented behaviour is where

the leader help subordinates figure out what is expected of them and manages the daily activities

of a group toward accomplishing a task. It is also referred to as transactional leadership or

management. According to leadership-central.com Task oriented leaders are still concern with

staff motivation however it is not their main concern. They favor behaviours that are in line with

initiating, organizing, clarifying and information gathering.

Task oriented leaders therefore focus on the tasks that are to be completed as well as the

procedures to accomplish these tasks. This leader will prefer to know that the job activities are

completed and assign tasks to those employees who have the skills to better manage a certain

task. This will then allow for specialization within the organization which will lead to increased

productivity. When employees can comfortably do a task after doing it repeatedly they will

become better at it and also use less time to complete it. With the task oriented behaviour

managers will be there to let employees know what is expected of them so no employee will be

unclear and have great difficulty understanding what they are about in the organization.

Leadership must be in all organizations, someone or a group of persons must take on the

challenge to influence others toward the achievement of a goal. Leadership can have a positive or

negative impact on an organization. Leaders that are focused on helping employees accomplish

tasks will be the most effective since their focus is on the most important aspect. If leaders are

too dominant and only focuses on accomplishing objectives then it may not be as effective since

people will not be attracted to that style of leadership and will be less willing. In an organization

where management is focused on employees completing their day to day activities then

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organizational performance will increase due to the employees being able to complete each and

every activity in a timely manner. A task oriented leader will be one such leader.

Task oriented behavior will have an impact on the level of job satisfaction as employees who

understand the activities they are assigned and are able to complete such activities well will feel

satisfied. Satisfied employees are better employees and having better employees lead to a

successful organization. The organization will be less absenteeism as employees will not have to

pretend to be ill so as not to attend work. However if employees are absent they will have a good

feeling knowing that they can have an opportunity to find out what was done and also be able to

complete their activities.

Task oriented behavior is an excellent approach as the little task should be the main focus. Once

every task is completed then the foundation will be set for the major objectives to be achieved.

More leaders should employ this method of ensuring minor tasks are completed because in

reality they really are the most important. It will be beneficial to the employees and impact the

organization positively as it will be successful.

Reference

Bass, B.M. (1990) Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership. New York: Free Press.
Retrieved from: www.chsbs.cmich.edu/leadership_style.htm

Leadership-central.com retrieved from: http://www.leadership-central.com/behavioral-

theories.htm

Robbins, S.T. & Judge, T.A (2013) Organizational Behaviour 15th ED. Pearson Education, Inc.

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6. Consideration- People oriented Behaviour - Monique Taylor

According to Judge and Robbins, Consideration is the extent to which a leader is likely

to have relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates‘ ideas, and regards

for their feeling. There are two types of consideration: the employee oriented leader and

production oriented leader. When a leader is more considerable, he/she helps employee with

personal problem, motivates them, treats them equally, supports them and shows them

appreciation.

The employee oriented leader emphasizes interpersonal relations, take interest in the

needs of employee and accept individual difference among members. This leader put them in

other person‘s situation. He/she possesses a high level of empathy. The production oriented

leader emphasizes on the task aspect of the job and the accomplishment of the group task.

Leaders who are high in consideration tend increase the level of job satisfaction within

the organization. Due to the fact that they were well respected and motivated by their leaders. If

employees are satisfied then there will not be a high level of absenteeism. Leaders high in

consideration best fit in organization that requires teams work, participation and humanitarian.

Organization should have the employee oriented leader because it creates a bond

between the employer and employee which in the long run will influence the organization

productivity. If employees are dissatisfied with the organization it will allow the rate of

absenteeism to increase because employee will not put in the effort to get their task done

effectively and efficient. Once, the employee are satisfied they are going to be more enthuse

about their job which will definitely lead to the increase of productive and organization

commitment. They say without customers there is no business but I believe without satisfied

employees there is no business. The employees are the bread winner for the business. They are
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the ones that carry out the task and activities in order to make customer satisfied. When the

customers are satisfied this helps to retain the old and get new customer which will influence the

profitability of the organization. Thus, Organization should have employee oriented leaders

rather than production oriented leader because they take the need of their employee in their own

hand and help motivate them through a more people oriented environment.

Reference
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. (2013). Organizational behavior (15th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

7. Employee-Centered leadership - Sasheen Ennis

Good leadership is essential to a business, the government and to the numerous groups

and organizations that shape the way we live and work. Leadership is an important factor for

making an organization successful. It is concerned with the manager as a leader and transforms

potential into reality. Leaders aspire for change in people toward a desired goal. Lussier &

Achua (2004) insisted that leadership was a procedure that not only influenced employees, but

leaders as well, to accomplish the goals of the organization through change. In order to be a good

leader one must be a good employee. Many scholars define a leader as one who plans, directs, or

guides people toward a mutual goal. In achieving this mutual goal, a leader has to be able to

understand and satisfy the needs of the employees.

In my opinion, employee- centered leaders or employee-oriented leaders are leaders who

take keen interest in and care about the people who work for them. These leaders focus on

employee relationships and how these relationships can best benefit the organization. When

taken to the extreme, however, employee oriented leaders tend to overlook situations and they

often practice a democratic style of leadership.

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 No matter which management style you choose, it‘s always important to make sure that it

goes in harmony with your company goals, employees and your personality. It would be a good

idea to weigh your strengths and weaknesses and manage employees according to your abilities.

I would say leadership style does not depend entirely on the personality types of employees, but

more on the personality of the leader. Not every employer is ready to support, guide and

motivate employees, which is the basis of the people-oriented approach.

Leadership has a direct cause and effect relationship upon organizations and their

success. Leaders determine values, culture, change tolerance and employee motivation. They

shape institutional strategies including their execution and effectiveness. Leaders can appear at

any level of an institution and are not exclusive to management. Successful leaders do, however,

have one thing in common. They influence those around them in order to reap maximum benefit

from the organization‘s resources.

With that of an employee-centered leader, one has to carefully observe the personality of

that leader to come to a precise conclusion of how that leader views and makes decision as it

relates to the organization and the engine that runs the organization, which are the employees.

A people-oriented management style tends to energize employees because it makes them

feel appreciated for the work they do. One of the biggest benefits of people-oriented

management is that the focus on employee relationships makes employees feel that they make a

difference in the company. Hence, more effective efforts come from people who feel that they

are a part of a company‘s success. People-oriented leadership also comes with a number of

challenges. Sometimes employees may feel that the responsibilities they‘ve been given are

overwhelming, and they may need more direction. Ineffective decisions may result if the focus is

consistently put on the manager and employee relationships, rather than the important business

decisions that need to be made.

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 The key is to take the best parts of each management style, and combine them to create

your own approach, one that gets the tasks done while cultivating positive working relationships.

Different approaches work better in specific situations, but if you can keep what was

stated above in mind, you‘ll be well on your way to developing a leadership style uniquely your

own.

With all that was stated in the forgoing paragraphs, on can observe that personality has a

lot to do with the individual who is leading the organization. A linkage to this is the Personal

Behavior Theories discussed in the University of Michigan and Ohio State University studies

which identified two most common styles of leadership: job-centered leadership and employee-

centered leadership. Eventhough job-centered leaders are not the main focus, some degree of

comparison be made between the two. The job-centered leadership focuses on the leader taking

control in order to get the job done and the employee-centered leadership focuses on the leader

meeting the needs of employees and developing relationships (Lussier & Achua, 2004).

The findings in the Michigan study indicated that leaders who were highly employee

oriented and allowed participation fostered more productive teams. On the other hand, leaders

who were more concerned about accomplishing tasks cultivated lower producing teams. The

findings from the Ohio State University study emphasized the consideration and initiating

structure as the two underlying structures found in the University of Michigan study. The Ohio

State University study concluded that both structures were separate components, but if a leader

were dedicated in both they could achieve higher results (Murphy, 2005).

Murphy (2005) claimed that a leader should be ethical, grounded in the mission of the

organization, and is emotionally engaged with employees. Another of my findings highlighted

that leadership influences motivation and in turn, has a direct effect on the type of leader an

organization has.

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 Maslow‘s Hierarchy of Needs, which indicated that a person needs to have their

physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, esteem needs, and self-actualization met.

For leaders who are bent on concerns of the employee and the relationships that they have

formed with them, these needs can be vividly embraced.

Herzberg‘s Two-Factor Theory claims in order for a person to feel successful they have

to be motivated and this is accomplished by achievement, recognition of this achievement,

advancement, responsibility, and the nature of the work itself. Webb (2007) emphasized that

leaders who focused on stimulating employees intellectually, offered rewards, had charisma and

individual consideration were more apt to increase motivation and success in their employees.

(Employee-centered leaders)

It can be concluded that employee-oriented leaders are more concerned with developing

close, interpersonal relationships. They involve a two-way communication method to show

social and emotional support while helping their employees feel comfortable about themselves,

their co-workers, and their situations (Northouse, 2010). This shows that they demonstrate an

understanding of their employees‘ problems. They help to develop their employees‘ careers.

They provide their employees with enough information to do the job, they allow individual

autonomy in work and they show appreciation.

Reference

Lussier, R. N., & Achua, C. F. (2004). Leadership: Theory, application, skill

development.

Murphy, L. (2005). Transformational leadership: a cascading chain reaction. Journal of

Nursing Management, 13(2), 128-136. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2934.2005.00458.x.

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Northouse, P. G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and practice (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Webb, K. (2007). Motivating Peak Performance: Leadership Behaviors That Stimulate

Employee Motivation and Performance. Christian Higher Education, 6(1), 53-71.

Doi:10.1080/15363750600932890.

8. Production oriented or Job centered leaders - Rondesia Henry

Job centered leaders paid more attention to their job and work procedures, thus the concern is

placed more on the need of the job and work procedures.(Trait theory 1980s).This is called job

centered leaders because the main focus is on the job and what the organization make or supply.

Leader will provide instructions, checks frequently on performance to ensure that the work has

being carried out effectively and efficiently, that leader also set certain standard and rules in the

organization, this impact on the punitive mannerism of the leader towards employee if the their

task assign is not accomplish.

Meeting schedules and keeping cost down is another positive effect of job centered leaders thus

facilitate in the procedural system to ensure that the organization meet its required or set goal.

Job centered leaders also reflect the image of the organization in performance and service

offered. In addition to that there are also negatives about job centered leader; they tend to focus

too much on the job and not the staff, in terms of ensuring job satisfaction etc.

How leadership impacts on the organization

The business environment has become more demanding in such a way that the organization must

fundamentally rethink its business model, the global financial crisis and subsequent economic

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down turn have improve the pressure on leaders as the world transformed. Job centered leaders

are more equipped with information and new business ideas with the intent of profiting

financially to keep the business on track with the changing environment. Leadership has a direct

cause and effect relationship upon organization and their success. Leaders determine values,

culture, change, tolerance and employee motivation within a organization (Michael A. Germano

june 2010)

OB variables as it relates to job centered leaders

 Productivity

Productivity improved base on the amount of pressure the leader place on employees to

get the work done.

 Job satisfaction

Leader that is job centered focus mainly on his job, but if he doesn‘t liaise with the staff

satisfaction of employees will decrease and the level of performance may decrease also

 Absenteeism

Employee constantly late for work because the leader putting too much pressure on

getting the work done.

 Organizational citizenship

Employee may believe that hard work bring success so in order to keep up with the job

then working hard is necessary and arriving on time for work make the job easier in terms

of having enough time to do work.

 Turn over- This will impact negatively on the job centered leader profile in terms of

persons may be having a second thought about how much this persons liaise with the

employees.

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 Employee may decide to quit work base on the fact that the leader is too strict and maybe

that person cannot cope with changes.

Leadership has been described as an influence relationship among leaders and employees who

intend real changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purposes (Daft, 2005)

Reference

Article|McKinsey Quarterly

By Michael A. Germano, J.D., M.A., M.S. (2010)

Dixon, M. L. & Hart, L. K. 2010. The impact of path-goal leadership styles on work group

effectiveness and turnover intention. Journal of Managerial Issues, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 52-69.

9- The Leadership Grid/Managerial Grid (Blake and Mouton)- Akelia Laing

The Blake and Mouton managerial grid is a well-known concept in the area of leadership.

The Blake and Mouton theory is based on a two dimensional grid which is comprised of five

different leadership styles. These styles were based on a relation between a manager's concern

for people (along vertical axis) and concern for production (along horizontal axis). The

Managerial or Leadership Grid is used to help managers analyze their own leadership styles

through a technique known as grid training. This is done by administering a questionnaire that

helps managers identify how they stand with respect to their concern for production and people.

The training is aimed at helping leaders to achieve the ideal leadership style team

management (9, 9). According to Blake and Mouton (1978), concern for people involved

viewing and relating to subordinates and colleagues as individuals. Concern for people can be

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revealed where managers show concern by trying to get their employees to like them while

others may show concern by keeping up to date with employees to ensure that all assignments

are completed. Concern for production involved the managers‘ concern for achieving the

bottom-line results and increasing the profit margin.

The five leadership styles are as follows: Impoverished Management (1, 1), with this

approach managers are low on both the dimensions (production and people), minimum effort is

exercised to get work done from subordinates. The leader has low concern for employee

satisfaction and work deadlines which results in disharmony and disorganization within the

organization. In addition, leaders are classed as ineffective where their action is slightly aimed at

preserving job and seniority. In relation to impoverished management its impact on employees

would speak to employees having a high degree of dissatisfaction, no harmony within the group

and high turnover while for the organization there would be inefficient operations (low

production).

Task management (9, 1), with this approach leaders are more concerned about production

and have less concern for people. On the basis of McGregor‘s theory X, employees‘ needs are

not taken care of and they are simply a means to an end. With this style the leader believes that

efficiency in operations can result only through proper organization work conditions and

minimum effort of people wherever possible. Using this style can increase the organization‘s

output in the short run however high labour turnover is likely to occur. In relation to task

management (authority-obedience) its impact on employees would speak to employees

experiencing a high level of dissatisfaction and conflict within the group while for the

organization there would be high employee turnover and peak work performance would be short

lived.

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 Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5), this approach looks at the leader effort to maintain a balance

between goals of company and the needs of people. The leader does not push the boundaries of

achievement which results in average performance for organization. Also at this approach neither

employee nor production needs are fully met. In relation to this type of management its impact

on employees would speak to employees not really being dissatisfied or happy, there is good

harmony within the group while for the organization there is average performance as it relates to

productivity levels.

Country Club management (1, 9), at this approach there is low task and high people

orientation where the leader gives thoughtful attention to the needs of people where they are

provided with a friendly and comfortable environment. Although attention is given to the needs

of people, low focus on tasks can hinder production in the organization. The results of this type

of management its impact on speaks to happy employees as well as good team harmony however

there is low productivity.

Team Management (9, 9), at this approach there is high people and task focus, this style

is based on the theory Y of McGregor and is said to be the most effective style according to

Blake and Mouton. Using this style, the leader feels that empowerment, commitment, trust, and

respect are key elements in creating a team atmosphere which will result in high employee

satisfaction and productivity within an organization. In relation to this type of management its

impact on employees speaks to them forming a highly cohesive team, being satisfied and

motivated in working as a team while on the organization‘s part there is low employee turnover,

employees with high skills are considered thus leading to an efficient organization.

Based on the findings of Blake and Mouton, managers were found to perform best under

the (9, 9) style in contrast with (9, 1) the task/ authority style and (1, 9) the country club style, as

there is high satisfaction and productivity levels. Because the (9, 9) leadership style emphasizes

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teamwork and interdependence, the (9, 9) it is considered by Blake and Mouton to be the best,

regardless of the situation.

In supporting the team management leadership style, Blake and Mouton uses results of a

study in which 100 experienced managers were asked to select the best way of handling 12

managerial situations. Between 72% and 90% of the managers selected the (9, 9) style for each

of the 12 situations. In addition Blake and Mouton reported that the (9, 9) style orientation leads

to productivity, satisfaction, creativity and health.

References

Blake, R., & Mouton, J. (1978). The new Managerial Grid. Houston, TX: Gulf

Blake, R., & Mouton, J. (1964). Managerial Grid Model.

http://www.leadership-central.com/managerial-grid.html#axzz3IcCcFSLL

Kreitner, R., & Kinicki, A. (2000). 10th edition. Publisher McGraw-Hill

http://businesstudyguide.weebly.com/uploads/1/0/3/0/10300865/lbm_ch_5.pdf Retrieved

on November 5, 2014

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10. Leader Member Exchange Theory - Claudine Johnson

Leadership is the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of a vision or set of goals

(Robbins &Judge 2013 ). Many theories of leadership assume that the leader behaves the same

toward all members of the team. This is not so in reality since leaders act differently toward

employees and develop contrasting relationship with them.

This theory postulates that leaders normally form two groups called an in and out group

comprising followers. The leader gives members of the in group special treatment and rewards

while the out group receives less attention and fewer rewards. The members of the in group

participate in decision making and are given added responsibilities. The leader places a lot of

trust in the in group members. As a result the in group members show more commitment to the

success of the organization. The leader expects big things from his or her people so they will not

let down the leader in the process. If the leader has followers who will do what they want the

followers will perform at their best. The more employees on the leaders side the better the

results that will come from staff members and improvement in performance will be seen among

the employees in the organization.

The outer-group members are managed by formal rules and policies. The in-group members have

higher job productivity, job satisfaction, motivation and engage in more citizenship behaviours.

The outer-group can become involved in deviant work place behaviour if they feel left out and

they feel their contribution is not meaningful to the organization.

Research findings

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Research was conducted by (Murphy &Ensher 1999) which states that followers exhibiting

higher levels of self-efficacy were more likely to form in-group relationships with leaders, who

perceived the followers to be more likeable and to be more similar in personality to the leader.

The perception of similarity seems to be a more important factor than the actual

demographicsimilarities ( age, gender, ethnicity) (Murphy &Ensher 1999) There is also evidence

that members of the in-group(those who report a high quality relationship with the leader)

assume greater responsibility, contribute more to the organization, and are rated higher in

performance than members of the out-group( those who report a low quality relationship with the

leader)(Schreishum, Neider&Scandura 1998).

Other research findings from a recent meta-analysis of 50 studies involving 9324 subjects

revealed a moderately strong positive relationship between subordinates with in-group status and

engagement in more helping or ―citizenship‖behaviours at work (Ilies, Nahrgang&Morgeson

2007). According to (Robbins & Judge 2013) one study conducted in both Portugal and the

United States found that leader-member exchange was associated especially strongly with

followers‘ commitment to the organization when the leaders were seen as embodying the values

and identity of the organization. Leader-follower relationships may be stronger when followers

have a more active role in shaping their own job performance. Research on 267 software

developers and 164 supervisors showed leader-member relationships have a stronger impact on

employee performance and attitudes when employees have higher levels of autonomy and a

more internal locus of control.

It is of utmost importance that leaders develop high quality relationship with as many

subordinates as can be possible. The leader can meet the employees to evaluate each other

motives and attitudes with the aim to build high quality relationships with them. This will benefit

the organization as workers will be more willing to work to achieve the organizations goals as

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they will feel they are a part of a company that cares for them and considers their input as

valuable.

11. Situational leadership theory” - Garnett Lowers.

According to (businessdictionary.com) An assumption that no one theory or method for business

management can apply to all businesses or to all circumstances. From a

leadership perspective, using a contingency approach to problem solving would indicate

that issues need to be understood and then addressed in ways that depend on the organization

environment and context in which they occur. There are different types of contingency

approaches use to distinguish situational variables these are the Fiedler model, situational theory,

path–goal theory, and the leader-participation model. The Fiedler model proposes that effective

group performance depends on the proper match between the leader‘s style and the degree to

which the situation gives the leader control. Fiedler created a Least preferred co-worker

questionnaire to identify the leadership style whether a person be task or relationship oriented.

Where task oriented leaders or the one that gain a low LPC and for a relationship oriented gain a

high LPC. After assessing an individual leadership style Fielder identify three contingency

dimensions, which are, use to match the leader to the situation. ―Leader-member relation‖ this is

the degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader. When there is good

Leader employee relation there tend to be better productivity in the organization as the workers

are much more comfortable with there leader and will listen to the orders giving out by the

leader, you also find that there is a higher level of job satisfaction and a lower level of turnover.

―Task structure‖ is another dimension to which job assignments are procedurized, that is,

structure and unstructured. Leader of these situations are task oriented and these situation are

more structured and have little to do with relations. Productivity in these situation and often high

but if a employees has little organizational citizenship their job satisfaction might be low as these

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task would burn them out. ―Position Power‖ is also another dimension, which measure the

degree influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions,

and salary increases. Fiedler states that the better the leader member relations, the highly

structured the job, and the stronger the position power, the more control the leader has.

‗Situational leadership theory‖ focuses on the followers. It says successful leadership depends on

selecting the right leader- ship style contingent on the followers‘ readiness, or the extent to which

they are willing and able to accomplish a specific task. If followers are unable and unwilling to

do a task, the leader needs to give clear and specific directions with out giving directions they

might find that employees of the behaviour wont be effective on productivity or anything to do

with the company well being. If they are unable and willing, the leader needs to display high task

orientation to compensate for followers‘ lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get

them to ―buy into‖ the leader‘s desires. If followers are able and unwilling, the leader needs to

use a supportive and participative style so that productivity will not be affected; if they are both

able and willing, the leader doesn‘t need to do much because these employees or more job

satisfied and are citizens to the organization.

Path–Goal Theory states that the leader job is to provide followers with the information with the

information, support, or the others resources necessary to achieve their goals. In this theory a

leader should be directive or supportive depends on the analysis of the situation. Directive

leadership yields greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful. Supportive

leadership results in high performance and satisfaction when employees are performing

structured tasks. The impact that path goal theory on the organization is that leadership aims to

reduce job function ambiguity. A leader gives specific expectations to workers regarding task

performance. Work functions are clarified for subordinates to provide a high degree of certainty

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regarding policies, rules and procedures. The relationship between performance goals and

rewards, such as advancement and pay increases, is also defined to avoid confusion.

Leader participation Model relates leadership behaviour and participation in decision-making.

Making good decisions is one of the main leadership tasks. Part of doing this is determining the

most efficient and effective means of reaching the decision. Which makes this contingency

import to organization as good decision are always need to run the organization a high standard.

In conclusion, all of these situations are important in there own aspects to the organization

whether it is Fiedler model, situational theory, path–goal theory, or the leader-participation

model.

References

Cross, V. (2009, March). The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership in Companies | Chron.com.

Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/pathgoal-theory-leadership-companies-

20568.html

Hill, R. (2008). The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Decision Model - Decision Tools from Mind Tools.

Retrieved from http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_91.htm

12. Fiedler's Contingency theory - Sammar Lindsay

Fred Edward Fiedler was an Austrian Psychologist that proposed the contingency theory of

leadership in his 1964 article, a contingency model of leadership effectiveness. The theory

outlines that there is no one way of leading, rather it highlights that great leadership is dictated

by the situation that the leader is in and how well that individual does in that situation. Fiedler‘s

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contingency plan states that a leader is either task or relationship oriented; to determine which of

these apply to a specific individual he created the least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire

(Robbins, 2013). In order to use the LPC to determine how good a leader is the first step is to ask

individuals the grade least favourite person that they work with using 16 contrasting adjectives

for example kind or selfish, where it is required that one is chosen to describe the person. The

result of this LPC will determine whether or not the individual is task or relationship oriented. A

relationship oriented individual has an LPC score of 73 and above, this shows that the individual

is more concerned with persons emotions and are better able to solve complex issues when

making decisions. When the individual scores below 64 he/ she is said to have a low LPC and is

also classified as task oriented. A task oriented individual tends to focus on getting tasks

completed over everything else (Fiedlers Contingency theory .n.d).

A relationship oriented leaders are observed on three levels, high control situations, where they

tend to become bored and unfeeling towards subordinates, medium control situation, where they

do well at the group level, they motivate others well and find their job to be challenging so it‘s

much harder for them to become bored and the low level, at this point they are desperate for

group support and put that over completing tasks. At the medium control level the leader is able

to express effective emotional intelligence and when that is done this will motivate subordinates

to work harder towards goals. Antonakis, et al 2009, states that leadership is about managing

emotions as it is important for leaders to appeal to employees emotions to help with the

motivation process. A task oriented leader is also graded on three levels the moderate control

situation task oriented leaders tend to be ineffective due to group participation requirement, they

also lack the emotional intelligence required to motivate employees, the other level is referred to

as the high control situations level, on this level they relax and are more effective based on the

fact that they do not need to have any form of group problems and they don‘t expect any form of

interference from the boss, the third and final level is the low control situation level, this is when

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leaders focus on tasks and even though they are not as high on people skills as the relationship

oriented leaders , when working in groups they are very strict and leave no room for mistakes.

Low control situations in which the task oriented leader is more effective as it will improve

production by means of focusing on the task at hand. A survey conducted in a Government

Organization with 279 employees were interviewed and the findings revealed that human

oriented leadership is much more communicative than task oriented leadership, this article also

points out that communication is an important component of effective management (Bakker-Pieper,

2009).

Reference

1. Robins, S. (2013). Leadership. In Organizational Behaviour (15th ed., p. 372). Prentice

Hall.

2. Fiedlers Contingency Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved November 10, 2014

3. Antonakis, J., & Ashkanasy, N. (2009). Does leadership need emotional

intelligence? Does Leadership Need Emotional Intelligence?, 247-261. Retrieved

November 12, 2014, from file:///C:/Users/SAL/Downloads/EI-Does leadership need

emotional intelligence.pdf

4. Baker-pieper, A., & De Vries, R. (2009). Leadership 5 Communication? The Relations of

Leaders’ Communication Styles with Leadership Styles, Knowledge Sharing and

Leadership Outcomes, (DOI 10.1007/s10869-009-9140-2), 25:367–380-25:367–380.

Page 30 of 64
13.Cognitive Resource Theory - Shekeva Miller

Cognitive resource theory focuses on the influence of leaders‘ intelligence and experience and

how a leader reacts to stress.

Being a leader is hard work. A leader must be able to influence their team, and must be able to

get the job done. As a leader one doesn‘t necessarily need experience in the area of which they

will be leading their team, what is necessary is for that leader to be able to influence and motive

their team to accomplish the desired task. A leader must be directive in his or her approach, must

be able to plan and make informed decisions when necessary a successful leader is one that have

all the leadership qualities that help him or her to achieve the desired goal.

How did a former football player lead a group of people to his cause? Abu Al-Baghdadi was

once compared to Lionel Messi the Argentinean striker, why because he was the best player on

his team. Abu Bahr Al-Baghdadi, the impressive striker is now the world most wanted Jihadist

leaders, he went from a shy religious scholar who eschewed violence, to one infamously

dangerous extremists. He is the holder of a Master‘s Degree and a PhD. How did he get others to

behead, crucify, and torture others?

Baghdadi dispatch his men into Syria and was able to take control of northern Syrian city, there

he was able to take control of their oil resources which he sold to other parts of Syria and

Turkey. Baghdadi was able to take his organization out of Iraq to Syria, where he built a local

support network. He is known to be calculative, he would abort a mission if they were seem

dangerous for his men, his organization was structured with underling assigned to specific role

such as management of finance or propaganda.

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In three years he was able to transform his group that was a fringe movement to the best

equipped, best funded militia of modern times.

Research finding

The published research on the effects of technical training does indicate that leaders, consider to

be technically competent are more likely to be accepted by group members, that they are more

assertive, and more successful in having the group follow their suggestions than are leaders with

less training (Julian & Hollander 1976, Price & Garland, 1981).

This study failed to show that technical training increased the performance of the leader or of the

leaders‘ group. The correlations between amounts of training and rated performance are

summarized in the table below. The table indicates whether the training is general or exclusively

technical in nature and whether the leaders‘ or groups‘ performance was rated. The correlation

are insignificant, and as often in the negative and positive direction. In this study, technical

training appears to be unrelated to leader or group performance.

authors samples Type of performance R N

training
Blades & Army mess Technical Rating leaders .07 48
Fielder(1973) stewards food service rating group .00 48
training
Csoka& Artillery crew Technical Rating of crew .17 56
Fiedlers chiefs training total Ratg tec skill
(1972) training .07 56
Bon & Army squad Training- Rating by 1 -.01 295
Fielder91976) leader mostly tech platoon ldrs 7
sgts
Bon & Army platoon Training- Rating by -.06 87
Fielder(1976) sergents mostly tech platoon
leader/company
Bon & Platoon Total training Rating by -.07 72
fFielder(1976) leader 2nd superior
Lieutenant officers

Reference

Page 32 of 64
The Telegraph (November 11, 2014), Ruth Sherlock. Retrieved from:

www.telegraph.co.uk/news

Cognitive resource theory and the utilization of leaders and group member‘s technical

competence (January 1995) written By Susan E. Murphy, Dewey Blyth & Fred Fiedlers,

Retrieved from: www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA296671

13.Cognitive Resource Theory - Sachoya Matcham

The Cognitive Resource Theory, according to Mehta, F (2011) was introduced by psychologist;

Fred Fiedler, Vecchio and Joe Garcia as a re-conceptualization of the Fiedler Contingency Model

of leadership. This theory recognizes that stress can be a factor that prevents an intelligent leader

from being efficient and oftentimes, our experiences and intelligence tends to conflict with each

other during these stressful situations. In accordance with the Cognitive Resource Theory, there

is no ideal leader. Leaders are said to be either task oriented where they focus on completing the

task at hand or those who prioritize human relationships; where the most effective leaders are

those who use their cognitive abilities to determine the most efficient ways to lead their groups.

A leader‘s decision to rely on experience or intelligence should be determined by the level of

stress; where low stress should call for intelligence and high stress, on experience. This is so

because in low stress situations, experienced leaders are not affected by the level of stress and

often take shortcuts in getting work done. An intelligent leader, however, would be affected but

would find cognitive means of accomplishing goals. In high stress situations, intelligence does

little good and could even make the situation worse. Leaders under this level of stress tend to

become distant from group, overanalysing the situation. However, if the problem is something

that had already occurred, sufficient information will be available for the leader to make a more

effective decision.
Page 33 of 64
Effects of Leadership on the organization

Good leaders understand that there is a big difference between working hard and being

more productive. Asking people to just work harder is considered the lazy leader‘s way of trying

to increase output. Instead, good leaders ensure that their teams have the right tools, resources,

and training to be effective. Thus, it can be said that good leadership increases productivity.

The Charismatic Leadership theory which was introduced around 1970‘s and 1980‘s by

Max Weber argued that effective leaders inspire subordinates to commit themselves to goals by

communicating a vision, displaying charismatic behavior, and setting a powerful personal

example. This results in job satisfaction where employees are content with the job they do

because of pleasant working conditions created by leaders. Job satisfaction leads to increased

productivity in an organization by means of increased job performance and it also has a positive

relationship with organizational commitment Jason A. Colquitt, Jeffery A. Lepine, and Michael

J. Wesson

According to James, C (2008) Modified Van Kaam research conducted by Moustakas

suggested that behaviours and traits of the leaders and actions involving communications,

consistency in the decision-making processes relative to absenteeism, and the need for a

combined culture of shared reality positively influence union associate absenteeism. An efficient

leader who takes his team into consideration motivates employees to be involved in their job

instead of constantly being absent to get work done. Less absenteeism results in more employees

able to get work done, so productivity is increased in the organization.

Job involvement is also brought about when leaders acknowledge employees based on the work

they do. The will find that their teams are more motivated and appreciate their leadership. When

these workers see that their efforts are turned directly into output, they are much more prepared

to increase their effort. They become inspired, which is the goal of all leaders—to inspire their

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teams. Again, the organization benefits from increased productivity where motivated employees

put out more effort, knowing that their work is being acknowledged.

References

James, C (2008). Leadership and absenteeism: A qualitative phenomenological case study.

Retrieved from http://gradworks.umi.com/33/40/3340806.html

Colquitt, J., Lepine, J., & and Wesson. (2012)M. Organizational Behavior: Improving

Performance and Commitment in the Workplace. Texas: McGraw Hill.

Mehta, F (2011). Cognitive Resource Theory. Retrieved from

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/cognitive -resource-theory.html

14. The situational leadership – Hersey and Blanchard - Danielle McDowell

Effective leaders need to be flexible and must adopt themselves according to the

situation." ( Kenneth Blanchard). The situational leadership model suggests that

leadership varies in levels which depends on the situation or task at hand. So for

leadership there is only one theory or approach to help explain or to study the term

"leadership". Leaders identify their most important task whether it be to keep a close

professional relationship with thier employees or to be more focused on the task at hand

to be carried out and finished. Whether or not the leaders choose any of the relationship

or task it is also important for leaders to to observe and evaluate and decide on the level

of readiness of thier employees by analyzing the employees willingness and ability to

perform any task being given or assigned to them.

A successful leader must always ensure to carry out the task or project at hand. No

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matter the size he or she must carry out the task whether it was planned on whom to

assign or how far they would go to ensure the work is done before the deadline. The

leader should not leave any part of the task out as it would be incomplete which would

seem as if that leader who could not complete an assignment is more than likely not fit

to become a leader. The leaders priorities should be big enough to fit the assignments

and how they plan to execute them.

The leader should know that the priorities for the organization must go along with the

tasks at hand in order to achieve a successful assignment. There are four types of

situational leadership in the model. Directing, which appropriate for leaders when

employees have low understanding, low ability and low willingness for the task at hand.

The second, coaching, this approach is appropriate when the employees have high

willingness but low ability for the task at hand. These first two are similar in that leaders

are still required to define roles and tasksmfor employees to understand, the

difference,in coaching the leader is open to ideas and suggestions from the workers.

Supporting approach, which is third, occurs when the employees have low willingness

but high ability for the task at hand. The fourth, delegating approach is suitable when

employees have high willingness and high ability.

According to Clegg et all (1996), leadership has been a major area of interest among

social scientists as an important feature of everyday and organizational affairs.

Leadership is viwed as a process of influence where by the leader has an impact on

others by inducing them to behave a certain way. A leader that involve employees in the

organization's operation builds and improves productivity, so when employees are

dissatisfied productivity is reduced or decreases. Therefore an effective leader makes

desions with right available information, directs the employees, coach them on team

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work and delegates. However when a leader delegates, which allows the employees to

make their own decisions it generally leads to low productivity.

Bad leadership, according to Owizy (2013), is expensive. Where there are poor leaders

there will be employee neglect, regular absenteeism and turnover. So if, for exmaple, it

was an organization where it trains its employees before the work and some of them

who are already trained and become members of staff start to act out because of poor

leadership, then turnover would be high and the organization would have to spend more

money to trian more potential employees. Owizy stated that productivity would be slow.

Poor leadership can stop new production and new ideas and solutions to problems.

References
BOOKS:

Clegg, S. R., Hardy, C., & Nord, W. R. (1996). Managing Organizations: Current Issues, Part 2.
Thousand Oaks, California, USA.

WEBSITE:

Owizy, S. O. The Impact of Leadership style on the Organization. Retrieved from http://www.ac
ademia.edu/impactofleadershipstyleonorganizations

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15. The Path Goal Theory - Tania Muschette

This theory operates with the idea that leaders should adapt their leadership styles to their

subordinates. As the word path suggest it is the route set out by a leader for his/her followers to

meet the goals of the organization. It consists of different leadership styles that are applicable

in assisting subordinates to achieve the desired objective. Path Goal Theory also suggests that it

is the responsibility of the leader to ensure that followers are provided with the necessary tools

such as resources, information and support thus making the path clear for goals to be successful.

Path Goal Theory involves four different leadership styles and they are Directive,

Supportive, Participative and Achievement Oriented. The Directive Leadership Style according

to (Grimsley,n.d) This is characterized by setting clear objectives and rules for your subordinates

and ensuring that your expectations and directions are clearly defined and understood by your

subordinates. Directive leadership may be advisable when subordinates are unskilled or

inexperienced at a complex task. This increases the follower's sense of security and control and

hence is appropriate to the situation. The Supportive Leadership Style according to (Lacoma,

n.d) the manager is not so interested in giving orders and managing every detail, they work

through the tasks with employees to improve skills and talent until the manager does not need to

worry about a task being done correctly and the employee is fully empowered in a particular

area. This approach is best when the work is stressful, boring or hazardous. With Participative

Leadership according to (Murdock 2014), the leader turns to the team for input, ideas and

observations instead of making all decision on his or her own. That is not to say the leader does

not have the ultimate decision making task; this is to say that the leader understands the team

may have skills and ideas that could benefit the decision making process. This approach is best

when the followers are expert and their advice is both needed and they expect to be able to give

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it. According to the BusinessDictionary.com (n.d) it defines Achievement Oriented style as

management which sets challenging goals, assists in training, emphasises improvement and

expects the highest levels of performance. This approach is best when the task is complex.

Leadership is viewed as an important determinant/predictor of organizational

effectiveness and employee job satisfaction. Job satisfaction reflects the extent to which

employees like the job. Studies show that there is a positive correlation between leadership and

employee job satisfaction (Malik, 2011); have reported higher level of job satisfaction under

directive leadership behaviour when task was highly structured and under supportive leadership

when task was highly unstructured. While, (Kim, 2002) identified a positive relationship

between participative leadership behaviour and employees‘ job satisfaction. Path goal theory has

a significant relationship with the following dependent variable for e.g. intrinsic job satisfaction

which is the expectancy that performance leads to effective performance. Secondly, is the

expectancy that performance leads to valued rewards and role clarity (House, 1971).

In relation to gender, women adapt a more supportive and participative form of

leadership style whilst men will display directive and achievement oriented style. In a study by

Rigg and Sparrow (1994) they found that women emphasised team work and were regarded as

more people-oriented, while men less emphasised team work and were considered more

paternalistic and authoritative. According to (Eagly, n.d) Several studies conducted by (Carter,

Simkins, & Simpson, 2003; Desvaux, Devillard-Hoellinger, & Baumgarten, 2007; Joy,

Carter,Wagner, & Narayanan, 2007; Krishnan & Park, 2005) showed that with more women in

leadership positions, the better the financial outcome. This was proven by studies examining

Fortune 500 and 1000 Corporations (US and European Companies) which had a higher

percentage of women in these organizations.

Reference

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Business Dictionary.com (n.d.) Achievement Oriented Leadership. Retrieved from:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/achievement-oriented-leadership.html

Eagly A. (n.d.) Women as Leaders. http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/conferences/2013-w50-research-

symposium/Documents/eagly.pdf

Grimsley (n.d) Directive Leadership Style. Retrieved from:

http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/directive-leadership-style-definition-lesson-
quiz.html#lesson

House, R, J. (1971). A Path Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness Administrative Science

Quarterly, September, 321 –338. Retrieved from: http://www.jespk.net/publications/119.pdf

Kim, S. (2002). Participative management and job satisfaction: lessons for management
leadership Public Administration Review, 62 (2), 231-341. Retrieved from:
http://www.jespk.net/publications/119.pdf

Lacoma (n.d.) Supportive Leadership Style. Retrieved from:

http://smallbusiness.chron.com/definition- supportive-leadership-style-21835.html

Malik S. (2011) Leadership Behavior and Acceptance of Leaders by Subordinates: Application

of Path Goal Theory in Telecom Sector. Retrieved from:
http://www.ijtef.org/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=50&id=661

Murdock (2014) Participative Leadership. Retrieved from:

https://www.udemy.com/blog/participative-leadership/

Rigg and Sparrow (1994) (1994) "Gender, Diversity and Working Styles", Women in
Management Review, Vol. 9 Iss: 1, pp.9 - 16

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16. Inspiration Leader and Framing - Wayne-Hugh Robertson

"It always seems impossible until it is done" - Nelson Mandella. These words were meant to give

hope, translated, they maybe be interpreted as saying when one's circumstances are dire and the

effort put into completing the task at hand prove futile, don't give up because when the goal has

been reach you will realise that it was achievable. It is words such as these that are used in

motivational speeches by captains, supervisors, managers, CEO's and presidents as the

ammunition to spark a flame in the hearts of their subordinates and inspire them to work toward

that common goal set by the organisation. In doing so these individuals are performing the

essential functions of a leader which as alluded from Organisational Behaviour 15th Ed.

(Robbins S. and Judge T. 2013) is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a

goal. One can then find the correlation between leadership and inspiration seeing that to inspire

as defined by the Little Oxford Dictionary 8th Ed. (2002), is to fill someone with the urge or

ability to do something it can then be deduced that inspiration is the tool or key technique that

leaders use to lead.

Being a inspirational leader is a task that I believe requires a high level of emotional intelligence

because in order to inspire people in the organisation you must be able to appeal to their

emotions. Therefore the inspirational leader in the organisation must be one who can

demonstrate empathy and understanding in order to relate to what employees are experiencing

internally and find out what extrinsic or intrinsic motivation is needed to push them to achieving

the goals of the organisation. (Kaufman S. 2011) suggests that it is the inspiration that facilitates

the motivational progress toward goals. Kaufman states that is a study conducted on a group of

college students who were asked to report three goals they intend to achieve throughout the

course of the semester, those who scored higher on the Inspiration Scale displayed increased goal

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progress and their progress was as a result of setting more inspired goals. This goes to show that

an inspired employee will be more likely to achieve the goals of the organisation as being

inspired actually plays on the OB(Organisational Behaviour) Dependent variable of

Organisational Citizenship and because they are intrinsically motivated because of inspiration

and in turn this will complement the OB dependent variable of Productivity and reduce

Absenteeism.

Framing is a quality of communication that leads others to accept one meaning over another. It is

a key technique which when executed correctly plays an effective and efficient role in

controlling how employees view and respond to the environment of the organisation. According

to (Fairhurst G. and Sarr R. 1996) framing allows the patterning and definition of an organization

at regular time intervals to confirm and reproduce organizational values, it is achieved through

altering employees' perception by planting ideas in their minds through the use of abstract

notions which when structured form a social meaning. Framing I believe is necessary to control

how employees view the true meaning of the purpose of their jobs. This is important to increase

Organisational Citizenship and Productivity because these two variables depend a lot on intrinsic

motivation which comes from a sense of purpose and vision and it is that vision which is the

Frame that the leader aims to depict.

References

(Fairhurst G. and Sarr R. 1996). The Art of Framing. Managing the Art of Leadership. Business
and Economics.

(Kaufman S. 2011). Harvard Business Review. Why Inspiration Matters. Retrieved on

November 08, 2014 from: https://hbr.org/2011/11/why-inspiration-matters

The Little Oxford Dictionary 8th Ed. (2002)

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17. Charismatic Leader - Samatha Richards

Leadership is defined as the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set

of goals. The source of this influence may be formal, such as that provided by managerial rank in

an organization. (Stephens Robbins Organizational Behaviour 15 edition)

Leadership is an important function in an organization. Leadership and management represent

two completely different business concepts. Leadership is commonly defined as establishing a

clear vision, communicating the vision with others and resolving the conflicts between various

individuals who are responsible for completing the company‘s vision. Management is the

organization and coordination of various economic resources in a business. Leadership can have

a significant impact on an organization‘s performance.

Successful organizational performance relies on the proper behaviour from managers and

employees. Leadership can be an evolutionary process in companies. Organizations who provide

leadership can transform an employee from a worker completing tasks to a valuable team

member. Leadership skills can help change an employee‘s mentality by instilling an ownership

mindset. Employees who believe they have a direct owner-style relationship with the

organization often find ways to improve their attitude and productivity. (Classic Series at

Cinemark)

Charismatic leader is the guidance provided to an organization by one or more individuals seen

as heroic or inspiring and who have therefore been granted the organizational power to make

dramatic changes and extract extraordinary performance levels from its staff. For example, a

business manager imbued with charismatic leadership could be enlisted to orchestrate a

turnaround or launch a new product line. (BusinessDictionary.com)

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 The Charismatic Leader and the Transformational Leader can have many similarities, in that

the Transformational Leader may well be charismatic. (ChangingMind.org)

The values of the Charismatic Leader are highly significant. If they are well-intentioned

towards others, they can elevate and transform an entire company. In the literature, charismatic

leadership has often been treated as equivalent to transformational leadership (Yukl 1999;

Barling, Weber, and Kelloway 1996). What all of that means to me is that a leader cans

emulate using different style? They can dictate or chose to motivate others to achieve the

objective/s. A charismatic leader does this through his/her allure it can be positive or negative,

to benefit that charismatic leader personally and no one else. Some charismatic leaders use

their allure to even create cults.

Leadership style and its impact on Organizations and relevant organizational variable

Leadership has a direct cause and effect relationship upon organizations and their success.

Leaders determine values, culture, change tolerance and employee motivation. They shape

institutional strategies including their execution and effectiveness. Leaders can appear at any

level of an institution and are not exclusive to management. Successful leaders do, however,

have one thing in common. They influence those around them in order to reap maximum benefit

from the organization‘s resources, including its most vital and expensive: its people.

Current leadership theories describe leaders based upon traits or how influence and power are

used to achieve objectives. When using trait-based descriptions, leaders may be classified as

autocratic, democratic, bureaucratic or charismatic.

Charismatic leadership style is by far the most successful trait-driven style. Charismatic leaders

have a vision, as well as a personality that motivates followers to execute that vision. As a result,

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this leadership type has traditionally been one of the most valued. Charismatic leadership

provides fertile ground for creativity and innovation, and is often highly motivational. With

charismatic leaders at the helm, the organization‘s members simply want to follow. It sounds like

a best case scenario. There is however, one significant problem that potentially undercuts the

value of charismatic leaders: they can leave. Once gone, an organization can appear rudderless

and without direction. The floundering can last for years, because charismatic leaders rarely

develop replacements. Their leadership is based upon strength of personality. As a result,

charismatic leadership usually eliminates other competing, strong personalities. The result of

weeding out the competition is a legion of happy followers, but few future leaders. (Library

WorkLife:HR E-News for Today‘s Leader)

Several studies have documented important connections between transformational leadership

(charismatic leader) and organizational operation. Transformational leadership has been linked to

an array of outcomes, such as employee commitment to the organization (Barling, Weber, &

Kelloway, 1996) and job satisfaction and satisfaction with a leader (Koh, Steers, & Terborg,

1995; Lowe & Kroeck, 1996). Bryman (1992) discovered that transformational leadership is

positively related to a number of important organizational outcomes including perceived extra

effort, organizational citizenship behaviours, and job satisfaction. According to Trice and Beyer

(1993) and Schein (1985), leadership can change and sustain the culture of the organization by

generating new or reinforcing established sets of beliefs, shared values, practices, and norms

within organizations. (Transformational Leadership: The Impact on the Organizational and

Personal Outcomes)

Job satisfaction can be defined as ―a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the

appraisal of one‘s job and job experience‖ (Locke, 1976, p. 1304). Job satisfaction stems from

the follower‘s perception that the job actually provides what he or she values in the work

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situation (Nguni, Sleegers, & Denessen, 2006). Job satisfaction is often theorized as containing

the following essentials: the job itself, supervisor relationship, management beliefs, future

opportunity, work environment, pay/benefits/rewards, and co-worker relationships (Morris,

1995).When job satisfaction is examined in the context of transformational leadership, several

predictions are suggested. First, transformational leadership might intrinsically foster more job

satisfaction given its ability to impart a sense of mission and intellectual stimulation. Also,

transformational leaders encourage the followers to take on more responsibility and autonomy.

The work tasks would then provide the followers with an increased level of accomplishment and

satisfaction (Emery & Barker, 2007). Empirical studies have shown that leadership behaviour

has an immense and steady influence on employees‘ job satisfaction (Griffin & Bateman, 1986;

Steers & Rhodes, 1978). Maeroff (1988) has reported that job satisfaction is positively related to

transformational leadership.

Findings of another study confirm that transformational leadership style of mangers will boost

employees‘ job satisfaction. When mangers operationalize charisma and utilize inspiration,

individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation they elicit positive reactions from

employees. Seemingly, such transformational qualities do indeed stimulate higher level needs

of followers and result in higher feelings of satisfaction. This finding is supported by the

rationale of other leadership researchers (e.g., Bass & Avolio, 1990). The attention that

managers give to employees will be reflected in their general positive attitude toward work and

work conditions, which in turn increases job satisfaction.

Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) was defined by Organ (1988, 5) as an ‗individual

behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward

system‘. OCB is also referred to as ‗extra-role behaviour‘ of organizational members that ‗in the

aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization‘ (Organ 1988, 5).

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Charismatic leadership has been identified as an essential antecedent of OCB (e.g. Bettencourt

2004; Deluga 1995). Empirical studies provide support for a positive relationship between

charismatic leadership and followers‘ OCB (e.g. Den Hartog, Keegan, and De Hoogh 2007; De

Cremer and Van Knippenberg 2002; Shamir et al. 1998).

In conclusion a Charismatic leader (Transformational leader) is positively correlated with Job

satisfaction and Organization Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) based on empirical data, theoretical

research purported in this paper.

Reference

http://ala-apa.org/newsletter/2010/06/08/spotlight/

http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/styles/charismatic_leadership.htm

http://smallbusiness.chron.com/impact-leadership-organizational-performance-2970.html

http://www.google.com.jm/?gws_rd=cr&ei=6CdeVKynHfLesATKnoHoDA#q=empirical+data+
on+charismatic+leader+on+employee+satisfaction

http://www.google.com.jm/?gws_rd=cr&ei=6CdeVKynHfLesATKnoHoDA#q=empirical+data+
on+the+impact+of+charismatic+leader+on+organizational+productivity

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18. Transactional Leadership - Shawn Reid

Let us first define Transactional leadership; this is also known as managerial leadership,
focuses on the role of supervision, organization and group performance. This theory of
leadership was first described in by sociologist Max Weber, and further explored by Bernard M.
Bass in the early 1980s.

Basic Assumptions of Transactional Leadership

People are motivated by reward and punishment. Social systems work best with a clear chain
of command. When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they relinquish all
authority to their manager. The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells
them to do. Again, I must reinforce this point; people perform their best when the chain of
command is definite and clear.

Workers are motivated by rewards and punishments, obeying the instructions and commands
of the leader are the primary goal of the followers and subordinates need to be carefully
monitored to ensure that expectations are met.

This theory bases leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Transactional

leadership is often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when
they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

How Transactional Leadership Works

The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is
required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments
are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal systems of discipline are
usually in place.

The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the
subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by implication the
subordinate's manager) gets authority over the subordinate.

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 When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be
fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When
things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for
their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding). The transactional leader often
uses management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating to defined
(and hence expected) performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation
require praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is
applied for performance below expectation. (Management by exception MBE is whereby only
the information that indicates a significant deviation of actual results from the budgeted or
planned results is brought to the management's notice. Its objective is to facilitate management's
focus on really important tactical and strategic tasks. In MBE, the decision that cannot be made
at one level of management is passed on to the next higher level)

In transactional leadership, rewards and punishments are contingent upon the performance of
the followers. The leader views the relationship between managers and subordinates as an
exchange - you give me something for something in return. When subordinates perform well,
they receive some type of reward. When they perform poorly, they will be punished in some
way.

Rules, procedures and standards are essential in transactional leadership. Followers are not
encouraged to be creative or to find new solutions to problems. Research has found that
transactional leadership tends to be most effective in situations where problems are simple and
clearly-defined. While transactional leadership can be effective in some situations, it is generally
considered an insufficient and may prevent both leaders and followers from achieving their full
potential.

What exactly makes a great leader? Do certain personality traits make people better-suited to
leadership roles, or do characteristics of the situation make it more likely that certain people will
take charge? When we look at the leaders around us – be it our employer or the President – we
might find ourselves wondering exactly why these individuals excel in such positions are leaders
born as I was or they made over time?

People have long been interested in leadership throughout human history, but it has only been
relatively recently that a number of formal leadership theories have emerged. Interest in
leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories

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focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories
looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels.

While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight
major types:

"Great Man" Theories

Have you ever heard someone described as "born to lead?" According to this point of view,
great leaders are simply born with the necessary internal characteristics such as charisma,
confidence, intelligence, and social skills that make them natural-born leaders. Great man
theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born, not
made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to
leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

Trait Theories

Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait assumes that people inherit certain qualities
and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular
personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits like extraversion,
self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to great leaders. If
particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those
qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to
explain leadership. There are plenty of people who possess the personality traits associated with
leadership, yet many of these people never seek out positions of leadership.

Contingency Theories

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment

that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation.
According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a
number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the
situation.

Situational Theories

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 Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon
situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of
decision-making. For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and
experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other
instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not
born. Consider it the flip-side of the Great Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership
theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to
this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

Participative Theories

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the
input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group
members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making
process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of
others.

Management Theories

Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision,
organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and
punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful,
they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. Learn more about theories
of transactional leadership.

Relationship Theories

Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections
formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by
helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are
focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her
potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

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References

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/management-by-exception-

MBE.html#ixzz3J4xJpFNJ

http://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/f/transactional-leadership.htm

http://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/p/leadtheories.htm

http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/styles/transactional_leadership.htm

Leadership by James MacGregor Burns (1978)

John C Maxwell (2001) The 17th Irrefutable Laws of Teamwork

19. Transformational Leader - Nickeisha Smickle

Transformational Leader enhances the motivation morale, and job performance of

followers through a variety of mechanism. Transformational Leadership can be broken down

into four categories:

Individualized Consideration this is the degree to which the leader attends to each
follower‘s need acts as mentor.

Intellectual Stimulation this is where the leader encourage its followers to be creative
and innovative.

Inspirational Motivation this is the step to which leaders articulates a vision that is
appealing and inspiring to their followers.

Idealized Influence the leader acts as a role model for their followers.

Transformational leaders must embody the values that the followers should be learning and

mimicking back to others. If the leader gives respect and encourage others to be better, those

influenced will then go to others and repeat the positive behavior, passing on the leadership

qualities for others followers to learn.

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Transformational Leaders and their impact on the organization

A transformational leader impact the organization by helping employees to achieve

objective through higher ideals and moral values. They inspire employees to believe more in

themselves, their team and the goal of the organization, this helps to increase productivity within

the organization because employees themselves are now more motivated, they understand the

vision of the organization and the amount of work that is needed for the organization to achieve

its goals. They also motivate employees by encouraging them to put group interest first. This

encourage organization citizenship behavior within the organization, everyone is now willing to

go beyond their call of duty form the janitor to the CEO can help other workers with their

projects, this demonstrates commitment to the company and to each other. Transformational

leader works very hard to change organizational culture by implementing new ideas. An

organization that has been experience a high turnover rate and absenteeism due to bad

leadership, transformational leader may help to correct these behaviours and practices because

they place special attention to individual consideration. Each individual is directed to express

consideration and intellectual stimulation, which in turn promote creativity and innovate ideas to

solve problems. Employees will feel more a part of a team, they will get a since of pride in their

work because they are being challenge and their ideas are being taken into consideration. The

mental part of achieving success lies with the leader form the beginning and without this, leaders

motivating other to achieve goals are not possible.

Research Findings.

Transformational leadership training and financial outcomes

A pre-test-post-test control-group design (N = 20) was used to assess the effects of

transformational leadership training, with 9 and 11 managers assigned randomly to training and

control groups, respectively. Training consisted of a 1-day group session and 4 individual

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booster sessions thereafter on a monthly basis. Multivariate analyses of covariance, with pretest

scores as the covariate, showed that the training resulted in significant effects on subordinates'

perceptions of leaders' transformational leadership, subordinates' own organizational

commitment, and 2 aspects of branch-level financial performance. (PsycINFO Database Record

(c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Transformational leader behaviours and their effects on followers' trust in leader,

satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviours

This study examines the impact of transformational leader behaviours on organizational

citizenship behaviours, and the potential mediating role played by subordinates' trust and
satisfaction in that process. Measures of six transformational leader behaviours (Articulating a
Vision, Providing an Appropriate Model, Fostering the Acceptance of Group Goals, High
Performance Expectations, Individualized Support, and Intellectual Stimulation), one
transactional leader behaviour (Contingent Reward Behaviour), employees' trust in their leader,
and satisfaction were obtained from 988 exempt employees of a large petrochemical company.
Matching evaluations of five citizenship behaviours of these employees (Altruism,
Conscientiousness, Courtesy, Civic Virtue, and Sportsmanship) were obtained from their
supervisors. In order to determine whether transformational behaviours augment the impact of
transactional behaviours, their effects on followers' trust, satisfaction, and citizenship behaviours
were examined in the context of the effect of transactional leader behaviours on these same
variables. The results indicate that the effects of the transformational leader behaviours on
citizenship behaviours are indirect, rather than direct, in that they are mediated by followers' trust
in their leaders. Moreover, these results were found not to be wholly attributable to the effects of
common method biases. The implications of these findings for future research on
transformational leader behaviours, trust, and organizational citizenship behaviour are then
discussed.

References

Philip M. Podsakoff, Department of Management, School of Business, Indiana

University, Bloomington, IN 47405.

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Copyright © 1990 Published by Elsevier Inc.

Barling, Julian; Weber, Tom; Kelloway, E. Kevin

Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol 81(6), Dec 1996, 827-832.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.81.6.827

22. The Attribution Theory of Leadership - Monique Thompson

Attribution refers to the process of explaining one‘s own behaviour and the behaviour of
others.The Attribution theory was introduced by Fritz Heider in 1958 and seen as the work of
also Jones and Davis 1964 and Kelley (1967, 1972 and 1973).

This theory discusses how people describe events and experiences in their lives and how they
adapt to the result of those actions. The rationale behind the theory is to recognize why a
situation happened so that future events can be anticipated and controlled. Our perception and
judgment of others are significantly influenced by our assumptions of the other person‘s internal
states. When individuals observe behaviour, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or
externally caused.

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Internal causes are said to be under the person‘s control. The assumption here is that the

individual is directly to blame for the event or behavior. Another term for internal attribution

is dispositional attribution. Internal causes are related to the traits, abilities, attitudes as well as

feelings. For example, if one of your employees is late for work, you might attribute that to

his partying into the wee hours and then oversleeping.

External causes are not and the person is forced to act in a particular way. There is the
assumption that given the same situation, others would most likely respond in the exact same
way. Because of its dependence on situational factors, external attribution is also
called situational attribution. Using the same example above, if one of your employees is late
for work; you might attribute that to his car trouble or the employee being caught up in
traffic.

People take in account three factors when making personal or situational attributions;

consistency, distinctiveness and consensus. An observer looks for consistency in a person‘s

actions. Does the person respond the same way over time? For example, is a baby always

smiling? The more consistent the behavior, the more we are inclined to attribute it to internal

causes.

Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviorism different

situations. Are there occasions on which the baby doesn‘t smile? Or is the employee who arrives

late today also one who regularly misses deadlines? What we want to know is whether this

behavior is unusual. If it is, we‘re likely to give it an external attribution. If it‘s not, we will

probably judge the behavior to be internal.

If everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behavior

shows consensus…do all babies smile? The behavior of our tardy employee meets this criterion

if all employees who took the same route were also late. From an attribution perspective, if

consensus is high, you would probably give an external attribution to the employee‘s tardiness,

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whereas if other employees who took the same route made it to work on time, you would

attribute his lateness to an internal cause.

If the consistency is high and distinctiveness and consensus are low, then an internal attribution

is more likely. Example, The baby is always smiling, never displays other emotions (like crying),

and this is not typical of babies in general. Therefore, this baby must have a happy disposition.

If the consistency is high and distinctiveness and consensus are high, then an external attribution

is more likely. Example, The baby is always smiling when tickled, but displays different

emotions in other circumstances. Smiling when tickled is typical of all babies. Therefore, this

baby is smiling because it was tickled.

The approach of Attribution in leadership research can be trace d back as far as Calder (1977)

and has been later supplemented and changed by Lord and his colleagues (1984). Calder argued

that a person is leader (good or bad) because others say so.

Individuals of a group take note of behaviour of other group members or deduce a particular

behaviour from observed effects. Based on this information they ascribe certain leadership

abilities to others. For example if someone observes the increasing performance of a department,

conclusions will be drawn about the given behaviour about the head of department without

having observed his/her behaviour directly.

Leaders should have an understanding of their staff‘s reaction to certain situations. They should

identify characteristics that guide attributions for achievement. The theory provides an outlet for

management to allow their staff to have feelings of self-efficiency. Management should also be

able to gauge cause and effect of specific situations in order to have a productive organization

with high levels performance.

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23. Mentoring; online leadership and the environment - Kemar Hemley

Leadership is about having the ability to drag and influence a group towards the achievement

of a vision or a set of goal. However these kinder of influence comes from mainly someone

whose selected by an election ran by member of an organisation (Robbin.P.&

Judge,T.A.2013.pp.368).. Therefore not because persons are selected to represent an organisation

doesn‘t always mean they are productive leaders. Organisations that are well confident will need

confident leaders has well, to help to work positively towards achieving its organisational goals.

We need leaders today to challenge the work complexity, create visions of the future, and inspire

organizational members to want to achieve the visions. We also need managers to formulate

detailed plans, create efficient organizational structures, and oversee day-to-day operations

Robbin.P.& Judge,T.A.2013.pp.368). Therefore if we are going to have leaders monitoring

online situation then again there will be certain qualities that may be require in respond the

individual ability which can be applied during the leadership process. In addition if leaders are

going to be responsible for setting the goals in the environment for individuals follow then at the

end of analyzing and evaluating, we could determine whether such leaders will be effective for

monitoring complex satiations, when a problem evolve which include mentoring problems online

where there is no physical interaction which require a lot of leadership skills and technique to

handle these kind of situations. Monitoring practices can be daunting, especially for something

as multifaceted and difficult to quantify as leadership development. To knock the problem down

to manageable size, begin by stating as clearly and comprehensively as possible what you want

to achieve.

Leadership is one of the most important skills in managements. It is a process of interaction

between the leader and the staff, influencing them positively toward achieving the goals and
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tasks of the organisation. Transformational leadership is very effective and is commonly used in

hospitals. It is based on ideas of empowering, inspiring and motivating the staff toward working

together to achieve the organisation‘s goals and vision. A transformational leader who acts as a

role model can influence the staff and make them accountable for their own practice, online

leadership management comes with the ability of leaders to understand and achievement and

staff development (McNaron, 2009, pp. 589-560). Moreover, high levels of competency can be

gained by using transformational leadership skills and the quality of patient care outcomes will

be improved as a result. These are motivation, inspiration, empowerment, building a trusting

relationship between the leader and the staff, sharing power and decision-making and rewarding

staff for quality and excellence of job achievement

References

McNaron M, 2009. ‗Using transformational learning principles to change behavior in the

operating theatre‘, Aron Journal, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 560-589.Roussel

Robbins, S. P. & Judge, T. A. (2013).Organizational Behaviour. (15thed.). Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Prentice Hall

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24. Gender and Leadership - Renee Walcott

Leadership refers to the abilities of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to

contribute towards the effectiveness and success of organizations of which they are members.

Men and women occupying comparable jobs but in different organizations are likely to react

differently, not because of differences of personality, or gender, but because of contextual

pressures. The differences in leadership behaviours of men and women originate in socialization

processes, whereby individuals learn to conform to societal expectations about their gender role.

These expectations lead to gender differences in leadership behaviours, the leadership behaviours

of women include more consideration, whereas the leadership behaviours of men consist of more

initiating structure Women tend to adopt a more democratic or participative style unless in a

male-dominated job Women tend to use transformational leadership Men tend to use

transactional leadership.

Women do have different leadership styles from men. The problem with actually

mapping these differences is that the successful male managerial stereotype is so strongly

embedded in organizational life that female managers are pressured to conform to it, thereby;

Interest in the impact of gender on leadership is relatively new. Early research that explored

gender disparities found a lack of support for the notion that women utilize different leadership

styles than do men (Bartol, 1978; Bass, 1981; Powell, 1990;). Women managers‘ perceptions of

the successful manager are only slightly less conclusive. Unlike the women managers in the

1970s and 1980s not all female managers today subtype the successful manager as male;

however, no one, male or female, ever identifies the successful manager as feminine Male, and

only to a slightly lesser extent, female, managers continue to describe successful managers as

possessing masculine traits, such as self-confidence, competitiveness, decisiveness,

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aggressiveness and independence. Many managers, both male and female, agree that sex

differences in management style do exist. Interestingly both describe women‘s differences in

positive terms. Yet when researchers ask managers to describe their own management styles

they usually find no significant differences between genders.

Many female managers are uncomfortable with the imposed leadership style and this, in

turn, can lead to severe stress. Most senior female managers have no children, believing that the

combination of a career and a family is untenable. This is in stark contrast to the majority of

senior male managers who have children and a wife at home to support them. The natural

strength of the visionary is being strategic, while that of the catalyst is fostering higher

productivity by personally motivating people. The problem with letting males dominate

organizations, as we do, is that leadership style is narrowly defined. As women have become a

more prominent presence as managers and executives in organizations, more attention has been

devoted to the possible differences between the leadership styles of women and men. Intuitive

reasoning suggests that early socialization patterns develop different qualities in women and men

that would likely result in variations in leadership styles (Powell, 1993).

It was not surprising that female accountants, in contrast to male accountants, perceived

themselves as more effective in communicating, and in coaching and developing subordinates.

These are skills that are commonly associated with the transformational leadership style, which

females report practicing more than males. What is surprising is that females also reported higher

perceived effectiveness in time management, the management skill least correlated with

transformational leadership: The factors that do significantly influence people‘s performance,

however, are the length of tenure in the job and organization, the age of the manager and their

attitude. In essence, the longer the manager has been in the job and been held to account for their

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performance, the more positive, outward-looking and mature they are both in attitude and years;

and the more responsive they are to the demands of customers, the better they are as a manager.

Reference

Alimo‐Metcalfe, B. (1993), ―Women in management: Organizational socialization and

assessment practices that prevent career advancement‖

International Journal of Selection and Assessment, Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 68‐83.

Bass, B.M. (1985), Leadership and Performance beyond Expectations,

Free Press, New York, NY.

Bartol, K.M. (1978), ―The sex structuring of organizations: a search for possible causes‖,

Academy of Management Review, Vol. 3, pp. 805‐15 Free Press, New York, NY.

Powell, G.N. (1993), Women and Men in Management, Second Edition,

Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CAP STYLES AND THE

The World's Women 2010 - United Nations Statistics Division

https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10227/753/71-978-952-

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Gender and Leadership - Shaniqueca Wright

Does gender affects leadership? Or both gender and leadership is a great pair. What is

leadership? Robbin and Judge define leadership as the ability to influence a group toward the

achievement of a vision or set a goal. Another definition for leadership is ―Leadership is the

capacity to translate vision into reality.‖ said by Warren Bennis (Kruse, 2013). Gender is the

state of being male or female (typically used with reference to social and cultural differences

rather than biological ones). So then how does leadership affects gender; the U.S. Department of

Labour reports that women comprise 46.5 percent of the total U.S. workforce and are estimated

to account for 47 percent of the labour force in 2016. Frank Landy, Ph.D. and Jeffrey Conte,

Ph.D., maintain in their book, ―Work in the 21st Century,‖ that women tend to favour a

democratic and participative leadership style, while men prefer an autocratic leadership style

(Nguyen, 2010). The misconception of gender and its effect on leadership is still a hot topic

where researchers had different opinion about it, where Alice Eagly, Mary Johannesen-Schmidt

and Marloes van Engen, in the July 2003 issue of ―Psychological Bulletin,‖ argue women have

an advantage over men in competing for leadership positions, and even suggested that women

would make better executives.( Nguyen,2010). An expert refuted the point; According to Gary

Powell, Ph.D., in the August 1990 issue of ―Academy of Management Executive,‖ there are no

differences between male and female managers. In addition, Dr. Powell says that any ―sex

differences that have been found are few, found in laboratory studies more than field studies, and

tend to cancel each other out. (p. 71)‖ In short, gender does not affect leadership in business

( Nguyen,2010).

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 The qualities that a person may possess that may allow him/her to be a leader should not

be debated about their gender but rather the ideas and visions that they bring to the table to

further expand the organization to another level. On the other hand seniority, the position of

hierarchy in a company that an individual holds, or personal traits and management are not the

perfect complements for leadership skills but ―As we look ahead into the next century, leaders

will be those who empower others.‖ said by Bill Gates, John Maxwell: ―Leadership is influence

– nothing more, nothing less.‖ Therefore leadership should be the process of social influence,

which maximizes the efforts of others, towards the achievement of a goal. Some leadership traits

that an individual should possess, they must be visionary, accountability, honest and focus. This

can be link to productivity and tenure.

Reference

Kruse.K (April 9, 2013), What is leadership? Retrieved on November 14, 2014

http://www.forbes.com/sites/kevinkruse/2013/04/09/what-is-leadership

Nguyen .S. PH.D (April 26, 2010), GENDER AND LEADERSHIP DOES NOT MATTER?

Retrieved on November 14,2014 http://workplacepsychology.net/2010/04/26/gender-and-

leadership-does-it-matter/

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