EXPERIMENT-1

Objective:- To measure and calculate currents and voltages for a given resistive circuit and
verify KCL and KVL.

Prerequisites: - TINA software

Theory:- Gustav Kirchhoff developed a set of rules or laws which deal with the conservation of
current and energy within electrical circuits. These laws are known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL) and Kirchhoff‘s Voltage Law (KVL).

Kirchhoff `s Current Law or KCL, states that the “Total current or charge entering a junction or
node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node".

Mathematically, KCL implies that-

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “In any closed loop network, the total voltage
around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop”, which is also
equal to zero. Mathematically, KVL implies that-
Circuit diagram:-
Find voltage V1 andV2 in circuit shown in Fig.1 and also find i and vo in circuit shown in Fig. 2.



Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Theoretical calculations:-

Observation Table:-
S. No. Theoretical values Experimental values
Voltage (volt) Current (mA) Voltage (volt) Current (mA)
1.
2.
3.

Result:-

Self-assessment questions:-
1. Can you apply Kirchhoff’s laws to a.c. circuit? If yes how the law will differ for a.c. circuits?
2. What do you mean by node and a mesh?
3. While performing the experiment how will you note the direction of the circuit?
 EXPERIMENT-2
Objective:- To verify superposition theorem experimentally for a given resistive circuit
consisting two independent sources.

Prerequisites:- TINA software

Theory:- The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element
in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element
due to each independent source acting alone.

Steps to apply Superposition Principle:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that
active source.

2. Repeat step-1 for each of the other independent sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.

Circuit diagram:-

1. Using the superposition theorem, find vo in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.

2. Find i0 in the circuit shown in Fig. 2 using superposition theorem.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Theoretical calculations:-
Observation Table:-
S. No. Theoretical values Experimental values
Voltage (volt) Current (mA) Voltage (volt) Current (mA)
1.
2.
3.

Results:-

Self-assessment questions:-
1. Give the limitations of Superposition theorem.
2. State the necessary conditions of superposition theorem.
 EXPERIMENT-3

Objective:- To verify Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem experimentally for a given
circuit.

Prerequisites:- TINA software

Theory:- Thevenin’s Theorem states that "Any linear circuit containing several voltage sources
and resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage sources in series with a single
resistance connected across the load".

According to Thevenin’s theorem a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTH in series with a resistor RTH, where
VTH is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and R TH is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. Fig. 1 shows the
replacement of a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin equivalent where (a) is original
circuit and (b) is the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Fig. 1

Norton`s Theorem states that "Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and
resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single
Resistor".

According to Norton’s theorem a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN where IN
is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. Fig. 2 shows the
replacement of a linear two-terminal circuit by its Norton’s equivalent where (a) is original
circuit and (b) is the Norton’s equivalent circuit.
 Fig. 2

Circuit diagram:-
1. Apply Thevenin’s theorem and Nortons Theorem to find v o in the circuit shown in Fig. 3
(a)
2. Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in Fig. 3 (b)
at terminals a-b.

(a) (b)

Fig. 3

Theoretical calculations:-
Observation Table:-
S. No. Theoretical values Experimental values
VTH RTH IN VTH RTH IN
1.
2.
3.

Results:-

Self-assessment questions:-
1. Give the applications of Thevenin’s and Norton’s Thoerem.
2. What are the dependent and independent sources?
 EXPERIMENT-4
Objective :- To verify maximum power transfer theorem experimentally for a given circuit.

Prerequisites :- TINA software

Theory :- The maximum power transfer theorem states that in a linear, bilateral network,
maximum power is delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal
resistance of a source. Consider the below DC two terminal network as shown in fig. 1, the
original two terminal circuit is replaced with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across the variable
load resistance.

Fig. 1 DC two terminal network

The current through the load for any value of load resistance is-

IL = VTH /(RTH+RL)
The power absorbed by the load is-

PL = IL2*RL

PL = [VTH /(RTH+RL)]2 *RL.

To find the exact value of RL, we apply differentiation to PL with respect to RL and equating it
to zero as
Therefore, this is the condition of matching the load where the maximum power transfer occurs
when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin’s resistance of the circuit. By substituting the
RTH = RL in above equation, we get
The maximum power delivered to the load is,

Circuit diagram :-

Fig.1 Fig.2

Theoretical calculations :-
Observation Table :-
S. No. Theoretical values Experimental values
RTH = RL PMAX RTH = RL PMAX
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Result :-

Self-assessment questions:-
1. What is the efficiency of the circuit at the maximum power transfer condition & why?
2. Write some applications of maximum transfer theorem.
 EXPERIMENT-5
Objective :- To verify reciprocity theorem experimentally for a given circuit.

Prerequisites :- TINA software

Theory :- In any branch of a network , the current (I) due to a single source of voltage (V)
elsewhere in the network is equal to the current through the branch in which the source was
originally placed when the source is placed in the branch in which the current (I) was originally
obtained.

In simple sense, the location of the voltage source and the through current maybe interchange
without a change in current. However the polarity of the voltage source should have identically
with the dirction of branch current in each position. The limitation of this theorem is that it is
applicable only to single source natworks and not in multisource network.

Circuit diagram :-

Fig.1 Fig.2

Theoretical calculations :-

Observation Table :-
S. No. Theoretical values Experimental values
I1 I2 I1 I2
1.
2.
3.

Result :-
Self-assessment questions:-
1. What do you mean by Unilateral and Bilateral network?
2. What are the applications of reciprocity theorem?
3. What are the advantages of reciprocity theorem?
 EXPERIMENT-6
Objective:- To measure and calculate Z-parameters for a given two-port system.

Prerequisites:- TINA software.

Theory:- A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as
a port. Two-terminal devices or elements (such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors) result in
one-port networks. Most of the circuits we have dealt with so far are two-terminal or one-port
circuits. We have considered the voltage across or current through a single pair of terminals—
such as the two terminals of a resistor, a capacitor, or an inductor. We have also studied four-
terminal or two-port circuits involving op amps, transistors, and transformers, as shown in Fig. 1.
In general, a network may have n ports. A port is an access to the network and consists of a pair
of terminals; the current entering one terminal leaves through the other terminal so that the net
current entering the port equals zero.

Fig. 1 – Two port network

Thus, a two-port network has two terminal pairs acting as access points. As shown in Fig. 1, the
current entering one terminal of a pair leaves the other terminal in the pair. Three-terminal
devices such as transistors can be configured into two-port networks. Our study of two-port
networks is for at least two reasons. First, such networks are useful in communications, control
systems, power systems, and electronics. For example, they are used in electronics to model
transistors and to facilitate cascaded design. Second, knowing the parameters of a two-port
network enables us to treat it as a “black box” when embedded within a larger network. To
characterize a two-port network requires that we relate the terminal quantities, and in Fig. 1, out
of which two are independent. The various terms that relate these voltages and currents are called
parameters.

Z-parameter, In Z parameters of a two-port network, the input & output voltages V1 & V2 can be
expressed in terms of input & output currents I1 & I2. Out of four variables ( i.e V1 ,V2 , I1 , I2) V1& V2
are dependent variables whereas I1 & I2 are independent variables. Thus,
 V1 = Z11I1+ Z12 I2 ----- (1)

V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I2 ---- (2)

Here Z11 & Z22 are the input & output driving point impedances while Z12 & Z21 are the reverse &
forward transfer impedances.

Circuit diagram:-

Example 1. Example 2.

Theoretical calculations:-
Observation Table:-

S. No. Parameters Theoretical Experimental

values values
1. Z11
2. Z12
3. Z21
4. Z22

Results:-

Assessment questions:-
 EXPERIMENT-7
Objective:- To measure and calculate Y-parameters for a given two-port system.

Prerequisites:- TINA software.

Theory:- A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as
a port. Two-terminal devices or elements (such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors) result in
one-port networks. Most of the circuits we have dealt with so far are two-terminal or one-port
circuits. We have considered the voltage across or current through a single pair of terminals—
such as the two terminals of a resistor, a capacitor, or an inductor. We have also studied four-
terminal or two-port circuits involving op amps, transistors, and transformers, as shown in Fig. 1.
In general, a network may have n ports. A port is an access to the network and consists of a pair
of terminals; the current entering one terminal leaves through the other terminal so that the net
current entering the port equals zero.

Fig. 1 – Two port network

Thus, a two-port network has two terminal pairs acting as access points. As shown in Fig. 1, the
current entering one terminal of a pair leaves the other terminal in the pair. Three-terminal
devices such as transistors can be configured into two-port networks. Our study of two-port
networks is for at least two reasons. First, such networks are useful in communications, control
systems, power systems, and electronics. For example, they are used in electronics to model
transistors and to facilitate cascaded design. Second, knowing the parameters of a two-port
network enables us to treat it as a “black box” when embedded within a larger network. To
characterize a two-port network requires that we relate the terminal quantities, and in Fig. 1, out
of which two are independent. The various terms that relate these voltages and currents are called
parameters.

Y-parameter, In the previous section we saw that impedance parameters may not exist for a
two-port network. So there is a need for an alternative means of describing such a network. This
need may be met by the second set of parameters, which we obtain by expressing the terminal
currents in terms of the terminal voltages. Y-parameter for calculation of all Y 11, Y12, Y21 and
Y22 parameter is shown in fig. 2 below.

Fig. 2 – determination of Y11, Y12, Y21 and Y22 parameter

The terminal currents can be expressed in terms of the terminal voltages and in matrix form as,

(or)

The terms are known as the admittance parameters (or, simply, y parameters) and have units of
siemens. The values of the parameters can be determined by setting V1=0 and V2=0 as,

Since the y parameters are obtained by short-circuiting the input or output port, they are also
called the short-circuit admittance parameters. Specifically, Y11=Short-circuit input admittance,
Y12=Short-circuit transfer admittance from port 2 to port 1, Y 21=Short-circuit transfer admittance
from port 1 to port, Y22= Short-circuit output admittance.

Circuit diagram:-
 Example 1. Example 2.

Theoretical calculations:-

Observation Table:-

S. No. Parameters Theoretical Experimental

values values
1. Y11
2. Y12
3. Y21
4. Y22

Results:-

Assessment questions:-
 EXPERIMENT-8
Objective:- To measure and calculate h-parameters for a given two-port system.

Prerequisites:- TINA software.

Theory:- A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as
a port. Two-terminal devices or elements (such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors) result in
one-port networks. Most of the circuits we have dealt with so far are two-terminal or one-port
circuits. We have considered the voltage across or current through a single pair of terminals—
such as the two terminals of a resistor, a capacitor, or an inductor. We have also studied four-
terminal or two-port circuits involving op amps, transistors, and transformers, as shown in Fig. 1.
In general, a network may have n ports. A port is an access to the network and consists of a pair
of terminals; the current entering one terminal leaves through the other terminal so that the net
current entering the port equals zero.

Fig. 1 – Two port network

Thus, a two-port network has two terminal pairs acting as access points. As shown in Fig. 1, the
current entering one terminal of a pair leaves the other terminal in the pair. Three-terminal
devices such as transistors can be configured into two-port networks. Our study of two-port
networks is for at least two reasons. First, such networks are useful in communications, control
systems, power systems, and electronics. For example, they are used in electronics to model
transistors and to facilitate cascaded design. Second, knowing the parameters of a two-port
network enables us to treat it as a “black box” when embedded within a larger network. To
characterize a two-port network requires that we relate the terminal quantities, and in Fig. 1, out
of which two are independent. The various terms that relate these voltages and currents are called
parameters.

h-parameter, The z and y parameters of a two-port network do not always exist. So there is a
need for developing another set of parameters. This third set of parameters is based on making
V1 and I2 the dependent variables. Thus, we obtain h-parameter in equation and matrix form as,

(or)

The terms are known as the hybrid parameters (or, simply, h parameters) because they are a
hybrid combination of ratios. They are very useful for describing electronic devices such as
transistors; it is much easier to measure experimentally the h parameters of such devices than to
measure their z or y parameters. The ideal transformer does not have z parameters. The ideal
transformer can be described by the hybrid parameters. The values of the parameters are
determined as

The parameters h11, h12, h21 and h22, represent impedance, a voltage gain, a current gain, and
admittance, respectively. This is why they are called the hybrid parameters. To be specifically h 11
- Short-circuit input impedance, h12-Open-circuit reverse voltage gain, h21-Short-circuit forward
current gain, h22-Open-circuit output admittance.

Fig. 2 - The h-parameter equivalent network of a two-port network.

Circuit diagram:-

Example 1. Example 2.

Theoretical calculations:-

Observation Table:-

S. No. Parameters Theoretical Experimental

values values
1. h11
2. h12
3. h21
4. h22

Results:-

Assessment questions:-
 EXPERIMENT-9
Objective:- To measure and calculate ABCD (transmission) parameters for the a given two-
port system.

Prerequisites:- TINA software.

Theory:- A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as
a port. Two-terminal devices or elements (such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors) result in
one-port networks. Most of the circuits we have dealt with so far are two-terminal or one-port
circuits. We have considered the voltage across or current through a single pair of terminals—
such as the two terminals of a resistor, a capacitor, or an inductor. We have also studied four-
terminal or two-port circuits involving op amps, transistors, and transformers, as shown in Fig. 1.
In general, a network may have n ports. A port is an access to the network and consists of a pair
of terminals; the current entering one terminal leaves through the other terminal so that the net
current entering the port equals zero.

Fig. 1 – Two port network

Thus, a two-port network has two terminal pairs acting as access points. As shown in Fig. 1, the
current entering one terminal of a pair leaves the other terminal in the pair. Three-terminal
devices such as transistors can be configured into two-port networks. Our study of two-port
networks is for at least two reasons. First, such networks are useful in communications, control
systems, power systems, and electronics. For example, they are used in electronics to model
transistors and to facilitate cascaded design. Second, knowing the parameters of a two-port
network enables us to treat it as a “black box” when embedded within a larger network. To
characterize a two-port network requires that we relate the terminal quantities, and in Fig. 1, out
of which two are independent. The various terms that relate these voltages and currents are called
parameters.

ABCD parameter, Since there are no restrictions on which terminal voltages and currents
should be considered independent and which should be dependent variables, we expect to be able
to generate many sets of parameters. Another set of parameters relates the variables at the input
port to those at the output port.

( or)

Above equations relate the input variables (V 1 and I1) to the output variables(V2 and –I2) . Notice
that in computing the transmission parameters; -I2 is used rather than I2, because the current is
considered to be leaving the network, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 ABCD parameter

This is done merely for conventional reasons; when you cascade two-ports (output to input), it is
most logical to think of I2as leaving the two-port. It is also customary in the power industry to
consider I2 as leaving the two-port. The two-port parameters in above equations provide a
measure of how a circuit transmits voltage and current from a source to a load. They are useful in
the analysis of transmission lines (such as cable and fiber) because they express sending-end
variables ( V1 and I1 ) in terms of the receiving-end variables ( V2 and –I2). For this reason, they
are called transmission parameters. They are also known as ABCD parameters. They are used in
the design of telephone systems, microwave networks, and radars.

The transmission parameters are determined as,

A= Open-circuit voltage ratio, B= Negative short-circuit transfer impedance, C= Open-circuit
transfer admittance, D= Negative short-circuit current ratio

A and D are dimensionless, B is in ohms, and C is in siemens. Since the transmission parameters
provide a direct relationship between input and output variables, they are very useful in cascaded
networks.

Circuit diagram:-

Example 1. Example 2.

Theoretical calculations:-

Observation Table:-

S. No. Parameters Theoretical Experimental

values values
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D

Results:-
Assessment questions:-