DEC3023

COMPUTER NETWORKING
FUNDAMENTALS
Chapter 2.1
Open System Interconnection (OSI) and
Network Protocols – Network
Communication
Department of Electrical Engineering
Part 2.1
Learning Outcome
Upon completion of this topic students will be able
to:
2.1.1 Describe the purpose of the OSI Model and each
of its layers.
2.1.2 Define specific functions belonging to each OSI
Model layer.
2.1.3 Describe how two network nodes communicate
through the OSI Model.
2.1.4 Describe the structure and purpose of data
packets and frames.
2.1.5 Relate two types of addressing covered by the
OSI Model.
 The OSI Model
• Model for understanding and developing network
computer-to-computer communications
• Developed by ISO (1980s)
• Divides network communications into seven layers
– Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model

is a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the internal functions of a communication
system by partitioning it into abstraction layers.
The model is a product of the Open Systems
Interconnection project at the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO).
 The OSI Model (cont’d.)

• Protocol interaction
– Layer directly above and below
• Application layer protocols
– Interact with software
• Physical layer protocols
– Act on cables and connectors
 The OSI Model (cont’d.)

• Theoretical representation describing network

communication between two nodes
• Hardware and software independent
• Every network communication process represented
• PDUs (protocol data units) –Layer 7
– Discrete amount of data
– Application layer function
– Flow through layers 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1
• Generalized model and sometime imperfect
Figure 2.1 Flow of data through the OSI model
 Mnemonics for the OSI Model

• Bottom Up • Top Down

– Please – All
– Do – People
– Not – Seem
– Throw – To
– Sausage – Need
– Pizza – Data
– Away – Processing
State the correct Top Down arrangement of the OSI
Model Layer?
 Application Layer

• Top (seventh) OSI model layer

• No software applications
• Protocol functions
– Facilitates communication
• Between software applications and lower-layer network
services
– Network interprets application request
– Application interprets data sent from network
 Presentation Layer

• Protocol functions
– Accept Application layer data
– Formats data to make it understandable to different
applications and hosts
• Examples
– Text encoding methods ASCII and ANSI
– Compression methods like JPEG and MP3
– Data encryption and decryption
 Session Layer

• Protocol functions
– Coordinate and maintain communications between two nodes
• Session
– Connection for ongoing data exchange between two parties
• Example: between Web browser client and Web server
• Functions
– Establishing and keeping alive communications link
• For session duration
– Determining if communications ended
• Determining where to restart transmission
– Terminating communications
 Transport Layer
• Protocol functions
– Accept data from Session layer
– Provides flow control, segmentation, and error
control
• Primary Transport Layer Protocols: TCP and UDP

Transmission Control Protocol

User Diagram Protocol
 Transport Layer
• TCP
• Connection-oriented
– Establishes a connection before transmitting data
– Three-way handshake

SYN

SYN/ACK

ACK
 Transport Layer
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
– Require acknowledgements from receiver to ensure
data was received correctly
– Checksum
• Unique character string allowing receiving node to
determine if arriving data unit exactly matches data unit
sent by source
• Ensures data integrity

Send data, wait for ACK

ACK

Send more data, wait for ACK

 Transport Layer

• UDP (User Diagram Protocol):

A connectionless protocol
– Do not establish connection with another node before
transmitting data—no handshake
– Make no effort to ensure data is delivered free of
errors
– Faster than connection-oriented protocol
– Useful when data must be transferred quickly, such
as streaming music or video
 Transport Layer

• Segmentation
– Breaking large data units received from Session layer
into multiple smaller units (in manageable size) called
segments
– Increases data transmission efficiency
• MTU (maximum transmission unit)
– Largest data unit network will carry
– Ethernet default: 1500 bytes
– Discovery routine used to determine MTU
 Transport Layer (cont’d.)

• Reassembly
– Process of reconstructing segmented data units
• Sequencing
– Method of identifying segments belonging to the
same group of subdivided data
Transport Layer (cont’d.)

Figure 2-2 Segmentation and reassembly

 Network Layer

• Packet formation
– Transport layer segment is encapsulated by a
Network layer packet
• Network layer adds logical addressing information— IP
address
• Routing
– Determine path from point A on one network to point
B on another network
• Routing considerations
– Delivery priorities, network congestion, quality of
service, cost of alternative routes
 Network Layer

• Common Network layer protocol

– IP (Internet Protocol)
• Fragmentation
– Network layer protocol (IP) subdivides Transport layer
segments received into smaller packets
– This is usually avoided by adjusting the Maximum
Segment Size in the Transport layer, because it
makes data transfer inefficient
 Data Link Layer

• Function of protocols
– Divide data received into distinct frames for
transmission in Physical layer
– Add Physical address to the frame: MAC addresses
like 00-30-48-82-11-BD
• Frame
– Structured package for moving data
• Includes raw data (payload), sender’s and receiver’s
physical addresses, error checking and control
information
 Data Link Layer (cont’d.)

• Frames may be damaged as they pass through the

Physical layer, so the Data Link layer has error-
checking
– Error checking
• Frame check sequence
• CRC (cyclic redundancy check)
• Possible glut of communication requests
– Data Link layer controls flow of information
• Allows NIC to process data without error

glut -To fill beyond capacity

 Example of MAC Address

• Whole MAC address: 00-30-48-82-11-BD

– Block ID
• 00-30-48
• Identifies the vendor
– Device ID
• 82-11-BD
• Different for each NIC from the same vendor
• If two NICs have the same MAC address, they have
problems networking
– This can happen with cheaply made refurbished
NICs, or with copied virtual machines
 Data Link Layer (cont’d.)

Figure 2-5 The Data Link layer and its sublayers

Data Link Layer (cont’d.)

Figure 2-6 A NIC’s Mac address

 Finding Your MAC Address

• Start, CMD, Enter

MAC Address (also
• IPCONFIG /ALL called "Physical
• Scroll up to see the first entry Address")

IP Address
 Physical Layer

• Functions of protocols
– Accept frames from Data Link layer
– Generate signals as changes in voltage at the NIC
• Copper transmission medium
– Signals issued as voltage
• Fiber-optic cable transmission medium
– Signals issued as light pulses
• Wireless transmission medium
– Signals issued as electromagnetic waves
 Physical Layer (cont’d.)
• Physical layer protocols responsibility when
receiving data
– Detect and accept signals
– Pass on to Data Link layer
– Set data transmission rate
– Monitor data error rates
– No error checking
• Devices operating at Physical layer
– Hubs and repeaters
• NICs operate at both Physical layer and Data Link
layers
Applying the OSI Model

Table 2-1 Functions of the OSI layers

Explain the functions process happened in the layer
number 6, 5 and 4 in OSI model?
Communication Between Two Systems

• Data transformation
– Original software application data differs from the bits
sent onto the cable by the NIC
• Header data added at each layer
• Each layer has a different data structure, called a
Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
PDUs are relevant in relation to each of the
first 4 layers of the OSI model as follows:

• The Layer 1 (Physical Layer) PDU is the bit or, more

generally, symbol (can also be seen as "stream")
• The Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) PDU is the frame
• The Layer 3 (Network Layer) PDU is the packet
• The Layer 4 (Transport Layer) PDU is the segment
for TCP, or the datagram for UDP
Communication Between Two Systems
(cont’d.)
• Segments
– Generated in Transport layer
– Unit of data resulting from subdividing larger PDU
from the Session layer
– Addressed with TCP Ports (when using TCP)
• Packets
– Generated in Network layer
– Data with logical addressing information added to
segments
– Addressed with IP addresses
Communication Between Two Systems
(cont’d.)
• Frames
– Generated in Data Link layer
– Composed of several smaller components or fields
– Addressed with MAC addresses
• Encapsulation
– Occurs in each layer
– Process of wrapping one layer’s PDU with protocol
information
• Allows interpretation by lower layer
Communication Between Two Systems
(cont’d.)

Figure 2-7 Data transformation through the OSI model

 Frame Specifications

• Frames
– Composed of several smaller components or fields
• Frame characteristic dependencies
– Network type where frames run
– Standards frames must follow
• Ethernet Frames
– Developed by Xerox
– Four different types of Ethernet frames
– Most popular: IEEE 802.3 standard
 Frame Specifications (cont’d.)

• Token ring frames

– Developed by IBM
– Relies upon direct links between nodes and ring
topology
– Nearly obsolete
– Defined by IEEE 802.5 standard
• Ethernet frames and token ring frames differ
– Will not interact with each other
– Devices cannot support more than one frame type per
physical interface or NIC
 IEEE Networking Specifications
(Addressing)
• IEEE’s Project 802
– Effort to standardize physical and logical network
elements
• Frame types and addressing
• Connectivity
• Networking media
• Error-checking algorithms
• Encryption
• Emerging technologies
• 802.3: Ethernet
• 802.11: Wireless
IEEE Networking Specifications
(cont’d.)

Table 2-2 IEEE 802 standards