Ruby Final Draft Enu 20100825

Programming Languages — Ruby
IPA Ruby Standardization WG Draft
August 25, 2010
©Information-technology Promotion Agency, Japan 2010

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Contents Page
1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Normative references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3 Conformance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4 Terms and definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
5 Notational conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5.1 General description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5.2 Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5.2.1 General description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5.2.2 Productions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5.2.3 Syntactic term sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.2.4 Syntactic terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.5 Conceptual names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.3 Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4 Attributes of execution contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6 Fundamental concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.1 Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.2 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2.2 Instance variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.4 Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.5 Classes, singleton classes, and modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.5.2 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.5.3 Singleton classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.5.4 Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.5.5 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.6 Boolean values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7 Execution contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.2 The initial state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8 Lexical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.2 Program text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.3 Line terminators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.4 Whitespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8.5 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8.6 End-of-program markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.7 Tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.7.2 Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8.7.3 Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8.7.4 Punctuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.7.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.7.6 Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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8.7.6.1 General description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.7.6.2 Numeric literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.7.6.3 String literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.7.6.3.1 General description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.7.6.3.2 Single quoted strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.7.6.3.3 Double quoted strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.7.6.3.4 Quoted non-expanded literal strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8.7.6.3.5 Quoted expanded literal strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.7.6.3.6 Here documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.7.6.3.7 External command execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.7.6.4 Array literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.7.6.5 Regular expression literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
8.7.6.6 Symbol literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9 Scope of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.2 Scope of local variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
9.3 Scope of global variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10 Program structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.1 Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.2 Compound statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11 Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.2 Logical expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.2.2 Keyword logical expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
11.2.3 Logical NOT expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
11.2.4 Logical AND expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
11.2.5 Logical OR expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
11.3 Method invocation expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
11.3.2 Method arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
11.3.3 Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
11.3.4 The super expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
11.3.5 The yield expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
11.4 Operator expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11.4.2 Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11.4.2.2 Single assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11.4.2.2.2 Single variable assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11.4.2.2.3 Scoped constant assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
11.4.2.2.4 Single indexing assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.4.2.2.5 Single method assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
11.4.2.3 Abbreviated assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
11.4.2.3.2 Abbreviated variable assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
11.4.2.3.3 Abbreviated indexing assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
11.4.2.3.4 Abbreviated method assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
11.4.2.4 Multiple assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
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11.4.2.5 Assignments with rescue modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
11.4.3 Unary operator expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
11.4.3.2 The defined? expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11.4.4 Binary operator expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.5 Primary expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.5.2 Control structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
11.5.2.2 Conditional expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
11.5.2.2.2 The if expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
11.5.2.2.3 The unless expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
11.5.2.2.4 The case expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
11.5.2.2.5 Conditional operator expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
11.5.2.3 Iteration expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
11.5.2.3.2 The while expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
11.5.2.3.3 The until expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
11.5.2.3.4 The for expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.5.2.4 Jump expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.5.2.4.2 The return expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.5.2.4.3 The break expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.5.2.4.4 The next expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
11.5.2.4.5 The redo expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.5.2.4.6 The retry expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.5.2.5 The begin expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
11.5.3 Grouping expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
11.5.4 Variable references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
11.5.4.2 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
11.5.4.3 Scoped constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
11.5.4.4 Global variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
11.5.4.5 Class variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
11.5.4.6 Instance variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.5.4.7 Local variables or method invocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.5.4.7.2 Determination of the type of local variable identifiers . . . . . 101
11.5.4.7.3 Local variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.5.4.7.4 Method invocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.5.4.8 Pseudo variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.5.4.8.2 The nil expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11.5.4.8.3 The true expression and the false expression . . . . . . . . . 103
11.5.4.8.4 The self expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11.5.5 Object constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11.5.5.1 Array constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11.5.5.2 Hash constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11.5.5.3 Range constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
12 Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
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12.2 The expression statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.3 The if modifier statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
12.4 The unless modifier statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
12.5 The while modifier statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
12.6 The until modifier statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
12.7 The rescue modifier statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
13 Classes and modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

13.1 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
13.1.2 Module definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
13.1.3 Module inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
13.2 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
13.2.2 Class definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
13.2.3 Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.2.4 Instance creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.3.1 Method definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.3.2 Method parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
13.3.3 Method invocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
13.3.4 Method lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.3.5 Method visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
13.3.5.2 Public methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
13.3.5.3 Private methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
13.3.5.4 Protected methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
13.3.5.5 Visibility change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.3.6 The alias statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.3.7 The undef statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
13.4 Singleton classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
13.4.2 Singleton class definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
13.4.3 Singleton method definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
14 Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.2 Cause of exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.3 Exception handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
15 Built-in classes and modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

15.2 Built-in classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.2.1 Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.2.1.2 Direct superclass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.2.1.3 Included modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.2.1.4 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.2.1.5 Instance methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.2.1.5.1 Object#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.2.2 Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
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15.2.2.3 Singleton methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.2.2.3.1 Module.constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.2.2.3.2 Module.nesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15.2.2.4.1 Module#< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15.2.2.4.2 Module#<= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.2.2.4.3 Module#<=> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.2.2.4.4 Module#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.2.2.4.5 Module#=== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.2.2.4.6 Module#> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.2.2.4.7 Module#>= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.2.2.4.8 Module#alias method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.2.2.4.9 Module#ancestors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.2.2.4.10 Module#append features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.2.2.4.11 Module#attr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.2.2.4.12 Module#attr accessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
15.2.2.4.13 Module#attr reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.2.2.4.14 Module#attr writer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.2.2.4.15 Module#class eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.2.2.4.16 Module#class variable defined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
15.2.2.4.17 Module#class variable get . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
15.2.2.4.18 Module#class variable set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
15.2.2.4.19 Module#class variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
15.2.2.4.20 Module#const defined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
15.2.2.4.21 Module#const get . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
15.2.2.4.22 Module#const missing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
15.2.2.4.23 Module#const set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
15.2.2.4.24 Module#constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
15.2.2.4.25 Module#extend object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.2.2.4.26 Module#extended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.2.2.4.27 Module#include . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.2.2.4.28 Module#include? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.2.2.4.29 Module#included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
15.2.2.4.30 Module#included modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
15.2.2.4.31 Module#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
15.2.2.4.32 Module#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
15.2.2.4.33 Module#instance methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
15.2.2.4.34 Module#method defined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
15.2.2.4.35 Module#module eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.2.2.4.36 Module#private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.2.2.4.37 Module#protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.2.2.4.38 Module#public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.2.2.4.39 Module#remove class variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.2.2.4.40 Module#remove const . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
15.2.2.4.41 Module#remove method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
15.2.2.4.42 Module#undef method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
15.2.3 Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
15.2.3.3.1 Class#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
15.2.3.3.2 Class#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
vii
15.2.3.3.3 Class#new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
15.2.3.3.4 Class#superclass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
15.2.4 NilClass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
15.2.4.3.1 NilClass#& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
15.2.4.3.2 NilClass#ˆ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
15.2.4.3.3 NilClass#| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
15.2.4.3.4 NilClass#nil? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
15.2.4.3.5 NilClass#to s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
15.2.5 TrueClass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
15.2.5.3.1 TrueClass#& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.2.5.3.2 TrueClass#ˆ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.2.5.3.3 TrueClass#to s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.2.5.3.4 TrueClass#| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.2.6 FalseClass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.2.6.3.1 FalseClass#& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.2.6.3.2 FalseClass#ˆ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.2.6.3.3 FalseClass#to s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.2.6.3.4 FalseClass#| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.2.7 Numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.2.7.4.1 Numeric#+@ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.2.7.4.2 Numeric#−@ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
15.2.7.4.3 Numeric#abs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
15.2.7.4.4 Numeric#coerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
15.2.8 Integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
15.2.8.3.1 Integer#+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
15.2.8.3.2 Integer#− . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
15.2.8.3.3 Integer#* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
15.2.8.3.4 Integer#/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
15.2.8.3.5 Integer#% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
15.2.8.3.6 Integer#<=> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
15.2.8.3.7 Integer#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
15.2.8.3.8 Integer#˜ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.2.8.3.9 Integer#& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.2.8.3.10 Integer#| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.2.8.3.11 Integer#ˆ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.2.8.3.12 Integer#<< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
viii
15.2.8.3.13 Integer#>> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.2.8.3.14 Integer#ceil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
15.2.8.3.15 Integer#downto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
15.2.8.3.16 Integer#eql? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
15.2.8.3.17 Integer#floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
15.2.8.3.18 Integer#hash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.2.8.3.19 Integer#next . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.2.8.3.20 Integer#round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.2.8.3.21 Integer#succ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.2.8.3.22 Integer#times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
15.2.8.3.23 Integer#to f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.2.8.3.24 Integer#to i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.2.8.3.25 Integer#to s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.2.8.3.26 Integer#truncate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.2.8.3.27 Integer#upto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.2.9 Float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
15.2.9.3.1 Float#+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
15.2.9.3.2 Float#− . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
15.2.9.3.3 Float#* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
15.2.9.3.4 Float#/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
15.2.9.3.5 Float#% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
15.2.9.3.6 Float#<=> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
15.2.9.3.7 Float#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.2.9.3.8 Float#ceil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.2.9.3.9 Float#finite? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.2.9.3.10 Float#floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.2.9.3.11 Float#infinite? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.2.9.3.12 Float#round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.2.9.3.13 Float#to f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15.2.9.3.14 Float#to i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.2.9.3.15 Float#truncate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.2.10 String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
15.2.10.4 Upper-case and lower-case characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
15.2.10.5.1 String#* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
15.2.10.5.2 String#+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15.2.10.5.3 String#<=> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15.2.10.5.4 String#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
15.2.10.5.5 String#=˜ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
15.2.10.5.6 String#[] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
15.2.10.5.7 String#capitalize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
15.2.10.5.8 String#capitalize! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
15.2.10.5.9 String#chomp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
15.2.10.5.10 String#chomp! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
15.2.10.5.11 String#chop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
15.2.10.5.12 String#chop! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
ix
15.2.10.5.13 String#downcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
15.2.10.5.14 String#downcase! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
15.2.10.5.15 String#each line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
15.2.10.5.16 String#empty? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
15.2.10.5.17 String#eql? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
15.2.10.5.18 String#gsub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
15.2.10.5.19 String#gsub! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
15.2.10.5.20 String#hash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
15.2.10.5.21 String#include? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
15.2.10.5.22 String#index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
15.2.10.5.23 String#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
15.2.10.5.24 String#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
15.2.10.5.25 String#intern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
15.2.10.5.26 String#length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
15.2.10.5.27 String#match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
15.2.10.5.28 String#replace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
15.2.10.5.29 String#reverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
15.2.10.5.30 String#reverse! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
15.2.10.5.31 String#rindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
15.2.10.5.32 String#scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
15.2.10.5.33 String#size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
15.2.10.5.34 String#slice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
15.2.10.5.35 String#split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
15.2.10.5.36 String#sub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
15.2.10.5.37 String#sub! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
15.2.10.5.38 String#to i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
15.2.10.5.39 String#to f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
15.2.10.5.40 String#to s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
15.2.10.5.41 String#to sym . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
15.2.10.5.42 String#upcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
15.2.10.5.43 String#upcase! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
15.2.11 Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
15.2.11.3.1 Symbol#=== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
15.2.11.3.2 Symbol#id2name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
15.2.11.3.3 Symbol#to s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
15.2.11.3.4 Symbol#to sym . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
15.2.12 Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
15.2.12.4.1 Array.[] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
15.2.12.5.1 Array#* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
15.2.12.5.2 Array#+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
15.2.12.5.3 Array#<< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
15.2.12.5.4 Array#[] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
15.2.12.5.5 Array#[]= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
15.2.12.5.6 Array#clear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
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15.2.12.5.7 Array#collect! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
15.2.12.5.8 Array#concat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
15.2.12.5.9 Array#delete at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
15.2.12.5.10 Array#each . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
15.2.12.5.11 Array#each index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
15.2.12.5.12 Array#empty? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
15.2.12.5.13 Array#first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
15.2.12.5.14 Array#index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
15.2.12.5.15 Array#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
15.2.12.5.16 Array#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
15.2.12.5.17 Array#join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
15.2.12.5.18 Array#last . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
15.2.12.5.19 Array#length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
15.2.12.5.20 Array#map! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
15.2.12.5.21 Array#pop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
15.2.12.5.22 Array#push . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
15.2.12.5.23 Array#replace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
15.2.12.5.24 Array#reverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
15.2.12.5.25 Array#reverse! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
15.2.12.5.26 Array#rindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
15.2.12.5.27 Array#shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
15.2.12.5.28 Array#size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
15.2.12.5.29 Array#slice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
15.2.12.5.30 Array#unshift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
15.2.13 Hash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
15.2.13.4.1 Hash#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
15.2.13.4.2 Hash#[] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
15.2.13.4.3 Hash#[]= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
15.2.13.4.4 Hash#clear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
15.2.13.4.5 Hash#default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
15.2.13.4.6 Hash#default= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
15.2.13.4.7 Hash#default proc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
15.2.13.4.8 Hash#delete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
15.2.13.4.9 Hash#each . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
15.2.13.4.10 Hash#each key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
15.2.13.4.11 Hash#each value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
15.2.13.4.12 Hash#empty? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
15.2.13.4.13 Hash#has key? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
15.2.13.4.14 Hash#has value? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
15.2.13.4.15 Hash#include? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
15.2.13.4.16 Hash#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
15.2.13.4.17 Hash#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
15.2.13.4.18 Hash#key? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
15.2.13.4.19 Hash#keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
15.2.13.4.20 Hash#length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
15.2.13.4.21 Hash#member? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
15.2.13.4.22 Hash#merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
15.2.13.4.23 Hash#replace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
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15.2.13.4.24 Hash#shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
15.2.13.4.25 Hash#size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
15.2.13.4.26 Hash#store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
15.2.13.4.27 Hash#value? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
15.2.13.4.28 Hash#values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
15.2.14 Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
15.2.14.4.1 Range#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
15.2.14.4.2 Range#=== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
15.2.14.4.3 Range#begin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
15.2.14.4.4 Range#each . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
15.2.14.4.5 Range#end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
15.2.14.4.6 Range#exclude end? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
15.2.14.4.7 Range#first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
15.2.14.4.8 Range#include? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
15.2.14.4.9 Range#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
15.2.14.4.10 Range#last . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
15.2.14.4.11 Range#member? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
15.2.15 Regexp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
15.2.15.3 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
15.2.15.4 Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
15.2.15.5 Matching process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
15.2.15.6.1 Regexp.compile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
15.2.15.6.2 Regexp.escape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
15.2.15.6.3 Regexp.last match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
15.2.15.6.4 Regexp.quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
15.2.15.7.1 Regexp#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
15.2.15.7.2 Regexp#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
15.2.15.7.3 Regexp#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
15.2.15.7.4 Regexp#=== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
15.2.15.7.5 Regexp#=˜ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
15.2.15.7.6 Regexp#casefold? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
15.2.15.7.7 Regexp#match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
15.2.15.7.8 Regexp#source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
15.2.16 MatchData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
15.2.16.3.1 MatchData#[] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
15.2.16.3.2 MatchData#begin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
15.2.16.3.3 MatchData#captures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
15.2.16.3.4 MatchData#end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
15.2.16.3.5 MatchData#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
15.2.16.3.6 MatchData#length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
15.2.16.3.7 MatchData#offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
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15.2.16.3.8 MatchData#post match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
15.2.16.3.9 MatchData#pre match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
15.2.16.3.10 MatchData#size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15.2.16.3.11 MatchData#string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15.2.16.3.12 MatchData#to a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15.2.16.3.13 MatchData#to s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15.2.17 Proc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
15.2.17.3.1 Proc.new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
15.2.17.4.1 Proc#[] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
15.2.17.4.2 Proc#arity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
15.2.17.4.3 Proc#call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
15.2.17.4.4 Proc#clone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
15.2.17.4.5 Proc#dup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
15.2.18 Struct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
15.2.18.3.1 Struct.new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
15.2.18.4.1 Struct#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
15.2.18.4.2 Struct#[] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
15.2.18.4.3 Struct#[]= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
15.2.18.4.4 Struct#each . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
15.2.18.4.5 Struct#each pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
15.2.18.4.6 Struct#members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
15.2.18.4.7 Struct#select . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
15.2.18.4.8 Struct#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
15.2.18.4.9 Struct#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
15.2.19 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
15.2.19.3 Time computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
15.2.19.3.1 Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
15.2.19.3.2 Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
15.2.19.3.3 Month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
15.2.19.3.4 Days of month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
15.2.19.3.5 Hours, Minutes, and Seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
15.2.19.4 Time zone and Local time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
15.2.19.5 Daylight saving time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
15.2.19.6.1 Time.at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
15.2.19.6.2 Time.gm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
15.2.19.6.3 Time.local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
15.2.19.6.4 Time.mktime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
15.2.19.6.5 Time.now . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
15.2.19.6.6 Time.utc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
15.2.19.7.1 Time#+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
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15.2.19.7.2 Time#− . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
15.2.19.7.3 Time#<=> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
15.2.19.7.4 Time#asctime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
15.2.19.7.5 Time#ctime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
15.2.19.7.6 Time#day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
15.2.19.7.7 Time#dst? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
15.2.19.7.8 Time#getgm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
15.2.19.7.9 Time#getlocal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
15.2.19.7.10 Time#getutc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
15.2.19.7.11 Time#gmt? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
15.2.19.7.12 Time#gmt offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
15.2.19.7.13 Time#gmtime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
15.2.19.7.14 Time#gmtoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
15.2.19.7.15 Time#hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
15.2.19.7.16 Time#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
15.2.19.7.17 Time#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
15.2.19.7.18 Time#localtime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
15.2.19.7.19 Time#mday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
15.2.19.7.20 Time#min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
15.2.19.7.21 Time#mon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
15.2.19.7.22 Time#month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
15.2.19.7.23 Time#sec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
15.2.19.7.24 Time#to f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
15.2.19.7.25 Time#to i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
15.2.19.7.26 Time#usec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
15.2.19.7.27 Time#utc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
15.2.19.7.28 Time#utc? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
15.2.19.7.29 Time#utc offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
15.2.19.7.30 Time#wday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
15.2.19.7.31 Time#yday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
15.2.19.7.32 Time#year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
15.2.19.7.33 Time#zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
15.2.20 IO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
15.2.20.4.1 IO.open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
15.2.20.5.1 IO#close . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
15.2.20.5.2 IO#closed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
15.2.20.5.3 IO#each . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
15.2.20.5.4 IO#each byte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
15.2.20.5.5 IO#each line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
15.2.20.5.6 IO#eof? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
15.2.20.5.7 IO#flush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
15.2.20.5.8 IO#getc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
15.2.20.5.9 IO#gets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
15.2.20.5.10 IO#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
15.2.20.5.11 IO#print . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
15.2.20.5.12 IO#putc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
15.2.20.5.13 IO#puts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
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15.2.20.5.14 IO#read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
15.2.20.5.15 IO#readchar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
15.2.20.5.16 IO#readline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
15.2.20.5.17 IO#readlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
15.2.20.5.18 IO#sync . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
15.2.20.5.19 IO#sync= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
15.2.20.5.20 IO#write . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
15.2.21 File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
15.2.21.3.1 File.exist? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
15.2.21.4.1 File#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
15.2.21.4.2 File#path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
15.2.22 Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
15.2.22.3 Built-in exception classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
15.2.22.4.1 Exception.exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
15.2.22.5.1 Exception#exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
15.2.22.5.2 Exception#message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
15.2.22.5.3 Exception#to s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
15.2.22.5.4 Exception#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
15.2.23 StandardError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
15.2.24 ArgumentError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
15.2.25 LocalJumpError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
15.2.25.2.1 LocalJumpError#exit value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
15.2.25.2.2 LocalJumpError#reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.2.26 RangeError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.2.27 RegexpError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.2.28 RuntimeError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.2.29 TypeError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.2.30 ZeroDivisionError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
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15.2.31 NameError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.2.31.2.1 NameError#name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.2.31.2.2 NameError#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.2.32 NoMethodError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
15.2.32.2.1 NoMethodError#args . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
15.2.32.2.2 NoMethodError#initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
15.2.33 IndexError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
15.2.34 IOError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
15.2.35 EOFError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
15.2.36 SystemCallError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
15.2.37 ScriptError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
15.2.38 SyntaxError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.2.39 LoadError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.3 Built-in modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.3.1 Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.3.1.2.1 Kernel.‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.3.1.2.2 Kernel.block given? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.3.1.2.3 Kernel.eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.3.1.2.4 Kernel.global variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.3.1.2.5 Kernel.iterator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
15.3.1.2.6 Kernel.lambda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
15.3.1.2.7 Kernel.local variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
15.3.1.2.8 Kernel.loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
15.3.1.2.9 Kernel.p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
15.3.1.2.10 Kernel.print . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
15.3.1.2.11 Kernel.puts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
15.3.1.2.12 Kernel.raise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
15.3.1.2.13 Kernel.require . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
15.3.1.3.1 Kernel#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
15.3.1.3.2 Kernel#=== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
15.3.1.3.3 Kernel# id . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
xvi
15.3.1.3.4 Kernel# send . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
15.3.1.3.5 Kernel#‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
15.3.1.3.6 Kernel#block given? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
15.3.1.3.7 Kernel#class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
15.3.1.3.8 Kernel#clone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
15.3.1.3.9 Kernel#dup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
15.3.1.3.10 Kernel#eql? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
15.3.1.3.11 Kernel#equal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
15.3.1.3.12 Kernel#eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
15.3.1.3.13 Kernel#extend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
15.3.1.3.14 Kernel#global variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.3.1.3.15 Kernel#hash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.3.1.3.16 Kernel#initialize copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.3.1.3.17 Kernel#inspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
15.3.1.3.18 Kernel#instance eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
15.3.1.3.19 Kernel#instance of? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
15.3.1.3.20 Kernel#instance variable defined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
15.3.1.3.21 Kernel#instance variable get . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
15.3.1.3.22 Kernel#instance variable set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
15.3.1.3.23 Kernel#instance variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
15.3.1.3.24 Kernel#is a? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
15.3.1.3.25 Kernel#iterator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.3.1.3.26 Kernel#kind of? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.3.1.3.27 Kernel#lambda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.3.1.3.28 Kernel#local variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.3.1.3.29 Kernel#loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.3.1.3.30 Kernel#method missing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.3.1.3.31 Kernel#methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
15.3.1.3.32 Kernel#nil? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
15.3.1.3.33 Kernel#object id . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
15.3.1.3.34 Kernel#p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
15.3.1.3.35 Kernel#print . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
15.3.1.3.36 Kernel#private methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
15.3.1.3.37 Kernel#protected methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.3.1.3.38 Kernel#public methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.3.1.3.39 Kernel#puts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.3.1.3.40 Kernel#raise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
15.3.1.3.41 Kernel#remove instance variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
15.3.1.3.42 Kernel#require . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
15.3.1.3.43 Kernel#respond to? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
15.3.1.3.44 Kernel#send . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
15.3.1.3.45 Kernel#singleton methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
15.3.1.3.46 Kernel#to s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
15.3.2 Enumerable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
15.3.2.2.1 Enumerable#all? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
15.3.2.2.2 Enumerable#any? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
15.3.2.2.3 Enumerable#collect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
15.3.2.2.4 Enumerable#detect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
15.3.2.2.5 Enumerable#each with index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
15.3.2.2.6 Enumerable#entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
xvii
15.3.2.2.7 Enumerable#find . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
15.3.2.2.8 Enumerable#find all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
15.3.2.2.9 Enumerable#grep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
15.3.2.2.10 Enumerable#include? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.3.2.2.11 Enumerable#inject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.3.2.2.12 Enumerable#map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
15.3.2.2.13 Enumerable#max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
15.3.2.2.14 Enumerable#min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
15.3.2.2.15 Enumerable#member? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.3.2.2.16 Enumerable#partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.3.2.2.17 Enumerable#reject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.3.2.2.18 Enumerable#select . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
15.3.2.2.19 Enumerable#sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
15.3.2.2.20 Enumerable#to a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
15.3.3 Comparable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
15.3.3.2.1 Comparable#< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
15.3.3.2.2 Comparable#<= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
15.3.3.2.3 Comparable#== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
15.3.3.2.4 Comparable#> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
15.3.3.2.5 Comparable#>= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
15.3.3.2.6 Comparable#between? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
xviii
Introduction
This document specifies the Ruby programming language.
Ruby is an object-oriented scripting language, which has been developed by Yukihiro Matsumoto
and his contributors since 1993, and has several implementations distributed as open source
software. Ruby has both enough features as an object-oriented language and simplicity as a
scripting language, and advanced applications can be implemented with brief code in Ruby.
These characteristics of Ruby enables high productivity of program development.
Ruby is thus used for many applications and network systems across the world at the present
day, and has multiple implementations. Therefore, a standard specification which underlies
compatibility among implementations has been demanded.
The biggest goal of Ruby is developer friendliness, and productivity of application development
and intuitive description of program behaviors take precedence over brevity of the language
specification itself and ease of implementation. This document is therefore complex as a language
specification in order to specify the syntax and semantics of Ruby without ambiguity.
xix
Information technology —
Programming Languages — Ruby
1 1 Scope
2 This document specifies the syntax and semantics of the computer programming language Ruby
3 and the requirements for conforming Ruby processors, strictly conforming Ruby programs, and
4 conforming Ruby programs.
5 This document does not specify
6 the limit of size or complexity of a program text which is acceptable to a conforming

7 processor,
8 the minimal requirements of a data processing system that is capable of supporting a

9 conforming processor,
10 the method for activating the execution of programs on a data processing system, and
11 the method for reporting syntactic and runtime errors.
12 NOTE Execution of a Ruby program is to evaluate the program (see 10) by a Ruby processor.
13 2 Normative references
14 The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For
15 dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
16 referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
17 ISO/IEC 646:1991, Information technology – ISO 7-bit coded character set for information
18 interchange.
19 NOTE Corresponding JIS: JIS X 0201:1997 7-bit and 8-bit coded character sets for information
20 interchange (MOD)
21 IEC 60559:1989, Binary floating-point arithmetic for microprocessor systems.
22 3 Conformance
23 A strictly conforming Ruby program shall
1
1 use only those features of the language specified in this document, and
2 not produce output dependent on any unspecified or implementation-defined behavior.
3 A conforming Ruby processor shall
4 accept any strictly conforming programs and behave as specified in this document.
5 A conforming Ruby processor may
6 evaluate a strictly conforming program in a different way from the one described in this
7 document, if it does not change the behavior of the program; however, if the program
8 redefines any method of a built-in class or module (see Clause 15), the behavior of the
9 program may be different from the one described in this document, and
10 NOTE For example, a conforming processor may omit an invocation of a method of a built-in
11 class or module for optimization purpose, and do the same calculation as the method instead. In
12 this case, even if a program redefines the method, the behavior of the program might not change
13 because the redefined method might not actually be invoked.
14 support syntax not described in this document, and accept any programs which use features
15 not specified in this document.
16 A conforming Ruby program is one that is acceptable to a conforming Ruby processor.
17 4 Terms and definitions

18 For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. Other terms are
19 defined where they appear in bold slant face or on the left side of a syntax rule.
20 4.1
21 block
22 A procedure which is passed to a method invocation.
23 4.2
24 class
25 An object which defines the behavior of a set of other objects called its instances.
26 NOTE The behavior is a set of methods which can be invoked on an instance.
27 4.3
28 class variable
29 A variable whose value is shared by all the instances of a class.
30 4.4
31 constant
32 A variable which is defined in a class or a module and is accessible both inside and outside the
33 class or module.
34 NOTE The value of a constant is ordinarily expected to remain unchanged during the execution of a
35 program, but this document does not force it.
2
1 4.5
2 exception
3 An object which represents an exceptional event.
4 4.6
5 global variable
6 A variable which is accessible everywhere in a program.
7 4.7
8 implementation-defined
9 Possibly differing between implementations, but defined for every implementation.
10 4.8
11 instance method
12 A method which can be invoked on all the instances of a class.
13 4.9
14 instance variable
15 A variable that exists in a set of variable bindings which every object has.
16 4.10
17 local variable
18 A variable which is accessible only in a certain scope introduced by a program construct such as
19 a method definition, a block, a class definition, a module definition, a singleton class definition,
20 or the toplevel of a program.
21 4.11
22 method
23 A procedure which, when invoked on an object, performs a set of computations on the object.
24 4.12
25 method visibility
26 An attribute of a method which determines the conditions under which a method invocation is
27 allowed.
28 4.13
29 module
30 An object which provides features to be included into a class or another module.
31 4.14
32 object
33 A computational entity which has states and a behavior.
34 NOTE The behavior of an object is a set of methods which can be invoked on the object.
35 4.15
36 singleton class
37 An object which can modify the behavior of its associated object.
38 NOTE A singleton class is ordinarily associated with a single object. However, a conforming processor
39 may associate a singleton class with multiple objects as described in 13.4.1.
40 4.16
3
1 singleton method
2 An instance method of a singleton class.
3 4.17
4 unspecified
5 Possibly differing between implementations, and not necessarily defined for any particular im-
6 plementation.
7 4.18
8 variable
9 A computational entity that refers to an object, which is called the value of the variable.
10 4.19
11 variable binding
12 An association between a variable and an object which is referred to by the variable.
13 5 Notational conventions
14 5.1 General description
15 In this clause, the following terms are used:
16 a) sequence of A
17 A “sequence of A”, whose length is n, indicates a sequence whose n elements A1 , A2 , . . . , An
18 (n ≥ 0) are of the same kind A. A sequence whose length is 0 is called an empty sequence.
19 b) sequence of A separated by B
20 A “sequence of A separated by B ”, whose length is n + 1, indicates a sequence whose n + 1
21 elements A0 , A1 , A2 , . . . , An (n ≥ 0) are of the same kind A and whose adjacent elements
22 are separated by B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn of the same kind B as follows: A0 , B1 , A1 , B2 , . . . , Bn ,
23 An .
24 5.2 Syntax
25 5.2.1 General description
26 In this document, the syntax of the Ruby language is specified by syntactic rules which are
27 a series of productions (see 5.2.2), and constraints of syntax written in a natural language.
28 Syntactic rules are given in some subclauses, and are entitled “Syntax”.
29 5.2.2 Productions
30 Each production is of the following form, where X is a nonterminal symbol [see 5.2.4 b)], and Y
31 is a sequence of syntactic term sequences (see 5.2.3）separated by a vertical line (|), and where
32 whitespace and newlines are used for the sake of readability:
33 X :: Y
34 A production defines a set of sequences of characters represented by a nonterminal symbol X

35 as a union of sets represented by syntactic term sequences in Y. The production X :: Y is
36 therefore called “the production of X ” or “the X production.” X is called the left hand side of
4
1 the production, and Y is called the right hand side of the production. The nonterminal symbol
2 X is said to directly refer to nonterminal symbols which appear in Y. A relationship that a
3 nonterminal symbol A refers to a nonterminal symbol B is defined recursively as follows:
4 If A directly refers to B, then A refers to B ;
5 If A refers to a nonterminal symbol C, and if C refers to B, then A refers to B.
6 NOTE 1 A syntactic term represents a set of sequences of characters as described in 5.2.3.
7 In a constraint written in a natural language in a syntactic rule, or in a semantic rule (see 5.3),
8 “X ”, where X is a syntactic term sequence, indicates an elmement of the set of sequences of
9 characters represented by the syntactic term sequence X. Especially in the case that X is a non-
10 terminal symbol Y, “Y ” indicates an elmement of the set of sequences of characters represented
11 by the nonterminal symbol, and “the nonterminal symbol Y ” indicates the nonterminal symbol
12 itself. A sequence of characters represented by “Y ” is also called “of the form Y.”
13 When a nonterminal symbol Y directly refers to a nonterminal symbol Z, “Z of Y ” indicates a

14 part of a sequence of characters represented by Y, which is represented by such Z.
15 NOTE 2 For example，a sequence x of characters represented by X whose production is “X :: Y Z ”

16 consist of a sequence y of characters represented by Y and a sequence z of characters represented by Z,
17 and x = yz. In this case, “Z of X ” indicates z.
18 “Z in Y ” indicates a part of a sequence of characters represented by Y, which is represented by

19 Z referred to by the nonterminal symbol Y.
20 “Each Z of Y ” indicates a sequence of characters defined by the following a) to c):
21 a) This notation is used when Z appears in a primary term P (see 5.2.4), and the right hand
22 side of the production of Y contains zero or more repetitions of P [see 5.2.4 f)] (i.e., P ∗ ).
23 b) Let Yn (n ≥ 0) be the right hand side of the production of Y, where P ∗ is replaced with a
24 sequence of P s whose length is n. For any sequence y of characters represented by Y, there
25 exists i such that a sequence of characters represented by Yi is y.
26 c) “Each Z of Y ” indicates a part of y represented by Z which appears repeatedly in Yi .
27 If the number of Z referred to by Y in productions in a subclause is only one, “Z ” is used as a

28 short form of “Z of Y ” or “Z in Y.”
29 The nonterminal symbols input-element (see 8.1), program (see 10.1), and pattern (see 15.2.15.4)
30 are called start symbols.
31 EXAMPLE 1 The following example is the input-element production. This production means an input-
32 element is any of a line-terminator, whitespace, comment, end-of-program-marker, or token.
33 input-element ::
34 line-terminator
35 | whitespace
36 | comment
37 | end-of-program-marker
38 | token
5
1 EXAMPLE 2 Y and Z are defined as follows:
2 Y ::
3 Z ( # Z )∗
4 Z ::
5 a | b | (Y )
6 In this case, for each following sequence of characters represented by Y, “each Z of Y ” indicates each
7 underlined part.
8 a
9 a#b
10 a#b#a
11 (a#b)
12 a#(a#b)#a
13 5.2.3 Syntactic term sequences
14 A syntactic term sequence is a sequence of syntactic terms (see 5.2.4). A syntactic term sequence
15 S, which is a sequence T1 T2 . . . Tn (n ≥ 1), where Ti (1 ≤ i ≤ n) is a syntactic term, represents
16 a set of all sequences of characters of the form t1 t2 . . . tn , where ti is any element of the set of
17 sequences of characters represented by Ti . However, if Ti is a special term, the meaning of ti is
18 defined in 5.2.4 d).
19 Line-terminator s (see 8.3), whitespace (see 8.4), and comments (see 8.5) are used to separate
20 tokens (see 8.7), and are ordinarily ignored. Line-terminator s, whitespace, and comments are
21 therefore omitted in the right hand side of productions except in Clause 8 and 15.2.15.4. That
22 is, in the right hand side of productions, the following syntactic term is omitted before and after
23 terms.
24 ( line-terminator | whitespace | comment )∗
25 However, a location where a line-terminator or whitespace shall not occur, or a location where
26 a line-terminator or whitespace shall occur is indicated by special terms: a forbidden term [see
27 5.2.4 d) 2)] or a mandatory term [see 5.2.4 d) 3)], respectively.
28 EXAMPLE The following example represents a sequence of characters: alias [a terminal symbol, see
29 5.2.4 a)]，new-name, and aliased-name, in this order. However, there might be any number of line-
30 terminator s, whitespace characters, and/or comments between these elements.
31 alias new-name aliased-name
6
1 5.2.4 Syntactic terms
2 A syntactic term represents a sequence of characters, or a constraint to a sequence of characters

3 represented by a syntactic term sequence which includes the syntactic term. A syntactic term
4 is any of the following a) to h). In particular, syntactic terms a) to c) are called primary terms.
5 NOTE Note that a syntactic term is specified recursively.
6 a) terminal symbol
7 A terminal symbol is shown in typewriter face. A terminal symbol represents a set whose
8 only element is a sequence of characters shown in typewriter face.
9 EXAMPLE 1 + represents a sequence of one character “+”. def represents a sequence of three
10 characters “def”.
11 b) nonterminal symbol
12 A nonterminal symbol is shown in italic face. A nonterminal symbol represents a set of
13 sequences of characters defined by the production of the nonterminal symbol.
14 EXAMPLE 2 A binary-digit defined by the following production represents “0” or “1”.
15 binary-digit ::
16 0 | 1
17 c) grouping term
18 A grouping term is a sequence of syntactic term sequences separated by a vertical line (|)
19 and enclosed by parentheses [( )]. A grouping term represents a union of sets of sequences
20 of characters represented by syntactic term sequences in the grouping term.
21 EXAMPLE 3 The following example represents an alpha-numeric-character or a line-terminator.
22 ( alpha-numeric-character | line-terminator )
23 d) special term
24 A special term is a text enclosed by square brackets ([ ]). A special term is any of the
25 following:
26 1) negative lookahead
27 The notation of a negative lookahead is [lookahead ∈ / S ], where S is a sequence of
28 terminal symbols separated by a comma (,) enclosed by curly brackets ({ }). A negative
29 lookahead represents a constraint that any sequence of characters in S shall not occur
30 just after the negative lookahead.
31 EXAMPLE 4 The following example means that an argument-without-parentheses shall not

32 begin with “{”:
7
1 argument-without-parentheses ::
2 [ lookahead ∈
/ { { } ] argument-list
3 2) forbidden term
4 The notation of a forbidden term is [no T here], where T is a primary term. A forbidden
5 term represents a constraint that no T shall occur there.
6 EXAMPLE 5 The following example means no line-terminator shall occur there.
7 [ no line-terminator here ]
8 3) mandatory term
9 The notation of a mandatory term is [T here], where T is a primary term. A mandatory
10 term represents a constraint that one or more T s shall occur there.
11 EXAMPLE 6 The following example means one or more line-terminator s shall occur there.
12 [ line-terminator here ]
13 4) other special term

14 The notation of an other speical term is [U ], where U is a text which does not match
15 any of d) 1) to d) 3). This special term represents a set of sequences of characters rep-
16 resented by U, or a constraint represented by U to a sequence of characters represented
17 by a syntactic term sequence which includes this special term.
18 EXAMPLE 7 The following example means that a source-character is any character specified
19 in ISO/IEC 646:1991 IRV:
20 source-character ::
21 [ any character in ISO/IEC 646:1991 IRV ]
22 EXAMPLE 8 The following example means =begin shall occur at the beginning of a line.
23 [ beginning of a line ] =begin
24 e) optional term
25 An optional term is a primary term postfixed with a superscripted question mark (? ).
26 An optional term represents a superset of the set represented by the primary term, which
27 has an empty sequence of characters as the only additional element.
8
1 EXAMPLE 9 The following example means that the block is optional.
2 block ?
3 f) zero or more repetitions

4 A primary term postfixed with a superscripted asterisk (∗ ) indicates zero or more repetitions
5 of the primary term. Zero or more repetitions represent a set of sequences of characters
6 whose elements are all sequences of any zero or more elements of the set represented by the
7 primary term.
8 EXAMPLE 10 The following example means a sequence of characters which consists of zero or
9 more elsif-clauses.
10 elsif-clause ∗
11 g) one or more repetitions

12 A primary term postfixed with a superscripted plus sign (+ ) indicates one or more repeti-
13 tions of the primary term. One or more repetitions represent a set of sequences of characters
14 whose elements are all sequences of any one or more elements of the set represented by the
15 primary term.
16 EXAMPLE 11 The following example means a sequence of characters which consists of one or
17 more when-clauses.
18 when-clause +
19 h) exception term
20 An exception term is a sequences of a primary term P1 , the phrase but not, and another
21 primary term P2 . An exception term represents a set of sequences of characters whose
22 elements are all elements of P1 excluding all elements of P2 .
23 EXAMPLE 12 The following exmaple represents a source-character but not a single-quoted-string-

24 meta-character.
25 source-character but not single-quoted-string-meta-character
26 5.2.5 Conceptual names
27 A nonterminal symbol (except start symbols) which is not referred to by any start symbol is
28 called a conceptual name. In the production of a conceptual name, ::= is used instead of :: to
29 distinguish conceptual names from other nonterminal symbols.
30 NOTE 1 In this document, some semantically related nonterminal symbols are syntactically away from
31 each other. Conceptual names are used to define names which organize such nonterminal symbols [e.g.,
9
1 assignment (see 11.4.2]). Conceptual names are also used to define nonterminal symbols used only in
2 semantic rules [e.g., binary-operator (see 11.4.4)].
3 EXAMPLE 1 The following example defines the conceptual name assignment, which can be used to
4 mention either assignment-expression or assignment-statement.
5 assignment ::=
6 assignment-expression
7 | assignment-statement
8 5.3 Semantics
9 For syntactic rules, corresponding semantic rules are given in some subclauses, and are entitled
10 “Semantics”. In this document, the behaviors of programs are specified by processes evaluating
11 the programs. The evaluation of a program construct, which is a sequence of characters repre-
12 sented by a nonterminal symbol, usually results in a value, which is called the (resulting) value
13 of the program construct. Semantic rules specify the ways of evaluating program constructs
14 specified in corresponding syntactic rules, and the resulting values of the evaluations.
15 The start of evaluation steps of a program construct described in semantic rules is called the
16 start of the evaluation of the program construct. The time when there is no evaluation step to
17 be taken for the program construct is called the end of the evaluation of the program construct.
18 If the evaluation of a program construct has started, and if the evaluation has not ended, the
19 program construct is said to be under evaluation.
20 If there is no semantic rule corresponding to a nonterminal symbol X, and if the right hand side
21 of the production of X is a sequence of other nonterminal symbols separated by a vertical line
22 (|), the semantic rule of X is defined by the semantic rules of other nonterminal symbols referred
23 to by X.
24 EXAMPLE 1 A variable (see 11.5.4) has the following production, and has no description of semantic
25 rules.
26 variable ::
27 constant-identifier
28 | global-variable-identifier
29 | class-variable-identifier
30 | instance-variable-identifier
31 | local-variable-identifier
32 In this case, the semantic rule of variable is defined by the semantic rule of constant-identifier, global-
33 variable-identifier, class-variable-identifier, instance-variable-identifier, or local-variable-identifier.
34 If there is more than one same nonterminal symbol in the right hand side of a production,
35 the nonterminal symbols have a subscript to distinguish them in semantic rules (e.g., operator-
36 expression 1 ), if necessary.
37 The semantic rule of a conceptual name describes the semantic rule of program constructs
10
1 which are elements of the set of sequences of characters represented by the conceptual name. In
2 semantic rules, “X ”, where X is a conceptual name, indicates a program construct which is an
3 element of the set of sequences of characters represented by the nonterminal symbol X.
4 EXAMPLE 2 logical-AND-expression (see 11.2.4) has the following production.
5 logical-AND-expression ::=
6 keyword-AND-expression
7 | operator-AND-expression
8 Since logical-AND-expression is a conceptual name, a sequence of characters represented by a keyword-

9 AND-expression or operator-AND-expression never be recognized as a logical-AND-expression under
10 parsing process of a program text. However, keyword-AND-expression and operator-AND-expression
11 have similar semantic rules and they are described as the semantic rule of logical-AND-expression. In
12 semantic rules, “logical-AND-expression” indicates a program construct represented by a keyword-AND-
13 expression or operator-AND-expression.
14 5.4 Attributes of execution contexts
15 The names of the attributes of execution contexts (see 7.1) are enclosed in double square brackets
16 ([]).
17 EXAMPLE [self ] is one of the attributes of execution contexts.
18 6 Fundamental concepts
19 6.1 Objects
20 An object has states and a behavior. An object has a set of bindings of instance variables (see
21 6.2.2) as one of its states. Besides the set of bindings of instance variables, an object can have
22 some attributes as its states, depending on the class of the object. The behavior of an object is
23 defined by a set of methods (see 6.3) which can be invoked on that object. A method is defined
24 in a class, a singleton class, or a module (see 6.5).
25 Every value directly manipulated by a program is an object. For example, all of the following
26 values are objects:
27 A value which is referred to by a variable (see 6.2);
28 A value which is passed to a method as an argument;
29 A value which is returned by a method;
30 A value which is returned as the result of evaluating an expression (see Clause 11), a
31 statement (see Clause 12), a compound-statement (see 10.2), or a program (see 10.1).
32 Other values are not objects, unless explicitly specified as objects.
33 NOTE Primitive values such as integers are also objects. For example, an integer literal (see 8.7.6.2)
34 evaluates to an object.
11
1 6.2 Variables
3 A variable is denoted by a name, and refers to an object, which is called the value of the variable.
4 A variable itself is not an object. While a variable can refer to only one object at a time, an
5 object can be referred to by more than one variable at a time.
6 A variable is said to be bound to an object if the variable refers to the object. This association
7 of a variable with an object is called a variable binding. When a variable with name N is
8 bound to an object O, N is called the name of the binding, and O is called the value of the
9 binding.
10 There are five kinds of variables:
11 instance variables (see 6.2.2);
12 constants (see 6.5.2);
13 class variables (see 6.5.2);
14 local variables (see 9.2);
15 global variables (see 9.3).
16 Any variable can be bound to any kind of object.
17 EXAMPLE In the following program, first, the local variable x refers to an integer, then it refers to a
18 string, finally it refers to an array.
19 x = 123
20 x = "abc"
21 x = [1, 2, 3]
22 6.2.2 Instance variables
23 An object has a set of variable bindings. A variable whose binding is in this set is an instance
24 variable of that object. This set of bindings of instance variables represents a state of that
25 object.
26 An instance variable of an object is not directly accessible outside the object. An instance
27 variable is ordinarily accessed through methods called accessors outside the object. In this
28 sence, a set of bindings of instance variables is encapsulated in an object.
29 EXAMPLE In the following program, the value of the instance variable @value of an instance of the
30 class ValueHolder is initialized by the method initialize (see 15.2.3.3.3), and is accessed through the
31 accessor method value, and printed by the method puts of the module Kernel (see 15.3.1.2.11). Text
32 after # is a comment (see 8.5).
33 class ValueHolder
34 def initialize(value)
35 @value = value
36 end
37
12
1 def value
2 return @value
3 end
4 end
5
6 vh = ValueHolder.new(10) # initialize(10) is invoked.
7 puts vh.value
8 6.3 Methods
9 A method is a procedure which, when invoked on an object, performs a set of computations on

10 the object. A method itself is not an object. The behavior of an object is defined by a set of
11 methods which can be invoked on that object. A method has one or more (when aliased) names
12 associated with it. An association between a name and a method is called a method binding.
13 When a name N is bound to a method M, N is called the name of the binding, and M is called
14 the value of the binding. A name bound to a method is called the method name. A method
15 can be invoked on an object by specifying one of its names. The object on which the method is
16 invoked is called the receiver of the method invocation.
17 EXAMPLE In a method invocation obj.method(arg1, arg2), obj is called the receiver, and method
18 is called the method name. See 11.3 for method invocation expressions.
19 Methods are described further in 13.3.
20 6.4 Blocks
21 A block is a procedure which is passed to a method invocation. The block passed to a method
22 invocation is called zero or more times in the method invocation.
23 A block itself is not an object. However, a block can be represented by an object which is an
24 instance of the class Proc (see 15.2.17).
25 EXAMPLE 1 In the following program, for each element of an array, the block “{ |i| puts i }” is
26 called by the method each of the class Array (see 15.2.12.5.10).
27 a = [1, 2, 3]
28 a.each { |i| puts i }
29 EXAMPLE 2 In the following program, an instance of the class Proc which represents the block
30 “{ puts "abc" }” is created, and is called by the method call of the class Proc (see 15.2.17.4.3).
31 x = Proc.new { puts "abc" }

32 x.call
33 Blocks are described further in 11.3.3.
34 6.5 Classes, singleton classes, and modules
36 Behaviors of objects are defined by classes, singleton classes, and modules. A class defines
37 methods shared by objects of the same class. A singleton class is associated to an object, and
38 can modify the behavior of that object. A module defines, and provides methods to be included
39 into classes and other modules. Classes, singleton classes, and modules are themselves objects,
40 which are dynamically created and modified at run-time.
13
1 6.5.2 Classes
2 A class is itself an object, and creates other objects. The created objects are called direct
3 instances of the class (see 13.2.4).
4 A class defines a set of methods which, unless overridden (see 13.3.1), can be invoked on all the
5 instances of the class. These methods are instance methods of the class.
6 A class is itself an object, and created by evaluation of a program construct such as a class-
7 definition (see 13.2.2). A class has two sets of variable bindings besides a set of bindings of
8 instance variables. The one is a set of bindings of constants. The other is a set of bindings of
9 class variables, which represents the state shared by all the instances of the class.
10 The constants, class variables, singleton methods and instance methods of a class are called the
11 features of the class.
12 EXAMPLE 1 The class Array (see 15.2.12) is itself an object, and can be the receiver of a method
13 invocation. An invocation of the method new on the class Array creates an object called a direct instance
14 of the class Array.
15 EXAMPLE 2 In the following program, the instance method push of the class Array (see 15.2.12.5.22)
16 is invoked on an instance of the class Array.
17 a = Array.new
18 a.push(1, 2, 3) # The value of a is changed to [1, 2, 3].
19 EXAMPLE 3 In the following program, the class X is defined by a class definition. The class variable
20 @@a is shared by instances of the class X.
21 class X
22 @@a = "abc"
23
24 def print_a
25 puts @@a
26 end
27
28 def set_a(value)
29 @@a = value
30 end
31 end
32 x1 = X.new
33 x1.print_a # prints abc
34 x2 = X.new
35 x2.set_a("def")
36 x2.print_a # prints def
37 x1.print_a # prints def
38 Classes are described further in 13.2.
39 6.5.3 Singleton classes
40 Every object, including classes, can be associated with at most one singleton class. The singleton
41 class defines methods which can be invoked on that object. Those methods are singleton methods
42 of the object. If the object is not a class, the singleton methods of the object can be invoked
43 only on that object. If the object is a class, singleton methods of the class can be invoked only
44 on that class and its subclasses (see 6.5.4).
14
1 A singleton class is created, and associated with an object by a singleton class definition (see
2 13.4.2) or a singleton method definition (see 13.4.3).
3 EXAMPLE 1 In the following program, the singleton class of x is created by a singleton class definition.
4 The method show is called a singleton method of x, and can be invoked only on x.
5 x = "abc"
6 y = "def"
7
8 # The definition of the singleton class of x

9 class << x
10 def show
11 puts self # prints the receiver
12 end
13 end
14
15 x.show # prints abc
16 y.show # raises an exception
17 EXAMPLE 2 In the following program, the same singleton method show as EXAMPLE 1 is defined
18 by a singleton method definition. The singleton class of x is created implicitly by the singleton method
19 definition.
20 x = "abc"
21
22 # The definition of a singleton method of x

23 def x.show
24 puts self # prints the receiver
25 end
26
27 x.show
28 EXAMPLE 3 In the following program, the singleton method a of the class X is defined by a singleton
29 method definition.
30 class X
31 # The definition of a singleton method of the class X
32 def X.a
33 puts "The method a is invoked."
34 end
35 end
36 X.a
37 NOTE Singleton methods of a class is similar to so-called class methods in other object-oriendted
38 languages because they can be invoked on that class.
39 Singleton classes are described further in 13.4.
40 6.5.4 Inheritance
41 A class has at most one single class as its direct superclass. If a class A has a class B as its
42 direct superclass, A is called a direct subclass of B.
43 All the classes in a program, including built-in classes, form a rooted tree called a class inher-
44 itance tree, where the parent of a class is its direct superclass, and the children of a class are
45 all its direct subclasses. There is only one class which does not have a superclass. It is the root
15
1 of the tree. All the ancestors of a class in the tree are called superclasses of the class. All the
2 descendants of a class in the tree are called subclasses of the class.
3 A class inherits constants, class variables, singleton methods, and instance methods from its
4 superclasses, if any (see 13.2.3). If an object C is a direct instance of a class D, C is called an
5 instance of D and all its superclasses.
6 EXAMPLE The following program defines three classes: the class X, the class Y, and the class Z.
7 class X
8 end
9
10 class Y < X
11 end
12
13 class Z < Y
14 end
15 The class X is called the direct superclass of the class Y, and the class Y is called a direct subclass of the
16 class X. The class Y inherits features from the class X. The class X is called a superclass of the class Z, and
17 the class Z is called a subclass of the class X. The class Z inherits features from the class X and the class
18 Y. A direct instance of the class Z is called an instance of the class X, the class Y, and the class Z.
19 6.5.5 Modules
20 Multiple inheritance of classes is not permitted. That is, a class can have only one direct
21 superclass. However, features can be appended to a class from multiple modules by using
22 module inclusions.
23 A module is an object which has the same structure as a class except that it cannot create an
24 instance of itself and cannot be inherited. As with classes, a module has a set of constants, a
25 set of class variables, and a set of instance methods. Instance methods, constants, and class
26 variables defined in a module can be used by other classes, modules, and singleton classes by
27 including the module into them.
28 While a class can have only one direct superclass, a class, a module, or a singleton class can
29 include multiple modules. Instance methods defined in a module can be invoked on an instance
30 of a class which includes the module. A module is created by a module definition (see 13.1.2).
31 EXAMPLE The following example is not a strictly conforming Ruby program, because a class cannot
32 have multiple direct superclasses.
33 class Stream
34 end
35
36 class ReadStream < Stream
37 def read(n)
38 # reads n bytes from a stream
39 end
40 end
41
42 class WriteStream < Stream
43 def write(str)
44 # writes str to a stream
45 end
46 end
16
1
2 class ReadWriteStream < ReadStream, WriteStream
3 end
4 Instead, a class can include multiple modules. The following example uses module inclusion instead of
5 multiple inheritance.
6 class Stream
7 end
8
9 module Readable
10 def read(n); end
11 end
12
13 module Writable
14 def write(str); end
15 end
16
17 class ReadStream < Stream

18 include Readable
19 end
20
21 class WriteStream < Stream

22 include Writable
23 end
24
25 class ReadWriteStream
26 include Readable
27 include Writable
28 end
29 Modules are described further in 13.1.
30 6.6 Boolean values
31 An object is classified into either a trueish object or a falseish object.
32 Only false and nil are falseish objects. false is the only instance of the class FalseClass (see
33 15.2.6), to which a false-expression evaluates (see 11.5.4.8.3). nil is the only instance of the class
34 NilClass (see 15.2.4), to which a nil-expression evaluates (see 11.5.4.8.2).
35 Objects other than false and nil are classified into trueish objects. true is the only instance of
36 the class TrueClass (see 15.2.5), to which a true-expression evaluates (see 11.5.4.8.3).
37 7 Execution contexts
39 An execution context is a set of attributes which affects evaluation of a program.
40 An execution context is not a part of the Ruby language. It is defined in this document only for
41 the description of the semantics of a program. A conforming processor shall evaluate a program
42 producing the same result as if the processor acted within an execution context in the manner
43 described in this document.
17
1 An execution context consists of a set of attributes as described below. Each attribute of an
2 execution context except [global-variable-bindings] forms a stack. Attributes of an execution
3 context are changed when a program construct is evaluated.
4 The following are the attributes of an execution context:
5 [self ] : A stack of objects. The object at the top of the stack is called the current self ,
6 to which a self-expression evaluates (see 11.5.4.8.4).
7 [class-module-list] : A stack of lists of classes, modules, or singleton classes. The class or

8 module at the head of the list which is on the top of the stack is called the current class
9 or module.
10 [default-method-visibility] : A stack of visibilities of methods, each of which is one of the

11 public, private, and protected visibility. The top of the stack is called the current
12 visibility.
13 [local-variable-bindings] : A stack of sets of bindings of local variables. The element at the

14 top of the stack is called the current set of local variable bindings. A set of bindings
15 is pushed onto the stack on every entry into a local variable scope (see 9.2), and the top
16 element is removed from the stack on every exit from the scope. The scope with which
17 an element in the stack is associated is called the scope of the set of local variable
18 bindings.
19 [invoked-method-name] : A stack of names by which methods are invoked.
20 [defined-method-name] : A stack of names with which the invoked methods are defined.
21 NOTE The top elements of [invoked-method-name] and [defined-method-name] are usually the
22 same. However, they can be different if an invoked method has an alias name.
23 [block] : A stack of blocks passed to method invocations. An element of the stack may
24 be block-not-given. block-not-given is the special value which indicates that no block is
25 passed to a method invocation.
26 [global-variable-bindings] : A set of bindings of global variables.
27 7.2 The initial state
28 Immediately prior to execution of a program, the attributes of the execution context is initialized
29 as follows:
30 a) Set [global-variable-bindings] to a newly created empty set.
31 b) Create built-in classes and modules as described in Clause 15.
32 c) Create an empty stack for each attribute of the execution context except [global-variable-
33 bindings] .
34 d) Create a direct instance of the class Object and push it onto [self ] .
35 e) Create a list containing only element, the class Object, and push the list onto [class-module-
36 list] .
18
1 f) Push the private visibility onto [default-method-visibility] .
2 g) Push block-not-given onto [block] .
3 8 Lexical structure
5 Syntax
6 input-element ::
7 line-terminator
8 | whitespace
9 | comment
10 | end-of-program-marker
11 | token
12 The program text of a program is first converted into a sequence of input-elements, which are ei-
13 ther line-terminator s, whitespace, comments, end-of-program-marker s, or tokens. When several
14 prefixes of the input under the converting process have matching productions, the production
15 that matches the longest prefix is selected.
16 8.2 Program text
17 Syntax
18 source-character ::
19 [ any character in ISO/IEC 646:1991 IRV ]
20 A program is represented as a program text. A program text is a sequence of source-character s.

21 A source-character is a character in ISO/IEC 646:1991 IRV (the International Reference Ver-
22 sion). The support for any other character sets and encodings is unspecified.
23 Terminal symbols are sequences of those characters in ISO/IEC 646:1991 IRV. Control characters
24 in ISO/IEC 646:1991 IRV are represented by two digits in hexadecimal notation prefixed by “0x”,
25 where the first and the second digits respectively represent x and y of the notations of the form
26 x/y specified in ISO/IEC 646, 5.1.
27 EXAMPLE “0x0a” represents the character LF, whose bit combination specified in ISO/IEC 646 is
28 0/10.
29 8.3 Line terminators
30 Syntax
19
1 line-terminator ::
2 0x0d? 0x0a
3 Except in Clause 8 and 15.2.15.4, line-terminator s are omitted from productions as described
4 in 5.2.3. However, a location where a line-terminator shall not occur, or a location where a
5 line-terminator shall occur is indicated by special terms: a forbidden term [see 5.2.4 d) 2)] or a
6 mandatory term [see 5.2.4 d) 3)], respectively.
7 EXAMPLE statements are separated by separator s (see 10.2). The syntax of the separator s is as
8 follows:
9 separator ::
10 ;
11 | [ line-terminator here ]
12 The source
13 x = 1 + 2
14 puts x
15 is therefore separated into the two statements “x = 1 + 2” and “puts x” by a line-terminator.
16 The source
17 x =
18 1 + 2
19 is parsed as the single statement “x = 1 + 2” because “x =” is not a statement. However, the source
20 x
21 = 1 + 2
22 is not a strictly conforming Ruby program because a line-terminator shall not occur before = in a single-
23 variable-assignment-expression, and “= 1 + 2” is not a statement. The fact that a line-terminator shall
24 not occur before = is indicated in the syntax of the single-variable-assignment-expression as follows (see
25 11.4.2.2.2):
26 single-variable-assignment-expression ::
27 variable [ no line-terminator here ] = operator-expression
28 8.4 Whitespace
29 Syntax
20
1 whitespace ::
2 0x09 | 0x0b | 0x0c | 0x0d | 0x20 | line-terminator-escape-sequence
3 line-terminator-escape-sequence ::
4 \ line-terminator
5 Except in Clause 8 and 15.2.15.4, whitespace is omitted from productions as described in 5.2.3.
6 However, a location where whitespace shall not occur, or a location where whitespace shall occur
7 is indicated by special terms: a forbidden term [see 5.2.4 d) 2)] or a mandatory term [see 5.2.4
8 d) 3)] , respectively.
9 8.5 Comments
10 Syntax
11 comment ::
12 single-line-comment
13 | multi-line-comment
14 single-line-comment ::
15 # comment-content ?
16 comment-content ::
17 line-content
18 line-content ::
19 ( source-character + ) but not ( source-character ∗ line-terminator source-character ∗ )
20 multi-line-comment ::
21 multi-line-comment-begin-line multi-line-comment-line ?
22 multi-line-comment-end-line
23 multi-line-comment-begin-line ::
24 [ beginning of a line ] =begin rest-of-begin-end-line ? line-terminator
25 multi-line-comment-end-line ::
26 [ beginning of a line ] =end rest-of-begin-end-line ?
27 ( line-terminator | [ end of a program ] )
28 rest-of-begin-end-line ::
29 whitespace + comment-content
30 multi-line-comment-line ::
31 comment-line but not multi-line-comment-end-line
21
1 comment-line ::
2 comment-content line-terminator
3 The notation “[ beginning of a line ]” indicates the beginning of a program or the position
4 immediately after a line-terminator.
5 A comment is either a single-line-comment or a multi-line-comment. Except in Clause 8 and

6 15.2.15.4, comments are omitted from productions as described in 5.2.3.
7 A single-line-comment begins with “#” and continues to the end of the line. A line-terminator
8 at the end of the line is not considered to be a part of the comment. A single-line-comment can
9 contain any characters except line-terminator s.
10 A multi-line-comment begins with a line beginning with =begin, and continues until and in-
11 cluding a line that begins with =end. Unlike single-line-comments, a line-terminator of a multi-
12 line-comment-end-line, if any, is considered to be part of the comment.
13 NOTE A line-content is a sequence of source-character s. However, line-terminator s are not permitted

14 within a line-content as specified in the line-content production.
15 8.6 End-of-program markers
16 Syntax
17 end-of-program-marker ::
18 [ beginning of a line ] __END__ ( line-terminator | [ end of a program ] )
19 An end-of-program-marker indicates the end of a program. Any source characters after an

20 end-of-program-marker are not treated as a program text.
21 NOTE END is not a keyword, and can be a local-variable-identifier.
22 8.7 Tokens
24 Syntax
25 token ::
26 keyword
27 | identifier
28 | punctuator
29 | operator
30 | literal
22
1 8.7.2 Keywords
2 Syntax
3 keyword ::
4 __LINE__ | __ENCODING__ | __FILE__ | BEGIN | END | alias | and | begin
5 | break | case | class | def | defined? | do | else | elsif | end
6 | ensure | for | false | if | in | module | next | nil | not | or | redo
7 | rescue | retry | return | self | super | then | true | undef | unless
8 | until | when | while | yield
9 Keywords are case-sensitive.
10 NOTE LINE , ENCODING , FILE , BEGIN, and END are reserved for future use.
11 8.7.3 Identifiers
12 Syntax
13 identifier ::
14 local-variable-identifier
18 | constant-identifier
19 | method-only-identifier
20 | assignment-like-method-identifier
21 local-variable-identifier ::
22 ( lowercase-character | _ ) identifier-character ∗
23 global-variable-identifier ::
24 $ identifier-start-character identifier-character ∗
25 class-variable-identifier ::
26 @@ identifier-start-character identifier-character ∗
27 instance-variable-identifier ::
28 @ identifier-start-character identifier-character ∗
29 constant-identifier ::
30 uppercase-character identifier-character ∗
31 method-only-identifier ::
32 ( constant-identifier | local-variable-identifier ) ( ! | ? )
23
1 assignment-like-method-identifier ::
2 ( constant-identifier | local-variable-identifier ) =
3 identifier-character ::
4 lowercase-character
5 | uppercase-character
6 | decimal-digit
7 |_
8 identifier-start-character ::
9 lowercase-character
10 | uppercase-character
11 |_
12 uppercase-character ::
13 A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R
14 | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z
15 lowercase-character ::
16 a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r
17 | s | t | u | v | w | x | y | z
18 decimal-digit ::
19 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
20 8.7.4 Punctuators
21 Syntax
22 punctuator ::
23 [ | ] | ( | ) | { | } | :: | , | ; | .. | ... | ? | : | =>
24 8.7.5 Operators
25 Syntax
26 operator ::
27 ! | != | !~ | && | ||
28 | operator-method-name
29 |=
30 | assignment-operator
31 operator-method-name ::
32 ^ | & | | | <=> | == | === | =~ | > | >= | < | <= | << | >> | + | -
24
1 | * | / | % | ** | ~ | +@ | -@ | [] | []= | ‘
2 assignment-operator ::
3 assignment-operator-name =
4 assignment-operator-name ::
5 && | || | ^ | & | | | << | >> | + | - | * | / | % | **
6 8.7.6 Literals
7 8.7.6.1 General description
8 literal ::
9 numeric-literal
10 | string-literal
11 | array-literal
12 | regular-expression-literal
13 | symbol
14 8.7.6.2 Numeric literals
15 Syntax
16 numeric-literal ::
17 signed-number
18 | unsigned-number
19 signed-number ::
20 ( + | - ) unsigned-number
21 unsigned-number ::
22 integer-literal
23 | float-literal
24 integer-literal ::
25 decimal-integer-literal
26 | binary-integer-literal
27 | octal-integer-literal
28 | hexadecimal-integer-literal
29 decimal-integer-literal ::
30 unprefixed-decimal-integer-literal
31 | prefixed-decimal-integer-literal
25
1 unprefixed-decimal-integer-literal ::
2 0
3 | decimal-digit-except-zero ( _? decimal-digit )∗
4 prefixed-decimal-integer-literal ::
5 0 ( d | D ) digit-decimal-part
6 digit-decimal-part ::
7 decimal-digit ( _? decimal-digit )∗
8 binary-integer-literal ::
9 0 ( b | B ) binary-digit ( _? binary-digit )∗
10 octal-integer-literal ::
11 0 ( _ | o | O )? octal-digit ( _? octal-digit )∗
12 hexadecimal-integer-literal ::
13 0 ( x | X ) hexadecimal-digit ( _? hexadecimal-digit )∗
14 float-literal ::
15 float-literal-without-exponent
16 | float-literal-with-exponent
17 float-literal-without-exponent ::
18 unprefixed-decimal-integer-literal . digit-decimal-part
19 float-literal-with-exponent ::
20 significand-part exponent-part
21 significand-part ::
22 float-literal-without-exponent
23 | unprefixed-decimal-integer-literal
24 exponent-part ::
25 ( e | E ) ( + | - )? digit-decimal-part
26 decimal-digit-except-zero ::
27 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
28 binary-digit ::
29 0 | 1
30 octal-digit ::
31 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7
26
1 hexadecimal-digit ::
2 decimal-digit | a | b | c | d | e | f | A | B | C | D | E | F
3 If the previous token of a signed-number is a local-variable-identifier, constant-identifier, or

4 method-only-identifier, at least one whitespace character or line-terminator shall be present be-
5 tween the local-variable-identifier, constant-identifier, or method-only-identifier, and the signed-
6 number.
7 EXAMPLE -123 in the following program is a signed-number because there is whitespace between x
8 and -123.
9 x -123
10 In the above program, the method x is invoked with the value of -123 as the argument.
11 However, -123 in the following program is separated into the two tokens - and 123 because there is no
12 whitespace between x and -123.
13 x-123
14 In the above program, the method - is invoked on the value of x with the value of 123 as the argument.
15 Semantics
16 A numeric-literal evaluates to either an instance of the class Integer or a direct instance of the
17 class Float.
18 NOTE Subclasses of the class Integer may be defined as described in 15.2.8.1.
19 An unsigned-number of the form integer-literal evaluates to an instance of the class Integer

20 whose value is the value of one of the syntactic term sequences in the integer-literal production.
21 An unsigned-number of the form float-literal evaluates to a direct instance of the class Float
22 whose value is the value of one of the syntactic term sequences in the float-literal production.
23 A signed-number which begins with “+” evaluates to the resulting instance of the unsigned-
24 number. A signed-number which begins with “-” evaluates to an instance of the class Integer
25 or a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the negated value of the resulting instance
26 of the unsigned-number.
27 The value of an integer-literal, a decimal-integer-literal, a float-literal, or a significand-part is the

28 value of one of the syntactic term sequences in their production.
29 The value of a unprefixed-decimal-integer-literal is 0 if it is of the form “0”, otherwise the value

30 of the unprefixed-decimal-integer-literal is the value of a sequence of characters, which consist of
31 a decimal-digit-except-zero followed by a sequence of decimal-digits, ignoring interleaving “ ”s,
32 computed using base 10.
33 The value of a prefixed-decimal-integer-literal is the value of the digit-decimal-part.
34 The value of a digit-decimal-part is the value of the sequence of decimal-digits, ignoring inter-
35 leaving “ ”s, computed using base 10.
27
1 The value of a binary-integer-literal is the value of the sequence of binary-digits, ignoring inter-
3 The value of an octal-integer-literal is the value of the sequence of octal-digits, ignoring inter-
5 The value of a hexadecimal-integer-literal is the value of the sequence of hexadecimal-digits,

6 ignoring interleaving “ ”s, computed using base 16. The values of hexadecimal-digits a (or A)
7 through f (or F) are 10 through 15, respectively.
8 The value of a float-literal-without-exponent is the value of the unprefixed-decimal-integer-literal

9 plus the value of the digit-decimal-part times 10−n where n is the number of decimal-digits of
10 the digit-decimal-part.
11 The value of a float-literal-with-exponent is the value of the significand-part times 10n where n
12 is the value of the exponent-part.
13 The value of an exponent-part is the negative value of the digit-decimal-part if “-” occurs,
14 otherwise, it is the value of the digit-decimal-part.
15 See 15.2.8.1 for the range of the value of an instance of the class Integer.
16 See 15.2.9.1 for the precision of the value of an instance of the class Float.
17 8.7.6.3 String literals
18 8.7.6.3.1 General description
19 Syntax
20 string-literal ::
21 single-quoted-string
22 | double-quoted-string
23 | quoted-non-expanded-literal-string
24 | quoted-expanded-literal-string
25 | here-document
26 | external-command-execution
27 Semantics
28 A string-literal evaluates to a direct instance of the class String.
29 NOTE Some of the string-literals represents a value of an expression (see 8.7.6.3.3), not only the literal
30 characters of the program text.
31 8.7.6.3.2 Single quoted strings
32 Syntax
28
1 single-quoted-string ::
2 ’ single-quoted-string-character ∗ ’
3 single-quoted-string-character ::
4 single-quoted-string-non-escaped-character
5 | single-quoted-escape-sequence
6 single-quoted-escape-sequence ::
7 single-escape-character-sequence
8 | single-quoted-string-non-escaped-character-sequence
9 single-escape-character-sequence ::
10 \ single-quoted-string-meta-character
11 single-quoted-string-non-escaped-character-sequence ::
12 \ single-quoted-string-non-escaped-character
13 single-quoted-string-meta-character ::
14 ’ |\
15 single-quoted-string-non-escaped-character ::
16 source-character but not single-quoted-string-meta-character
17 Semantics
18 A single-quoted-string consists of zero or more characters enclosed by single quotes. The sequence
19 of single-quoted-string-character s within the pair of single quotes represents the content of a
20 string as it occurs in a program text literally, except for single-escape-character-sequences. The
21 sequence “\\” represents “\”. The sequence “\’” represents “’”.
22 NOTE Unlike a single-escape-character-sequence, a single-quoted-string-non-escaped-character-sequence

23 represents two characters as it occurs in a program text literally. For example, ’\a’ represents two
24 characters \ and a.
25 EXAMPLE ’\a\’\\’ represents a string whose content is “\a’\”.
26 8.7.6.3.3 Double quoted strings
27 Syntax
28 double-quoted-string ::
29 " double-quoted-string-character ∗ "
30 double-quoted-string-character ::
31 source-character but not ( " | # | \ )
32 / { $, @, { } ]
| # [ lookahead ∈
29
1 | double-escape-sequence
2 | interpolated-character-sequence
3 double-escape-sequence ::
4 simple-escape-sequence
5 | non-escaped-sequence
6 | line-terminator-escape-sequence
7 | octal-escape-sequence
8 | hexadecimal-escape-sequence
9 | control-escape-sequence
10 simple-escape-sequence ::
11 \ double-escaped-character
12 double-escaped-character ::
13 \ | n | t | r | f | v | a | e | b | s
14 non-escaped-sequence ::
15 \ non-escaped-double-quoted-string-character
16 non-escaped-double-quoted-string-character ::
17 source-character but not ( alpha-numeric-character | line-terminator )
18 octal-escape-sequence ::
19 \ octal-digit octal-digit ? octal-digit ?
20 hexadecimal-escape-sequence ::
21 \ x hexadecimal-digit hexadecimal-digit ?
22 control-escape-sequence ::
23 \ ( C- | c ) control-escaped-character
24 control-escaped-character ::
25 double-escape-sequence
26 | ?
27 | source-character but not ( \ | ? )
28 interpolated-character-sequence ::
29 # global-variable-identifier
30 | # class-variable-identifier
31 | # instance-variable-identifier
32 | # { compound-statement }
33 alpha-numeric-character ::
34 uppercase-character
35 | lowercase-character
30
1 | decimal-digit
2 Semantics
3 A double-quoted-string consists of zero or more characters enclosed by double quotes. The se-
4 quence of double-quoted-string-character s within the pair of double quotes represents the content
5 of a string.
6 Except for a double-escape-sequence and an interpolated-character-sequence, a double-quoted-

7 string-character represents a character as it occurs in a program text.
8 A simple-escape-sequence represents a character as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 – Simple escape sequences
Escape sequence Character code

\\ 0x5c
\n 0x0a
\t 0x09
\r 0x0d
\f 0x0c
\v 0x0b
\a 0x07
\e 0x1b
\b 0x08
\s 0x20
9 An octal-escape-sequence represents a character the code of which is the value of the sequence
10 of octal-digits computed using base 8.
11 A hexadecimal-escape-sequence represents a character the code of which is the value of the

12 sequence of hexadecimal-digits computed using base 16.
13 A non-escaped-sequence represents an implementation-defined character.
14 A line-terminator-escape-sequence is used to break the content of a string into separate lines in

15 a program text without inserting a line-terminator into the string. A line-terminator-escape-
16 sequence does not count as a character of the string.
17 A control-escape-sequence represents a character the code of which is computed by performing a

18 bitwise AND operation between 0x9f and the code of the character represented by the control-
19 escaped-character, except when the control-escaped-character is ?, in which case, the control-
20 escape-sequence represents a character the code of which is 127.
21 An interpolated-character-sequence is a part of a string-literal which is dynamically evaluated

22 when the string-literal in which it is embedded is evaluated. The value of a string-literal which
23 contains interpolated-character-sequences is a direct instance of the class String the content of
24 which is made from the string-literal where each occurrence of interpolated-character-sequence
31
1 is replaced by the content of an instance of the class String which is the dynamically evaluated
2 value of the interpolated-character-sequence.
3 An interpolated-character-sequence is evaluated as follows:
4 a) If it is of the form # global-variable-identifier, evaluate the global-variable-identifier (see

5 11.5.4.4). Let V be the resulting value.
6 b) If it is of the form # class-variable-identifier, evaluate the class-variable-identifier (see

7 11.5.4.5). Let V be the resulting value.
8 c) If it is of the form # instance-variable-identifier, evaluate the instance-variable-identifier

9 (see 11.5.4.6). Let V be the resulting value.
10 d) If it is of the form # { compound-statement }, evaluate the compound-statement (see 10.2).

11 Let V be the resulting value.
12 e) If V is an instance of the class String, the value of interpolated-character-sequence is V.
13 f) Otherwise, invoke the method to s on V with no arguments. Let S be the resulting value.
14 g) If S is an instance of the class String, the value of interpolated-character-sequence is S.
15 h) Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
16 EXAMPLE "1 + 1 = #{1 + 1}" represents a string whose content is “1 + 1 = 2”.
17 8.7.6.3.4 Quoted non-expanded literal strings
18 Syntax
19 quoted-non-expanded-literal-string ::
20 %q non-expanded-delimited-string
21 non-expanded-delimited-string ::
22 literal-beginning-delimiter non-expanded-literal-string ∗ literal-ending-delimiter
23 non-expanded-literal-string ::
24 non-expanded-literal-character
25 | non-expanded-delimited-string
26 non-expanded-literal-character ::
27 non-escaped-literal-character
28 | non-expanded-literal-escape-sequence
29 non-escaped-literal-character ::
30 source-character but not quoted-literal-escape-character
32
1 non-expanded-literal-escape-sequence ::
2 non-expanded-literal-escape-character-sequence
3 | non-escaped-non-expanded-literal-character-sequence
4 non-expanded-literal-escape-character-sequence ::
5 \ non-expanded-literal-escaped-character
6 non-expanded-literal-escaped-character ::
7 literal-beginning-delimiter
8 | literal-ending-delimiter
9 |\
10 quoted-literal-escape-character ::
11 non-expanded-literal-escaped-character
12 non-escaped-non-expanded-literal-character-sequence ::
13 \ non-escaped-non-expanded-literal-character
14 non-escaped-non-expanded-literal-character ::
15 source-character but not non-expanded-literal-escaped-character
16 literal-beginning-delimiter ::
17 source-character but not alpha-numeric-character
18 literal-ending-delimiter ::
19 source-character but not alpha-numeric-character
20 All literal-beginning-delimiter s in a non-expanded-delimited-string shall be the same character.

21 All literal-ending-delimiter s in a non-expanded-delimited-string shall be the same character.
22 If a literal-beginning-delimiter is one of the characters on the left in Table 2, the corresponding

23 literal-beginning-delimiter shall be the corresponding character on the right in Table 2. Other-
24 wise, the literal-ending-delimiter shall be the same character as the literal-beginning-delimiter.
Table 2 – Matching literal-beginning-delimiter and literal-ending-delimiter
literal-beginning-delimiter literal-ending-delimiter
{ }
( )
[ ]
< >
25 The non-expanded-delimited-string of a non-expanded-literal-string in a quoted-non-expanded-

26 literal-string applies only when its literal-beginning-delimiter is one of the characters on the left
27 in Table 2.
33
1 NOTE 1 A quoted-non-expanded-literal-string can have nested brackets in regard to the literal-beginning-
2 delimiter and the corresponding literal-ending-delimiter (e.g., %q[[abc] [def]]). Different brackets than
3 these two brackets and any escaped brackets are ignored in this nesting. For example, %q[\[abc\)def(]
4 represents a direct instance of the class String whose content is “[abc\)def(”. In this case, only [,
5 ], and \ can be non-expanded-literal-escaped-character s because the literal-beginning-delimiter and the
6 corresponding literal-beginning-delimiter are [ and ] respectively.
7 Semantics
8 The value of a quoted-non-expanded-literal-string represents a string whose content is the con-
9 catenation of the contents represented by the non-expanded-literal-strings of the non-expanded-
10 delimited-string of the quoted-non-expanded-literal-string.
11 The value of a non-expanded-literal-string represents the content of a string as it occurs in a

12 program text literally, except for non-expanded-literal-escape-character-sequences.
13 NOTE 1 The content of a string represented by a non-expanded-literal-string contains the literal-

14 beginning-delimiter and the literal-ending-delimiter of a non-expanded-delimited-string in the non-expanded-
15 literal-string. For example, %q((abc)) represents a direct instance of the class String whose content is
16 “(abc)”.
17 The value of a non-expanded-literal-escape-character-sequence represents a character as fol-

18 lows. The sequence “\\” represents “\”; the sequence “\”literal-beginning-delimiter, a literal-
19 beginning-delimiter ; the sequence “\”literal-ending-delimiter, a literal-ending-delimiter.
20 8.7.6.3.5 Quoted expanded literal strings
21 Syntax
22 quoted-expanded-literal-string ::
23 % Q? expanded-delimited-string
24 expanded-delimited-string ::
25 literal-beginning-delimiter expanded-literal-string ∗ literal-ending-delimiter
26 expanded-literal-string ::
27 expanded-literal-character
28 | expanded-delimited-string
29 expanded-literal-character ::
30 non-escaped-literal-character but not #
31 / { $, @, { } ]
| # [ lookahead ∈
34 All literal-beginning-delimiter s in a expanded-delimited-string shall be the same character. All

35 literal-ending-delimiter s in a expanded-delimited-string shall be the same character.
36 The literal-ending-delimiter shall match the literal-beginning-delimiter as described in 8.7.6.3.4.
34
1 The expanded-delimited-string of a expanded-literal-string in a quoted-expanded-literal-string ap-
2 plies only when its literal-beginning-delimiter is one of the characters on the left in 8.7.6.3.4
3 Table 2.
4 Semantics
5 The value of a quoted-expanded-literal-string represents a string whose content is the concatena-
6 tion of the contents represented by the expanded-literal-strings of the expanded-delimited-string
7 of the quoted-expanded-literal-string.
8 A character in an expanded-literal-string other than a double-escape-sequence or an interpolated-

9 character-sequence represents a character as it occurs in a program text. A double-escape-
10 sequence and an interpolated-character-sequence represent characters as described in 8.7.6.3.3.
11 NOTE The content of a string represented by a expanded-literal-string contains the literal-beginning-

12 delimiter and the literal-ending-delimiter of a expanded-delimited-string in the expanded-literal-string.
13 For example, “%Q((#{1 + 2}))” represents a string whose content is “(3)”.
14 8.7.6.3.6 Here documents
15 Syntax
16 here-document ::
17 heredoc-start-line heredoc-body heredoc-end-line
18 heredoc-start-line ::
19 heredoc-signifier rest-of-line
20 heredoc-signifier ::
21 << heredoc-delimiter-specifier
22 rest-of-line ::
23 line-content ? line-terminator
24 heredoc-body ::
25 heredoc-body-line ∗
26 heredoc-body-line ::
27 comment-line but not heredoc-end-line
28 heredoc-delimiter-specifier ::
29 -? heredoc-delimiter
30 heredoc-delimiter ::
31 non-quoted-delimiter
32 | single-quoted-delimiter
33 | double-quoted-delimiter
34 | command-quoted-delimiter
35
1 non-quoted-delimiter ::
2 non-quoted-delimiter-identifier
3 non-quoted-delimiter-identifier ::
4 identifier-character ∗
5 single-quoted-delimiter ::
6 ’ single-quoted-delimiter-identifier ’
7 single-quoted-delimiter-identifier ::
8 ( ( source-character source-character ? ) but not ( ’ | line-terminator ) )∗
9 double-quoted-delimiter ::
10 " double-quoted-delimiter-identifier "
11 double-quoted-delimiter-identifier ::
12 ( ( source-character source-character ? ) but not ( " | line-terminator ) )∗
13 command-quoted-delimiter ::
14 ‘ command-quoted-delimiter-identifier ‘
15 command-quoted-delimiter-identifier ::
16 ( ( source-character source-character ? ) but not ( ‘ | line-terminator ) )∗
17 heredoc-end-line ::
18 indented-heredoc-end-line
19 | non-indented-heredoc-end-line
20 indented-heredoc-end-line ::
21 [ beginning of a line ] whitespace ∗ heredoc-delimiter-identifier line-terminator
22 non-indented-heredoc-end-line ::
23 [ beginning of a line ] heredoc-delimiter-identifier line-terminator
24 heredoc-delimiter-identifier ::
25 non-quoted-delimiter-identifier
26 | single-quoted-delimiter-identifier
27 | double-quoted-delimiter-identifier
28 | command-quoted-delimiter-identifier
29 The heredoc-signifier, the heredoc-body, and the heredoc-end-line in a here-document are treated
30 as a unit and considered to be a single token occurring at the place where the heredoc-signifier
31 occurs. The first character of the rest-of-line becomes the head of the input after the here-
32 document has been processed.
36
1 The form of a heredoc-end-line depends on the presence or absence of the beginning “-” of the
2 heredoc-delimiter-specifier.
3 If the heredoc-delimiter-specifier begins with “-”, a line of the form indented-heredoc-end-line

4 is treated as the heredoc-end-line, otherwise, a line of the form non-indented-heredoc-end-line
5 is treated as the heredoc-end-line. In both forms, the heredoc-delimiter-identifier shall be the
6 same sequence of characters as it occurs in the corresponding part of heredoc-delimiter.
7 If the heredoc-delimiter is of the form non-quoted-delimiter, the heredoc-delimiter-identifier shall

8 be the same sequence of characters as the non-quoted-delimiter-identifier ; if it is of the form
9 single-quoted-delimiter, the single-quoted-delimiter-identifier ; if it is of the form of double-quoted-
10 delimiter, the double-quoted-delimiter-identifier ; if it is of the form of command-quoted-delimiter,
11 the command-quoted-delimiter-identifier.
12 Semantics
13 A here-document evaluates to a direct instance of the class String or the value of the invocation
14 of the method ‘.
15 The object to which a here-document evaluates is created as follows:
16 a) Create a direct instance S of the class String from the heredoc-body, the content of which
17 depends on the form of the heredoc-delimiter as follows:
18 If heredoc-delimiter is of the form single-quoted-delimiter, the content of S is the se-

19 quence of source-character s of the heredoc-body.
20 If heredoc-delimiter is in any of the forms non-quoted-delimiter, double-quoted-delimiter,

21 or command-quoted-delimiter, the content of S is the sequence of characters which is
22 represented by the heredoc-body as a sequence of double-quoted-string-character s (see
23 8.7.6.3.3).
24 b) If the heredoc-delimiter is not of the form command-quoted-delimiter, let V be S.
25 c) Otherwise, invoke the method ‘ on the current self with the list of arguments which has
26 only one element S. Let V be the resulting value of the method invocation.
27 d) V is the object to which the here-document evaluates.
28 8.7.6.3.7 External command execution
29 Syntax
30 external-command-execution ::
31 backquoted-external-command-execution
32 | quoted-external-command-execution
33 backquoted-external-command-execution ::
34 ‘ backquoted-external-command-execution-character ∗ ‘
37
1 backquoted-external-command-execution-character ::
2 source-character but not ( ‘ | # | \ )
3 / { $, @, { } ]
| # [ lookahead ∈
6 quoted-external-command-execution ::
7 %x expanded-delimited-string
9 Semantics
10 An external-command-execution is a form to invoke the method ‘.
11 An external-command-execution is evaluated as follows:
12 a) If the external-command-execution is of the form backquoted-external-command-execution,

13 construct a direct instance S of the class String whose content is a sequence of characters
14 represented by backquoted-external-command-execution-character s. A backquoted-external-
15 command-execution-character other than a double-escape-sequence or an interpolated-character-
16 sequence represents a character as it occurs in a program text. A double-escape-sequence
17 and an interpolated-character-sequence represent characters as described in 8.7.6.3.3.
18 b) If the external-command-execution is of the form quoted-external-command-execution, con-

19 struct a direct instance S of the class String by replacing “%x” with “%Q” and evaluating
20 the resulting quoted-expanded-literal-string as described in 8.7.6.3.5.
21 c) Invoke the method ‘ on the current self with a list of arguments which has only one element
22 S.
23 d) The value of the external-command-execution is the resulting value.
24 8.7.6.4 Array literals
25 Syntax
26 array-literal ::
27 quoted-non-expanded-array-constructor
28 | quoted-expanded-array-constructor
29 quoted-non-expanded-array-constructor ::
30 %w literal-beginning-delimiter non-expanded-array-content literal-ending-delimiter
31 non-expanded-array-content ::
32 quoted-array-item-separator-list ? non-expanded-array-item-list ?
33 quoted-array-item-separator-list ?
38
1 non-expanded-array-item-list ::
2 non-expanded-array-item ( quoted-array-item-separator-list non-expanded-array-item )∗
3 quoted-array-item-separator-list ::
4 quoted-array-item-separator +
5 quoted-array-item-separator ::
6 whitespace
7 | line-terminator
8 non-expanded-array-item ::
9 non-expanded-array-item-character +
10 non-expanded-array-item-character ::
11 non-escaped-array-character
12 | non-expanded-array-escape-sequence
13 non-escaped-array-character ::
14 non-escaped-literal-character but not quoted-array-item-separator
15 non-expanded-array-escape-sequence ::
16 non-expanded-literal-escape-sequence
17 | \ quoted-array-item-separator
18 quoted-expanded-array-constructor ::
19 %W literal-beginning-delimiter expanded-array-content literal-ending-delimiter
20 expanded-array-content ::
21 quoted-array-item-separator-list ? expanded-array-item-list ?
22 quoted-array-item-separator-list ?
23 expanded-array-item-list ::
24 expanded-array-item ( quoted-array-item-separator-list expanded-array-item )∗
25 expanded-array-item ::
26 expanded-array-item-character +
27 expanded-array-item-character ::
28 non-escaped-array-item-character
29 / { $, @, { } ]
| # [ lookahead ∈
30 | expanded-array-escape-sequence
32 non-escaped-array-item-character ::
33 source-character but not ( quoted-array-item-separator | \ | # )
39
1 expanded-array-escape-sequence ::
2 double-escape-sequence
3 | \ quoted-array-item-separator
5 If the literal-beginning-delimiter is none of the characters on the left in 8.7.6.3.4 Table 2, the
6 non-escaped-array-item-character shall not be the literal-beginning-delimiter.
7 If the literal-beginning-delimiter is one of the characters on the left in 8.7.6.3.4 Table 2, the
8 quoted-non-expanded-array-constructor or quoted-expanded-array-constructor shall satisfy the
9 following conditions, where C is the quoted-non-expanded-array-constructor or quoted-expanded-
10 array-constructor, B is the literal-beginning-delimiter, and E is the literal-ending-delimiter which
11 corresponds to B in 8.7.6.3.4 Table 2, and “the number of x in y” means the number of x
12 to appear in y except appearances in non-expanded-array-escape-sequences or expanded-array-
13 escape-sequences:
14 The number of B in C and the number of E in C are the same.
15 For any substring S of C which starts from the first B and ends before the last E, the
16 number of B in S is larger than the number of E in S.
17 NOTE The above conditions are for nested brackets in an array-literal. Matching of brackets is ir-
18 relevant to the structure of the value of an array-literal. For example, %w[[ab cd][ef]] represents
19 ["[ab", "cd][ef]"].
20 Semantics
21 An array-literal evaluates to a direct instance of the class Array as follows:
22 a) A quoted-non-expanded-array-constructor is evaluated as follows:
23 1) Create an empty direct instance of the class Array. Let A be the instance.
24 2) If non-expanded-array-item-list is present, for each non-expanded-array-item of the non-

25 expanded-array-item-list, take the following steps:
26 i) Create a direct instance S of the class String, the content of which is represented
27 by the sequence of non-expanded-array-item-character s.
28 A non-expanded-array-item-character represents itself, except in the case of a

29 non-expanded-array-escape-sequence. A non-expanded-array-escape-sequence rep-
30 resents a character represented by the non-expanded-literal-escape-sequence as de-
31 scribed in 8.7.6.3.4, except when the non-expanded-array-escape-sequence is of the
32 form \ quoted-array-item-separator. A non-expanded-array-escape-sequence of the
33 form \ quoted-array-item-separator represents the quoted-array-item-separator as
34 it occurs in a program text literally.
35 ii) Append S to A.
36 3) The value of the quoted-non-expanded-array-constructor is A.
40
1 b) A quoted-expanded-array-constructor is evaluated as follows:
2 1) Create an empty direct instance of the class Array. Let A be the instance.
3 2) If expanded-array-item-list is present, process each expanded-array-item of the expanded-

4 array-item-list as follows:
5 i) Create a direct instance S of the class String, the content of which is represented
6 by the sequence of expanded-array-item-character s.
7 An expanded-array-item-character represents itself, except in the case of an expanded-

8 array-escape-sequence and an interpolated-character-sequence. An expanded-array-
9 escape-sequence represents a character represented by the double-escape-sequence
10 as described in 8.7.6.3.3, except when the expanded-array-escape-sequence is of
11 the form \ quoted-array-item-separator. An expanded-array-escape-sequence of the
12 form \ quoted-array-item-separator represents the quoted-array-item-separator as
13 it occurs in a program text literally. An interpolated-character-sequence represents
14 a sequence of characters as described in 8.7.6.3.3.
15 ii) Append S to A.
16 3) The value of the quoted-expanded-array-constructor is A.
17 8.7.6.5 Regular expression literals
18 Syntax
19 regular-expression-literal ::
20 / regular-expression-body / regular-expression-option ∗
21 | %r literal-beginning-delimiter expanded-literal-string ∗
22 literal-ending-delimiter regular-expression-option ∗
23 regular-expression-body ::
24 regular-expression-character ∗
25 regular-expression-character ::
26 source-character but not ( / | # | \ )
27 / { $, @, { } ]
| # [ lookahead ∈
28 | regular-expression-unescaped-sequence
29 | regular-expression-escape-sequence
30 | line-terminator-escape-sequence
32 regular-expression-unescaped-sequence ::
33 \ regular-expression-unescaped-character
34 regular-expression-unescaped-character ::
35 source-character but not ( 0x0d | 0x0a )
36 | 0x0d [ lookahead ∈
/ { 0x0a } ]
41
1 regular-expression-escape-sequence ::
2 \/
3 regular-expression-option ::
4 i | m
5 Within an expanded-literal-string of a regular-expression-literal, a literal-beginning-delimiter shall

6 be the same character as the literal-beginning-delimiter of the regular-expression-literal.
8 Semantics
9 A regular-expression-literal evaluates to a direct instance of the class Regexp.
10 The pattern attribute of an instance of the class Regexp (see 15.2.15.1) resulting from a regular-
11 expression-literal is the string represented by regular-expression-character s or expanded-literal-
12 strings. The string shall be of the form pattern (see 15.2.15.4).
13 A regular-expression-character other than a regular-expression-escape-sequence, line-terminator-

14 escape-sequence, or interpolated-character-sequence represents itself as it occurs in a program text
15 literally. An expanded-literal-string other than a line-terminator-escape-sequence or interpolated-
16 character-sequence represents itself as it occurs in a program text literally.
17 A regular-expression-escape-sequence represents the character /.
18 A line-terminator-escape-sequence in a regular-expression-character and an expanded-literal-

19 string is ignored in the resulting pattern of an instance of the class Regexp.
20 An interpolated-character-sequence in a regular-expression-literal and an expanded-literal-string

21 is evaluated as described in 8.7.6.3.3, and represents a string which is the content of the resulting
22 instance of the class String.
23 A regular-expression-option specifies the ignorecase-flag and the multiline-flag attributes of an

24 instance of the class Regexp resulting from a regular-expression-literal. If i is present in a regular-
25 expression-option, the ignorecase-flag attribute of the resulting instance of the class Regexp is
26 set to true. If m is present in a regular-expression-option, the multiline-flag attribute of the
27 resulting instance of the class Regexp is set to true.
28 The grammar for a pattern of an instance of the class Regexp created from a regular-expression-
29 literal is described in 15.2.15.4.
30 8.7.6.6 Symbol literals
31 Syntax
32 symbol ::
33 symbol-literal
34 | dynamic-symbol
42
1 symbol-literal ::
2 : symbol-name
3 dynamic-symbol ::
4 : single-quoted-string
5 | : double-quoted-string
6 | %s literal-beginning-delimiter non-expanded-literal-string ∗ literal-ending-delimiter
7 symbol-name ::
8 instance-variable-identifier
16 | keyword
17 The single-quoted-string, double-quoted-string, or non-expanded-literal-string of the dynamic-

18 symbol shall not contain any sequence which represents the character 0x00 in the resulting value
19 of the single-quoted-string, double-quoted-string, or non-expanded-literal-string as described in
20 8.7.6.3.2, 8.7.6.3.3, or 8.7.6.3.4.
21 Within a non-expanded-literal-string, literal-beginning-delimiter shall be the same character as

22 the literal-beginning-delimiter of the dynamic-symbol.
24 Semantics
25 A symbol evaluates to a direct instance of the class Symbol. A symbol-literal evaluates to a direct
26 instance of the class Symbol whose name is the symbol-name. A dynamic-symbol evaluates to a
27 direct instance of the class Symbol whose name is the content of an instance of the class String
28 which is the value of the single-quoted-string (see 8.7.6.3.2), double-quoted-string (see 8.7.6.3.3),
29 or non-expanded-literal-string (see 8.7.6.3.4). If the content of the instance of the class String
30 contains the character 0x00, a direct instance of the class ArgumentError may be raised.
31 9 Scope of variables
33 The scope of a variable is a set of regions of a program text with which a set of bindings of
34 variables is associated.
35 Instance variables, constants, and class variables have no scope, and their bindings are searched
36 depending on values of attirubtes of execution contexts (see 11.5.4.2, 11.5.4.5, and 11.5.4.6).
43
1 9.2 Scope of local variables
2 A local variable is referred to by a local-variable-identifier.
3 Scopes for local variables are introduced by the following program constructs:
4 program (see 10.1)
5 class-body (see 13.2.2)
6 module-body (see 13.1.2)
7 singleton-class-body (see 13.4.2)
8 method-definition (see 13.3.1) and singleton-method-definition (see 13.4.3), for both of which
9 the scope starts with the method-parameter-part and continues up to and including the
10 method-body.
11 block (see 11.3.3)
12 Let P be any of the above program constructs. Let S be the region of P excluding all the regions
13 of any of the above program constructs (except block ) nested within P. Then, S is the local
14 variable scope which corresponds to the program construct P.
15 The scope of a local variable is the local variable scope whose set of local variable bindings
16 contains the binding of the local variable, which is resolved as described below.
17 Given a local-variable-identifier which is a reference to a local variable, the binding of the local
18 variable is resolved as follows:
19 a) Let N be the local-variable-identifier. Let B be the current set of local variable bindings.
20 b) Let S be the scope of B.
21 c) If a binding with name N exists in B, that binding is the resolved binding.
22 d) If a binding with name N does not exist in B :
23 1) If S is a local variable scope which corresponds to a block :
24 i) If the local-variable-identifier occurs as a left-hand-side of a block-parameter-list,

25 whether to proceed to the next step or not is implementation-defined.
26 ii) Let new B be the element immediately below the current B on [local-variable-
27 bindings] , and continue searching for a binding with name N from Step b).
28 2) Otherwise, a binding is considered not resolved.
29 9.3 Scope of global variables
30 The scope of global variables is global in the sense that they are accessible everywhere in a
31 program. Global variable bindings are created in [global-variable-bindings] .
44
1 10 Program structure
2 10.1 Program
3 Syntax
4 program ::
5 compound-statement
6 The program text of a strictly conforming program shall be an element of the set of sequences
7 of characters represented by the nonterminal symbol program. A conforming processor need not
8 accept programs that include program constructs which cannot be evaluated.
9 Semantics
10 A program is evaluated as follows:
11 a) Push an empty set onto [local-variable-bindings] .
12 b) Evaluate the compound-statement.
13 c) The value of the program is the resulting value.
14 d) Restore the execution context by removing the element from the top of [local-variable-
15 bindings] .
16 10.2 Compound statement
17 Syntax
18 compound-statement ::
19 statement-list ? separator-list ?
20 statement-list ::
21 statement ( separator-list statement )∗
22 separator-list ::
23 separator +
24 separator ::
25 ;
26 | [ line-terminator here ]
27 Semantics
28 A compound-statement is evaluated as follows:
45
1 a) If the statement-list of the compound-statement is omitted, the value of the compound-
2 statement is nil.
3 b) If the statement-list of the compound-statement is present, evaluate each statement of the

4 statement-list in the order it appears in the program text. The value of the compound-
5 statement is the value of the last statement of the statement-list.
6 11 Expressions
8 Syntax
9 expression ::
10 keyword-logical-expression
11 An expression is a program construct which make up a statement (see 12). A single expression
12 can be a statement as an expression-statement (see 12.2).
13 NOTE A difference between an expression and a statement is that an expression is ordinarily used
14 where its value is required, but a statement is ordinarily used where its value is not necessarily required.
15 However, there are some exceptions. For example, a jump-expression (see 11.5.2.4) does not have a value,
16 and the value of the last statement of a compound-statement can be used.
17 Semantics
18 See 11.2.2 for keyword-logical-expressions.
19 11.2 Logical expressions
21 Syntax
22 logical-expression ::=
23 logical-NOT-expression
24 | logical-AND-expression
25 | logical-OR-expression
26 Any of logical-NOT-expression ，logical-AND-expression, and logical-OR-expression is a concep-

27 tual name, which is used to organize that of the form using a keyword (e.g., “not x”) and that
28 of the form using an operator (e.g, “!x”), because they are syntactically away from each other.
29 See 11.2.3 for logical-NOT-expressions. See 11.2.4 for logical-AND-expressions. See 11.2.5 for
30 logical-OR-expressions.
46
1 11.2.2 Keyword logical expressions
2 Syntax
3 keyword-logical-expression ::
4 keyword-NOT-expression
5 | keyword-AND-expression
6 | keyword-OR-expression
7 See 11.2.3 for keyword-NOT-expressions. See 11.2.4 for keyword-AND-expressions. See 11.2.5
8 for keyword-OR-expressions.
9 11.2.3 Logical NOT expressions
10 Syntax
11 logical-NOT-expression ::=
12 keyword-NOT-expression
13 | operator-NOT-expression
14 keyword-NOT-expression ::
15 method-invocation-without-parentheses
16 | operator-expression
17 | ! method-invocation-without-parentheses
18 | not keyword-NOT-expression
19 operator-NOT-expression ::=
20 ! ( method-invocation-without-parentheses | unary-expression )
21 Semantics
22 A logical-NOT-expression is evaluated as follows:
23 a) If it is of the form method-invocation-without-parentheses, evaluate it as described in 11.3.
24 b) If it is of the form operator-expression, evaluate it as described in 11.4.
25 c) Otherwise:
26 1) If it is of the form not keyword-NOT-expression, evaluate the keyword-NOT-expression.

27 Let X be the resulting value.
28 2) If it is an operator-NOT-expression, evaluate its method-invocation-without-parentheses

29 or unary-expression. Let X be the resulting value.
30 3) If X is a trueish object, the value of the keyword-NOT-expression or the operator-

31 NOT-expression is false.
47
1 4) Otherwise, the value of the keyword-NOT-expression or the operator-NOT-expression
2 is true.
3 d) If it is a operator-NOT-expression, instead of Step c), the operator-NOT-expression may be

4 evaluated as follows:
5 1) Evaluate the method-invocation-without-parentheses or the unary-expression. Let V be

6 the resulting value.
7 2) Create an empty list of arguments L. Invoke the method !@ on V with L as the list of
8 arguments. The value of the operator-NOT-expression is the resulting value.
9 In this case, the processor shall:
10 include the operator !@ in operator-method-name.
11 define an instance method !@ in the class Object, one of its superclasses (see 6.5.4), or
12 a module included in the class Object. The method !@ shall not take any arguments
13 and shall return true if the receiver is false or nil, and shall return false otherwise.
14 11.2.4 Logical AND expressions
15 Syntax
16 logical-AND-expression ::=
18 | operator-AND-expression
19 keyword-AND-expression ::
20 expression [ no line-terminator here ] and keyword-NOT-expression
21 operator-AND-expression ::
22 equality-expression
23 | operator-AND-expression [ no line-terminator here ] && equality-expression
24 Semantics
25 A logical-AND-expression is evaluated as follows:
26 a) If the logical-AND-expression is a equality-expression, evaluate the equality-expression as

27 described in 11.4.4.
28 b) Otherwise:
29 1) Evaluate the expression or the operator-AND-expression. Let X be the resulting value.
30 2) If X is a trueish object, evaluate the keyword-NOT-expression or equality-expression.

31 Let Y be the resulting value. The value of the keyword-AND-expression or the operator-
32 AND-expression is Y.
48
1 3) Otherwise, the value of the keyword-AND-expression or the operator-AND-expression
2 is X.
3 11.2.5 Logical OR expressions
4 Syntax
5 logical-OR-expression ::=
6 keyword-OR-expression
7 | operator-OR-expression
8 keyword-OR-expression ::
9 expression [ no line-terminator here ] or keyword-NOT-expression
10 operator-OR-expression ::
11 operator-AND-expression
12 | operator-OR-expression [ no line-terminator here ] || operator-AND-expression
13 Semantics
14 A logical-OR-expression is evaluated as follows:
15 a) If the logical-OR-expression is a operator-AND-expression, evaluate the operator-AND-

16 expression as described in 11.2.4.
17 b) Otherwise:
18 1) Evaluate the expression or the operator-OR-expression. Let X be the resulting value.
19 2) If X is a falseish object, evaluate the keyword-NOT-expression or the operator-AND-

20 expression. Let Y be the resulting value. The value of the keyword-OR-expression or
21 operator-OR-expression is Y.
22 3) Otherwise, the value of the keyword-OR-expression or operator-OR-expression is X.
23 11.3 Method invocation expressions
25 Syntax
26 method-invocation-expression ::=
27 primary-method-invocation
28 | method-invocation-without-parentheses
30 primary-method-invocation ::
31 super-with-optional-argument
49
1 | indexing-method-invocation
3 | method-identifier block
4 | method-identifier
5 [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ] argument-with-parentheses
6 block ?
7 | primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] . method-name
8 ( [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ] argument-with-parentheses )?
9 block ?
10 | primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] :: method-name
11 [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ] argument-with-parentheses
12 block ?
13 | primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] :: method-name-except-constant
14 block ?
15 method-identifier ::
19 method-name ::
20 method-identifier
22 | keyword
23 indexing-method-invocation ::
24 primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ]
25 [ indexing-argument-list ? ]
26 method-name-except-constant ::
27 method-name but not constant-identifier
28 method-invocation-without-parentheses ::
29 command
30 | chained-command-with-do-block
31 | chained-command-with-do-block ( . | :: ) method-name
32 argument-without-parentheses
33 | return-with-argument
34 | break-with-argument
35 | next-with-argument
36 command ::
37 super-with-argument
38 | yield-with-argument
39 | method-identifier argument-without-parentheses
40 | primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] ( . | :: ) method-name
41 argument-without-parentheses
50
1 chained-command-with-do-block ::
2 command-with-do-block chained-method-invocation ∗
3 chained-method-invocation ::
4 ( . | :: ) method-name
5 | ( . | :: ) method-name [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ]
6 argument-with-parentheses
7 command-with-do-block ::
8 super-with-argument-and-do-block
9 | method-identifier argument-without-parentheses do-block
10 | primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ]
11 ( . | :: ) method-name argument-without-parentheses do-block
12 See 11.5.4.7 for method-invocation-expressions of the form local-variable-identifier.
13 If the argument-with-parentheses (see 11.3.2) of a primary-method-invocation is present, and the

14 argument-list of the argument-with-parentheses is a block-argument, the block of the primary-
15 method-invocation shall be omitted.
16 If the argument-without-parentheses of a command-with-do-block is present, and the block-

17 argument of the argument-list of the argument-without-parentheses (see 11.3.2) is present, the
18 do-block of the command-with-do-block shall be omitted.
19 Semantics
20 A method-invocation-expression is evaluated as follows:
21 a) A primary-method-invocation is evaluated as follows:
22 1) If the primary-method-invocation is a super-with-optional-argument (see 11.3.4) or an

23 indexing-method-invocation, evaluate it. The value of the primary-method-invocation
24 is the resulting value.
25 2) i) If the primary-method-invocation is a method-only-identifier, let O be the current

26 self and let M be the method-only-identifier. Create an empty list of arguments
27 L.
28 ii) If the method-identifier of the primary-method-invocation is present:
29 I) Let O be the current self and let M be the method-identifier.
30 II) If the argument-with-parentheses is present, construct a list of arguments and

31 a block from the argument-with-parentheses as described in 11.3.2. Let L be
32 the resulting list. Let B be the resulting block, if any.
33 If the argument-with-parentheses is omitted, create an empty list of arguments

34 L.
35 III) If the block is present, let B be the block.
51
1 iii) If “.” of the primary-method-invocation is present:
2 I) Evaluate the primary-expression and let O be the resulting value. Let M be

3 the method-name.
4 II) If the argument-with-parentheses is present, construct a list of arguments and

5 a block from the argument-with-parentheses as described in 11.3.2. Let L be
6 the resulting list. Let B be the resulting block, if any.
7 If the argument-with-parentheses is omitted, create an empty list of arguments

8 L.
10 iv) If the :: and method-name of the primary-method-invocation are present:

12 the method-name.
13 II) Construct a list of arguments and a block from the argument-with-parentheses

14 as described in 11.3.2. Let L be the resulting list. Let B be the resulting block,
15 if any.
17 v) If the :: and method-name-except-constant of the primary-method-invocation are

18 present:

20 the method-name-except-constant.
21 II) Create an empty list of arguments L.
23 3) Invoke the method M on O with L as the list of arguments and B, if any, as the block.
24 (see 13.3.3). The value of the primary-method-invocation is the resulting value.
25 b) An indexing-method-invocation is evaluated as follows:
26 1) Evaluate the primary-expression. Let O be the resulting value.
27 2) If the indexing-argument-list is present, construct a list of arguments from the indexing-

28 argument-list as described in 11.3.2. Let L be the resulting list.
29 3) If the indexing-argument-list is omitted, Create an empty list of arguments L.
30 4) Invoke the method [] on O with L as the list of arguments. The value of the indexing-
31 method-invocation is the resulting value.
32 c) A method-invocation-without-parentheses is evaluated as follows:
52
1 1) If the method-invocation-without-parentheses is a command, evaluate it. The value of
2 the method-invocation-without-parentheses is the resulting value.
3 2) If the method-invocation-without-parentheses is a return-with-argument, break-with-

4 argument or next-with-argument, evaluate it (see 11.5.2.4). The value of the method-
5 invocation-without-parentheses is the resulting value.
6 3) If the chained-command-with-do-block of the method-invocation-without-parentheses is

7 present:
8 i) Evaluate the chained-command-with-do-block. Let V be the resulting value.
9 ii) If the method-name and the argument-without-parentheses of the method-invocation-

10 without-parentheses are present:
11 I) Let M be the method-name.
12 II) Construct a list of arguments from the argument-without-parentheses as de-

13 scribed in 11.3.2 and let L be the resulting list. If the block-argument of the
14 argument-list of the argument-without-parentheses is present, let B be the
15 block to which the block-argument corresponds [see 11.3.2 e) 6)].
16 III) Invoke the method M on V with L as the list of arguments and B, if any, as
17 the block.
18 IV) Replace V with the resulting value.
19 iii) The value of the method-invocation-without-parentheses is V.
20 d) A command is evaluated as follows:
21 1) If the command is a super-with-argument(see 11.3.4) or a yield-with-argument (see

22 11.3.5), evaluate it. The value of the command is the resulting value.
23 2) Otherwise:
24 i) If the method-identifier of the command is present:
25 I) If the method-identifier is a local-variable-identifier, and if the local-variable-

26 identifier is considered as a reference to a local variable by the steps in
27 11.5.4.7.2), and if the argument-without-parentheses starts with any of &, <<,
28 +, -, *, /, and %, the behavior is unspecified.
29 NOTE 1 For example, if x is a reference to a local variable, the behavior of “x -1”

30 is unspecified. The behavior of “x -1” may be the same as an additive-expression
31 (see 11.4.4) of the form “x - 1”.
32 II) Let O be the current self and let M be the method-identifier.
33 III) Construct a list of arguments from the argument-without-parentheses as de-

34 scribed in 11.3.2 and let L be the resulting list.
53
1 If the block-argument of the argument-list of the argument-without-parentheses
2 is present, let B be the block to which the block-argument corresponds.
3 ii) If the primary-expression(see 11.5), method-name, and argument-without-parentheses

4 of the command are present:
5 I) Evaluate the primary-expression. Let O be the resulting value. Let M be the

6 method-name.
7 II) Construct a list of arguments from the argument-without-parentheses as de-

8 scribed in 11.3.2 and let L be the resulting list.
9 If the block-argument of the argument-list of the argument-without-parentheses

10 is present, let B be the block to which the block-argument corresponds.
11 iii) Invoke the method M on O with L as the list of arguments and B, if any, as the
12 block. The value of the command is the resulting value.
13 e) A chained-command-with-do-block is evaluated as follows:
14 1) Evaluate the command-with-do-block and let V be the resulting value.
15 2) For each chained-method-invocation, in the order they appear in the program text, take
16 the following steps:
17 i) Let M be the method-name of the chained-method-invocation.
18 ii) If the argument-with-parentheses is present, construct a list of arguments and a

19 block from the argument-with-parentheses as described in 11.3.2 and let L be the
20 resulting list. Let B be the resulting block, if any.
21 If the argument-with-parentheses is omitted, create an empty list of arguments L.
22 iii) Invoke the method M on V with L as the list of arguments and B, if any, as the
23 block.
24 iv) Replace V with the resulting value.
25 3) The value of the chained-command-with-do-block is V.
26 f) A command-with-do-block is evaluated as follows:
27 1) If the command-with-do-block is a super-with-argument-and-do-block, evaluate it. The

28 value of the command-with-do-block is the resulting value.
29 2) Otherwise:
30 i) If the method-identifier of the command-with-do-block is present:
31 I) If the method-identifier is a local-variable-identifier, and if the local-variable-

32 identifier is considered as a reference to a local variable by the steps in
54
1 11.5.4.7.2), and if the argument-without-parentheses starts with any of &, <<,
2 +, -, *, /, and %, the behavior is unspecified.
3 NOTE 2 For example, if x is a reference to a local variable, the behavior of “x -1 do end”

4 is unspecified.
5 II) Otherwise, let O be the current self and let M be the method-identifier.
6 ii) If the primary-expression of the command-with-do-block is present, evaluate the

7 primary-expression, and let O be the resulting value and let M be the method-
8 name.
9 iii) Construct a list of arguments from the argument-without-parentheses of the command-

10 with-do-block and let L be the resulting list.
11 iv) Invoke the method M on O with L as the list of arguments and the do-block as
12 the block. The value of the command-with-do-block is the resulting value.
13 11.3.2 Method arguments
14 Syntax
15 method-argument ::=
16 indexing-argument-list
17 | argument-with-parentheses
18 | argument-without-parentheses
19 indexing-argument-list ::
20 command
21 | operator-expression-list ( [ no line-terminator here ] , )?
22 | operator-expression-list [ no line-terminator here ] , splatting-argument
23 | association-list ( [ no line-terminator here ] , )?
24 | splatting-argument
25 splatting-argument ::
26 * operator-expression
27 operator-expression-list ::
28 operator-expression ( [ no line-terminator here ] , operator-expression )∗
29 argument-with-parentheses ::
30 ()
31 | ( argument-list )
32 | ( operator-expression-list [ no line-terminator here ] , chained-command-with-do-
33 block )
34 | ( chained-command-with-do-block )
35 argument-without-parentheses ::
36 [ lookahead ∈
/ { { } ] [ no line-terminator here ] argument-list
55
1 argument-list ::
2 block-argument
3 | splatting-argument ( , block-argument )?
4 | operator-expression-list [ no line-terminator here ] , association-list
5 ( [ no line-terminator here ] , splatting-argument )? ( [ no line-terminator
6 here ] , block-argument )?
7 | ( operator-expression-list | association-list )
8 ( [ no line-terminator here ] , splatting-argument )? ( [ no line-terminator
9 here ] , block-argument )?
10 | command
11 block-argument ::
12 & operator-expression
13 If an argument-without-parentheses starts with a sequence of characters which is any of &, <<,

14 +, -, *, /, and %:
15 One or more whitespace characters shall be present just before the argument-without-
16 parentheses.
17 No whitespace shall be present just after the sequence of characters.
18 NOTE These constraints are necessary to distinguish the sequence of characters from binary operators
19 (see 11.4.4). For example, “x -y” is considered as a command. However, “x-y” and “x - y” are not
20 considered as command s, but as additive-expressions. That is, if x is not a reference to a local variable,
21 the behaviors of “x-y” and “x - y” are the same as “x() - y”.
22 Semantics
23 A method-argument evaluates to two values: an argument list, and a block. These two values
24 are used when the method is invoked. However, a method-argument does not have a block value
25 depending on evlauation steps.
26 A method-argument is evaluated as follows:
27 a) An indexing-argument-list is evaluated as follows:
28 1) Create an empty list of arguments L.
29 2) Evaluate the command, operator-expressions of operator-expression-lists, or the association-

30 list and append their values to L in the order they appear in the program text.
31 3) If the splatting-argument is present, evaluate it, and concatenate the resulting list of
32 arguments to L.
33 4) The argument list value of indexing-argument-list is L.
34 b) A splatting-argument is evaluated as follows:
56
1 2) Evaluate the operator-expression. Let V be the resulting value.
2 3) If V is not an instance of the class Array, the behavior is unspecified.
3 4) Append each element of V, in the indexing order, to L.
4 5) The argument list value of splatting-argument is L.
5 c) An argument-with-parentheses is evaluated as follows:
7 2) If the argument-list is present, evaluate it as described in Step e), and concatenate the
8 resulting list of arguments to L. If the block-argument of the argument-list is present,
9 the block value of the argument-with-parentheses is the block value of the argument-list.
10 3) If the operator-expression-list is present, for each operator-expression of the operator-

11 expression-list, in the order they appear in the program text, take the following steps:
12 i) Evaluate the operator-expression. Let V be the resulting value.
13 ii) Append V to L.
14 4) If the chained-command-with-do-block is present, evaluate it. Append the resulting

15 value to L.
16 5) The argument list value of argument-with-parentheses is L.
17 d) An argument-without-parentheses is evaluated as follows:
18 1) If the first character of the argument-without-parentheses is (, the behavior is unspec-

19 ified.
20 2) Evaluate the argument-list as described in Step e).
21 3) Let L be the resulting list.
22 e) An argument-list is evaluated as follows:
24 2) If the command is present, evaluate it, and append the resulting value to L.
25 3) If the operator-expression-list is present, for each operator-expression of the operator-

26 expression-list, in the order they appear in the program text, take the following steps:
27 i) Evaluate the operator-expression. Let V be the resulting value.
28 ii) Append V to L.
29 4) If the association-list is present, evaluate it. Append the resulting value to L.
57
1 5) If the splatting-argument is present, construct a list of arguments from it and concate-
2 nate the resulting list to L.
3 6) If the block-argument is present:
4 i) Evaluate the operator-expression of the block-argument. Let P be the resulting

5 value.
6 ii) If P is not an instance of the class Proc, the behavior is unspecified.
7 iii) Otherwise, the block value of argument-list is the block which P represents.
8 7) The argument list value of argument-list is L.
9 11.3.3 Blocks
10 Syntax
11 block ::
12 brace-block
13 | do-block
14 brace-block ::
15 { block-parameter ? block-body }
16 do-block ::
17 do block-parameter ? block-body end
18 block-parameter ::
19 ||
20 | ||
21 | | block-parameter-list |
22 block-parameter-list ::
23 left-hand-side
24 | multiple-left-hand-side
25 block-body ::
26 compound-statement
27 Whether the left-hand-side (see 11.4.2.4) in the block-parameter-list is allowed to be of the

28 following forms is implementation-defined.
30 global-variable-identifier
58
1 instance-variable-identifier
2 class-variable-identifier
3 primary-expression [ indexing-argument-list? ]
4 primary-expression (. | ::) (local-variable-identifier | constant-identifier )
5 :: constant-identifier
6 NOTE Some existing implementations allow some syntactic constructs such as constant-identifier s in a
7 block-parameter. Whether they are allowed is therefore implementation-defined. Future implementations
8 should not allow them.
9 Whether the grouped-left-hand-side (see 11.4.2.4) of the multiple-left-hand-side of the block-

10 parameter-list is allowed to be of the following form is implementation-defined.
11 ( (multiple-left-hand-side-item ,)+ )
12 Semantics
13 A block is a procedure which is passed to a method invocation.
14 A block can be called either by a yield-expression (see 11.3.5) or by invoking the method call
15 on an instance of the class Proc which is created by an invocation of the method new on the
16 class Proc to which the block is passed (see 15.2.17.4.3).
17 A block can be called with arguments. If a block is called by a yield-expression, the arguments
18 to the yield-expression are used as the arguments to the block call. If a block is called by an
19 invocation of the method call, the arguments to the method invocation is used as the arguments
20 to the block call.
21 A block is evaluated within the execution context as it exists just before the method invocation to
22 which the block is passed. However, the changes of variable bindings in [local-variable-bindings]
23 after the block is passed to the method invocation affect the execution context. Let Eb be the
24 possibly affected execution context.
25 When a block is called, the block is evaluated as follows:
26 a) Let Eo be the current execution context. Let L be the list of arguments passed to the block.
27 b) Set the execution context to Eb .
28 c) Push an empty set of local variable bindings onto [local-variable-bindings] .
29 d) If the block-parameter-list in the do-block or the brace-block is present:
30 1) If the block-parameter-list is of the form left-hand-side or grouped-left-hand-side:
31 i) If the length of L is 0, let X be nil.
32 ii) If the length of L is 1, let X be the only element of L.
59
1 iii) If the length of L is larger than 1, the result of this step is unspecified.
2 iv) If the block-parameter-list is of the form left-hand-side, evaluate a single-variable-

3 assignment-expression (see 11.4.2.2.2) E, where the variable of E is the left-hand-
4 side and the value of the operator-expression of E is X.
5 v) If the block-parameter-list is of the form grouped-left-hand-side, evaluate a many-

6 to-many-assignment-statement (see 11.4.2.4) E, where the multiple-left-hand-side
7 of E is the grouped-left-hand-side and the value of the method-invocation-without-
8 parentheses or operator-expression of E is X.
9 2) If the block-parameter-list is of the form multiple-left-hand-side and the multiple-left-

10 hand-side is not a grouped-left-hand-side:
11 i) If the length of L is 1:
12 I) If the only element of L is not an instance of the class Array, the result of
13 this step is unspecified.
14 II) Create a list of arguments Y which contains the elements of L, preserving

15 their order.
16 ii) If the length of L is 0 or larger than 1, let Y be L.
17 iii) Evaluate the many-to-many-assignment-statement E as described in 11.4.2.4, where

18 the multiple-left-hand-side of E is the block-parameter-list and the list of arguments
19 constructed from the multiple-right-hand-side of E is Y.
20 e) Evaluate the block-body. If the evaluation of the block-body:
21 1) is terminated by a break-expression:
22 i) If the method invocation with which block is passed has already terminated when
23 the block is called:
24 I) Let S be an instance of the class Symbol with name break.
25 II) If the jump-argument of the break-expression is present, let V be the value of

26 the jump-argument. Otherwise, let V be nil.
27 III) Raise a direct instance of the class LocalJumpError which has two instance
28 variable bindings, one named @reason with the value S and the other named
29 @exit value with the value V.
30 ii) Otherwise, restore the execution context to Eo and terminate Step 13.3.3 i) and
31 take Step 13.3.3 j) of the current method invocation.
32 If the jump-argument of the break-expression is present, the value of the current

33 method invocation is the value of the jump-argument. Otherwise, the value of the
34 current method invocation is nil.
35 2) is terminated by a redo-expression, repeat Step e).
60
1 3) is terminated by a next-expression:
2 i) If the jump-argument of the next-expression is present, let V be the value of the

3 jump-argument.
4 ii) Otherwise, let V be nil.
5 4) is terminated by a return-expression, remove the element from the top of [local-variable-

6 bindings] .
7 5) is terminates otherwise, let V be the resulting value of the evaluation of the block-body.
8 f) Unless Step e) is terminated by a return-expression, restore the execution context to Eo .
9 g) The value of calling the do-block or the brace-block is V.
10 11.3.4 The super expression
11 Syntax
12 super-expression ::=
13 super-with-optional-argument
14 | super-with-argument
15 | super-with-argument-and-do-block
16 super-with-optional-argument ::
17 super ( [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ] argument-with-parentheses )?
18 block ?
19 super-with-argument ::
20 super argument-without-parentheses
21 super-with-argument-and-do-block ::
22 super argument-without-parentheses do-block
23 The block-argument of the argument-list of the argument-without-parentheses (see 11.3.2) of a

24 super-with-argument-and-do-block shall be omitted.
25 Semantics
26 A super-expression is evaluated as follows:
27 a) If the current self is pushed by a singleton-class-definition (see 13.4.2), or an invocation of

28 one of the following methods, the behavior is unspecified:
29 the method class eval of the class Module (see 15.2.2.4.15)
30 the method module eval of the class Module (see 15.2.2.4.35)
61
1 the method instance eval of the class Kernel (see 15.3.1.3.18)
2 b) Let A be an empty list. Let B be the top of [block] .
3 1) If the super-expression is a super-with-optional-argument, and neither the argument-

4 with-parentheses nor the block is present, construct a list of arguments as follows:
5 i) Let M be the method which correspond to the current method invocation. Let L
6 be the parameter-list of the method-parameter-part of M. Let S be the set of local
7 variable bindings in [local-variable-bindings] which corresponds to the current
8 method invocation.
9 ii) If the mandatory-parameter-list is present in L, for each mandatory-parameter p,

10 take the following steps:
11 I) Let v be the value of the binding with name p in S.
12 II) Append v to A.
13 iii) If the optional-parameter-list is present in L, for each optional-parameter p, take

14 the following steps:
15 I) Let n be the optional-parameter-name of p.
16 II) Let v be the value of the binding with name n in S.
17 III) Append v to A.
18 iv) If the array-parameter is present in L:
19 I) Let n be the array-parameter-name of the array-parameter.
20 II) Let v be the value of the binding with name n in S. Append each element of
21 v, in the indexing order, to A.
22 2) If the super-expression is a super-with-optional-argument with either or both of the

23 argument-with-parentheses and the block :
24 i) If the argument-with-parentheses is present, construct a list of arguments and a

25 block as described in 11.3.2. Let A be the resulting list. Let B be the resulting
26 block, if any.
27 ii) If the block is present, let B be the block.
28 3) If the super-expression is a super-with-argument, construct the list of arguments from

29 the argument-without-parentheses as described in 11.3.2. Let A be the resulting list. If
30 block-argument of the argument-list of argument-without-parentheses is present, let B
31 be the block constructed from the block-argument.
32 4) If the super-expression is a super-with-argument-and-do-block, construct a list of ar-

33 guments from the argument-without-parentheses as described in 11.3.2. Let A be the
34 resulting list. Let B be the do-block.
62
1 c) Determine the method to be invoked as follows:
2 1) Let C be the current class or module. Let N be the top of [defined-method-name] .
3 2) If C is an instance of the class Class:
4 i) Search for a method binding with name N from Step b) in 13.3.4, assuming that
5 C in 13.3.4 to be C.
6 ii) If a binding is found and its value is not undef (see 13.1.1), let V be the value of
7 the binding.
8 iii) Otherwise:
9 I) Add a direct instance of the class Symbol with name N to the head of A.
10 II) Invoke the method method missing (see 15.3.1.3.30) on the current self with
11 A as arguments and B as the block.
12 III) Terminate the evaluation of the super-expression. The value of the super-
13 expression is the resulting value of the method invocation.
14 3) If C is an instance of the class Module and not an instance of the class Class:
15 i) Let M be C and let new C be the class of the current self.
16 ii) Let Lm be the included module list of C. Search for M in Lm .
17 iii) If M is found in Lm :
18 I) Search for a method binding with name N in the set of bindings of instance
19 methods of each module in Lm . Examine modules in Lm , in reverse order,
20 from the module just before M to the first module in Lm .
21 II) If a binding is found and its value is not undef, let V be the value of the
22 binding.
23 III) If a binding is found and its value is undef (see 13.1.1), take the steps from
24 c) 2) iii) I) to c) 2) iii) III).
25 IV) If a binding is not found and C has a direct superclass, let S be the superclass.
26 Take Step c) 2), assuming that C in c) 2) to be S.
27 V) If a binding is not found and C does not have a direct superclass, take the
28 steps from c) 2) iii) I) to c) 2) iii) III).
29 iv) Otherwise, let new C be the direct superclass of C and repeat from Step c) 3) ii).
30 If C does not have a direct superclass, the behavior is unspecified.
31 d) Take steps g), h), i), and j) of 13.3.3, assuming that A, B, M, R, and V in 13.3.3 to be A, B,
32 N, the current self, and V in this subclause respectively. The value of the super-expression
63
1 11.3.5 The yield expression
2 Syntax
3 yield-expression ::=
4 yield-with-optional-argument
5 | yield-with-argument
6 yield-with-optional-argument ::
7 yield-with-parentheses-and-argument
8 | yield-with-parentheses-without-argument
9 | yield
10 yield-with-parentheses-and-argument ::
11 yield [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ] ( argument-list )
12 yield-with-parentheses-without-argument ::
13 yield [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ] ( )
14 yield-with-argument ::
15 yield argument-without-parentheses
16 The block-argument of the argument-list (see 11.3.2) of a yield-with-parentheses-and-argument

17 shall be omitted.
18 The block-argument of the argument-list of the argument-without-parentheses (see 11.3.2) of a

19 yield-with-argument shall be omitted.
20 Semantics
21 A yield-expression is evaluated as follows:
22 a) Let B be the top of [block] . If B is block-not-given:
23 1) Let S be a direct instance of the class Symbol with name noreason.
24 2) Let V be an implementation-defined value.
25 3) Raise a direct instance of the class LocalJumpError which has two instance variable
26 bindings, one named @reason with the value S and the other named @exit value with
27 the value V.
28 b) A yield-with-optional-argument is evaluated as follows:
29 1) If the yield-with-optional-argument is of the form yield-with-parentheses-and-argument,

30 create a list of arguments from the argument-without-parentheses as described in 11.3.2.
31 Let L be the list.
64
1 2) If the yield-with-optional-argument is of the form yield-with-parentheses-without-argument
2 or yield, create an empty list of argument L.
3 3) Call B with L as described in 11.3.3.
4 4) The value of the yield-with-optional-argument is the value of the block call.
5 c) A yield-with-argument is evaluated as follows:
6 1) Create a list of arguments from the argument-without-parentheses as described in

7 11.3.2. Let L be the list.
8 2) Call B with L as described in 11.3.3.
9 3) The value of the yield-with-argument is the value of the block call.
10 11.4 Operator expressions
12 Syntax
13 operator-expression ::
15 | defined?-without-parentheses
16 | conditional-operator-expression
17 See 11.4.2 for assignment-expressions.
18 NOTE assignment-statement is not an operator-expression but a statement(see 12.1).
19 See 11.4.3.2 for defined?-without-parenthesess.
20 NOTE defined?-with-parentheses is not an operator-expression but a primary-expression(see 11.5.1).
21 See 11.5.2.2.5 for conditional-operator-expressions.
22 11.4.2 Assignments
24 Syntax
25 assignment ::=
28 assignment-expression ::
29 single-assignment-expression
65
1 | abbreviated-assignment-expression
2 | assignment-with-rescue-modifier
3 assignment-statement ::
4 single-assignment-statement
5 | abbreviated-assignment-statement
6 | multiple-assignment-statement
7 Semantics
8 An assignment creates or updates variable bindings, or invokes a method whose name ends with
9 =.
10 Evaluations of assignment-expressions and assignment-statements are described in the clauses

11 from 11.4.2.2 to 11.4.2.5.
12 11.4.2.2 Single assignments
14 Syntax
15 single-assignment ::=
16 single-assignment-expression
17 | single-assignment-statement
18 single-assignment-expression ::
19 single-variable-assignment-expression
20 | scoped-constant-assignment-expression
21 | single-indexing-assignment-expression
22 | single-method-assignment-expression
23 single-assignment-statement ::
24 single-variable-assignment-statement
25 | scoped-constant-assignment-statement
26 | single-indexing-assignment-statement
27 | single-method-assignment-statement
28 11.4.2.2.2 Single variable assignments
29 Syntax
30 single-variable-assignment ::=
31 single-variable-assignment-expression
32 | single-variable-assignment-statement
66
1 single-variable-assignment-expression ::
2 variable [ no line-terminator here ] = operator-expression
3 single-variable-assignment-statement ::
4 variable [ no line-terminator here ] = method-invocation-without-parentheses
5 Semantics
6 A single-variable-assignment is evaluated as follows:
7 a) Evaluate the operator-expression or the method-invocation-without-parentheses. Let V be

9 b) 1) If the variable(see 11.5.4) is a constant-identifier :
10 i) Let N be the constant-identifier.
11 ii) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of constants of the current
12 class or module, replace the value of the binding with V.
13 iii) Otherwise, create a variable binding with name N and value V in the set of
14 bindings of constants of the current class or module.
15 2) If the variable is a global-variable-identifier :
16 i) Let N be the global-variable-identifier.
17 ii) If a binding with name N exists in [global-variable-bindings] , replace the value of

18 the binding with V.
19 iii) Otherwise, create a variable binding with name N and value V in [global-variable-
20 bindings] .
21 3) If the variable is a class-variable-identifier :
22 i) Let C be the first class or module in the list at the top of [class-module-list] which
23 is not a singleton class.
24 Let CS be the set of classes which consists of C and all the superclasses of C. Let
25 MS be the set of modules which consists of all the modules in the included module
26 lists of all classes in CS. Let CM be the union of CS and MS.
27 Let N be the class-variable-identifier.
28 ii) If exactly one of the classes or modules in CM has a binding with name N in the
29 set of bindings of class variables, let B be that binding.
30 If more than one class or module in CM has bindings with name N in the set
31 of bindings of class variables, choose a binding B from those bindings in an
32 implementation-defined way.
67
1 Replace the value of B with V.
2 iii) If none of the classes or modules in CM has a binding with name N in the set of
3 bindings of class variables, create a variable binding with name N and value V in
4 the set of bindings of class variables of C.
5 4) If the variable is an instance-variable-identifier :
6 i) Let N be the instance-variable-identifier.
7 ii) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of instance variables of the
8 current self, replace the value of the binding with V.
9 iii) Otherwise, create a variable binding with name N and value V in the set of
10 bindings of instance variables of the current self.
11 5) If the variable is a local-variable-identifier :
12 i) Let N be the local-variable-identifier.
13 ii) Search for a binding of a local variable with name N as described in 9.2.
14 iii) If a binding is found, replace the value of the binding with V.
15 iv) Otherwise, create a variable binding with name N and value V in the current set
16 of local variable bindings.
17 c) The value of the single-variable-assignment is V.
18 11.4.2.2.3 Scoped constant assignments
19 Syntax
20 scoped-constant-assignment ::=
21 scoped-constant-assignment-expression
22 | scoped-constant-assignment-statement
23 scoped-constant-assignment-expression ::
24 primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ] :: constant-
25 identifier
26 [ no line-terminator here ] = operator-expression
27 | :: constant-identifier [ no line-terminator here ] = operator-expression
28 scoped-constant-assignment-statement ::
30 identifier
31 [ no line-terminator here ] = method-invocation-without-parentheses
32 | :: constant-identifier [ no line-terminator here ] = method-invocation-without-parentheses
68
1 Semantics
2 A scoped-constant-assignment is evaluated as follows:
3 a) If the primary-expression is present, evaluate it and let M be the resulting value. Otherwise,
4 let M be the class Object.
5 b) If M is an instance of the class Module:
6 1) Let N be the constant-identifier.
7 2) Evaluate the operator-expression or the method-invocation-without-parentheses. Let V

8 be the resulting value.
9 3) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of constants of M, replace the
10 value of the binding with V.
11 4) Otherwise, create a variable binding with name N and value V in the set of bindings
12 of constants of M.
13 5) The value of the scoped-constant-assignment is V.
14 c) If M is not an instance of the class Module, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
15 11.4.2.2.4 Single indexing assignments
16 Syntax
17 single-indexing-assignment ::=
18 single-indexing-assignment-expression
19 | single-indexing-assignment-statement
20 single-indexing-assignment-expression ::
21 primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ] [ indexing-
22 argument-list ? ]
24 single-indexing-assignment-statement ::
28 Semantics
29 A single-indexing-assignment is evaluated as follows:
30 a) Evaluate the primary-expression. Let O be the resulting value.
31 b) Construct a list of arguments from the indexing-argument-list as described in 11.3.2. Let L

32 be the resulting list.
69
1 c) Evaluate the operator-expression or method-invocation-without-parentheses. Let V be the
2 resulting value.
3 d) Append V to L.
4 e) Invoke the method []= on O with L as the list of arguments.
5 f) The value of the single-indexing-assignment is V.
6 11.4.2.2.5 Single method assignments
7 Syntax
8 single-method-assignment ::=
9 single-method-assignment-expression
10 | single-method-assignment-statement
11 single-method-assignment-expression ::
12 primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] ( . | :: ) local-variable-identifier
14 | primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] . constant-identifier
16 single-method-assignment-statement ::
21 Semantics
22 A single-method-assignment is evaluated as follows:
24 b) Evaluate the operator-expression or method-invocation-without-parentheses. Let V be the

25 resulting value.
26 c) Let M be the local-variable-identifier or constant-identifier. Let N be the concatenation of

27 M and =.
28 d) Invoke the method whose name is N on O with a list of arguments which contains only one
29 value V.
30 e) The value of the single-method-assignment is V.
70
1 11.4.2.3 Abbreviated assignments
3 Syntax
4 abbreviated-assignment ::=
5 abbreviated-assignment-expression
6 | abbreviated-assignment-statement
7 abbreviated-assignment-expression ::
8 abbreviated-variable-assignment-expression
9 | abbreviated-indexing-assignment-expression
10 | abbreviated-method-assignment-expression
11 abbreviated-assignment-statement ::
12 abbreviated-variable-assignment-statement
13 | abbreviated-indexing-assignment-statement
14 | abbreviated-method-assignment-statement
15 11.4.2.3.2 Abbreviated variable assignments
16 Syntax
17 abbreviated-variable-assignment ::=
18 abbreviated-variable-assignment-expression
19 | abbreviated-variable-assignment-statement
20 abbreviated-variable-assignment-expression ::
21 variable [ no line-terminator here ] assignment-operator operator-expression
22 abbreviated-variable-assignment-statement ::
23 variable [ no line-terminator here ] assignment-operator
24 method-invocation-without-parentheses
25 Semantics
26 An abbreviated-variable-assignment is evaluated as follows:
27 a) Evaluate the variable as a variable reference (see 11.5.4). Let V be the resulting value.
28 b) Evaluate the operator-expression or the method-invocation-without-parentheses. Let W be

30 c) Let OP be the assignment-operator-name of the assignment-operator.
71
1 d) Let X be the operator-expression of the form V OP W.
2 e) Let I be the variable of the abbreviated-variable-assignment-expression or the abbreviated-

3 variable-assignment-statement.
4 f) Evaluate a single-variable-assignment-expression (see 11.4.2.2.2) where its variable is I and

5 the operator-expression is X.
6 g) The value of the abbreviated-variable-assignment is the resulting value of the evaluation.
7 11.4.2.3.3 Abbreviated indexing assignments
8 Syntax
9 abbreviated-indexing-assignment ::=
10 abbreviated-indexing-assignment-expression
11 | abbreviated-indexing-assignment-statement
12 abbreviated-indexing-assignment-expression ::
15 [ no line-terminator here ] assignment-operator operator-expression
16 abbreviated-indexing-assignment-statement ::
19 [ no line-terminator here ] assignment-operator method-invocation-without-parentheses
20 Semantics
21 An abbreviated-indexing-assignment is evaluated as follows:
23 b) Construct a list of arguments from the indexing-argument-list as described in 11.3.2. Let L

25 c) Invoke the method [] on O with L as the list of arguments. Let V be the resulting value.
26 d) Evaluate the operator-expression or method-invocation-without-parentheses. Let W be the

27 resulting value.
28 e) Let OP be the assignment-operator-name of the assignment-operator.
29 f) Evaluate the operator-expression of the form V OP W. Let X be the resulting value.
30 g) Append X to L.
31 h) Invoke the method []= on O with L as the list of arguments.
72
1 i) The value of the abbreviated-indexing-assignment is X.
2 11.4.2.3.4 Abbreviated method assignments
3 Syntax
4 abbreviated-method-assignment ::=
5 abbreviated-method-assignment-expression
6 | abbreviated-method-assignment-statement
7 abbreviated-method-assignment-expression ::
12 abbreviated-method-assignment-statement ::
17 Semantics
18 An abbreviated-method-assignment is evaluated as follows:
20 b) Create an empty list of arguments L. Invoke the method whose name is the local-variable-
21 identifier or the constant-identifier on O with L as the list of arguments. Let V be the
22 resulting value.
23 c) Evaluate the operator-expression or method-invocation-without-parentheses. Let W be the

24 resulting value.
25 d) Let OP be the assignment-operator-name of the assignment-operator.
26 e) Evaluate the operator-expression of the form V OP W. Let X be the resulting value.
27 f) Let M be the local-variable-identifier or the constant-identifier. Let N be the concatenation

28 of M and =.
29 g) Invoke the method whose name is N on O with a list of arguments which contains only one
30 value X.
31 h) The value of the abbreviated-method-assignment is X.
32 11.4.2.4 Multiple assignments
33 Syntax
73
1 multiple-assignment-statement ::
2 many-to-one-assignment-statement
3 | one-to-packing-assignment-statement
4 | many-to-many-assignment-statement
5 many-to-one-assignment-statement ::
6 left-hand-side [ no line-terminator here ] = multiple-right-hand-side
7 one-to-packing-assignment-statement ::
8 packing-left-hand-side [ no line-terminator here ] =
9 ( method-invocation-without-parentheses | operator-expression )
10 many-to-many-assignment-statement ::
11 multiple-left-hand-side [ no line-terminator here ] = multiple-right-hand-side
12 | ( multiple-left-hand-side but not packing-left-hand-side )
13 [ no line-terminator here ] =
14 ( method-invocation-without-parentheses | operator-expression )
15 left-hand-side ::
16 variable
17 | primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] [ no whitespace here ] [ indexing-
19 | primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ]
20 ( . | :: ) ( local-variable-identifier | constant-identifier )
21 | :: constant-identifier
22 multiple-left-hand-side ::
23 ( multiple-left-hand-side-item [ no line-terminator here ] , )+ multiple-left-hand-
24 side-item ?
25 | ( multiple-left-hand-side-item [ no line-terminator here ] , )+ packing-left-hand-side ?
26 | packing-left-hand-side
27 | grouped-left-hand-side
28 packing-left-hand-side ::
29 * left-hand-side ?
30 grouped-left-hand-side ::
31 ( multiple-left-hand-side )
32 multiple-left-hand-side-item ::
33 left-hand-side
34 | grouped-left-hand-side
35 multiple-right-hand-side ::
36 operator-expression-list ( [ no line-terminator here ] , splatting-right-hand-side )?
74
1 | splatting-right-hand-side
2 splatting-right-hand-side ::
3 splatting-argument
4 Semantics
5 A multiple-assignment-statement is evaluated as follows:
6 a) A many-to-one-assignment-statement is evaluated as follows:
7 1) Construct a list of values L from the multiple-right-hand-side as described below.
8 i) If the operator-expression-list is present, evaluate its operator-expressions in the

9 order they appear in the program text. Let L1 be a list which contains the resulting
10 values, preserving their order.
11 ii) If the operator-expression-list is omitted, create an empty list of values L1.
12 iii) If the splatting-right-hand-side is present, construct a list of values from its splatting-
13 argument as described in 11.3.2 and let L2 be the resulting list.
14 iv) If the splatting-right-hand-side is omitted, create an empty list of values L2.
15 v) The result is the concatenation of L1 and L2.
16 2) If the length of L is 0 or 1, let A be an implementation-defined value.
17 3) If the length of L is larger than 1, create a direct instance of the class Array and store
18 the elements of L in it, preserving their order. Let A be the instance of the class Array.
19 4) Evaluate a single-variable-assignment-expression (see 11.4.2.2.2) where its variable is

20 the left-hand-side and the value of its operator-expression is A.
21 5) The value of the many-to-one-assignment-statement is A.
22 b) A one-to-packing-assignment-statement is evaluated as follows:
23 1) Evaluate the method-invocation-without-parentheses or the operator-expression. Let V

25 2) If V is an instance of the class Array, let A be a a new direct instance of the class
26 Array which contains only one element V itself, or all the elements of V in the same
27 order in V. Which is chosen is implementation-defined.
28 3) If V is not an instance of the class Array, create a direct instance A of the class Array
29 which contains only one value V.
30 4) If the left-hand-side of the packing-left-hand-side is present, evaluate a single-variable-

31 assignment-expression (see 11.4.2.2.2) where its variable is the left-hand-side and the
32 value of the operator-expression is A. Otherwise, skip this step.
75
1 5) The value of the one-to-packing-assignment-statement is A.
2 c) A many-to-many-assignment-statement is evaluated as follows:
3 1) If the multiple-right-hand-side is present, construct a list of values from it [see a) 1)]

4 and let R be the resulting list.
5 2) If the multiple-right-hand-side is omitted:
6 i) Evaluate the method-invocation-without-parentheses or the operator-expression.

8 ii) If V is not an instance of the class Array, the behavior is unspecified.
9 iii) Create a list of arguments R which contains all the elements of V, preserving their
10 order.
11 3) i) Create an empty list of variables L.
12 ii) For each multiple-left-hand-side-item, in the order they appear in the program
13 text, append the left-hand-side or the grouped-left-hand-side of the multiple-left-
14 hand-side-item to L.
15 iii) If the packing-left-hand-side of the multiple-left-hand-side is present, append it to

16 L.
17 iv) If the multiple-left-hand-side is a grouped-left-hand-side, append the grouped-left-

18 hand-side to L.
19 4) For each element Li of L, in the same order in L, take the following steps:
20 i) Let i be the index of Li within L. Let NR be the number of elements of R.
21 ii) If Li is a left-hand-side:
22 I) If i is larger than NR , let V be nil.
23 II) Otherwise, let V be the i th element of R.
24 III) Evaluate the single-variable-assignment of the form Li = V.
25 iii) If Li is a packing-left-hand-side and its left-hand-side is present:
26 I) If i is larger than NR , create an empty direct instance of the class Array. Let
27 A be the instance.
28 II) Otherwise, create a direct instance of the class Array which contains elements
29 in R whose index is equal to, or larger than i, in the same order they are stored
30 in R. Let A be the instance.
31 III) Evaluate a single-variable-assignment-expression (see 11.4.2.2.2) where its

32 variable is the left-hand-side and the value of the operator-expression is A.
76
1 iv) If Li is a grouped-left-hand-side:
2 I) If i is larger than NR , let V be nil.
3 II) Otherwise, let V be the i th element of R.
4 III) Evaluate a many-to-many-assignment-statement where its multiple-left-hand-

5 side is the multiple-left-hand-side of the grouped-left-hand-side and its multiple-
6 right-hand-side is V.
7 11.4.2.5 Assignments with rescue modifiers
8 Syntax
9 assignment-with-rescue-modifier ::
10 left-hand-side [ no line-terminator here ] =
11 operator-expression 1 [ no line-terminator here ] rescue operator-expression 2
12 Semantics
13 An assignment-with-rescue-modifier is evaluated as follows:
14 a) Evaluate the operator-expression 1 . Let V be the resulting value.
15 b) If an exception is raised and not handled during the evaluation of the operator-expression 1 ,
16 and if the exception is an instance of the class StandardError, evaluate the operator-
17 expression 2 and replace V with the resulting value.
18 c) Evaluate a single-variable-assignment-expression (see 11.4.2.2.2) where its variable is the

19 left-hand-side and the value of the operator-expression is V. The value of the assignment-
20 with-rescue-modifier is the resulting value of the evaluation.
21 11.4.3 Unary operator expressions
23 Syntax
24 unary-operator-expression ::=
25 unary-minus-expression
26 | unary-expression
27 unary-minus-expression ::
28 power-expression
29 | - power-expression
30 unary-expression ::
31 primary-expression
77
1 | ~ unary-expression 1
2 | + unary-expression 2
3 | ! unary-expression 3
4 Semantics
5 A unary-operator-expression is evaluated as follows:
6 a) A unary-minus-expression of the form power-expression is evaluated as described in 11.4.4

7 e).
8 b) A unary-minus-expression of the form - power-expression is evaluated as follows:
9 1) Evaluate the power-expression. Let X be the resulting value.
10 2) Create an empty list of arguments L. Invoke the method -@ on X with L as the list of
11 arguments. The value of the unary-expression is the resulting value of the invocation.
12 c) A unary-expression of the form ~ unary-expression 1 is evaluated as follows:
13 1) Evaluate the unary-expression 1 . Let X be the resulting value.
14 2) Create an empty list of arguments L. Invoke the method ~ on X with L as the list of
15 arguments. The value of the unary-expression is the resulting value of the invocation.
16 d) A unary-expression of the form + unary-expression 2 is evaluated as follows:
17 1) Evaluate the unary-expression 2 . Let X be the resulting value.
18 2) Create an empty list of arguments L. Invoke the method +@ on X with L as the list of
19 arguments. The value of the unary-expression 2 is the resulting value of the invocation.
20 e) A unary-expression of the form ! unary-expression 3 is evaluated as described in 11.2.
21 11.4.3.2 The defined? expression
22 Syntax
23 defined?-expression ::=
24 defined?-with-parentheses
25 | defined?-without-parentheses
26 defined?-with-parentheses ::
27 defined? ( expression )
28 defined?-without-parentheses ::
29 defined? operator-expression
78
1 Semantics
2 A defined?-expression is evaluated as follows:
3 a) Let E be the expression of the defined?-with-parentheses or the operator-expression of the

4 defined?-without-parentheses.
5 b) If E is a constant-identifier :
6 1) Search for a binding of a constant with name E with the same evaluation steps for
7 constant-identifier as described in 11.5.4.2. However, a direct instance of the class
8 NameError shall not be raised when a binding is not found.
9 2) If a binding is found, the value of the defined?-expression is an implementation-defined

10 value, which shall be a trueish object.
11 3) Otherwise, the value of the defined?-expression is nil.
12 c) If E is a global-variable-identifier :
13 1) If a binding with name E exists in [global-variable-bindings] , the value of the defined?-

14 expression is an implementation-defined value, which shall be a trueish object.
16 d) If E is a class-variable-identifier :
17 1) Let C be the current class or module. Let CS be the set of classes which consists of C
18 and all the superclasses of C. Let MS be the set of modules which consists of all the
19 modules in the included module lists of all classes in CS. Let CM be the union of CS
20 and MS.
21 2) If any of the classes or modules in CM has a binding with name E in the set of bindings
22 of class variables, the value of the defined?-expression is an implementation-defined
23 value, which shall be a trueish object.
25 e) If E is an instance-variable-identifier :
26 1) If a binding with name E exists in the set of bindings of instance variables of the
27 current self, the value of the defined?-expression is an implementation-defined value,
28 which shall be a trueish object.
30 f) If E is a local-variable-identifier :
31 1) If the local-variable-identifier is a reference to a local variable (see 11.5.4.7.2), the value

32 of the defined?-expression is an implementation-defined value, which shall be a trueish
33 object.
79
1 2) Otherwise, search for a method binding with name E, starting from the current class
2 or module as described in 13.3.4.
3 i) If the binding is found and its value is not undef, the value of the defined?-
4 expression is an implementation-defined value, which shall be a trueish object.
5 ii) Otherwise, the value of the defined?-expression is nil.
6 g) Otherwise, the value of the defined?-expression is implementation-defined.
7 11.4.4 Binary operator expressions
8 Syntax
9 binary-operator-expression ::=
10 equality-expression
11 equality-expression ::
12 relational-expression
13 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] <=> relational-expression
14 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] == relational-expression
15 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] === relational-expression
16 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] != relational-expression
17 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] =~ relational-expression
18 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] !~ relational-expression
19 relational-expression ::
20 bitwise-OR-expression
21 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] > bitwise-OR-expression
22 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] >= bitwise-OR-expression
23 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] < bitwise-OR-expression
24 | relational-expression [ no line-terminator here ] <= bitwise-OR-expression
25 bitwise-OR-expression ::
26 bitwise-AND-expression
27 | bitwise-OR-expression [ no line-terminator here ] | bitwise-AND-expression
28 | bitwise-OR-expression [ no line-terminator here ] ^ bitwise-AND-expression
29 bitwise-AND-expression ::
30 bitwise-shift-expression
31 | bitwise-AND-expression [ no line-terminator here ] & bitwise-shift-expression
32 bitwise-shift-expression ::
33 additive-expression
34 | bitwise-shift-expression [ no line-terminator here ] << additive-expression
35 | bitwise-shift-expression [ no line-terminator here ] >> additive-expression
80
1 additive-expression ::
2 multiplicative-expression
3 | additive-expression [ no line-terminator here ] + multiplicative-expression
4 | additive-expression [ no line-terminator here ] - multiplicative-expression
5 multiplicative-expression ::
6 unary-minus-expression
7 | multiplicative-expression [ no line-terminator here ] * unary-minus-expression
8 | multiplicative-expression [ no line-terminator here ] / unary-minus-expression
9 | multiplicative-expression [ no line-terminator here ] % unary-minus-expression
10 power-expression ::
11 unary-expression
12 | unary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] ** power-expression
13 binary-operator ::=
14 <=> | == | != | === | =~ | !~ | > | >= | < | <=
15 | | | ^ | & | << | >> | + | - | * | / | % | **
16 If there is a whitespace character just before any of the following operators, there shall be one
17 or more whitespace characters just after the operator.
18 & of a bitwise-AND-expression
19 << of a bitwise-shift-expression
20 + of a additive-expression
21 - of a additive-expression
22 * of a multiplicative-expression
23 / of a multiplicative-expression
24 % of a multiplicative-expression
25 NOTE This constraint is necessary to distinguish binary operators from leading sequences of characters
26 of argument-without-parentheseses (see 11.3.2).
27 Semantics
28 An equality-expression is evaluated as follows:
29 a) If the equality-expression is of the form x != y, take the following steps:
30 1) Evaluate x. Let X be the resulting value.
31 2) Evaluate y. Let Y be the resulting value.
81
1 3) Invoke the method == on X with Y as an argument. If the resulting value is a trueish
2 object, the value of the equality-expression is false. Otherwise, the value of the equality-
3 expression is true.
4 b) The steps in Step f) may be taken instead of Step a).
5 In this case, the following conditions shall be satisfied:
6 The operator != is included in operator-method-name.
7 An instance method != is defined in the class Object, one of its superclasses, or a

8 module included in the class Object. The method != shall take one argument and
9 shall return the value of the equality-expression in Step a) 3), where let X and Y be
10 the receiver and the argument, respectively.
11 c) If the equality-expression is of the form x !~ y, take the following steps:
14 3) Invoke the method =~ on X with Y as an argument. If the resulting value is a trueish

15 object, the value of the equality-expression is false. Otherwise, the value of the equality-
16 expression is true.
17 d) The steps in Step f) may be taken instead of Step c). In this case, the following conditions
18 shall be satisfied:
19 The operator !~ is included in operator-method-name.
20 An instance method !~ is defined in the class Object, one of its superclasses, or a

21 module included in the class Object. The method !~ shall take one argument and
22 shall return the value of the equality-expression in Step c) 3), where let X and Y be
23 the receiver and the argument, respectively.
24 e) If the equality-expression is an unary-minus-expression and not a power-expression, evalu-

25 ate it as described in 11.4.3. If the equality-expression is an unary-minus-expression and
26 a power-expression, evaluate the power-expression by taking the following steps and the
27 resulting value is the value of the equality-expression.
28 1) If the power-expression is a unary-expression, evaluate it as described in 11.4.3 and the

29 resulting value is the value of the power-expression.
30 2) If the power-expression is a power-expression of the form unary-expression ** power-

31 expression:
32 i) If the unary-expression is of the form - unsigned-number :
33 I) Evaluate the unsigned-number and let X be the resulting value.
34 II) Evaluate the power-expression 2 and let Y be the resulting value.
82
1 III) Invoke the method whose name is “**” on X with Y as an argument. Let Z
3 IV) Invoke the method whose name is “-@” on Z with no arguments. The value
4 of the equality-expression is the resulting value of the invocation.
5 ii) Otherwise:
6 I) Evaluate the unary-expression and let X be the resulting value.
7 II) Evaluate the power-expression and let Y be the resulting value.
8 III) Invoke the method whose name is “**” on X with Y as an argument. The
9 value of the power-expression is the resulting value.
10 f) Otherwise, for the equality-expression of the form x binary-operator y, take the following
11 steps:
14 3) Invoke the method whose name is the binary-operator on X with Y as an argument.

15 The value of the equality-expression is the resulting value of the invocation.
16 11.5 Primary expressions
18 Syntax
19 primary-expression ::
20 class-definition
21 | singleton-class-definition
22 | module-definition
23 | method-definition
24 | singleton-method-definition
25 | yield-with-optional-argument
26 | if-expression
27 | unless-expression
28 | case-expression
29 | while-expression
30 | until-expression
31 | for-expression
32 | return-without-argument
33 | break-without-argument
34 | next-without-argument
35 | redo-expression
36 | retry-expression
37 | begin-expression
38 | grouping-expression
83
1 | variable-reference
2 | scoped-constant-reference
3 | array-constructor
4 | hash-constructor
5 | literal
6 | defined?-with-parentheses
7 | primary-method-invocation
8 Semantics
9 See 13.2.2 for class-definitions.
10 See 13.4.2 for singleton-class-definitions.
11 See 13.1.2 for module-definitions.
12 See 13.3.1 for method-definitions.
13 See 13.4.3 for singleton-method-definitions.
14 See 11.3.5 for yield-with-optional-arguments.
15 See 8.7.6 for literal s.
16 See 11.4.3.2 for defined?-with-parenthesess.
17 See 11.3 for primary-method-invocations.
18 11.5.2 Control structures
20 Syntax
21 control-structure ::=
22 conditional-expression
23 | iteration-expression
24 | jump-expression
25 | begin-expression
26
27 11.5.2.2 Conditional expressions
29 Syntax
30 conditional-expression ::=
31 if-expression
84
1 | unless-expression
2 | case-expression
3 | conditional-operator-expression
4
5 11.5.2.2.2 The if expression
6 Syntax
7 if-expression ::
8 if expression then-clause elsif-clause ∗ else-clause ? end
9 then-clause ::
10 separator compound-statement
11 | separator ? then compound-statement
12 else-clause ::
13 else compound-statement
14 elsif-clause ::
15 elsif expression then-clause
16 Semantics
17 The if-expression is evaluated as follows:
18 a) Evaluate expression. Let V be the resulting value.
19 b) If V is a trueish object, evaluate the compound-statement of the then-clause. The value of

20 the if-expression is the resulting value. In this case, elsif-clauses and the else-clause, if any,
21 are not evaluated.
22 c) If V is a falseish object, and if there is no elsif-clause and no else-clause, then the value of
23 the if-expression is nil.
24 d) If V is a falseish object, and if there is no elsif-clause but there is an else-clause, then

25 evaluate the compound-statement of the else-clause. The value of the if-expression is the
26 resulting value.
27 e) If V is a falseish object, and if there are one or more elsif-clauses, evaluate the sequence of
28 elsif-clauses as follows:
29 1) Evaluate the expression of each elsif-clause in the order they appear in the program
30 text, until there is an elsif-clause for which expression evaluates to a trueish object.
31 Let T be this elsif-clause.
85
1 2) If T exists, evaluate the compound-statement of its then-clause. The value of the if-
2 expression is the resulting value. Other elsif-clauses and an else-clause following T, if
3 any, are not evaluated.
4 3) If T does not exist, and if there is an else-clause, then evaluate the compound-statement
5 of the else-clause. The value of the if-expression is the resulting value.
6 4) If T does not exist, and if there is no else-clause, then the value of the if-expression is
7 nil.
8 11.5.2.2.3 The unless expression
9 Syntax
10 unless-expression ::
11 unless expression then-clause else-clause ? end
12 Semantics
13 The unless-expression is evaluated as follows:
14 a) Evaluate the expression. Let V be the resulting value.
15 b) If V is a falseish object, evaluate the compound-statement of the then-clause. The value

16 of the unless-expression is the resulting value. In this case, the else-clause, if any, is not
17 evaluated.
18 c) If V is a trueish object, and if there is no else-clause, then the value of the unless-expression
19 is nil.
20 d) If V is a trueish object, and if there is an else-clause, then evaluate the compound-statement

21 of the else-clause. The value of the unless-expression is the resulting value.
22 11.5.2.2.4 The case expression
23 Syntax
24 case-expression ::
25 case-expression-with-expression
26 | case-expression-without-expression
27 case-expression-with-expression ::
28 case expression separator-list ? when-clause + else-clause ? end
29 case-expression-without-expression ::
30 case separator-list ? when-clause + else-clause ? end
86
1 when-clause ::
2 when when-argument then-clause
3 when-argument ::
4 operator-expression-list ( [ no line-terminator here ] , splatting-argument )?
5 | splatting-argument
6 Semantics
7 A case-expression is evaluated as follows:
8 a) If the case-expression is a case-expression-with-expression, evaluate the expression. Let V

10 b) The meaning of the phrase “O is matching” in Step c) is defined as follows:
11 1) If the case-expression is a case-expression-with-expression, invoke the method === on

12 O with a list of arguments which contains only one value V. O is matching if and only
13 if the resulting value is a trueish object.
14 2) If the case-expression is a case-expression-without-expression, O is matching if and only

15 if O is a trueish object.
16 c) Take the following steps:
17 1) Search the when-clauses in the order they appear in the program text for a matching
18 when-clause as follows:
19 i) If the operator-expression-list of the when-argument is present:
20 I) For each of its operator-expressions, evaluate it and test if the resulting value
21 is matching.
22 II) If a matching value is found, other operator-expressions, if any, are not eval-
23 uated.
24 ii) If no matching value is found, and the splatting-argument(see 11.3.2) is present:
25 I) Construct a list of values from it as described in 11.3.2. For each element of

26 the resulting list, in the same order in the list, test if it is matching.
27 II) If a matching value is found, other values, if any, are not evaluated.
28 iii) A when-clause is considered to be matching if and only if a matching value is found

29 in its when-argument. Later when-clauses, if any, are not tested in this case.
30 2) If one of the when-clauses is matching, evaluate the compound-statement of the then-

31 clause of this when-clause. The value of the case-expression is the resulting value.
87
1 3) If none of the when-clauses is matching, and if there is an else-clause, then evaluate
2 the compound-statement of the else-clause. The value of the case-expression is the
3 resulting value.
4 4) Otherwise, the value of the case-expression is nil.
5 11.5.2.2.5 Conditional operator expression
6 Syntax
7 conditional-operator-expression ::
8 range-constructor
9 | range-constructor [ no line-terminator here ] ? operator-expression 1 [ no line-
10 terminator here ] : operator-expression 2
11 Semantics
12 A conditional-operator-expression of the form range-constructor ? operator-expression 1 : operator-
13 expression 2 is evaluated as follows:
14 a) Evaluate the range-constructor.
15 b) If the resulting value is a trueish object, evaluate the operator-expression 1 . The value of
16 the conditional-operator-expression is the resulting value of the evaluation.
17 c) Otherwise, evaluate the operator-expression 2 . The value of the conditional-operator-expression

18 is the resulting value of the evaluation.
19 11.5.2.3 Iteration expressions
21 Syntax
22 iteration-expression ::=
23 while-expression
24 | until-expression
25 | for-expression
26 | while-modifier-statement
27 | until-modifier-statement
28 Each iteration-expression has a condition expression and a body.
29 The condition expression of an iteration-expression is the iteration-expression’s part evaluated to

30 determine the condition of the iteration of the iteration-expression. The condition expression of a
31 while-expression (see 11.5.2.3.2), until-expression (see 11.5.2.3.3), for-expression (see 11.5.2.3.4),
32 while-modifier-statement (see 12.5) or until-modifier-statement (see 12.6) is its expression.
88
1 The body of an iteration-expression is the iteration-expression’s part evaluated iteratively. The
2 body of a while-expression, until-expression, or for-expression is its compound-statement. The
3 body of a while-modifier-statement or until-modifier-statement is its statement.
4 See 12.5 for while-modifier-statements.
5 See 12.6 for until-modifier-statements.
6 11.5.2.3.2 The while expression
7 Syntax
8 while-expression ::
9 while expression do-clause end
10 do-clause ::
11 separator compound-statement
12 | [ no line-terminator here ] do compound-statement
13 Semantics
14 A while-expression is evaluated as follows:
15 a) Evaluate the expression, and take the following steps:
16 1) If the evaluation of the expression is terminated by a break-expression (see 11.5.2.4.3),

17 terminate the evaluation of the while-expression.
18 If the jump-argument of the break-expression is present, the value of the while-expression

19 is the value of the jump-argument. Otherwise, the value of the while-expression is nil.
20 2) If the evaluation of the expression is terminated by a next-expression (see 11.5.2.4.4)

21 or redo-expression (see 11.5.2.4.5), continue processing from the beginning of Step a).
22 3) Otherwise, let V be the resulting value of the expression.
23 b) If V is a falseish object, terminate the evaluation of the while-expression. The value of the
24 while-expression is nil.
25 c) If V is a trueish object, evaluate the compound-statement of the do-clause, and take the
26 following steps:
27 1) If the evaluation of the compound-statement is terminated by a break-expression, ter-

28 minate the evaluation of the while-expression.
29 If the jump-argument of the break-expression is present, the value of the while-expression

30 is the value of the jump-argument. Otherwise, the value of the while-expression is nil.
31 2) If the evaluation of the compound-statement is terminated by a next-expression, con-

32 tinue processing from Step a).
89
1 3) If the evaluation of the compound-statement is terminated by a redo-expression, con-
2 tinue processing from Step c).
3 4) Otherwise, continue processing from Step a).
4 11.5.2.3.3 The until expression
5 Syntax
6 until-expression ::
7 until expression do-clause end
8 Semantics
9 An until-expression is evaluated as follows:
10 a) Evaluate the expression, and take the following steps:
11 1) If the evaluation of the expression is terminated by a break-expression (see 11.5.2.4.3),

12 terminate the evaluation of the until-expression.
13 If the jump-argument of the break-expression is present, the value of the until-expression

14 is the value of the jump-argument. Otherwise, the value of the until-expression is nil.
15 2) If the evaluation of the expression is terminated by a next-expression (see 11.5.2.4.4)

16 or redo-expression (see 11.5.2.4.5), continue processing from the beginning of Step a).
17 3) Otherwise, let V be the resulting value of the expression.
18 b) If V is a trueish object, terminate the evaluation of the until-expression. The value of the
19 until-expression is nil.
20 c) If V is a falseish object, evaluate the compound-statement of the do-clause, and take the
21 following steps:
22 1) If the evaluation of the compound-statement is terminated by a break-expression, ter-

23 minate the evaluation of the until-expression.
24 If the jump-argument of the break-expression is present, the value of the until-expression

25 is the value of the jump-argument. Otherwise, the value of the until-expression is nil.
26 2) If the evaluation of the compound-statement is terminated by a next-expression, con-

27 tinue processing from Step a).
28 3) If the evaluation of the compound-statement is terminated by a redo-expression, con-

29 tinue processing from Step c).
30 4) Otherwise, continue processing from Step a).
90
1 11.5.2.3.4 The for expression
2 Syntax
3 for-expression ::
4 for for-variable [ no line-terminator here ] in expression do-clause end
5 for-variable ::
6 left-hand-side
7 | multiple-left-hand-side
8 Semantics
9 A for-expression is evaluated as follows:
10 a) Evaluate the expression. If the evaluation of the expression is terminated by a break-

11 expression, next-expression, or redo-expression, the behavior is unspecified. Otherwise, let
12 O be the resulting value.
13 b) Let E be the primary-method-invocation of the form primary-expression [no line-terminator

14 here] . each do | block-parameter-list | block-body end, where the value of the primary-
15 expression is O, the block-parameter-list is the for-variable, the block-body is the compound-
16 statement of the do-clause.
17 Evaluate E ; however, if a block whose block-body is the compound-statement of the do-clause

18 of the for-expression is called during this evaluation, the steps in 11.3.3 except the Step c)
19 and the Step e) 4) shall be taken for the evaluation of this call.
20 c) The value of the for-expression is the resulting value of the evaluation.
21 11.5.2.4 Jump expressions
23 Syntax
24 jump-expression ::=
25 return-expression
26 | break-expression
27 | next-expression
28 | redo-expression
29 | retry-expression
30 Semantics
31 jump-expressions are used to terminate the evaluation of a method-body, a block-body, the body
32 of an iteration-expression, or the compound-statement 2 of a rescue-clause. The evaluation of the
91
1 program construct terminated by a jump-expression and the evaluations of program constructs
2 in the program construct which are under evaluation when the evaluation of the jump-expression
3 has been started are terminated in the middle of the evaluation steps, and have no resulting
4 values.
5 In this document, the current block or the current iteration-expression refers to the fol-
6 lowing:
7 a) If the current method invocation does not exist, the block or iteration-expression whose
8 evaluation has been started most recently among block s and iteration-expressions which
9 are under evaluation.
10 b) If the current method invocation exists, the block or iteration-expression whose evaluation
11 has been started most recently among block s and iteration-expressions which are under
12 evaluation and whose evaluation has been started during the evaluation of the current
14 In the both cases, the current block or the current iteration-expression does not exist if such a
15 block or iteration-expression does not exist.
16 11.5.2.4.2 The return expression
17 Syntax
18 return-expression ::=
19 return-without-argument
20 | return-with-argument
21 return-without-argument ::
22 return
23 return-with-argument ::
24 return jump-argument
25 jump-argument ::
26 [ no line-terminator here ] argument-list
27 The block-argument of the argument-list (see 11.3.2) of a jump-argument shall be omitted.
28 Semantics
29 return-expressions and jump-arguments are evaluated as follows:
30 a) A return-expression is evaluated as follows:
31 1) Let M be the method-body which corresponds to the current method invocation. If

32 such an invocation does not exist, or has already terminated:
33 i) Let S be a direct instance of the class Symbol with name return.
92
1 ii) If the jump-argument of the return-expression is present, let V be the value of the
2 jump-argument. Otherwise, let V be nil.
3 iii) Raise a direct instance of the class LocalJumpError which has two instance vari-
4 able bindings, one named @reason with the value S and the other named @exit value
5 with the value V.
6 2) Evaluate the jump-argument, if any, as described in Step b).
7 3) If there are block-bodys which include the return-expression and are included in M,
8 terminate the evaluations of such block-bodys, from innermost to outermost (see 11.3.3).
9 4) Terminate the evaluation of M (see 13.3.3).
10 b) A jump-argument is evaluated as follows:
11 1) If the jump-argument is a splatting-argument:
12 i) Construct a list of values from the splatting-argument as described in 11.3.2 and

13 let L be the resulting list.
14 ii) If the length of L is 0 or 1, the value of the jump-argument is an implementation-

15 defined value.
16 iii) If the length of L is larger than 1, create a direct instance of the class Array
17 and store the elements of L in it, preserving their order. The value of the jump-
18 argument is the instance.
19 2) Otherwise:
20 i) Construct a list of values from the argument-list as described in 11.3.2 and let L
22 ii) If the length of L is 1, the value of the jump-argument is the only element of L.
23 iii) If the length of L is larger than 1, create a direct instance of the class Array
24 and store the elements of L in it, preserving their order. The value of the jump-
25 argument is the instance of the class Array.
26 11.5.2.4.3 The break expression
27 Syntax
28 break-expression ::=
29 break-without-argument
30 | break-with-argument
31 break-without-argument ::
32 break
93
1 break-with-argument ::
2 break jump-argument
3 Semantics
4 A break-expression is evaluated as follows:
5 a) Evaluate the jump-argument, if any, as described in 11.5.2.4.2 b).
6 b) If the current block is present, terminate the evaluation of the block-body of the current
7 block (see 11.3.3).
8 c) If the current iteration-expression is present, terminate the evaluation of the condition

9 expression of the current iteration-expression (see 11.5.2.3) when the break-expression is in
10 the condition expression, or terminate the body of the current iteration-expression when
11 the break-expression is in the body.
12 d) If the current block or the current iteration-expression is not present:
13 1) Let S be a direct instance of the class Symbol with name break.
14 2) If the jump-argument of the break-expression is present, let V be the value of the

15 jump-argument. Otherwise, let V be nil.
18 the value V.
19 11.5.2.4.4 The next expression
20 Syntax
21 next-expression ::=
22 next-without-argument
23 | next-with-argument
24 next-without-argument ::
25 next
26 next-with-argument ::
27 next jump-argument
28 Semantics
29 A next-expression is evaluated as follows:
30 a) Evaluate the jump-argument, if any, as described in 11.5.2.4.2 b).
94
1 b) If the current block is present, terminate the evaluation of the block-body of the current
2 block (see 11.3.3).
3 c) If the current iteration-expression is present, terminate the evaluation of the condition

4 expression of the current iteration-expression (see 11.5.2.3) when the next-expression is in
6 the next-expression is in the body.
7 d) If the current block or the current iteration-expression is not present:
8 1) Let S be a direct instance of the class Symbol with name next.
9 2) If the jump-argument of the next-expression is present, let V be the value of the jump-
10 argument. Otherwise, let V be nil.
13 the value V.
14 11.5.2.4.5 The redo expression
15 Syntax
16 redo-expression ::
17 redo
18 Semantics
19 A redo-expression is evaluated as follows:
20 a) If the current block is present, terminate the evaluation of the block-body of the current
21 block (see 11.3.3).
22 b) If the current iteration-expression is present, terminate the evaluation of the condition

23 expression of the current iteration-expression (see 11.5.2.3) when the redo-expression is in
25 the redo-expression is in the body.
26 c) If the current block or the current iteration-expression is not present:
27 1) Let S be a direct instance of the class Symbol with name redo.
30 the value nil.
31 11.5.2.4.6 The retry expression
32 Syntax
95
1 retry-expression ::
2 retry
3 Semantics
4 A retry-expression is evaluated as follows:
5 a) If the current method invocation (see 13.3.3) exists, let M be the method-body which cor-
6 responds to the current method invocation. Otherwise, let M be the program (see 10.1).
7 b) Let E be the innermost rescue-clause in M which encloses the retry-expression. If such a

8 rescue-clause does not exist, the behavior is unspecified.
9 c) Terminate the evaluation of the compound-statement of the then-clause of E (see 11.5.2.5).
10 11.5.2.5 The begin expression
11 Syntax
12 begin-expression ::
13 begin body-statement end
14 body-statement ::
15 compound-statement rescue-clause ∗ else-clause ? ensure-clause ?
16 rescue-clause ::
17 rescue [ no line-terminator here ] exception-class-list ?
18 exception-variable-assignment ? then-clause
19 exception-class-list ::
20 operator-expression
21 | multiple-right-hand-side
22 exception-variable-assignment ::
23 => left-hand-side
24 ensure-clause ::
25 ensure compound-statement
26 Semantics
27 The value of a begin-expression is the resulting value of the body-statement.
28 A body-statement is evaluated as follows:
96
1 a) Evaluate the compound-statement of the body-statement.
2 b) If no exception is raised, or all the raised exceptions are handled during Step a):
3 1) If the else-clause is present, evaluate the else-clause as described in 11.5.2.2.2.
4 2) If the ensure-clause is present, evaluate its compound-statement. The value of the

5 ensure-clause is the value of this evaluation.
6 3) If both the else-clause and the ensure-clause are present, the value of the body-statement
7 is the value of the ensure-clause. If only one of these clauses is present, the value of
8 the body-statement is the value of the clause.
9 4) If neither the else-clause nor the ensure-clause is present, the value of the body-
10 statement is the value of its compound-statement.
11 c) If an exception is raised and not handled during Step a), test each rescue-clause, if any, in
12 the order it occurs in the program text. The test determines whether the rescue-clause can
13 handle the exception as follows:
14 1) Let E be the exception raised.
15 2) If the exception-class-list is omitted in the rescue-clause, and if E is an instance of the

16 class StandardError, the rescue-clause handles E.
17 3) If the exception-class-list of the rescue-clause is present:
18 i) If the exception-class-list is of the form operator-expression, evaluate the operator-

19 expression. Create an empty list of values, and append the value of the operator-
20 expression to the list.
21 ii) If the exception-class-list is of the form multiple-right-hand-side, construct a list

22 of values from the multiple-right-hand-side (see 11.4.2.4).
23 iii) Let L be the list created by evaluating the exception-class-list as above. For each
24 element D of L:
25 I) If D is neither the class Exception nor a subclass of the class Exception,

26 raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
27 II) If E is an instance of D, the rescue-clause handles E. In this case, any re-

28 maining rescue-clauses in the body-statement are not tested.
29 d) If a rescue-clause R which can handle E is found:
30 1) If the exception-variable-assignment of R is present, evaluate it in the same way as

31 a multiple-assignment-statement of the form left-hand-side = multiple-right-hand-side
32 where the value of multiple-right-hand-side is E.
33 2) Evaluate the compound-statement of the then-clause of R. If this evaluation is termi-

34 nated by a retry-expression, continue processing from Step a). Otherwise, let V be the
35 value of this evaluation.
97
1 3) If the ensure-clause is present, evaluate it. The value of the body-statement is the value
2 of the ensure-clause.
3 4) If the ensure-clause is omitted, the value of the body-statement is V.
4 e) If no rescue-clause is present or if a rescue-clause which can handle E is not found:
5 1) If the ensure-clause is present, evaluate it.
6 2) The value of the body-statement is unspecified.
7 The ensure-clause of a body-statement, if any, is always evaluated, even when the evaluation of
8 body-statement is terminated by a jump-expression.
9 11.5.3 Grouping expression
10 Syntax
11 grouping-expression ::
12 ( expression )
13 | ( compound-statement )
14 Semantics
15 A grouping-expression is evaluated as follows:
16 a) Evaluate the expression or the compound-statement.
17 b) The value of the grouping-expression is the resulting value.
18 11.5.4 Variable references
20 Syntax
21 variable-reference ::
22 variable
23 | pseudo-variable
24 variable ::
30 scoped-constant-reference ::
98
1 identifier
2 | :: constant-identifier
3 See from 11.5.4.2 to 11.5.4.7 for variable and scoped-constant-references.
4 See 11.5.4.8 for pseudo-variables.
5 11.5.4.2 Constants
6 A constant-identifier is evaluated as follows:
7 a) Let N be the constant-identifier.
8 b) Search for a binding of a constant with name N as described below.
9 As soon as the binding is found in any of the following steps, the evaluation of the constant-
10 identifier is terminated and the value of the constant-identifier is the value of the binding
11 found.
12 c) Let L be the top of [class-module-list] . Search for a binding of a constant with name N in
13 each element of L from start to end, including the first element, which is the current class
14 or module, but except for the last element, which is the class Object.
15 d) If a binding is not found, let C be the current class or module.
16 Let L be the included module list of C. Search each element of L in the reverse order for a
17 binding of a constant with name N.
18 e) If the binding is not found:
19 1) If C is an instance of the class Class:
20 i) If C does not have a direct superclass, create a direct instance of the class Symbol
21 with name N, and let R be that instance. Invoke the method const missing on
22 the current class or module with R as the only argument.
23 ii) Let S be the direct superclass of C.
24 iii) Search for a binding of a constant with name N in S.
25 iv) If the binding is not found, let L be the included module list of S and search each
26 element of L in the reverse order for a binding of a constant with name N.
27 v) If the binding is not found, let C be the direct superclass of S. Continue processing
28 from Step e) 1) i).
29 2) If C is not an instance of the class Class:
30 i) Search for a binding of a constant with name N in the class Object.
99
1 ii) If the binding is not found, let L be the included module list of the class Object
2 and search each element of L in the reverse order for a binding of a constant with
3 name N.
4 iii) If the binding is not found, create a direct instance of the class Symbol with name
5 N, and let R be that instance. Invoke the method const missing on the current
6 class or module with R as the only argument.
7 11.5.4.3 Scoped constants
8 A scoped-constant-reference is evaluated as follows:
9 a) If the primary-expression is present, evaluate it and let C be the resulting value. Otherwise,
10 let C be the class Object.
11 b) If C is not an instance of the class Module, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
12 c) Otherwise:
13 1) Let N be the constant-identifier.
14 2) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of constants of C, the value of
15 the scoped-constant-reference is the value of the binding.
16 3) Otherwise:
17 i) Let L be the included module list of C. Search each element of L in the reverse
18 order for a binding of a constant with name N.
19 ii) If the binding is found, the value of the scoped-constant-reference is the value of
20 the binding.
21 iii) Otherwise, if C is an instance of the class Class, search for a binding of a constant
22 with name N from Step e) of 11.5.4.2.
23 iv) Otherwise, create a direct instance of the class Symbol with name N, and let R
24 be that instance. Invoke the method const missing on C with R as the only
25 argument.
26 11.5.4.4 Global variables
27 A global-variable-identifier is evaluated as follows:
28 a) Let N be the global-variable-identifier.
29 b) If a binding with name N exists in [global-variable-bindings] , the value of global-variable-

30 identifier is the value of the binding.
31 c) Otherwise, the value of global-variable-identifier is nil.
32 11.5.4.5 Class variables
33 A class-variable-identifier is evaluated as follows:
100
1 a) Let N be the class-variable-identifier. Let C be the first class or module in the list at the
2 top of [class-module-list] which is not a singleton class.
3 b) Let CS be the set of classes which consists of C and all the superclasses of C. Let MS be
4 the set of modules which consists of all the modules in the included module list of all classes
5 in CS. Let CM be the union of CS and MS.
6 c) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of class variables of only one of the
7 classes or modules in CM, let V be the value of the binding.
8 d) If more than two classes or modules in CM have a binding with name N in the set of
9 bindings of class variables, let V be the value of one of these bindings. Which binding is
10 selected is implementation-defined.
11 e) If none of the classes or modules in CM has a binding with name N in the set of bindings
12 of class variables, let S be a direct instance of the class Symbol with name N and raise a
13 direct instance of the class NameError which has S as its name attribute.
14 f) The value of the class-variable-identifier is V.
15 11.5.4.6 Instance variables
16 An instance-variable-identifier is evaluated as follows:
17 a) Let N be the instance-variable-identifier.
18 b) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of instance variables of the current
19 self, the value of the instance-variable-identifier is the value of the binding.
20 c) Otherwise, the value of the instance-variable-identifier is nil.
21 11.5.4.7 Local variables or method invocations
23 An occurrence of a local-variable-identifier in a variable-reference is evaluated as either a refer-

24 ence to a local variable or a method invocation.
25 11.5.4.7.2 Determination of the type of local variable identifiers
26 Whether the occurrence of a local-variable-identifier I is a reference to a local variable or a

27 method invocation is determined as follows:
28 a) Let P be the point of the program text where I occurs.
29 b) Let S be the innermost local variable scope which encloses P and which does not correspond
30 to a block (see 9.2).
31 c) Let R be the region of the program text between the beginning of S and P.
32 d) If the same identifier as I occurs as a reference to a local variable in variable-reference in

33 R, then I is a reference to a local variable.
101
1 e) If the same identifier as I occurs in one of the the forms below in R, then I is a reference
2 to a local variable.
3 mandatory-parameter
4 optional-parameter-name
5 array-parameter-name
6 proc-parameter-name
7 variable of left-hand-side
8 variable of single-variable-assignment-expression
9 variable of single-variable-assignment-statement
10 variable of abbreviated-variable-assignment-expression
11 variable of abbreviated-variable-assignment-statement
12 f) Otherwise, I is a method invocation.
13 11.5.4.7.3 Local variables
14 If a local-variable-identifier is a reference to a local variable, it is evaluated as follows:
15 a) Let N be the local-variable-identifier.
16 b) Search for a binding of a local variable with name N as described in 9.2.
17 c) If a binding is found, the value of local-variable-identifier is the value of the binding.
18 d) Otherwise, the value of local-variable-identifier is nil.
19 11.5.4.7.4 Method invocations
20 If a local-variable-identifier is a method invocation, it is evaluated as follows:
21 a) Let N be the local-variable-identifier.
22 b) Create an empty list of arguments L, and invoke the method N on the current self with L
23 as the list of arguments (see 13.3.3).
24 11.5.4.8 Pseudo variables
26 Syntax
102
1 pseudo-variable ::
2 nil-expression
3 | true-expression
4 | false-expression
5 | self-expression
6 NOTE A pseudo-variable has a similar form to a local-variable-identifier, but is not a variable.
7 11.5.4.8.2 The nil expression
8 Syntax
9 nil-expression ::
10 nil
11 Semantics
12 A nil-expression evaluates to nil, which is the only instance of the class NilClass (see 6.6).
13 11.5.4.8.3 The true expression and the false expression
14 Syntax
15 true-expression ::
16 true
17 false-expression ::
18 false
19 Semantics
20 A true-expression evaluates to true, which is the only instance of the class TrueClass. A
21 false-expression evaluates to false, which is the only instance of the class FalseClass (see 6.6).
22 11.5.4.8.4 The self expression
23 Syntax
24 self-expression ::
25 self
103
1 Semantics
2 A self-expression evaluates to the value of the current self.
3 11.5.5 Object constructors
4 11.5.5.1 Array constructor
5 Syntax
6 array-constructor ::
7 [ indexing-argument-list ? ]
8 Semantics
9 An array-constructor is evaluated as follows:
10 a) If there is an indexing-argument-list, construct a list of arguments from the indexing-

11 argument-list as described in 11.3.2. Let L be the resulting list.
12 b) Otherwise, create an empty list of values L.
13 c) Create a direct instance of the class Array (see 15.2.12) which stores the values in L in the
14 same order they are stored in L. Let O be the instance.
15 d) The value of the array-constructor is O.
16 11.5.5.2 Hash constructor
17 Syntax
18 hash-constructor ::
19 { ( association-list [ no line-terminator here ] ,? )? }
20 association-list ::
21 association ( [ no line-terminator here ] , association )∗
22 association ::
23 association-key [ no line-terminator here ] => association-value
24 association-key ::
26 association-value ::
104
1 Semantics
2 a) A hash-constructor is evaluated as follows:
3 1) If there is an association-list, evaluate the association-list. The value of the hash-

4 constructor is the resulting value.
5 2) Otherwise, create an empty direct instance of the class Hash. The value of the hash-
6 constructor is the resulting instance.
7 b) An association-list is evaluated as follows:
8 1) Create an empty direct instance H of the class Hash.
9 2) For each association Ai , in the order it appears in the program text, take the following
10 steps:
11 i) Evaluate the operator-expression of the association-key of Ai . Let Ki be the re-

12 sulting value.
13 ii) Evaluate the operator-expression of the association-value. Let Vi be the resulting

14 value.
15 iii) Store a pair of Ki and Vi in H by invoking the method []= on H with Ki and Vi
16 as the arguments.
17 3) The value of the association-list is H.
18 11.5.5.3 Range constructor
19 Syntax
20 range-constructor ::
21 operator-OR-expression
22 | operator-OR-expression 1 [ no line-terminator here ] range-operator operator-OR-
23 expression 2
24 range-operator ::
25 ..
26 | ...
27 Semantics
28 A range-constructor of the form operator-OR-expression 1 range-operator operator-OR-expression 2
29 is evaluated as follows:
30 a) Evaluate the operator-OR-expression 1 . Let A be the resulting value.
31 b) Evaluate the operator-OR-expression 2 . Let B be the resulting value.
105
1 c) If the range-operator is the terminal “..”, construct a list L which contains three arguments:
2 A, B, and false.
3 If the range-operator is the terminal “...”, construct a list L which contains three argu-
4 ments: A, B, and true.
5 d) Invoke the method new on the class Range (see 15.2.14) with L as the list of arguments.
6 The value of the range-constructor is the resulting value.
7 12 Statements
9 Syntax
10 statement ::
11 expression-statement
12 | alias-statement
13 | undef-statement
14 | if-modifier-statement
15 | unless-modifier-statement
18 | rescue-modifier-statement
20 Semantics
21 See 13.3.6 for alias-statements.
22 See 13.3.7 for undef-statements.
23 See 11.4.2 for assignment-statements.
24 12.2 The expression statement
25 Syntax
26 expression-statement ::
27 expression
28 Semantics
29 An expression-statement is evaluated as follows:
30 a) Evaluate the expression.
106
1 b) The value of the expression-statement is the resulting value.
2 12.3 The if modifier statement
3 Syntax
4 if-modifier-statement ::
5 statement [ no line-terminator here ] if expression
6 Semantics
7 An if-modifier-statement of the form S if E, where S is the statement and E is the expression,
8 is evaluated as follows:
9 a) Evaluate the if-expression of the form if E then S end.
10 b) The value of the if-modifier-statement is the resulting value.
11 12.4 The unless modifier statement
12 Syntax
13 unless-modifier-statement ::
14 statement [ no line-terminator here ] unless expression
15 Semantics
16 An unless-modifier-statement of the form S unless E, where S is the statement and E is the
17 expression, is evaluated as follows:
18 a) Evaluate the unless-expression of the form unless E then S end.
19 b) The value of the unless-modifier-statement is the resulting value.
20 12.5 The while modifier statement
21 Syntax
22 while-modifier-statement ::
23 statement [ no line-terminator here ] while expression
24 Semantics
25 A while-modifier-statement of the form S while E, where S is the statement and E is the
107
1 a) If S is a begin-expression, the behavior is implementation-defined.
2 b) Evaluate the while-expression of the form while E do S end.
3 c) The value of the while-modifier-statement is the resulting value.
4 12.6 The until modifier statement
5 Syntax
6 until-modifier-statement ::
7 statement [ no line-terminator here ] until expression
8 Semantics
9 An until-modifier-statement of the form S until E, where S is the statement and E is the
11 a) If S is a begin-expression, the behavior is implementation-defined.
12 b) Evaluate the until-expression of the form until E do S end.
13 c) The value of the until-modifier-statement is the resulting value.
14 12.7 The rescue modifier statement
15 Syntax
16 rescue-modifier-statement ::
17 main-statement-of-rescue-modifier-statement [ no line-terminator here ]
18 rescue fallback-statement-of-rescue-modifier-statement
19 main-statement-of-rescue-modifier-statement ::
20 statement
21 fallback-statement-of-rescue-modifier-statement ::
22 statement but not statement-not-allowed-in-fallback-statement
23 statement-not-allowed-in-fallback-statement ::
25 | keyword-OR-expression
26 | if-modifier-statement
27 | unless-modifier-statement
30 | rescue-modifier-statement
108
1 Semantics
2 A rescue-modifier-statement is evaluated as follows:
3 a) Evaluate the main-statement-of-rescue-modifier-statement. Let V be the resulting value.
4 b) If a direct instance of the class StandardError is raised and not handled in Step a), evaluate
5 fallback-statement-of-rescue-modifier-statement. The value of the rescue-modifier-statement
7 c) If no instances of the class Exception are raised in Step a), or all the instances of the
8 class Exception raised in Step a) are handled in Step a), the value of the rescue-modifier-
9 statement is V.
10 13 Classes and modules

11 13.1 Modules
13 Every module is an instance of the class Module (see 15.2.2). However, not every instance of the
14 class Module is a module because the class Module is a superclass of the class Class, an instance
15 of which is not a module, but a class.
16 Modules have the following attributes:
17 Included module list: A list of modules included in the module. Module inclusion is
18 described in 13.1.3.
19 Constants: A set of bindings of constants.
20 A binding of a constant is created by the following program constructs:
21 Assignments (see 11.4.2)
22 Module-definitions (see 13.1.2)
23 Class-definitions (see 13.2.2)
24 Class variables: A set of bindings of class variables. A binding of a class variable is

25 created by an assignment (see 11.4.2).
26 Instance methods: A set of method bindings. A method binding is created by a method-

27 definition (see 13.3.1), a singleton-method-definition (see 13.4.3), an alias-statement (see
28 13.3.6) or an undef-statement (see 13.3.7). The value of a method binding may be undef ,
29 which is the flag indicating that a method cannot be invoked (see 13.3.7).
30 13.1.2 Module definition
31 Syntax
109
1 module-definition ::
2 module module-path module-body end
3 module-path ::
4 top-module-path
5 | module-name
6 | nested-module-path
7 module-name ::
9 top-module-path ::
10 :: module-name
11 nested-module-path ::
12 primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] :: module-name
13 module-body ::
14 body-statement
15 Semantics
16 A module-definition is evaluated as follows:
17 a) Determine the class or module C in which a binding with name module-name is to be

18 created or modified as follows:
19 1) If the module-path is of the form top-module-path, let C be the class Object.
20 2) If the module-path is of the form module-name, let C be the current class or module.
21 3) If the module-path is of the form nested-module-path, evaluate the primary-expression.

22 If the resulting value is an instance of the class Module, let C be the instace. Otherwise,
24 b) Let N be the module-name.
25 1) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of constants of C, let B be this
26 binding. If the value of B is a module, let M be that module. Otherwise, raise a direct
27 instance of the class TypeError.
28 2) Otherwise, create a direct instance M of the class Module. Create a variable binding
29 with name N and value M in the set of bindings of constants of C.
30 c) Modify the execution context as follows:
110
1 1) Create a new list which has the same members as that of the list at the top of [class-
2 module-list] , and add M to the head of the newly created list. Push the list onto
3 [class-module-list] .
4 2) Push M onto [self ] .
5 3) Push the public visibility onto [default-method-visibility] .
6 4) Push an empty set of bindings onto [local-variable-bindings] .
7 d) Evaluate the body-statement (see 11.5.2.5) of the module-body. The value of the module-
8 definition is the resulting value of the body-statement.
9 e) Restore the execution context by removing the elements from the tops of [class-module-list] ,
10 [self ] , [default-method-visibility] , and [local-variable-bindings] .
11 13.1.3 Module inclusion
12 Modules and classes can be extended by including other modules into them. When a module is
13 included, the instance methods, the class variables, and the constants of the included module
14 are available to the including class or module (see 11.5.4.5, 13.3.3, and 11.5.4.2).
15 Modules and classes can include other modules by invoking the method include (see 15.2.2.4.27)
16 or the method extend (see 15.3.1.3.13).
17 A module M is included in another module N if and only if M is an element of the included

18 module list of N. A module M is included in a class C if and only if M is an element of the
19 included module list of C, or M is included in one of the superclasses of C.
20 13.2 Classes
22 Every class is an instance of the class Class (see 15.2.3), which is a direct subclass of the class
23 Module.
24 Classes have the same set of attributes as modules. In addition, every class has at most one
25 single direct superclass.
26 13.2.2 Class definition
27 Syntax
28 class-definition ::
29 class class-path [ no line-terminator here ] ( < superclass )? separator
30 class-body end
31 class-path ::
32 top-class-path
33 | class-name
34 | nested-class-path
111
1 class-name ::
3 top-class-path ::
4 :: class-name
5 nested-class-path ::
6 primary-expression [ no line-terminator here ] :: class-name
7 superclass ::
8 expression
9 class-body ::
10 body-statement
11 Semantics
12 A class-definition is evaluated as follows:
13 a) Determine the class or module M in which the binding with name class-name is to be
14 created or modified as follows:
15 1) If the class-path is of the form top-class-path, let M be the class Object.
16 2) If the class-path is of the form class-name, let M be the current class or module.
17 3) If the class-path is of the form nested-class-path, evaluate the primary-expression. If

18 the resulting value is an instance of the class Module, let M be the instance. Otherwise,
20 b) Let N be the class-name.
21 1) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of constants of M, let B be that
22 binding.
23 i) If the value of B is an instance of the class Class, let C be the instance. Otherwise,
25 ii) If the superclass is present, evaluate it. If the resulting value does not correspond
26 to the direct superclass of C, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
27 2) Otherwise, create a direct instance of the class Class. Let C be that class.
28 i) If the superclass is present, evaluate it. If the resulting value is not an instance
29 of the class Class, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError. If the value of
30 the superclass is a singleton class or the class Class, the behavior is unspecified.
31 Otherwise, set the direct superclass of C to the value of the superclass.
112
1 ii) If the superclass of the class-definition is omitted, set the direct superclass of C
2 to the class Object.
3 iii) Create a singleton class, and associate it with C. It shall have the singleton class
4 of the direct superclass of C as one of its superclasses.
5 iv) Create a variable binding with name N and value C in the set of bindings of
6 constants of M.
7 c) Modify the execution context as follows:
8 1) Create a new list which has the same members as that of the list at the top of [class-
9 module-list] , and add C to the head of the newly created list. Push the list onto
11 2) Push C onto [self ] .
14 d) Evaluate the body-statement (see 11.5.2.5) of the class-body. The value of the class-definition
15 is the resulting value of the body-statement.
16 e) Restore the execution context by removing the elements from the tops of [class-module-list] ,
18 13.2.3 Inheritance
19 A class inherits attributes of its superclasses. Inheritance means that a class implicitly contains
20 all attributes of its superclasses, as described below:
21 Constants and class variables of superclasses can be referred to (see 11.5.4.2 and 11.5.4.5).
22 Singleton methods of superclasses can be invoked (see 13.4).
23 Instance methods defined in superclasses can be invoked on an instance of their subclasses

24 (see 13.3.3).
25 13.2.4 Instance creation
26 A direct instance of a class can be created by invoking the method new (see 15.2.3.3.3) on the
27 class.
28 13.3 Methods
29 13.3.1 Method definition
30 Syntax
113
1 method-definition ::
2 def defined-method-name [ no line-terminator here ] method-parameter-part
3 method-body end
4 defined-method-name ::
5 method-name
7 method-body ::
8 body-statement
9 The following constructs shall not be present in the method-parameter-part or the method-body:
10 A class-definition.
11 A module-definition.
12 A single-variable-assignment, where its variable is a constant-identifier.
13 A scoped-constant-assignment.
14 A multiple-assignment-statement in which there exists a left-hand-side of any of the follow-

15 ing forms:
16 — constant-identifier ;
17 — primary-expression [no line-terminator here] (. | ::) (local-variable-identifier | constant-

18 identifier );
19 — :: constant-identifier.
20 However, those constructs may occur within a singleton-class-definition in the method-parameter-

21 part or the method-body.
22 Semantics
23 A method is defined by a method-definition or a singleton-method-definition (see 13.4.3), and has
24 the method-parameter-part and the method-body of the method-definition or singleton-method-
25 definition. The method-body is evaluated when the method is invoked (see 13.3.3). The evalu-
26 ation of the method-body is the evaluation of its body-statement (see 11.5.2.5). In addition, a
27 method has the following attributes:
28 Class module list: The list of classes and modules which is the top element of [class-
29 module-list] when the method is defined.
30 Defined name: The name with which the method is defined.
31 Visibility: The visibility of the method (see 13.3.5).
114
1 A class or a module can define a new method with the same name as the name of a method in
2 one of its superclasses or included modules of the class or module. In that case, the new method
3 is said to override the method in the superclass or the included module.
4 A method-definition is evaluated as follows:
5 a) Let N be the defined-method-name.
6 b) Create a method U defined by the method-definition. Initialize the attributes of U as

7 follows:
8 The class module list is the element at the top of [class-module-list] .
9 The defined name is N.
10 The visibility is:
11 — If the current class or module is a singleton class, then the current visibility.
12 — Otherwise, if N is initialize or initialize copy, then the private visibility.
13 — Otherwise, the current visibility.
14 c) If a method binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of instance methods of the
15 current class or module, let V be the value of that binding.
16 1) If V is undef, the evaluation of the method-definition is implementation-defined.
17 2) Replace the value of the binding with U.
18 d) Otherwise, create a method binding with name N and value U in the set of bindings of
19 instance methods of the current class or module.
20 e) The value of the method-definition is implementation-defined.
21 13.3.2 Method parameters
22 Syntax
23 method-parameter-part ::
24 ( parameter-list ? )
25 | parameter-list ? separator
26 parameter-list ::
27 mandatory-parameter-list ( , optional-parameter-list )?
28 ( , array-parameter )? ( , proc-parameter )?
29 | optional-parameter-list ( , array-parameter )? ( , proc-parameter )?
30 | array-parameter ( , proc-parameter )?
31 | proc-parameter
115
1 mandatory-parameter-list ::
2 mandatory-parameter
3 | mandatory-parameter-list , mandatory-parameter
4 mandatory-parameter ::
6 optional-parameter-list ::
7 optional-parameter
8 | optional-parameter-list , optional-parameter
9 optional-parameter ::
10 optional-parameter-name = default-parameter-expression
11 optional-parameter-name ::
13 default-parameter-expression ::
15 array-parameter ::
16 * array-parameter-name
17 |*
18 array-parameter-name ::
20 proc-parameter ::
21 & proc-parameter-name
22 proc-parameter-name ::
24 All the local-variable-identifier s of mandatory-parameter s, optional-parameter-names, the array-

25 parameter-name, and the proc-parameter-name in a parameter-list shall be different.
26 Semantics
27 There are four kinds of parameters as described below. How those parameters are bound to the
28 actual arguments is described in 13.3.3.
29 Mandatory parameters: These parameters are represented by mandatory-parameter s.

30 For each mandatory parameter, a corresponding actual argument shall be given when the
31 method is invoked.
32 Optional parameters: These parameters are represented by optional-parameter s. Each
116
1 optional parameter consists of a parameter name represented by optional-parameter-name
2 and an expression represented by default-parameter-expression. For each optional parame-
3 ter, when there is no corresponding argument in the list of arguments given to the method
4 invocation, the value of the default-parameter-expression is used as the value of the argu-
5 ment.
6 An array parameter: This parameter is represented by array-parameter-name. Let N be

7 the number of arguments, excluding a block-argument, given to a method invocation. If N
8 is more than the sum of the number of mandatory parameters and optional parameters, this
9 parameter is bound to a direct instance of the class Array containing the extra arguments
10 excluding a block-argument. Otherwise, the parameter is bound to an empty direct instance
11 of the class Array. If an array-parameter is of the form “*”, those extra arguments are
12 ignored.
13 A proc parameter: This parameter is represented by proc-parameter-name. The param-

14 eter is bound to a direct instance of the class Proc which represents the block passed to the
16 13.3.3 Method invocation
17 The way in which a list of arguments is created is described in 11.3.
18 Given the receiver R, the method name M, and the list of arguments A, take the following steps:
19 a) If the method is invoked with a block, let B be the block. Otherwise, let B be block-not-
20 given.
21 b) Let C be the singleton class of R if R has a singleton class. Otherwise, let C be the class
22 of R.
23 c) Search for a method binding with name M, starting from C as described in 13.3.4.
24 d) If a binding is found and its value is not undef, let V be the value of the binding.
25 e) Otherwise, if M is method missing, the behavior is unspecified. If M is not method missing,

26 add a direct instance of the class Symbol with name M to the head of A, and invoke the
27 method method missing (see 15.3.1.3.30) on R with A as arguments and B as the block.
28 Let O be the resulting value, and go to Step j).
29 f) Check the visibility of V to see whether the method can be invoked (see 13.3.5). If the
30 method cannot be invoked, add a direct instance of the class Symbol with name M to the
31 head of A, and invoke the method method missing on R with A as arguments and B as
32 the block. Let O be the resulting value, and go to Step j).
33 g) Modify the execution context as follows:
34 1) Push the class module list of V onto [class-module-list] .
35 2) Push R onto [self ] .
36 3) Push M onto [invoked-method-name] .
37 4) Push the public visibility to [default-method-visibility] .
117
1 5) Push the defined name of V onto [defined-method-name] .
2 6) Push B onto [block] .
3 7) Push an empty set of local variable bindings onto [local-variable-bindings] .
4 h) Evaluate the method-parameter-part of V as follows:
5 1) Let L be the parameter-list of the method-parameter-part.
6 2) Let Pm , Po , and Pa be the mandatory-parameter s of the mandatory-parameter-list,

7 the optional-parameter s of the optional-parameter-list, and the array-parameter of L,
8 respectively. Let NA , NP m , and NP o be the number of elements of A, Pm , and Po
9 respectively. If there are no mandatory-parameter s or optional-parameter s, let NP m
10 and NP o be 0. Let Sb be the current set of local variable bindings.
11 3) If NA is smaller than NP m , raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
12 4) If the method does not have Pa and NA is larger than the sum of NP m and NP o , raise
13 a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
14 5) Otherwise, for each i th argument Ai in A, in the same order in A, take the following
15 steps:
16 i) Let Pi be the i th mandatory-parameter or optional-parameter in the order it ap-

17 pears in L.
18 ii) If such Pi does not exist, go to Step h) 6).
19 iii) If Pi is a mandatory parameter, let n be the mandatory-parameter. If Pi is an op-

20 tional parameter, let n be the optional-parameter-name. Create a variable binding
21 with name n and value Ai in Sb .
22 6) If NA is larger than the sum of NP m and NP o , and Pa exists:
23 i) Create a direct instance X of the class Array whose length is the number of extra
24 arguments.
25 ii) Store each extra arguments into X, preserving the order in which they occur in
26 the list of arguments.
27 iii) Let n be the array-parameter-name of Pa .
28 iv) Create a variable binding with name n and value X in Sb .
29 7) If NA is smaller than the sum of NP m and NP o :
30 i) For each optional parameter POi to which no argument corresponds, evaluate the
31 default-parameter-expression of POi , and let X be the resulting value.
32 ii) Let n be the optional-parameter-name of POi .
118
1 iii) Create a variable binding with name n and value X in Sb .
2 8) If NA is smaller than or equal to the sum of NP m and NP o , and Pa exists:
3 i) Create an empty direct instance X of the class Array.
4 ii) Let n be the array-parameter-name of Pa .
5 iii) Create a variable binding with name n and value X in Sb .
6 9) If the proc-parameter of L is present, let D be the top of [block] .
7 i) If D is block-not-given, let X be nil.
8 ii) Otherwise, invoke the method new on the class Proc with an empty list of argu-
9 ments and D as the block. Let X be the resulting value of the method invocation.
10 iii) Let n be the proc-parameter-name of proc-parameter.
11 iv) Create a variable binding with name n and value X in Sb .
12 i) Evaluate the method-body of V.
13 1) If the evaluation of the method-body is terminated by a return-expression:
14 i) If the jump-argument of the return-expression is present, let O be the value of the

15 jump-argument.
16 ii) Otherwise, let O be nil.
17 2) Otherwise, let O be the resulting value of the evaluation.
18 j) Restore the execution context by removing the elements from the tops of [class-module-
19 list] , [self ] , [invoked-method-name] , [default-method-visibility] , [defined-method-name] ,
20 [block] , and [local-variable-bindings] .
21 k) The value of the method invocation is O.
22 The method invocation or the super-expression [see 11.3.4 d)] which corresponds to the set of
23 items on the tops of all the attributes of the execution context modified in Step g), except
24 [local-variable-bindings] , is called the current method invocation.
25 13.3.4 Method lookup
26 Method lookup is the process by which a binding of an instance method is resolved.
27 Given a method name M and a class or a module C which is initially searched for the binding
28 of the method, the method binding is resolved as follows:
29 a) If a method binding with name M exists in the set of bindings of instance methods of C,
30 let B be that binding.
119
1 b) Otherwise, let Lm be the included module list of C. Search for a method binding with name
2 M in the set of bindings of instance methods of each module in Lm . Examine modules in
3 Lm in reverse order.
4 1) If a binding is found, let B be that binding.
5 2) Otherwise:
6 i) If C does not have a direct superclass, the binding is considered not resolved.
7 ii) Otherwise, let new C be the direct superclass of C, and continue processing from
8 Step a).
9 B is the resolved method binding.
10
11 13.3.5 Method visibility
13 Methods are categorized into one of public, private, or protected methods according to the
14 conditions under which the method invocation is allowed. The attribute of a method which
15 determines these conditions is called the visibility of the method.
16 13.3.5.2 Public methods
17 A public method is a method whose visibility attribute is set to the public visibility.
18 A public method can be invoked on an object anywhere within a program.
19 13.3.5.3 Private methods
20 A private method is a method whose visibility attribute is set to the private visibility.
21 A private method cannot be invoked with an explicit receiver, i.e., a private method cannot
22 be invoked if a primary-expression or a chained-method-invocation occurs at the position which
23 corresponds to the method receiver in the method invocation, except for a method invocation
24 of any of the following forms where the primary-expression is a self-expression.
25
c) single-method-assignment
26 abbreviated-method-assignment
27 single-indexing-assignment
28 abbreviated-indexing-assignment
29 13.3.5.4 Protected methods
30 A protected method is a method whose visibility attribute is set to the protected visibility.
31 A protected method can be invoked if and only if the following condition holds:
120
1 Let M be an instance of the class Module in which the binding of the method exists.
2 M is included in the current self, or M is the class of the current self or one of its superclasses.
3 If M is a singleton class, whether the method can be invoked or not may be determined in a
4 implementation-defined way.
5 13.3.5.5 Visibility change
6 The visibility of methods can be changed with the methods public (see 15.2.2.4.38), private
7 (see 15.2.2.4.36), and protected (see 15.2.2.4.37), which are defined in the class Module.
8 13.3.6 The alias statement
9 Syntax
10 alias-statement ::
11 alias new-name aliased-name
12 new-name ::
13 defined-method-name
14 | symbol
15 aliased-name ::
17 | symbol
18 Semantics
19 An alias-statement is evaluated as follows:
20 a) Evaluate the new-name as follows:
21 1) If the new-name is of the form defined-method-name, let N be the defined-method-name.
22 2) If the new-name is of the form symbol, evaluate it. Let N be the name of the resulting
23 instance of the class Symbol.
24 b) Evaluate the aliased-name as follows:
25 1) If aliased-name is of the form defined-method-name, let A be the defined-method-name.
26 2) If aliased-name is of the form symbol, evaluate it. Let A be the name of the resulting
28 c) Let C be the current class or module.
29 d) Search for a method binding with name A, starting from C as described in 13.3.4.
121
1 e) If a binding is found and its value is not undef, let V be the value of the binding.
2 f) Otherwise, let S be a direct instance of the class Symbol with name A and raise a direct
3 instance of the class NameError which has S as its name attribute.
4 g) If a method binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of instance methods of the
5 current class or module, replace the value of the binding with V.
6 h) Otherwise, create a method binding with name N and value V in the set of bindings of
7 instance methods of the current class or module.
8 i) The value of the alias-statement is nil.
9 13.3.7 The undef statement
10 Syntax
11 undef-statement ::
12 undef undef-list
13 undef-list ::
14 method-name-or-symbol ( , method-name-or-symbol )∗
15 method-name-or-symbol ::
17 | symbol
18 Semantics
19 An undef-statement is evaluated as follows:
20 a) For each method-name-or-symbol of the undef-list, take the following steps:
21 1) Let C be the current class or module.
22 2) If the method-name-or-symbol is of the form defined-method-name, let N be the defined-

23 method-name. Otherwise, evaluate the symbol. Let N be the name of the resulting
25 3) Search for a method binding with name N, starting from C as described in 13.3.4.
26 4) If a binding is found and its value is not undef:
27 i) If the binding is found in C, replace the value of the binding with undef.
28 ii) Otherwise, create a method binding with name N and value undef in the set of
29 bindings of instance methods of C.
30 5) Otherwise, let S be a direct instance of the class Symbol with name N and raise a
31 direct instance of the class NameError which has S as its name attribute.
122
1 b) The value of the undef-statement is nil.
2 13.4 Singleton classes
4 A singleton class is an object which is associated with another object. A singleton class modifies
5 the behavior of an object when associated with it. When such an association is made, the
6 singleton class is called the singleton class of the object, and the object is called the primary
7 associated object of the singleton class.
8 An object has at most one singleton class. When an object is created, it shall not be associated
9 with any singleton classes unless the object is an instance of the class Class. Singleton classes
10 are associated with an object by evaluation of a program construct such as a singleton-method-
11 definition or a singleton-class-definition. However, when an instance of the class Class is created,
12 it shall already have been associated with its singleton class.
13 Normally, a singleton class shall be associated with only its primary associated object; however,
14 the singleton class of an instance of the class Class may be associated with some additional
15 instances of the class Class which are not the primary associated objects of any other singleton
16 classes, in an implementation-defined way. Once associated, the primary associated object of
17 a singleton class shall not be dissociated from its singleton class; however the aforementioned
18 additional associated instances of the class Class are dissociated from their singleton class when
19 they become the primary associated object of another singleton class [see 13.4.2 e) and 13.4.3
20 e)].
21 Every singleton class is an instance of the class Class (see 15.2.3), and has the same set of
22 attributes as classes.
23 The direct superclass of a singleton class is implementation-defined. However, a singleton class

24 shall be a subclass of the class of the object with which it is associated.
25 NOTE 1 For example, the singleton class of the class Object is a subclass of the class Class because
26 the class Object is a direct instance of the class Class. Therefore, the instance methods of the class
27 Class can be invoked on the class Object.
28 The singleton class of a class which has a direct superclass shall satisfy the following condition:
29 Let Ec be the singleton class of a class C, and let S be the direct superclass of C, and let
30 Es be the singleton class of S. Then, Ec have Es as one of its superclasses.
31 NOTE 2 This requirement enables classes to inherit singleton methods from its superclasses. For exam-
32 ple, the singleton class of the class File has the singleton class of the class IO as its superclass. Thereby,
33 the class File inherits the singleton method open of the class IO.
34 Although singleton classes are instances of the class Class, they cannot create an instance of
35 themselves. When the method new is invoked on a singleton class, a direct instance of the class
36 TypeError shall be raised [see 15.2.3.3.3 a)].
37 Whether a singleton class can be a superclass of other classes is unspecified [see 13.2.2 b) 2) i)
38 and 15.2.3.3.1 c)].
39 Whether a singleton class can have class variables or not is implementation-defined.
123
1 13.4.2 Singleton class definition
2 Syntax
3 singleton-class-definition ::
4 class << expression separator singleton-class-body end
5 singleton-class-body ::
6 body-statement
7 Semantics
8 A singleton-class-definition is evaluated as follows:
9 a) Evaluate the expression. Let O be the resulting value. If O is an instance of the class
10 Integer or the class Symbol, a direct instance of the class TypeError may be raised.
11 b) If O is one of nil, true, or false, let E be the class of O and go to Step f).
12 c) If O is not associated with a singleton class, create a new singleton class. Let E be the
13 newly created singleton class, and associate O with E as its primary associated object.
14 d) If O is associated with a singleton class as its primary associated object, let E be that
15 singleton class.
16 e) If O is associated with a singleton class not as its primary associated object, dissociate
17 O from the singleton class, and create a new singleton class. Let E be the newly created
18 singleton class, and associate O with E as its primary associated object.
19 f) Modify the execution context as follows:
20 1) Create a new list which consists of the same elements as the list at the top of [class-
21 module-list] and add E to the head of the newly created list. Push the list onto
23 2) Push E onto [self ] .
26 g) Evaluate the singleton-class-body. The value of the singleton-class-definition is the value of

27 the singleton-class-body.
28 h) Restore the execution context by removing the elements from the tops of [class-module-list] ,
30 13.4.3 Singleton method definition
31 Syntax
124
1 singleton-method-definition ::
2 def singleton ( . | :: ) defined-method-name [ no line-terminator here ]
3 method-parameter-part method-body end
4 singleton ::
5 variable-reference
6 | ( expression )
7 Semantics
8 A singleton-method-definition is evaluated as follows:
9 a) Evaluate the singleton. Let S be the resulting value. If S is an instance of the class Integer
10 or the class Symbol, a direct instance of the class TypeError may be raised.
11 b) If S is one of nil, true, or false, let E be the class of O and go to Step f).
12 c) If S is not associated with a singleton class, create a new singleton class. Let E be the
13 newly created singleton class, and associate S with E as its primary associated object.
14 d) If S is associated with a singleton class as its primary associated object, let E be that
15 singleton class.
16 e) If S is associated with a singleton class not as its primary associated object, dissociate S
17 from the singleton class, and create a new singleton class. Let E be the newly created
18 singleton class, and associate S with E as its primary associated object.
19 f) Let N be the defined-method-name.
20 g) Create a method U defined by the singleton-method-definition. U has the method-parameter-

21 part and the method-body of the singleton-method-definition as described in 13.3.1. Initialize
22 the attributes of U as follows:
23 The class module list is the element at the top of [class-module-list] .
24 The defined name is N.
25 The visibility is the public visibility.
26 h) If a method binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of instance methods of E,
27 let V be the value of that binding.
28 1) If V is undef, the evaluation of the singleton-method-definition is implementation-

29 defined.
30 2) Replace the value of the binding with U.
31 i) Otherwise, create a method binding with name N and value U in the set of bindings of
32 instance methods of E.
125
1 j) The value of the singleton-method-definition is implementation-defined.
2 14 Exceptions
4 If an instance of the class Exception is raised, the current evaluation process stops, and control
5 is transferred to a program construct that can handle this exception.
6 14.2 Cause of exceptions
7 An exception is raised when:
8 the method raise (see 15.3.1.2.12) is invoked.
9 an exceptional condition occurs as described in various parts of this document.
10 Only instances of the class Exception shall be raised.
11 14.3 Exception handling
12 Exceptions are handled by a body-statement, an assignment-with-rescue-modifier, or a rescue-

13 modifier-statement. These program constructs are called exception handlers. When an ex-
14 ception handler is handling an exception, the exception being handled is called the current
15 exception.
16 When an exception is raised, it is handled by an exception handler. This exception handler is

17 determined as follows:
18 a) Let S be the innermost local variable scope which lexically encloses the location where
19 the exception is raised, and which corresponds to one of a program, a method-definition, a
20 singleton-method-definition, or a block.
21 b) Test each exception handler in S which lexically encloses the location where the exception
22 is raised from the innermost to the outermost.
23 An assignment-with-rescue-modifier is considered to handle the exception if the excep-

24 tion is an instance of the class StandardError (see 11.4.2.5), except when the exception
25 is raised in its operator-expression 2 . In this case, assignment-with-rescue-modifier does
26 not handle the exception.
27 A rescue-modifier-statement is considered to handle the exception if the exception is

28 an instance of the class StandardError (see 12.7), except when the exception is raised
29 in its fallback-statement-of-rescue-modifier-statement. In this case, rescue-modifier-
30 statement does not handle the exception.
31 A body-statement is considered to handle the exception if one of its rescue-clauses is

32 considered to handle the exception (see 11.5.2.5), except when the exception is raised
33 in one of its rescue-clauses, else-clause, or ensure-clause. In this case, body-statement
34 does not handle the exception. If an ensure-clause of a body-statement is present, it is
35 evaluated even if the handler does not handle the exception (see 11.5.2.5).
126
1 c) If an exception handler which can handle the exception is found in S, terminate the search
2 for the exception handler. Continue evaluating the program as defined for the relevant
3 construct (see 11.4.2.5, 11.5.2.5, and 12.7).
4 d) If none of the exception handlers in S can handle the exception:
5 1) If S corresponds to a method-definition or a singleton-method-definition, terminate Step

6 h) or Step i) of 13.3.3, and take Step j) of the current method invocation (see 13.3.3).
7 Continue the search from Step a), under the assumption that the exception is raised
8 at the location where the method is invoked.
9 2) If S corresponds to a block, terminate the evaluation of the current block, and take
10 Step f) of 11.3.3. Continue the search from Step a), under the assumption that the
11 exception is raised at the location where the block is called.
12 3) If S corresponds to a program, terminate the evaluation of the program, take Step d)

13 of 10.1, and print the information of the exception in an implementation-defined way.
14 15 Built-in classes and modules

16 Built-in classes and modules are classes and modules which are already created before execution
17 of a program (see 7.2).
18 Built-in classes and modules are respectively specified in 15.2 and 15.3. A built-in class or
19 module is specified by describing the following attributes (see 13.1.1 and 13.2.1):
20 The direct superclass (for built-in classes only).
21 The include module list.
22 Constants.
23 Singleton methods, i.e. instance methods of the singleton class of the built-in class or
24 module. The class module list of a singleton method of the built-in class or module consists
25 of two elements: the first is the singleton class of the built-in class or module; the second is
26 the class Object.
27 Instance methods. The class module list (see 13.3.1) of an instance method of the built-in
28 class or module consists of two elements: the first is the built-in class or module; the second
29 is the class Object.
30 The set of bindings of class variables of a built-in class or module is an empty set.
31 NOTE A built-in class or module is not created by a class-definition or module-definition in a program

32 text, but is created as a class or module whose attributes are described in 15.2 or 15.3 in advance prior
33 to an execution of a program.
34 A conforming processor may provide the following additional attributes and/or values.
127
1 A specific initial value for an attribute defined in this document whose initial value is not
2 specified in this document;
3 Constants, singleton methods, instance methods;
4 Additional optional parameters or array parameters for methods specified in this document;
5 Additional inclusion of modules into built-in classes/modules.
6 In 15.2 and 15.3, the following notations are used:
7 Each subclause of 15.2 and 15.3 (e.g., 15.2.1) specifies a built-in class or module. The title
8 of the subclause is the name of the built-in class or module. The name is used as the name
9 of a constant binding in the class Object (see 15.2.1.4).
10 A built-in class except the class Object (see 15.2.1) has, as its direct superclass, the class
11 described in the subclause titled “Direct superclass” in the subclause specifying the built-in
12 class.
13 When a subclause specifying a built-in class or module contains a subclause titled “Included
14 modules”, the built-in class or module includes (see 13.1.3) the modules listed in that
15 subclause in the order of that listing.
16 Each subclause in a subclause titled “Singleton methods” with a title of the form C.m
17 specifies the singleton method m of the class C.
18 Each subclause in a subclause titled “Instance methods” with a title of the form C #m
19 specifies the instance method m of the class C.
20 The parameter specification of a method is described in the form of method-parameter-part

21 (see 13.3.2).
22 EXAMPLE 1 The following example defines the parameter specification of a method sample.
23 sample( arg1, arg2, opt =expr, *ary, &blk )
24 A singleton method name is prefixed by the name of the class or the module, and a dot (.).
25 EXAMPLE 2 The following example defines the parameter specification of a singleton method
26 sample of a class SampleClass:
27 SampleClass.sample( arg1, arg2, opt =expr, *ary, &blk )
28 Next to the parameter specification, the visibility and the behavior of the method are
29 specified.
30 The visibility, which is any one of public, protected, or private, is specified after the label
31 named “Visibility:”.
32 The behavior, which is the steps which shall be taken while evaluating the method-body of
33 the method [see 13.3.3 i)], is specified after the label named “Behavior:”.
128
1 In these steps, a reference to the name of an argument in the parameter specification is
2 considered to be the object bound to the local variables of the same name.
3 The phrase “call block with X as the argument” indicates that the block corresponding to
4 the proc parameter block is called as described in 11.3.3 with X as the argument to the
5 block call.
6 The phrase “return X ” indicates that the evaluation of the method-body is terminated at
7 that point, and X is the value of the method-body.
8 The phrase “the name designated by N ” means the result of the following steps:
9 a) If N is an instance of the class Symbol, the name of N.
10 b) If N is an instance of the class String, the content (see 15.2.10.1) of N.
11 c) Otherwise, the behavior of the method is unspecified.
12 15.2 Built-in classes
13 15.2.1 Object
15 The class Object is an implicit direct superclass for other classes. That is, if the direct superclass
16 of a class is not specified explicitly in the class definition, the direct superclass of the class is
17 the class Object (see 13.2.2).
18 All built-in classes and modules can be referred to through constants of the class Object (see
19 15.2.1.4).
20 15.2.1.2 Direct superclass
21 The class Object does not have a direct superclass, or may have an implementation-defined
22 superclass.
23 15.2.1.3 Included modules
24 The following module is included in the class Object.
25 Kernel
27 The following constants are defined in the class Object.
28 STDIN: An implementation-defined readable instance of the class IO, which is used for
29 reading conventional input.
30 STDOUT: An implementation-defined writable instance of the class IO, which is used for
31 writing conventional output.
129
1 STDERR: An implementation-defined writable instance of the class IO, which is used for
2 writing diagnostic output.
3 Other than these constants, for each built-in class or module, including the class Object itself,
4 a conforming processor shall define a constant in the class Object, whose name is the name of
5 the class or module, and whose value is the class or module itself.
6 15.2.1.5 Instance methods
7 15.2.1.5.1 Object#initialize
8 initialize( *args )
9 Visibility: private
10 Behavior: The method initialize is the default object initialization method, which is
11 invoked when an instance is created (see 13.2.4). It returns an implementation-defined
12 value.
13 If the class Object is not the root of the class inheritance tree, the method initialize shall be
14 defined in the class which is the root of the class inheritance tree instead of in the class Object.
15 15.2.2 Module
17 All modules are instances of the class Module. Therefore, behaviors defined in the class Module
18 are shared by all modules.
19 The binary relation on the instances of the class Module denoted A @ B is defined as follows:
20 B is a module, and B is included in A (see 13.1.3) or
21 Both A and B are instances of the class Class, and B is a superclass of A.
23 The class Object
24 15.2.2.3 Singleton methods
25 15.2.2.3.1 Module.constants
26 Module.constants
27 Visibility: public
28 Behavior:
130
1 a) Create an empty direct instance of the class Array. Let A be the instance.
2 b) Let C be the current class or module. Let L be the list which consists of the same
3 elements as the list at the second element from the top of [class-module-list] , except
4 the last element, which is the class Object.
5 Let CS be the set of classes which consists of C and all the superclasses of C except
6 the class Object, but when C is the class Object, it shall be included in CS. Let MS
7 be the set of modules which consists of all the modules in the included module list of
8 all classes in CS. Let CM be the union of L, CS and MS.
9 c) For each class or module c in CM, and for each name N of a constant defined in c,
11 1) Let S be either a new direct instance of the class String whose content is N or a
12 direct instance of the class Symbol whose name is N. Which is chosen as the value
13 of S is implementation-defined.
14 2) Unless A contains the element of the same name as S, when S is an instance of the
15 class Symbol, or the same content as S, when S is an instance of the class String,
16 insert S to A. The position where S is inserted is implementation-defined.
17 d) Return A.
18 15.2.2.3.2 Module.nesting
19 Module.nesting
21 Behavior: The method returns a new direct instance of the class Array which contains all
22 but the last element of the list at the second element from the top of the [class-module-list]
23 in the same order.
25 15.2.2.4.1 Module#<
26 <( other )
28 Behavior: Let A be other . Let R be the receiver of the method.
29 a) If A is not an instance of the class Module, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
30 b) If A and R are the same object, return false.
31 c) If R @ A, return true.
131
1 d) If A @ R, return false.
2 e) Otherwise, return nil.
3 15.2.2.4.2 Module#<=
4 < =( other )
6 Behavior:
7 a) If other and the receiver are the same object, return true.
8 b) Otherwise, the behavior is the same as the method < (see 15.2.2.4.1).
9 15.2.2.4.3 Module#<=>
10 < =>( other )
13 a) If A is not an instance of the class Module, return nil.
14 b) If A and R are the same object, return an instance of the class Integer whose value
15 is 0.
16 c) If R @ A, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is −1.
17 d) If A @ R, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 1.
19 15.2.2.4.4 Module#==
20 = =( other )
22 Behavior: Same as the method == of the module Kernel (see 15.3.1.3.1).
23 15.2.2.4.5 Module#===
132
1 = = =( object )
3 Behavior: Invoke the method kind of? (see 15.3.1.3.26) of the module Kernel on object
4 with the receiver as the only argument, and return the resulting value.
5 15.2.2.4.6 Module#>
6 >( other )
9 a) If A is not an instance of the class Module, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
10 b) If A and R are the same object, return false.
11 c) If R @ A, return false.
12 d) If A @ R, return true.
14 15.2.2.4.7 Module#>=
15 > =( other )
17 Behavior:
19 b) Otherwise, the behavior is the same as the method > (see 15.2.2.4.6).
20 15.2.2.4.8 Module#alias method
21 alias method( new name, aliased name )
23 Behavior: Let C be the receiver of the method.
133
1 a) Let N be the name designated by new name. Let A be the name designated by
2 aliased name.
3 b) Take steps d) through h) of 13.3.6, assuming that A, C, and N in 13.3.6 to be A, C,

4 and N in the above steps.
5 c) Return C.
6 15.2.2.4.9 Module#ancestors
7 ancestors
9 Behavior:
10 a) Create an empty direct instance A of the class Array.
11 b) Let C be the receiver of the method.
12 c) If C is a singleton class, the behavior is implementation-defined.
13 d) Otherwise, append C to the end of A.
14 e) Append each element of the included module list of C to A in the reverse order.
15 f) If C has a direct superclass, let new C be the direct superclass of the current C, and
16 repeat from Step c).
17 g) Return A.
18 15.2.2.4.10 Module#append features
19 append features( module )
21 Behavior: Let L1 and L2 be the included module list of the receiver and module respec-
22 tively.
23 a) If module and the receiver are the same object, the behavior is unspecified.
24 b) If the receiver is an element of L2, the behavior is implementation-defined.
25 c) Otherwise, for each module M in L1, in the same order in L1, take the following steps:
26 1) If M and module are the same object, the behavior is unspecified.
27 2) If M is not in L2, append M to the end of L2.
134
1 d) Append the receiver to L2.
2 e) Return an implementation-defined value.
3 15.2.2.4.11 Module#attr
4 attr( name )
6 Behavior: Invoke the method attr reader of the class Module (see 15.2.2.4.13) on the
7 receiver with name as the only argument, and return the resulting value.
8 15.2.2.4.12 Module#attr accessor
9 attr accessor( *name list )
11 Behavior:
12 Let C be the method receiver.
13 a) For each element E of name list, take the following steps:
14 1) Let N be the name designated by E.
15 2) If N is not of the form local-variable-identifier or constant-identifier, raise a direct

16 instance of the class NameError which has E as its name attribute.
17 3) Define an instance method in C as if by evaluating the following method definition

18 at the location of the invocation. In the following method definition, N is N, and
19 @N is the name which is N prefixed by “@”.
20 def N
21 @N
22 end
23
24 4) Define an instance method in C as if by evaluating the following method definition

25 at the location of the invocation. In the following method definition, N= is the name
26 N postfixed by =, and @N is the name which is N prefixed by “@”. The choice of the
27 parameter name is arbitrary, and val is chosen only for the expository purpose.
28 def N=(val)
29 @N = val
30 end
31
32 b) Return an implementation-defined value.
135
1 15.2.2.4.13 Module#attr reader
2 attr reader( *name list )
4 Behavior: The method takes the same steps as the method attr accessor [see 15.2.2.4.12,
5 except Step a) 4)] of the class Module.
6 15.2.2.4.14 Module#attr writer
7 attr writer( *name list )
9 Behavior: The method takes the same steps as the method attr accessor of the class
10 Module (see 15.2.2.4.12), except Step a) 3).
11 15.2.2.4.15 Module#class eval
12 class eval( string =nil, &block )
14 Behavior:
15 a) Let M be the receiver.
16 b) If block is given:
17 1) If string is given, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
18 2) Call block with implementation-defined arguments as described in 11.3.3, and let V

19 be the resulting value. A conforming processor shall modify the execution context
20 just before 11.3.3 d) as follows:
21 Create a new list which has the same members as those of the list at the top
22 of [class-module-list] , and add M to the head of the newly created list. Push
23 the list onto [class-module-list] .
24 Push the receiver onto [self ] .
25 Push the public visibility onto [default-method-visibility] .
26 In 11.3.3 d) and e), a conforming processor shall ignore M which is added to the
27 head of the top of [class-module-list] as described above, except when referring to
28 the current class or module in a method-definition (see 13.3.1), an alias-statement
29 (see 13.3.6), or an undef-statement (see 13.3.7).
136
1 3) Return V.
2 c) If block is not given:
3 1) If string is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
4 2) Let E be the execution context as it exists just before this method invoked.
5 3) Modify E as follows:
6 Create a new list which has the same members as those of the list at the top
7 of [class-module-list] , and add M to the head of the newly created list. Push
8 the list onto [class-module-list] .
9 Push the receiver onto [self ] .
10 Push the public visibility onto [default-method-visibility] .
11 4) Parse the content of string as a program (see 10.1). If it fails, raise a direct instance
12 of the class SyntaxError.
13 5) Evaluate the program within the execution context E. Let V be the resulting value
14 of the evaluation.
15 6) Restore the execution context E by removing the elements from the tops of [class-
16 module-list] , [self ] , and [default-method-visibility] , even when an exception is
17 raised and not handled in c) 4) or c) 5).
18 7) Return V.
19 In Step c) 5), a local variable scope which corresponds to the program is considered as a
20 local variable scope which corresponds to a block in 9.2 d) 1).
21 15.2.2.4.16 Module#class variable defined?
22 class variable defined?( symbol )
25 a) Let N be the name designated by symbol .
26 b) If N is not of the form class-variable-identifier, raise a direct instance of the class

27 NameError which has symbol as its name attribute.
28 c) Search for a binding of the class variable with name N by taking steps b) through d)
29 of 11.5.4.5, assuming that C and N in 11.5.4.5 to be C and N in the above steps.
30 d) If a binding is found, return true.
31 e) Otherwise, return false.
137
1 15.2.2.4.17 Module#class variable get
2 class variable get( symbol )
3 Visibility: implementation-defined

10 d) If a binding is found, return the value of the binding.
11 e) Otherwise, raise a direct instance of the class NameError which has symbol as its name
12 attribute.
13 15.2.2.4.18 Module#class variable set
14 class variable set( symbol, obj )

22 d) If a binding is found, replace the value of the binding with obj .
23 e) Otherwise, create a variable binding with name N and value obj in the set of bindings
24 of class variables of C.
25 f) Return obj .
26 15.2.2.4.19 Module#class variables
138
1 class variables
3 Behavior: The method returns a new direct instance of the class Array which consists
4 of names of all class variables of the receiver. These names are represented by direct
5 instances of either the class String or the class Symbol. Which of those classes is chosen is
6 implementation-defined.
7 15.2.2.4.20 Module#const defined?
8 const defined?( symbol )
10 Behavior:
11 a) Let C be the receiver of the method.
12 b) Let N be the name designated by symbol .
13 c) If N is not of the form constant-identifier, raise a direct instance of the class NameError
14 which has symbol as its name attribute.
15 d) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of constants of C, return true.
17 15.2.2.4.21 Module#const get
18 const get( symbol )
20 Behavior:
22 b) If N is not of the form constant-identifier, raise a direct instance of the class NameError
24 c) Search for a binding of a constant with name N from Step e) of 11.5.4.2, assuming that
25 C in 11.5.4.2 to be the receiver of the method.
26 d) If a binding is found, return the value of the binding.
27 e) Otherwise, return the value of the invocation of the method const missing [see 11.5.4.2
28 e) 1) i)].
139
1 15.2.2.4.22 Module#const missing
2 const missing( symbol )
4 Behavior: The method const missing is invoked when a binding of a constant does not
5 exist on a constant reference (see 11.5.4.2).
6 When the method is invoked, take the following steps:
7 a) Take steps a) through c) of 15.2.2.4.20.
8 b) Raise a direct instance of the class NameError which has symbol as its name attribute.
9 15.2.2.4.23 Module#const set
10 const set( symbol, obj )
16 c) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of constants of C, replace the
17 value of the binding with obj .
18 d) Otherwise, create a variable binding with N and value obj in the set of bindings of
19 constants of C.
20 e) Return obj .
21 15.2.2.4.24 Module#constants
22 constants
24 Behavior:
25 The method returns a new direct instance of the class Array which consists of names of all
26 constants defined in the receiver. These names are represented by direct instances of either
27 the class String or the class Symbol. Which of those classes is chosen is implementation-
28 defined.
140
1 15.2.2.4.25 Module#extend object
2 extend object( object )
4 Behavior: Let S be the singleton class of object. Invoke the method append features (see
5 15.2.2.4.10) on the receiver with S as the only argument, and return the resulting value.
6 15.2.2.4.26 Module#extended
7 extended( object )
9 Behavior: The method returns nil.
10 NOTE The method extended is invoked in the method extend of the module Kernel (see 15.3.1.3.13).
11 The method extended can be overriden to hook an invocation of the method extend.
12 15.2.2.4.27 Module#include
13 include( *module list )
16 a) For each element A of module list, in the reverse order in module list, take the following
17 steps:
18 1) If A is not an instance of the class Module, raise a direct instance of the class
19 TypeError.
20 2) If A is an instance of the class Class, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
21 3) Invoke the method append features (see 15.2.2.4.10) on A with C as the only
22 argument.
23 4) Invoke the method included (see 15.2.2.4.29) on A with C as the only argument.
24 b) Return C.
25 15.2.2.4.28 Module#include?
141
1 include?( module )
4 a) If module is not an instance of the class Module, raise a direct instance of the class
5 TypeError.
6 b) If module is an element of the included module list of C, return true.
7 c) Otherwise, if C is an instance of the class Class, and if module is an element of the

8 included module list of one of the superclasses of C, then return true.
9 d) Otherwise, return false.
10 15.2.2.4.29 Module#included
11 included( module )
13 Behavior: The method returns nil.
14 NOTE The method included is invoked in the method include of the class Module (see 15.2.2.4.27).
15 The method included can be overriden to hook an invocation of the method include.
16 15.2.2.4.30 Module#included modules
17 included modules
21 b) Append each element of the included module list of C, in the reverse order, to A.
22 c) If C is an instance of the class Class, and if C has a direct superclass, then let new C
23 be the direct superclass of the current C, and repeat from Step b).
24 d) Otherwise, return A.
25 15.2.2.4.31 Module#initialize
142
1 initialize( &block )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If block is given, take step b) of the method class eval of the class Module (see
5 15.2.2.4.15), assuming that block in 15.2.2.4.15 to be block given to this method.
7 15.2.2.4.32 Module#initialize copy
8 initialize copy( original )
10 Behavior:
11 a) Invoke the instance method initialize copy defined in the module Kernel on the
12 receiver with original as the argument.
13 b) If the receiver is associated with a singleton class, let Eo be the singleton class, and
15 1) Create a singleton class whose direct superclass is the direct superclass of Eo . Let
16 En be the singleton class.
17 2) For each binding Bv1 of the constants of Eo , create a variable binding with the
18 same name and value as Bv1 in the set of bindings of constants of En .
19 3) For each binding Bv2 of the class variables of Eo , create a variable binding with
20 the same name and value as Bv2 in the set of bindings of class variables of En .
21 4) For each binding Bm of the instance methods of Eo , create a method binding with
22 the same name and value as Bm in the set of bindings of instance methods of En .
23 5) Associate the receiver with En .
24 c) If the receiver is an instance of the class Class:
25 1) If original has a direct superclass, set the direct superclass of the receiver to the
26 direct superclass of original .
27 2) Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
28 d) Append each element of the included module list of original , in the same order, to the
29 included module list of the receiver.
143
1 e) For each binding Bv3 of the constants of original , create a variable binding with the
2 same name and value as Bv3 in the set of bindings of constants of the receiver.
3 f) For each binding Bv4 of the class variables of original , create a variable binding with
4 the same name and value as Bv4 in the set of bindings of class variables of the receiver.
5 g) For each binding Bm2 of the instance methods of original , create a method binding
6 with the same name and value as Bm2 in the set of bindings of instance methods of the
7 receiver.
8 h) Return an implementation-defined value.
9 15.2.2.4.33 Module#instance methods
10 instance methods( include super =true )
14 b) Let I be the set of bindings of instance methods of C. For each binding B of I, let N
15 be the name of B, and let V be the value of B, and take the following steps:
16 1) If V is undef, or the visibility of V is private, skip the next two steps.
20 3) Unless A contains the element of the same name (if S is an instance of the class
21 Symbol) or the same content (if S is an instance of the class String) as S, append
22 S to A.
23 c) If include super is a trueish object:
24 1) For each module M in included module list of C, take step b), assuming that C
25 in that step to be M.
26 2) If C does not have a direct superclass, return A.
27 3) Let new C be the direct superclass of C.
28 4) Repeat from Step b).
29 d) Return A.
30 15.2.2.4.34 Module#method defined?
144
1 method defined?( symbol )
5 b) Search for a binding of an instance method named N starting from C as described in

6 13.3.4.
7 c) If a binding is found and its value is not undef, return true.
9 15.2.2.4.35 Module#module eval
10 module eval( string =nil, &block )
12 Behavior: Same as the method class eval (see 15.2.2.4.15).
13 15.2.2.4.36 Module#private
14 private( *symbol list )
16 Behavior: Same as the method public (see 15.2.2.4.38), except to let NV be the private
17 visibility in 15.2.2.4.38 a).
18 15.2.2.4.37 Module#protected
19 protected( *symbol list )
21 Behavior: Same as the method public (see 15.2.2.4.38), except to let NV be the protected
22 visibility in 15.2.2.4.38 a).
23 15.2.2.4.38 Module#public
145
1 public( *symbol list )
4 a) Let NV be the public visibility.
5 b) If the length of symbol list is 0, change the current visibility to NV and return C.
6 c) Otherwise, for each element S of symbol list, take the following steps:
7 1) Let N be the name designated by S.
8 2) Search for a method binding with name N starting from C as described in 13.3.4.
9 3) If a binding is found and its value is not undef, let V the value of the binding.
10 4) Otherwise, raise a direct instance of the class NameError which has S as its name
11 attribute.
12 5) If C is the class or module in which the binding is found, change the visibility of
13 V to NV.
14 6) Otherwise, define an instance method in C as if by evaluating the following method

15 definition. In the definition, N is N. The choice of the parameter name is arbitrary,
16 and args is chosen only for the expository purpose.
17 def N(*args)
18 super
19 end
20
21 The attributes of the method created by the above definition are initialized as
22 follows:
23 i) The class module list is the element at the top of [class-module-list] .
24 ii) The defined name is the defined name of V.
25 iii) The visibility is NV.
26 d) Return C.
27 15.2.2.4.39 Module#remove class variable
28 remove class variable( symbol )
146

6 c) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of class variables of C, let V be
7 the value of the binding.
8 1) Remove the binding from the set of bindings of class variables of C.
9 2) Return V.
10 d) Otherwise, raise a direct instance of the class NameError which has symbol as its name
11 attribute.
12 15.2.2.4.40 Module#remove const
13 remove const( symbol )
19 c) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of constants of C, let V be the
20 value of the binding.
21 1) Remove the binding from the set of bindings of constants of C.
22 2) Return V.
24 attribute.
25 15.2.2.4.41 Module#remove method
26 remove method( *symbol list )
147
1 a) For each element S of symbol list, in the order in the list, take the following steps:
3 2) If a binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of instance methods of C,

4 and if the value of the binding is not undef, then remove the binding from the set.
5 3) Otherwise, raise a direct instance of the class NameError which has S as its name
6 attribute. In this case, the remaining elements of symbol list are not processed.
7 b) Return C.
8 15.2.2.4.42 Module#undef method
9 undef method( *symbol list )
12 a) For each element S of symbol list, in the order in the list, take the following steps:
14 2) Take steps a) 3) and a) 4) of 13.3.7, assuming that C and N in 13.3.7 to be C and

15 N in the above steps, respectively.
16 b) Return C.
17 15.2.3 Class
19 All classes are instances of the class Class. Therefore, behaviors defined in the class Class are
20 shared by all classes.
21 The instance methods append features and extend object of the class Class shall be unde-
22 fined by invoking the method undef method (see 15.2.2.4.42) on the class Class with instances
23 of the class Symbol whoses names are “append features” and “extend object” as the arguments.
24 NOTE The instance methods append features and extend object are methods for modules. These
25 methods are therefore undefined in the class Class, whose instances do not represent modules, but classes.
27 The class Module
29 15.2.3.3.1 Class#initialize
148
1 initialize( superclass =Object, &block )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If the receiver has its direct superclass, or is the root of the class inheritance tree, then
6 b) If superclass is not an instance of the class Class, raise a direct instance of the class
7 TypeError.
8 c) If superclass is a singleton class or the class Class, the behavior is unspecified.
9 d) Set the direct superclass of the receiver to superclass.
10 e) Create a singleton class, and associate it with the receiver. The singleton class shall
11 have the singleton class of superclass as one of its superclasses.
12 f) If block is given, take step b) of the method class eval of the class Module (see
13 15.2.2.4.15), assuming that block in 15.2.2.4.15 to be block given to this method.
14 g) Return an implementation-defined value.
15 15.2.3.3.2 Class#initialize copy
18 Behavior:
19 a) If the direct superclass of the receiver has already been set, or if the receiver is the root
20 of the class inheritance tree, then raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
21 b) If the receiver is a singleton class, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
22 c) Invoke the instance method initialize copy defined in the class Module on the re-
23 ceiver with original as the argument.
24 d) Return an implementation-defined value.
25 15.2.3.3.3 Class#new
26 new( *args, &block )
149
1 Behavior:
2 a) If the receiver is a singleton class, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
3 b) Create a direct instance of the receiver which has no bindings of instance variables.
4 Let O be the newly created instance.
5 c) Invoke the method initialize on O with all the elements of args as arguments and
6 block as the block.
7 d) Return O.
8 15.2.3.3.4 Class#superclass
9 superclass
12 a) If C is a singleton class, return an implementation-defined value.
13 b) If C does not have a direct superclass, return nil.
14 c) Otherwise, return the direct superclass of C.
15 15.2.4 NilClass
17 The class NilClass has only one instance nil (see 6.6).
18 Instances of the class NilClass shall not be created by the method new of the class NilClass.
19 Therefore, the singleton method new of the class NilClass shall be undefined, by invoking the
20 method undef method (see 15.2.2.4.42) on the singleton class of the class NilClass with a direct
21 instance of the class Symbol whose name is “new” as the argument.
23 The class Object
25 15.2.4.3.1 NilClass#&
26 &( other )
28 Behavior: The method returns false.
150
1 15.2.4.3.2 NilClass#ˆ
2 ^( other )
4 Behavior:
5 a) If other is a falseish object, return false.
6 b) Otherwise, return true.
7 15.2.4.3.3 NilClass#|
8 |( other )
10 Behavior:
13 15.2.4.3.4 NilClass#nil?
14 nil?
16 Behavior: The method returns true.
17 15.2.4.3.5 NilClass#to s
18 to s
20 Behavior: The method creates an empty direct instance of the class String, and returns
21 this instance.
22 15.2.5 TrueClass
24 The class TrueClass has only one instance true (see 6.6).
151
1 Instances of the class TrueClass shall not be created by the method new of the class TrueClass.
2 Therefore, the singleton method new of the class TrueClass shall be undefined, by invoking the
3 method undef method (see 15.2.2.4.42) on the singleton class of the class TrueClass with a
4 direct instance of the class Symbol whose name is “new” as the argument.
6 The class Object
8 15.2.5.3.1 TrueClass#&
9 &( other )
11 Behavior:
14 15.2.5.3.2 TrueClass#ˆ
15 ^( other )
17 Behavior:
18 a) If other is a falseish object, return true.
19 b) Otherwise, return false.
20 15.2.5.3.3 TrueClass#to s
21 to s
23 Behavior: The method creates a direct instance of the class String, the content of which
24 is “true”, and returns this instance.
25 15.2.5.3.4 TrueClass#|
152
1 |( other )
3 Behavior: The method returns true.
4 15.2.6 FalseClass
6 The class FalseClass has only one instance false (see 6.6).
7 Instances of the class FalseClass shall not be created by the method new of the class FalseClass.
8 Therefore, the singleton method new of the class FalseClass shall be undefined, by invoking
9 the method undef method (see 15.2.2.4.42) on the singleton class of the class FalseClass with
10 a direct instance of the class Symbol whose name is “new” as the argument.
12 The class Object
14 15.2.6.3.1 FalseClass#&
15 &( other )
17 Behavior: The method returns false.
18 15.2.6.3.2 FalseClass#ˆ
19 ^( other )
21 Behavior:
24 15.2.6.3.3 FalseClass#to s
153
1 to s
4 is “false”, and returns this instance.
5 15.2.6.3.4 FalseClass#|
6 |( other )
8 Behavior:
11 15.2.7 Numeric
13 Instances of the class Numeric represent numbers. The class Numeric is the superclass of all the
14 other built-in classes which represent numbers.
15 The notation “the value of the instance N of the class Numeric” means the number represented
16 by N.
18 The class Object
20 The following module is included in the class Numeric.
21 Comparable
23 15.2.7.4.1 Numeric#+@
24 +@
26 Behavior: The method returns the receiver.
154
1 15.2.7.4.2 Numeric#−@
2 -@
4 Behavior:
5 a) Invoke the method coerce on the receiver with an instance of the class Integer whose
6 value is 0 as the only argument. Let V be the resulting value.
7 1) If V is an instance of the class Array which contains two elements, let F and S
8 be the first and the second element of V respectively.
9 i) Invoke the method - on F with S as the only argument.
10 ii) Return the resulting value.
11 2) Otherwise, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
12 15.2.7.4.3 Numeric#abs
13 abs
15 Behavior:
16 a) Invoke the method < on the receiver with an instance of the class Integer whose value
17 is 0 as an argument.
18 b) If this invocation results in a trueish object, invoke the method -@ on the receiver and
19 return the resulting value.
20 c) Otherwise, return the receiver.
21 15.2.7.4.4 Numeric#coerce
22 coerce( other )
24 Behavior:
25 a) If the class of the receiver and the class of other are the same class, let X and Y be
26 other and the receiver, respectively.
155
1 b) Otherwise, let X and Y be instances of the class Float which are converted from other
2 and the receiver, respectively. other and the receiver are converted as follows:
3 1) Let O be other or the receiver.
4 2) If O is an instance of the class Float, let F be O.
5 3) Otherwise:
6 i) If an invocation of the method respond to? on O with a direct instance of

7 the class Symbol whose name is to f as the argument results in a falseish
8 object, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
9 ii) Invoke the method to f on O with no arguments, and let F be the resulting
10 value.
11 iii) If F is not an instance of the class Float, raise a direct instance of the class
12 TypeError.
13 4) If the value of F is NaN, the behavior is unspecified.
14 5) The converted value of O is F.
15 c) Create a direct instance of the class Array which consists of two elements: the first is
16 X ; the second is Y.
17 d) Return the instance of the class Array.
18 15.2.8 Integer
20 Instances of the class Integer represent integers. The ranges of these integers are unbounded.
21 However the actual values computable depend on resource limitations, and the behavior when
22 the resource limits are exceeded is implementation-defined.
23 Instances of the class Integer shall not be created by the method new of the class Integer.
24 Therefore, the singleton method new of the class Integer shall be undefined, by invoking the
25 method undef method (see 15.2.2.4.42) on the singleton class of the class Integer with a direct
27 Subclasses of the class Integer may be defined as built-in classes. In this case:
28 The class Integer shall not have its direct instances. Instead of a direct instance of the
29 class Integer, a direct instance of a subclass of the class Integer shall be created.
30 Instance methods of the class Integer need not be defined in the class Integer itself if the
31 instance methods are defined in all subclasses of the class Integer.
32 For each subclass of the class Integer, the ranges of the values of its instances may be
33 bounded.
156
2 The class Numeric
4 15.2.8.3.1 Integer#+
5 +( other )
7 Behavior:
8 a) If other is an instance of the class Integer, return an instance of the class Integer
9 whose value is the sum of the values of the receiver and other .
10 b) If other is an instance of the class Float, let R be the value of the receiver as a
11 floating-point number.
12 Return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the sum of R and the value
13 of other .
14 c) Otherwise, invoke the method coerce on other with the receiver as the only argument.
18 i) Invoke the method + on F with S as the only argument.
21 15.2.8.3.2 Integer#−
22 -( other )
24 Behavior:
26 whose value is the result of subtracting the value of other from the value of the receiver.
157
1 Return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the result of subtracting the
2 value of other from R.
10 15.2.8.3.3 Integer#*
11 *( other )
13 Behavior:
15 whose value is the result of multiplication of the values of the receiver and other .
18 Return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the result of multiplication
19 of R and the value of other .
24 i) Invoke the method * on F with S as the only argument.
27 15.2.8.3.4 Integer#/
28 /( other )
158
2 Behavior:
3 a) If other is an instance of the class Integer:
4 1) If the value of other is 0, raise a direct instance of the class ZeroDivisionError.
5 2) Otherwise, let n be the value of the receiver divided by the value of other . Return
6 an instance of the class Integer whose value is the largest integer smaller than or
7 equal to n.
8 NOTE The behavior is the same even if the receiver has a negative value. For exampple,
9 -5 / 2 returns -3.
10 b) Otherwise, invoke the method coerce on other with the receiver as the only argument.
14 i) Invoke the method / on F with S as the only argument.
17 15.2.8.3.5 Integer#%
18 %( other )
20 Behavior:
22 1) If the value of other is 0, raise a direct instance of the class ZeroDivisionError.
23 2) Otherwise, let x and y be the values of the receiver and other .
24 i) Let t be the largest integer smaller than or equal to x divided by y.
25 ii) Let m be x − t × y.
26 iii) Otherwise, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is m.
159
3 i) Invoke the method % on F with S as the only argument.
6 15.2.8.3.6 Integer#<=>
7 < =>( other )
9 Behavior:
11 1) If the value of the receiver is larger than the value of other , return an instance of
12 the class Integer whose value is 1.
13 2) If the values of the receiver and other are the same integer, return an instance of
15 3) If the value of the receiver is smaller than the value of other , return an instance
16 of the class Integer whose value is −1.
21 i) Invoke the method <=> on F with S as the only argument.
22 ii) If this invocation does not result in an instance of the class Integer, the
23 behavior is unspecified.
24 iii) Otherwise, return the value of this invocation.
25 2) Otherwise, return nil.
26 15.2.8.3.7 Integer#==
27 = =( other )
160
1 Behavior:
3 1) If the values of the receiver and other are the same integer, return true.
4 2) Otherwise, return false.
5 b) Otherwise, invoke the method == on other with the receiver as the argument. Return
6 the resulting value of this invocation.
7 15.2.8.3.8 Integer#˜
8 ~
10 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class Integer whose two’s complement
11 representation is the one’s complement of the two’s complement representation of the re-
12 ceiver.
13 15.2.8.3.9 Integer#&
14 &( other )
16 Behavior:
17 a) If other is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
18 b) Otherwise, return an instance of the class Integer whose two’s complement represen-
19 tation is the bitwise AND of the two’s complement representations of the receiver and
20 other .
21 15.2.8.3.10 Integer#|
22 |( other )
24 Behavior:
26 b) Otherwise, return an instance of the class Integer whose two’s complement repre-
27 sentation is the bitwise inclusive OR of the two’s complement representations of the
28 receiver and other .
161
1 15.2.8.3.11 Integer#ˆ
2 ^( other )
4 Behavior:
6 b) Otherwise, return an instance of the class Integer whose two’s complement repre-
7 sentation is the bitwise exclusive OR of the two’s complement representations of the
8 receiver and other .
9 15.2.8.3.12 Integer#<<
10 <<( other )
12 Behavior:
14 b) Otherwise, let x and y be the values of the receiver and other .
15 c) Return an instance of the class Integer whose value is the largest integer smaller than
16 or equal to x × 2y .
17 15.2.8.3.13 Integer#>>
18 >>( other )
20 Behavior:
22 b) Otherwise, let x and y be the values of the receiver and other .
23 c) Return an instance of the class Integer whose value is the largest integer smaller than
24 or equal to x × 2−y .
25 15.2.8.3.14 Integer#ceil
162
1 ceil
4 15.2.8.3.15 Integer#downto
5 downto( num, &block )
7 Behavior:
8 a) If num is not an instance of the class Integer, or block is not given, the behavior is
9 unspecified.
10 b) Let i be the value of the receiver.
11 c) If i is smaller than the value of num, return the receiver.
12 d) Call block with an instance of the class Integer whose value is i.
13 e) Decrement i by 1 and continue processing from Step c).
14 15.2.8.3.16 Integer#eql?
15 eql?( other )
17 Behavior:
18 a) If other is not an instance of the class Integer, return false.
19 b) Otherwise, invoke the method == on other with the receiver as the argument.
20 c) If this invocation results in a trueish object, return true. Otherwise, return false.
21 15.2.8.3.17 Integer#floor
22 floor
163
1 15.2.8.3.18 Integer#hash
2 hash
4 Behavior: The method returns an implementation-defined instance of the class Integer,

5 which satisfies the following condition:
6 a) Let I1 and I2 be instances of the class Integer.
7 b) Let H1 and H2 be the resulting values of invocations of the method hash on I1 and I2 ,
8 respectively.
9 c) The values of H1 and H2 shall be the same integer, if the values of I1 and I2 are the
10 same integer.
11 15.2.8.3.19 Integer#next
12 next
14 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class Integer, whose value is the value
15 of the receiver plus 1.
16 15.2.8.3.20 Integer#round
17 round
20 15.2.8.3.21 Integer#succ
21 succ
23 Behavior: Same as the method next (see 15.2.8.3.19).
24 15.2.8.3.22 Integer#times
164
1 times( &block )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If block is not given, the behavior is unspecified.
5 b) Let i be 0.
6 c) If i is larger than or equal to the value of the receiver, return the receiver.
7 d) Call block with an instance of the class Integer whose value is i as an argument.
8 e) Increment i by 1 and continue processing from Step c).
9 15.2.8.3.23 Integer#to f
10 to f
12 Behavior: The method returns a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the
13 value of the receiver as a floating-point number.
14 15.2.8.3.24 Integer#to i
15 to i
18 15.2.8.3.25 Integer#to s
19 to s
21 Behavior: The method returns a direct instance of the class String whose content satisfy
22 the following conditions:
23 If the value of the receiver is negative, the first character is the character “-” (0x2d).
24 The sequence R of the rest of characters represents the magnitude M of the value of
25 the receiver in base 10. If M is 0, R is a single “0”. Otherwise, the first character of
26 R is not “0”.
165
1 EXAMPLE 1 123.to_s returns "123".
2 EXAMPLE 2 -123.to_s returns "-123".
3 15.2.8.3.26 Integer#truncate
4 truncate
7 15.2.8.3.27 Integer#upto
8 upto( num, &block )
10 Behavior:
11 a) If num is not an instance of the class Integer, or block is not given, the behavior is
12 unspecified.
13 b) Let i be the value of the receiver.
14 c) If i is larger than the value of num, return the receiver.
15 d) Call block with an instance of the class Integer whose value is i.
16 e) Increment i by 1 and continue processing from Step c).
17 15.2.9 Float
19 Instances of the class Float represent floating-point numbers.
20 The precision of the value of an instance of the class Float is implementation-defined; however,
21 if the underlying system of a conforming processor supports IEC 60559, the representation of
22 an instance of the class Float shall be the 64-bit double format as specified in IEC 60559, 3.2.2.
23 When an arithmetic operation involving floating-point numbers results in a value which cannot
24 be represented exactly as an instance of the class Float, the result is rounded to the nearest
25 representable value. If the two nearest representable values are equally near, which is chosen is
27 If the underlying system of a conforming processor supports IEC 60559:
28 If an arithmetic operation involving floating-point numbers results in NaN while invoking

29 a method of the class Float, the behavior of the method is unspecified.
166
1 Instances of the class Float shall not be created by the method new of the class Float. There-
2 fore, the singleton method new of the class Float shall be undefined, by invoking the method
3 undef method (see 15.2.2.4.42) on the singleton class of the class Float with a direct instance
4 of the class Symbol whose name is “new” as the argument.
6 The class Numeric
8 15.2.9.3.1 Float#+
9 +( other )
11 Behavior:
12 a) If other is an instance of the class Float, return a direct instance of the class Float
13 whose value is the sum of the values of the receiver and other .
14 b) If other is an instance of the class Integer, let R be the value of other as a floating-
15 point number.
16 Return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the sum of R and the value
17 of the receiver.
22 i) Invoke the method + on F with S as the only argument.
25 15.2.9.3.2 Float#−
26 -( other )
28 Behavior:
30 whose value is the result of subtracting the value of other from the value of the receiver.
167
2 point number.
3 Return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the result of subtracting R
4 from the value of the receiver.
12 15.2.9.3.3 Float#*
13 *( other )
15 Behavior:
17 whose value is the result of multiplication of the values of the receiver and other .
19 point number.
20 Return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the result of multiplication
21 of R and the value of the receiver.
26 i) Invoke the method * on F with S as the only argument.
29 15.2.9.3.4 Float#/
168
1 /( other )
3 Behavior:
5 whose value is the value of the receiver divided by the value of other .
7 point number.
8 Return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the value of the receiver
9 divided by R.
14 i) Invoke the method / on F with S as the only argument.
17 15.2.9.3.5 Float#%
18 %( other )
20 Behavior: In the following steps, binary operators +, −, and ∗ represent floating-point

21 arithmetic operations addition, subtraction, and multiplication which are used in the in-
22 stance methods +, -, and * of the class Float, respectively. The operator ∗ has a higher
23 precedence than the operators + and −.
24 a) If other is an instance of the class Integer or the class Float:
25 Let x be the value of the receiver.
26 1) If other is an instance of the class Float, let y be the value of other . If other is
27 an instance of the class Integer, let y be the value of other as a floating-point
28 number.
29 i) Let t be the largest integer smaller than or equal to x divided by y.
30 ii) Let m be x − t ∗ y.
169
1 iii) If m ∗ y < 0, return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is m +
2 y.
3 iv) Otherwise, return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is m.
8 i) Invoke the method % on F with S as the only argument.
11 15.2.9.3.6 Float#<=>
12 < =>( other )
14 Behavior:
15 a) If other is an instance of the class Integer or the class Float:
16 1) Let a be the value of the receiver. If other is an instance of the class Float, let
17 b be the value of other . Otherwise, let b be the value of other as a floating-point
18 number.
19 2) If a conforming processor supports IEC 60559, and if a or b is NaN, then return

20 an implementation-defined value.
21 3) If a > b, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 1.
22 4) If a = b, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 0.
23 5) If a < b, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is −1.
28 i) Invoke the method <=> on F with S as the only argument.
170
1 iii) Otherwise, return the value of this invocation.
3 15.2.9.3.7 Float#==
4 = =( other )
6 Behavior:
7 a) If other is an instance of the class Float:
8 1) If a conforming processor supports IEC 60559, and if the value of the receiver is
9 NaN, then return false.
10 2) If the values of the receiver and other are the same number, return true.
12 b) If other is an instance of the class Integer:
13 1) If the values of the receiver and other are the mathematically the same, return
14 true.
16 c) Otherwise, invoke the method == on other with the receiver as the argument and return
18 15.2.9.3.8 Float#ceil
19 ceil
21 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class Integer whose value is the smallest
22 integer larger than or equal to the value of the receiver.
23 15.2.9.3.9 Float#finite?
24 finite?
26 Behavior:
171
1 a) If the value of the receiver is a finite number, return true.
3 15.2.9.3.10 Float#floor
4 floor
6 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class Integer whose value is the largest
7 integer smaller than or equal to the value of the receiver.
8 15.2.9.3.11 Float#infinite?
9 infinite?
11 Behavior:
12 a) If the value of the receiver is the positive infinite, return an instance of the class Integer
13 whose value is 1.
14 b) If the value of the receiver is the negative infinite, return an instance of the class
15 Integer whose value is −1.
16 c) Otherwise, return nil.
17 15.2.9.3.12 Float#round
18 round
20 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class Integer whose value is the nearest
21 integer to the value of the receiver. If there are two integers equally distant from the value
22 of the receiver, the one which has the larger absolute value is chosen.
23 15.2.9.3.13 Float#to f
24 to f
172
1 15.2.9.3.14 Float#to i
2 to i
4 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class Integer whose value is the integer
5 part of the receiver.
6 15.2.9.3.15 Float#truncate
7 truncate
9 Behavior: Same as the method to i (see 15.2.9.3.14).
10 15.2.10 String
12 Instances of the class String represent sequences of characters. The sequence of characters
13 represented by an instance of the class String is called the content of that instance.
14 An instance of the class String which does not contain any character is said to be empty. An
15 instance of the class String shall be empty when it is created by Step b) of the method new of
16 the class Class.
17 The notation “an instance of the class Object which represents the character C ” means either
18 of the following:
19 An instance of the class Integer whose value is the character code of C.
20 An instance of the class String whose content is the single character C.
21 A conforming processor shall choose one of the above representations and use the same repre-
22 sentation wherever this notation is used.
23 Characters of an instance of the class String have their indices counted up from 0. The notation
24 “the nth character of an instance of the class String” means the character of the instance whose
25 index is n.
27 The class Object
29 The following modules are included in the class String.
30 Comparable
173
1 15.2.10.4 Upper-case and lower-case characters
2 Some methods of the class String handle upper-case and lower-case characters. The correspon-
3 dence between upper-case and lower-case characters is given in Table 3.
Table 3 – The correspondence between upper-case and lower-case characters
upper-case characters lower-case characters

A a
B b
C c
D d
E e
F f
G g
H h
I i
J j
K k
L l
M m
N n
O o
P p
Q q
R r
S s
T t
U u
V v
W w
X x
Y y
Z z
5 15.2.10.5.1 String#*
6 *( num )
174
1 Behavior:
2 a) If num is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
3 b) Let n be the value of the num.
4 c) If n is smaller than 0, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
5 d) Otherwise, let C be the content of the receiver.
6 e) Create a direct instance S of the class String the content of which is C repeated n
7 times.
8 f) Return S.
9 15.2.10.5.2 String#+
10 +( other )
12 Behavior:
13 a) If other is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
14 b) Let S and O be the contents of the receiver and the other respectively.
15 c) Return a new direct instance of the class String the content of which is the concate-
16 nation of S and O.
17 15.2.10.5.3 String#<=>
18 < =>( other )
20 Behavior:
22 b) Let S1 and S2 be the contents of the receiver and the other respectively.
23 c) If both S1 and S2 are empty, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 0.
24 d) Otherwise, if S1 is empty, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is −1.
25 e) Otherwise, if S2 is empty, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 1.
26 f) Let a, b be the character codes of the first characters of S1 and S2 respectively.
175
1 1) If a > b, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 1.
2 2) If a < b, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is −1.
3 3) Otherwise, let new S1 and S2 be S1 and S2 excluding their first characters,

4 respectively. Continue processing from Step c).
5 15.2.10.5.4 String#==
6 = =( other )
8 Behavior:
10 b) If other is an instance of the class String:
11 1) If the contents of the receiver and other are the same, return true.
13 15.2.10.5.5 String#=˜
14 =~( regexp )
16 Behavior:
17 a) If regexp is not an instance of the class Regexp, the behavior is unspecified.
18 b) Otherwise, invoke the method match on regexp with the receiver as the argument (see
19 15.2.15.7.7), and return the resulting value.
20 15.2.10.5.6 String#[]
21 []( *args )
23 Behavior:
24 a) If the length of args is 0 or larger than 2, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
25 b) Let P be the first element of args. Let n be the length of the receiver.
176
1 c) If P is an instance of the class Integer, let b be the value of P.
2 1) If the length of args is 1:
3 i) If b is smaller than 0, increment b by n. If b is still smaller than 0, return nil.
4 ii) If b ≥ n, return nil.
5 iii) Create an instance of the class Object which represents the bth character of
6 the receiver and return this instance.
8 i) If the last element of args is an instance of the class Integer, let l be the
9 value of the instance. Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
10 ii) If l is smaller than 0, or b is larger than n, return nil.
11 iii) If b is smaller than 0, increment b by n. If b is still smaller than 0, return nil.
12 iv) If b + l is larger than n, let l be n − b.
13 v) If l is smaller than or equal to 0, create an empty direct instance of the class

14 String and return the instance.
15 vi) Otherwise, create a direct instance of the class String whose content is the
16 (n−l ) characters of the receiver, from the bth index, preserving their order.
17 Return the instance.
18 d) If P is an instance of the class Regexp:
19 1) If the length of args is 1, let i be 0.
20 2) If the length of args is 2, and the last element of args is an instance of the class
21 Integer, let i be the value of the instance. Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
22 3) Test if the pattern of P matches the content of the receiver. (see 15.2.15.4 and
23 15.2.15.5). Let M be the result of the matching process.
24 4) If M is nil, return nil.
25 5) If i is larger than the length of the match result attribute of M, return nil.
26 6) If i is smaller than 0, increment i by the length of the match result attribute of

27 M. If i is still smaller than or equal to 0, return nil.
28 7) Let m be the i th element of the match result attribute of M. Create a direct

29 instance of the class String whose content is the substring of m and return the
30 instance.
31 e) If P is an instance of the class String:
177
1 1) If the length of args is 2, the behavior is unspecified.
2 2) If the receiver includes the content of P as a substring, create a direct instance

3 of the class String whose content is equal to the content of P and return the
4 instance.
6 f) Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
7 15.2.10.5.7 String#capitalize
8 capitalize
10 Behavior: The method returns a new direct instance of the class String which contains
11 all the characters of the receiver, except:
12 If the first character of the receiver is a lower-case character, the first character of the
13 resulting instance is the corresponding upper-case character.
14 If the i th character of the receiver (where i > 0) is an upper case character, the i th
15 character of the resulting instance is the corresponding lower-case character.
16 15.2.10.5.8 String#capitalize!
17 capitalize!
19 Behavior:
20 a) Let s be the content of the instance of the class String returned when the method
21 capitalize is invoked on the receiver.
22 b) If the content of the receiver and s are the same, return nil. Otherwise, change the
23 content of the receiver to s, and return the receiver.
24 15.2.10.5.9 String#chomp
25 chomp( rs ="\n" )
27 Behavior:
178
1 a) If rs is nil, return a new direct instance of the class String whose content is the same
2 as the receiver.
3 b) If the receiver is empty, return a new empty direct instance of the class String.
4 c) If rs is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
5 d) Otherwise, return a new direct instance of the class String whose content is the same
6 as the receiver, except the following characters:
7 1) If rs consists of only one character 0x0a, the line-terminator on the end, if any, is
8 excluded.
9 2) If rs is empty, a sequence of line-terminator s on the end, if any, is excluded.
10 3) Otherwise, if the receiver ends with the content of rs, this sequence of characters
11 at the end of the receiver is excluded.
12 15.2.10.5.10 String#chomp!
13 chomp!( rs ="\n" )
15 Behavior:
17 chomp is invoked on the receiver with rs as the argument.
20 15.2.10.5.11 String#chop
21 chop
23 Behavior:
24 a) If the receiver is empty, return a new empty direct instance of the class String.
25 b) Otherwise, create a new direct instance of the class String whose content is the receiver
26 without the last character and return this instance. If the last character is 0x0a, and
27 the character just before the 0x0a is 0x0d, the 0x0d is also dropped.
28 15.2.10.5.12 String#chop!
179
1 chop!
3 Behavior:
5 chop is invoked on the receiver.
8 15.2.10.5.13 String#downcase
9 downcase
12 all the characters of the receiver, with the upper-case characters replaced with the corre-
13 sponding lower-case characters.
14 15.2.10.5.14 String#downcase!
15 downcase!
17 Behavior:
19 downcase is invoked on the receiver.
22 15.2.10.5.15 String#each line
23 each line( &block )
25 Behavior: Let s be the content of the receiver. Let c be the first character of s.
180
1 b) Find the first 0x0a in s from c. If there is such a 0x0a:
2 1) Let d be that 0x0a.
3 2) Create a direct instance S of the class String whose content is a sequence of

4 characters from c to d.
5 3) Call block with S as the argument.
6 4) If d is the last character of s, return the receiver. Otherwise, let new c be the
7 character just after d and continue processing from Step b).
8 c) If there is not such a 0x0a, create a direct instance of the class String whose content is
9 a sequence of characters from c to the last character of s. Call block with this instance
10 as the argument.
11 d) Return the receiver.
12 15.2.10.5.16 String#empty?
13 empty?
15 Behavior:
16 a) If the receiver is empty, return true.
18 15.2.10.5.17 String#eql?
19 eql?( other )
21 Behavior:
22 a) If other is an instance of the class String:
23 1) If the contents of the receiver and other are the same, return true.
25 b) If other is not an instance of the class String, return false.
26 15.2.10.5.18 String#gsub
181
1 gsub( *args, &block )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If the length of args is 0 or larger than 2, or the length of args is 1 and block is not
5 given, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
6 b) Let P be the first element of args. If P is not an instance of the class Regexp, or the
7 length of args is 2 and the last element of args is not an instance of the class String,
8 the behavior is unspecified.
9 c) Let S be the content of the receiver, and let l be the length of S.
10 d) Let L be an empty list and let n be an integer 0.
11 e) Test if the pattern of P matches S from the index n (see 15.2.15.4 and 15.2.15.5). Let
12 M be the result of the matching process.
13 f) If M is nil, append to L the substring of S beginning at the nth character up to the

14 last character of S.
15 g) Otherwise:
17 i) Call block with a new direct instance of the class String whose content is the
18 matched substring of M as the argument.
19 ii) Let V be the resulting value of this call. If V is not an instance of the class
20 String, the behavior is unspecified.
21 2) Let pre be the pre-match (see 15.2.16.1) of M. Append to L the substring of pre
22 beginning at the nth character up to the last character of pre, unless n is larger
23 than the index of the last character of pre.
24 3) If the length of args is 1, append the content of V to L. If the length of args is 2,

25 append to L the content of the last element of args.
26 4) Let post be the post-match (see 15.2.16.1) of M. Let i be the index of the first
27 character of post within S.
28 i) If i is equal to n, i.e. if P matched an empty string:
29 I) Append to L a new direct instance of the class String whose content is

30 the i th character of S.
31 II) Increment n by 1.
182
1 ii) Otherwise, let new n be i.
2 5) If n < l, continue processing from Step e).
3 h) Create a direct instance of the class String whose content is the concatenation of all
4 the elements of L, and return the instance.
5 15.2.10.5.19 String#gsub!
6 gsub!( *args, &block )
8 Behavior:
10 gsub is invoked on the receiver with the same arguments.
13 15.2.10.5.20 String#hash
14 hash
16 Behavior: The method returns an implementation-defined instance of the class Integer

17 which satisfies the following condition:
18 a) Let S1 and S2 be two distinct instances of the class String.
19 b) Let H1 and H2 be the resulting values of the invocations of the method hash on S1 and
20 S2 respectively.
21 c) If S1 and S2 has the same content, the values of H1 and H2 shall be the same integer.
22 15.2.10.5.21 String#include?
23 include?( obj )
25 Behavior:
26 a) If obj is an instance of the class Integer:
183
1 If the receiver includes the character whose character code is the value of obj , return
2 true. Otherwise, return false.
3 b) If obj is an instance of the class String:
4 If there exists a substring of the receiver whose sequence of characters is the same as
5 the content of obj , return true. Otherwise, return false.
6 c) Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
7 15.2.10.5.22 String#index
8 index( substring, offset =0 )
10 Behavior:
11 a) If substring is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
12 b) Let R and S be the contents of the receiver and substring, respectively.
13 c) If offset is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
14 d) Let n be the value of offset.
15 e) If n is larger than or equal to 0, let O be n.
16 f) Otherwise, let O be l + n, where l is the length of S.
17 g) If O is smaller than 0, return nil.
18 h) If S appears as a substring of R at one or more positions whose index is larger than

19 or equal to O, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is the index of the
20 first such position.
21 i) Otherwise, return nil.
22 15.2.10.5.23 String#initialize
23 initialize( str ="" )
25 Behavior:
26 a) If str is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
27 b) Otherwise, initialize the content of the receiver to the same sequence of characters as
28 the content of str .
184
1 c) Return an implementation-defined value.
2 15.2.10.5.24 String#initialize copy
5 Behavior:
6 a) If original is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
7 b) If original is an instance of the class String, change the content of the receiver to the
8 content of original .
10 15.2.10.5.25 String#intern
11 intern
13 Behavior:
14 a) If the length of the receiver is 0, or if the receiver contains 0x00, then the behavior is
15 unspecified.
16 b) Otherwise, return a direct instance of the class Symbol whose name is the content of
17 the receiver.
18 15.2.10.5.26 String#length
19 length
21 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class Integer whose value is the number
22 of characters of the content of the receiver.
23 15.2.10.5.27 String#match
24 match( regexp )
185
1 Behavior:
2 a) If regexp is an instance of the class Regexp, let R be regexp.
3 b) Otherwise, if regexp is an instance of the class String, create a direct instance of

4 the class Regexp by invoking the method new on the class Regexp with regexp as the
5 argument. Let R be the instance of the class Regexp.
6 c) Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
7 d) Invoke the method match on R with the receiver as the argument.
8 e) Return the resulting value of the invocation.
9 15.2.10.5.28 String#replace
10 replace( other )
12 Behavior: Same as the method initialize copy (see 15.2.10.5.24).
13 15.2.10.5.29 String#reverse
14 reverse
17 all the characters of the content of the receiver in the reverse order.
18 15.2.10.5.30 String#reverse!
19 reverse!
21 Behavior:
22 a) Change the content of the receiver to the content of the resulting instance of the class
23 String when the method reverse is invoked on the receiver.
24 b) Return the receiver.
25 15.2.10.5.31 String#rindex
186
1 rindex( substring, offset =nil )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If substring is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
5 b) Let R and S be the contents of the receiver and substring, respectively.
6 c) If offset is given:
7 1) If offset is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
8 2) Let n be the value of offset.
9 3) If n is larger than or equal to 0, let O be n.
10 4) Otherwise, let O be l + n, where l is the length of S.
11 5) If O is smaller than 0, return nil.
12 d) Otherwise, let O be 0.
13 e) If S appears as a substring of R at one or more positions whose index is smaller than

14 or equal to O, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is the index of the
15 last such position.
16 f) Otherwise, return nil.
17 15.2.10.5.32 String#scan
18 scan( reg, &block )
20 Behavior:
21 a) If reg is not an instance of the class Regexp, the behavior is unspecified.
22 b) If block is not given, create an empty direct instance A of the class Array.
24 d) Let n be an integer 0.
25 e) Test if the pattern of reg matches S from the index n (see 15.2.15.4 and 15.2.15.5). Let
26 M be the result attribute of the matching process.
187
1 f) If M is not nil:
2 1) Let L be the match result attribute of M.
3 2) If the length of L is 1, create a direct instance V of the class String whose content
4 is the matched substring of M.
5 3) If the length of L is larger than 1:
6 i) Create an empty direct instance V of the class Array.
7 ii) Except for the first element, for each element e of L, in the same order in the
8 list, append to V a new direct instance of the class String whose content is
9 the substring of e.
10 4) If block is given, call block with V as the argument. Otherwise, append V to A.
11 5) Let post be the post-match of M. Let i be the index of the first character of post
12 within S.
13 i) If i and n are the same, i.e. if reg matches the empty string, increment n by
14 1.
15 ii) Otherwise, let new n be i.
16 6) If n < l, continue processing from Step e).
17 g) If block is given, return the receiver. Otherwise, return A.
18 15.2.10.5.33 String#size
19 size
21 Behavior: Same as the method length (see 15.2.10.5.26).
22 15.2.10.5.34 String#slice
23 slice( *args )
25 Behavior: Same as the method [] (see 15.2.10.5.6).
26 15.2.10.5.35 String#split
188
1 split( sep )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If sep is not an instance of the class Regexp, the behavior is unspecified.
5 b) Create an empty direct instance A of the class Array.
7 d) Let both sp and bp be 0, and let was-empty be false.
8 e) Test if the pattern of sep matches S from the index sp (see 15.2.15.4 and 15.2.15.5).
9 Let M be the result of the matching process.
10 f) If M is nil, append to A a new direct instance of the class String whose content is the
11 substring of S beginning at the spth character up to the last character of S.
12 g) Otherwise:
13 1) If the matched substring of M is an empty string:
14 i) If was-empty is true, append to A a new direct instance of the class String

15 whose content is the bpth character of S.
16 ii) Otherwise, increment sp by 1. If sp < l, let new was-empty be true and

17 continue processing from Step e).
18 2) Otherwise, let new was-empty be false. Let pre be the pre-match of M. Append
19 to A a new direct instance of the class String whose content is the substring of
20 pre beginning at the bpth character up to the last character of pre, unless bp is
21 larger than the index of the last character of pre.
22 3) Let L be the match result attribute of M.
23 4) If the length of L is larger than 1, except for the first element, for each element e
24 of L, in the same order in the list, take the following steps:
25 i) Let c be the substring of e.
26 ii) If c is not nil, append to A a new direct instance of the class String whose
27 content is c.
28 5) Let post be the post-match of M, and replace both sp and bp with the index of
29 the first character of post.
30 6) If sp > l, continue processing from Step e).
189
1 h) If the last element of A is an instance of the class String whose content is empty,
2 remove the element. Repeat this step until this condition does not hold.
3 i) Return A.
4 15.2.10.5.36 String#sub
5 sub( *args, &block )
7 Behavior:
8 a) If the length of args is 1 and block is given, or the length of args is 2:
9 1) If the first element of args is not an instance of the class Regexp, the behavior is
10 unspecified.
11 2) Test if the pattern of the first element of args matches the content of the receiver
12 (see 15.2.15.4 and 15.2.15.5). Let M be the result of the matching process.
13 3) If M is nil, create a direct instance of the class String whose content is the same
14 as the receiver and return the instance.
15 4) Otherwise:
16 i) If the length of args is 1, call block with a new direct instance of the class
17 String whose content is the matched substring of M as the argument. Let S
18 be the resulting value of this call. If S is not an instance of the class String,
20 ii) If the length of args is 2, let S be the last element of args. If S is not an
21 instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
22 iii) Create a direct instance of the class String whose content is the concatenation
23 of pre-match of M, the content of S, and post-match of M, and return the
24 instance.
25 b) Otherwise, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
26 15.2.10.5.37 String#sub!
27 sub!( *args, &block )
29 Behavior:
190
1 a) Let s be the content of the instance of the class String returned when the method sub
2 is invoked on the receiver with the same arguments.
5 15.2.10.5.38 String#to i
6 to i( base =10 )
8 Behavior:
9 a) If base is not an instance of the class Integer whose value is 2, 8, 10, nor 16, the
10 behavior is unspecified. Otherwise, let b be the value of base.
11 b) If the receiver is empty, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 0.
12 c) Let i be 0. Increment i by 1 while the i th character of the receiver is a whitespace

13 character.
14 d) If the i th character of the receiver is “+” or “−”, increment i by 1.
15 e) If the i th character of the receiver is “0”, and any of the following conditions holds,
16 increment i by 2:
17 Let c be the character of the receiver whose index is i plus 1.
18 b is 2, and c is “b” or “B”.
19 b is 8, and c is “o” or “O”.
20 b is 10, and c is “d” or “D”.
21 b is 16, and c is “x” or “X”.
22 f) Let s be a sequence of the following characters of the receiver from the i th index:
23 If b is 2, binary-digit and “ ”.
24 If b is 8, octal-digit and “ ”.
25 If b is 10, decimal-digit and “ ”.
26 If b is 16, hexadecimal-digit and “ ”.
27 g) If the length of s is 0, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 0.
28 h) If s starts with “ ”, or s contains successive “ ”s, the behavior is unspecified.
191
1 i) Let n be the value of s, ignoring interleaving “ ”s, computed in base b.
2 If the “−” occurs in Step d), return an instance of the class Integer whose value is
3 −n. Otherwise, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is n.
4 15.2.10.5.39 String#to f
5 to f
7 Behavior:
8 a) If the receiver is empty, return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is 0.0.
9 b) If the receiver starts with a sequence of characters which is a float-literal, return a direct
10 instance of the class Float whose value is the value of the float-literal (see 8.7.6.2).
11 c) If the receiver starts with a sequence of characters which is a unprefixed-decimal-integer-

12 literal, return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the value of the
13 unprefixed-decimal-integer-literal as a floating-point number (see 8.7.6.2).
14 d) Otherwise, return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is implementation-
15 defined.
16 15.2.10.5.40 String#to s
17 to s
19 Behavior:
20 a) If the receiver is a direct instance of the class String, return the receiver.
21 b) Otherwise, create a new direct instance of the class String whose content is the same
22 as the content of the receiver and return this instance.
23 15.2.10.5.41 String#to sym
24 to sym
26 Behavior: Same as the method intern (see 15.2.10.5.25).
27 15.2.10.5.42 String#upcase
192
1 upcase
4 all the characters of the receiver, with all the lower-case characters replaced with the cor-
5 responding upper-case characters.
6 15.2.10.5.43 String#upcase!
7 upcase!
9 Behavior:
11 upcase is invoked on the receiver.
14 15.2.11 Symbol
16 Instances of the class Symbol represent names (see 8.7.6.6). No two instances of the class Symbol
17 shall represent the same name.
18 Instances of the class Symbol shall not be created by the method new of the class Symbol.
19 Therefore, the singleton method new of the class Symbol shall be undefined, by invoking the
20 method undef method (see 15.2.2.4.42) on the singleton class of the class Symbol with a direct
23 The class Object
25 15.2.11.3.1 Symbol#===
26 = = =( other )
28 Behavior: Same as the method == of the module Kernel (see 15.3.1.3.1).
193
1 15.2.11.3.2 Symbol#id2name
2 id2name
5 represents the name of the receiver, and returns this instance.
6 15.2.11.3.3 Symbol#to s
7 to s
9 Behavior: Same as the method id2name (see 15.2.11.3.2).
10 15.2.11.3.4 Symbol#to sym
11 to sym
14 15.2.12 Array
16 Instances of the class Array represent arrays, which are unbounded. An instance of the class
17 Array which has no element is said to be empty. The number of elements in an instance of the
18 class Array is called its length.
19 Instances of the class Array shall be empty when they are created by Step b) of the method new
20 of the class Class.
21 Elements of an instance of the class Array have their indices counted up from 0.
22 Given an instance A of the class Array, operations append, prepend, and remove are defined
23 as follows:
24 append: To append an object O to A is defined as follows:
25 Insert O after the last element of A.
26 Appending an object to A increases its length by 1.
194
1 prepend: To prepend an object O to A is defined as follows:
2 Insert O to the first index of A. Original elements of A are moved toward the end of A by
3 one position.
4 Prepending an object to A increases its length by 1.
5 remove: To remove an element X from A is defined as follows:
6 a) Remove X from A.
7 b) If X is not the last element of A, move the elements after X toward the head of A by
8 one position.
9 Removing an object to A decreases its length by 1.
11 The class Object
13 The following module is included in the class Array.
14 Enumerable
16 15.2.12.4.1 Array.[]
17 Array.[]( *items )
19 Behavior: The method returns a newly created instance of the class Array which contains
20 the elements of items, preserving their order.
22 15.2.12.5.1 Array#*
23 *( num )
25 Behavior:
26 a) If num is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
195
1 b) If the value of num is smaller than 0, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
2 c) If the value of num is 0, return an empty direct instance of the class Array.
3 d) Otherwise, create an empty direct instance A of the class Array and repeat the following
4 for num times:
5 Append all the elements of the receiver to A, preserving their order.
6 e) Return A.
7 15.2.12.5.2 Array#+
8 +( other )
10 Behavior:
11 a) If other is an instance of the class Array, let A be other . Otherwise, the behavior is
12 unspecified.
13 b) Create an empty direct instance R of the class Array.
14 c) For each element of the receiver, in the indexing order, append the element to R. Then,
15 for each element of A, in the indexing order, append the element to R.
16 d) Return R.
17 15.2.12.5.3 Array#<<
18 <<( obj )
20 Behavior: The method appends obj to the receiver and return the receiver.
21 15.2.12.5.4 Array#[]
22 []( *args )
24 Behavior:
25 a) Let n be the length of the receiver.
196
1 b) If the length of args is 0, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
2 c) If the length of args is 1:
3 1) If the only argument is an instance of the class Integer, let k be the value of the
4 only argument. Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
5 2) If k < 0, increment k by n. If k is still smaller than 0, return nil.
6 3) If k ≥ n, return nil.
7 4) Otherwise, return the k th element of the receiver.
8 d) If the length of args is 2:
9 1) If the elements of args are instances of the class Integer, let b and l be the values
10 of the first and the last element of args, respectively. Otherwise, the behavior is
11 unspecified.
12 2) If b < 0, increment b by n. If b is still smaller than 0, return nil.
13 3) If b > n or l < 0, return nil.
14 4) If b = n, create an empty direct instance of the class Array and return this instance.
15 5) If l > n − b, let new l be n − b.
16 6) Create an empty direct instance A of the class Array. Append the l elements of
17 the receiver to A, from the bth index, preserving their order. Return A.
18 e) If the length of args is larger than 2, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
19 15.2.12.5.5 Array#[]=
20 [] =( *args )
22 Behavior:
23 a) Let n be the length of the receiver.
24 b) If the length of args is smaller than 2, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
25 c) If the length of args is 2:
26 1) If the first element of args is an instance of the class Integer, let k be the value
27 of the element and let V be the last element of args. Otherwise, the behavior is
28 unspecified.
197
1 2) If k < 0, increment k by n. If k is still smaller than 0, raise a direct instance of
2 the class IndexError.
3 3) If k < n, replace the k th element of the receiver with V.
4 4) Otherwise, expand the length of the receiver to k + 1. The last element of the
5 receiver is V. If k > n, the elements whose index is from n to k − 1 is nil.
6 5) Return V.
7 d) If the length of args is 3, the behavior is unspecified.
8 e) If the length of args is larger than 3, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
9 15.2.12.5.6 Array#clear
10 clear
12 Behavior: The method removes all the elements from the receiver and return the receiver.
13 15.2.12.5.7 Array#collect!
14 collect!( &block )
16 Behavior:
17 a) If block is given:
18 1) For each element of the receiver in the indexing order, call block with the element
19 as the only argument and replace the element with the resulting value.
20 2) Return the receiver.
21 b) If block is not given, the behavior is unspecified.
22 15.2.12.5.8 Array#concat
23 concat( other )
25 Behavior:
198
1 a) If other is not an instance of the class Array, the behavior is unspecified.
2 b) Otherwise, append all the elements of other to the receiver, preserving their order.
3 c) Return the receiver.
4 15.2.12.5.9 Array#delete at
5 delete at( index )
7 Behavior:
8 a) If the index is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
9 b) Otherwise, let i be the value of the index.
10 c) Let n be the length of the receiver.
11 d) If i is smaller than 0, increment i by n. If i is still smaller than 0, return nil.
12 e) If i is larger than or equal to n, return nil.
13 f) Otherwise, remove the i th element of the receiver, and return the removed element.
14 15.2.12.5.10 Array#each
15 each( &block )
17 Behavior:
19 1) For each element of the receiver in the indexing order, call block with the element
20 as the only argument.
23 15.2.12.5.11 Array#each index
199
1 each index( &block )
3 Behavior:
5 1) For each element of the receiver in the indexing order, call block with an argument,
6 which is an instance of the class Integer whose value is the index of the element.
9 15.2.12.5.12 Array#empty?
10 empty?
12 Behavior:
15 15.2.12.5.13 Array#first
16 first( *args )
18 Behavior:
19 a) If the length of args is 0:
20 1) If the receiver is empty, return nil.
21 2) Otherwise, return the first element of the receiver.
22 b) If the length of args is 1:
23 1) If the only argument is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is
24 unspecified. Otherwise, let n be the value of the only argument.
200
1 2) If n is smaller than 0, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
2 3) Otherwise, let N be the smaller of n and the length of the receiver.
3 4) Return a newly created instance of the class Array which contains the first N
4 elements of the receiver, preserving their order.
5 c) If the length of args is larger than 1, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
6 15.2.12.5.14 Array#index
7 index( object =nil )
9 Behavior:
10 a) If object is given:
11 1) For each element E of the receiver in the indexing order, take the following steps:
12 i) Invoke the method == on E with object as the argument.
13 ii) If the resulting value is a trueish object, return an instance of the class
14 Integer whose value is the index of E.
15 2) If an instance of the class Integer is not returned in Step a) 1) ii), return nil.
16 b) Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
17 15.2.12.5.15 Array#initialize
18 initialize( size =0, obj =nil, &block )
20 Behavior:
21 a) If size is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified. Otherwise,
22 let n be the value of size.
23 b) If n is smaller than 0, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
24 c) Remove all the elements from the receiver.
25 d) If n is 0, return an implementation-defined value.
26 e) If n is larger than 0:
201
1 1) If block is given:
2 i) Let k be 0.
3 ii) Call block with an argument, which is an instance of the class Integer whose
4 value is k. Append the resulting value of this call to the receiver.
5 iii) Increase k by 1. If k is equal to n, terminate this process. Otherwise, repeat

6 from Step e) 1) ii).
7 2) Otherwise, append obj to the receiver n times.
8 3) Return an implementation-defined value.
9 15.2.12.5.16 Array#initialize copy
12 Behavior:
13 a) If original is not an instance of the class Array, the behavior is unspecified.
14 b) Remove all the elements from the receiver.
15 c) Append all the elements of original to the receiver, preserving their order.
17 15.2.12.5.17 Array#join
18 join( sep =nil )
20 Behavior:
21 a) If sep is neither nil nor an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
22 b) Create an empty direct instance S of the class String.
23 c) For each element X of the receiver, in the indexing order:
24 1) If sep is not nil, and X is not the first element of the receiver, append the content
25 of sep to S.
26 2) If X is an instance of the class String, append the content of X to S.
202
1 3) If X is an instance of the class Array:
2 i) If X is the receiver, i.e. if the receiver contains itself, append an implementation-

3 defined sequence of characters to S.
4 ii) Otherwise, append to S the content of the instance of the class String re-
5 turned by the invocation of the method join on X with sep as the argument.
7 d) Return S.
8 15.2.12.5.18 Array#last
9 last( *args )
11 Behavior:
12 a) If the length of args is 0:
13 1) If the receiver is empty, return nil.
14 2) Otherwise, return the last element of the receiver.
16 1) If the only argument is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is
17 unspecified. Otherwise, let n be the value of the only argument.
18 2) If n is smaller than 0, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
19 3) Otherwise, let N be the smaller of n and the length of the receiver.
20 Return a newly created instance of the class Array which contains the last N
21 elements of the receiver, preserving their order.
22 c) If the length of args is larger than 1, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
23 15.2.12.5.19 Array#length
24 length
27 of elements of the receiver.
203
1 15.2.12.5.20 Array#map!
2 map!( &block )
4 Behavior: Same as the method collect! (see 15.2.12.5.7).
5 15.2.12.5.21 Array#pop
6 pop
8 Behavior:
9 a) If the receiver is empty, return nil.
10 b) Otherwise, remove the last element from the receiver and return that element.
11 15.2.12.5.22 Array#push
12 push( *items )
14 Behavior:
15 a) For each element of items, in the indexing order, append it to the receiver.
17 15.2.12.5.23 Array#replace
18 replace( other )
21 15.2.12.5.24 Array#reverse
204
1 reverse
4 all the elements of the receiver in the reverse order.
5 15.2.12.5.25 Array#reverse!
6 reverse!
8 Behavior: The method reverses the order of the elements of the receiver and return the
9 receiver.
10 15.2.12.5.26 Array#rindex
11 rindex( object =nil )
13 Behavior:
14 a) If object is given:
15 1) For each element E of the receiver in the reverse indexing order, take the following
16 steps:
17 i) Invoke the method == on E with object as the argument.
18 ii) If the resulting value is a trueish object, return an instance of the class
19 Integer whose value is the index of E.
20 2) If an instance of the class Integer is not returned in Step a) 1) ii), return nil.
21 b) Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
22 15.2.12.5.27 Array#shift
23 shift
25 Behavior:
205
1 a) If the receiver is empty, return nil.
2 b) Otherwise, remove the first element from the receiver and return that element.
3 15.2.12.5.28 Array#size
4 size
7 15.2.12.5.29 Array#slice
8 slice( *args )
10 Behavior: Same as the method [] (see 15.2.12.5.4).
11 15.2.12.5.30 Array#unshift
12 unshift( *items )
14 Behavior:
15 a) For each element of items, in the reverse indexing order, prepend it to the receiver.
17 15.2.13 Hash
19 Instances of the class Hash represent hashes, which are sets of key/value pairs.
20 An instance of the class Hash which has no key/value pair is said to be empty. Instances of
21 the class Hash shall be empty when they are created by Step b) of the method new of the class
22 Class.
23 An instance of the class Hash cannot contain more than one key/value pair for each key.
24 An instance of the class Hash has the following attribute:
25 default value or proc: Either of the followings:
206
1 A default value, which is returned by the method [] when the specified key is not
2 found in the instance of the class Hash.
3 A default proc, which is an instance of the class Proc and used to generate the return
4 value of the method [] when the specified key is not found in the instance of the class
5 Hash.
6 An instance of the class Hash shall not have both a default value and a default proc simul-
7 taneously.
8 Given two keys K1 and K2 , the notation “K1 ≡ K2 ” means that the keys are equivalent, i.e. all
9 of the following conditions hold:
10 An invocation of the method eql? on K1 with K2 as the only argument evaluates to a

11 trueish object.
12 Let H1 and H2 be the results of invocations of the method hash on K1 and K2 , respectively.
13 H1 and H2 are the instances of the class Integer which represents the same integer.
14 A conforming processor may define a certain range of integers, and when the values of H1
15 or H2 lies outside of this range, the processor may convert H1 or H2 to another instance of
16 the class Integer whose value is within the range. Let I1 and I2 be each of the resulting
17 instances respectively.
18 The values of I1 and I2 are the same integer.
19 If H1 or H2 is not an instance of the class Integer, whether K1 ≡ K2 is unspecified.
20 NOTE K1 ≡ K2 is not equivalent to K2 ≡ K1 .
22 The class Object
24 The following module is included in the class Hash.
25 Enumerable
27 15.2.13.4.1 Hash#==
28 = =( other )
30 Behavior:
207
1 a) If other is not an instance of the class Hash, the behavior is unspecified.
2 b) If all of the following conditions hold, return true:
3 The receiver and other have the same number of key/value pairs.
4 For each key/value pair P in the receiver, other has a corresponding key/value
5 pair Q which satisfies the following conditions:
6 — The key of P ≡ the key of Q.
7 — An invocation of the method == on the value of P with the value of Q as an

8 argument results in a trueish object.
9 c) Otherwise, return false.
10 15.2.13.4.2 Hash#[]
11 []( key )
13 Behavior:
14 a) If the receiver has a key/value pair P where key ≡ the key of P, return the value of P.
15 b) Otherwise, invoke the method default on the receiver with key as the argument and
16 return the resulting value.
17 15.2.13.4.3 Hash#[]=
18 [] =( key, value )
20 Behavior:
21 a) If the receiver has a key/value pair P where key ≡ the key of P, replace the value of P
22 with value.
23 b) Otherwise:
24 1) If key is a direct instance of the class String, create a copy of key, i.e. create a
25 direct instance K of the class String whose content is the same as the key.
26 2) If key is not an instance of the class String, let K be key.
27 3) If key is an instance of a subclass of the class String, whether to create a copy or

28 not is implementation-defined.
208
1 4) Store a pair of K and value into the receiver.
2 c) Return value.
3 15.2.13.4.4 Hash#clear
4 clear
6 Behavior:
7 a) Remove all the key/value pairs from the receiver.
9 15.2.13.4.5 Hash#default
10 default( *args )
12 Behavior:
13 a) If the length of args is larger than 1, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
14 b) If the receiver has the default value, return the value.
15 c) If the receiver has the default proc:
16 1) If the length of args is 0, return nil.
17 2) If the length of args is 1, invoke the method call on the default proc of the
18 receiver with two arguments, the receiver and the only element of args. Return
20 d) Otherwise, return nil.
21 15.2.13.4.6 Hash#default=
22 default =( value )
24 Behavior:
25 a) If the receiver has the default proc, remove the default proc.
209
1 b) Set the default value of the receiver to value.
2 c) Return value.
3 15.2.13.4.7 Hash#default proc
4 default proc
6 Behavior:
7 a) If the receiver has the default proc, return the default proc.
8 b) Otherwise, return nil.
9 15.2.13.4.8 Hash#delete
10 delete( key, &block )
12 Behavior:
13 a) If the receiver has a key/value pair P where key ≡ the key of P, remove P from the
14 receiver and return the value of P.
15 b) Otherwise:
16 1) If block is given, call block with key as the argument. Return the resulting value
17 of this call.
19 15.2.13.4.9 Hash#each
20 each( &block )
22 Behavior:
23 a) If block is given, for each key/value pair of the receiver in an implementation-defined

24 order:
25 1) Create a direct instance of the class Array which contains two elements, the key
26 and the value of the pair.
210
1 2) Call block with the instance as an argument.
2 Return the receiver.
4 15.2.13.4.10 Hash#each key
5 each key( &block )
7 Behavior:
8 a) If block is given, for each key/value pair of the receiver, in an implementation-defined

9 order, call block with the key of the pair as the argument. Return the receiver.
11 15.2.13.4.11 Hash#each value
12 each value( &block )
14 Behavior:
15 a) If block is given, call block for each key/value pair of the receiver, with the value as the
16 argument, in an implementation-defined order. Return the receiver.
18 15.2.13.4.12 Hash#empty?
19 empty?
21 Behavior:
24 15.2.13.4.13 Hash#has key?
211
1 has key?( key )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If the receiver has a key/value pair P where key ≡ the key of P, return true.
6 15.2.13.4.14 Hash#has value?
7 has value?( value )
9 Behavior:
10 a) If the receiver has a key/value pair whose value holds the following condition, return
11 true.
12 An invocation of the method == on the value with value as the argument result in
13 a trueish object.
15 15.2.13.4.15 Hash#include?
16 include?( key )
18 Behavior: Same as the method has key? (see 15.2.13.4.13).
19 15.2.13.4.16 Hash#initialize
20 initialize( *args, &block )
22 Behavior:
23 a) If block is given, and the length of args is not 0, raise a direct instance of the class
24 ArgumentError.
212
1 b) If block is given and the length of args is 0, create a direct instance of the class Proc
2 which represents block and set the default proc of the receiver to this instance.
3 c) If block is not given:
4 1) If the length of args is 0, let D be nil.
5 2) If the length of args is 1, let D be the only argument.
6 3) If the length of args is larger than 1, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
7 4) Set the default value of the receiver to D.
9 15.2.13.4.17 Hash#initialize copy
12 Behavior:
13 a) If original is not an instance of the class Hash, the behavior is unspecified.
14 b) Remove all the key/value pairs from the receiver.
15 c) For each key/value pair P of original , in an implementation-defined order, add or

16 update a key/value pair of the receiver by invoking the method []= (see 15.2.13.4.3)
17 on the receiver with the key of P and the value of P as the arguments.
18 d) Remove the default value or the default proc from the receiver.
19 e) If orignal has a default value, set the default value of the receiver to that value.
20 f) If orignal has a default proc, set the default proc of the receiver to that proc.
22 15.2.13.4.18 Hash#key?
23 key?( key )
26 15.2.13.4.19 Hash#keys
213
1 keys
3 Behavior: The method returns a newly created instance of the class Array whose content
4 is all the keys of the receiver. The order of the keys stored is implementation-defined.
5 15.2.13.4.20 Hash#length
6 length
9 of key/value pairs stored in the receiver.
10 15.2.13.4.21 Hash#member?
11 member?( key )
14 15.2.13.4.22 Hash#merge
15 merge( other, &block )
17 Behavior:
18 a) If other is not an instance of the class Hash, the behavior is unspecified.
19 b) Otherwise, create a direct instance H of the class Hash which has the same key/value
20 pairs as the receiver.
21 c) For each key/value pair P of other , in an implementation-defined order:
23 i) If H has the key/value pair Q where the key of P ≡ the key of Q, call block
24 with three arguments, the key of P, the value of Q, and the value of P. Let
25 V be the resulting value. Add or update a key/value pair of the receiver by
26 invoking the method []= (see 15.2.13.4.3) on H with the key of P and V as
27 the arguments.
214
1 ii) Otherwise, add or update a key/value pair of the receiver by invoking the
2 method []= (see 15.2.13.4.3) on H with the key of P and the value of P as
3 the arguments.
4 2) If block is not given, add or update a key/value pair of the receiver by invoking
5 the method []= (see 15.2.13.4.3) on H with the key of P and the value of P as
6 the arguments.
7 d) Return H.
8 15.2.13.4.23 Hash#replace
9 replace( other )
12 15.2.13.4.24 Hash#shift
13 shift
15 Behavior:
16 a) If the receiver is empty:
17 1) If the receiver has the default proc, invoke the method call on the default proc
18 with two arguments, the receiver and nil. Return the resulting value of this call.
19 2) If the receiver has the default value, return the value.
21 b) Otherwise, choose a key/value pair P and remove P from the receiver. Return a newly
22 created instance of the class Array which contains two elements, the key and the value
23 of P.
24 Which pair is chosen is implementation-defined.
25 15.2.13.4.25 Hash#size
26 size
215
1 15.2.13.4.26 Hash#store
2 store( key, value )
4 Behavior: Same as the method []= (see 15.2.13.4.3).
5 15.2.13.4.27 Hash#value?
6 value?( value )
8 Behavior: Same as the method has value? (see 15.2.13.4.14).
9 15.2.13.4.28 Hash#values
10 values
13 all the values of the receiver. The order of the values stored is implementation-defined.
14 15.2.14 Range
16 Instances of the class Range represent ranges between two values, the start and end points.
17 An instance of the class Range has the following attributes:
18 start point: The value at the start of the range.
19 end point: The value at the end of the range.
20 exclusive flag: If this is true, the end point is excluded from the range. Otherwise, the
21 end point is included in the range.
22 When the method clone (see 15.3.1.3.8) or the method dup (see 15.3.1.3.9) of the class Kernel
23 is invoked on an instance of the class Range, those attributes shall be copied from the receiver
24 to the resulting value.
26 The class Object
216
2 The following module is included in the class Range.
3 Enumerable
5 15.2.14.4.1 Range#==
6 = =( other )
8 Behavior:
9 a) If all of the following conditions hold, return true:
10 other is an instance of the class Range.
11 Let S be the start point of other . Invocation of the method == on the start point
12 of the receiver with S as the argument results in a trueish object.
13 Let E be the end point of other . Invocation of the method == on the end point of
14 the receiver with E as the argument results in a trueish object.
15 The exclusive flags of the receiver and other are the same boolean value.
17 15.2.14.4.2 Range#===
18 = = =( obj )
20 Behavior:
21 a) If neither the start point of the receiver nor the end point of the receiver is an instance
22 of the class Numeric, the behavior is unspecified.
23 b) Invoke the method <=> on the start point of the receiver with obj as the argument.
24 Let S be the result of this invocation.
25 1) If S is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
26 2) If the value of S is larger than 0, return false.
217
1 c) Invoke the method <=> on obj with the end point of the receiver as the argument. Let
2 E be the result of this invocation.
3 If E is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
4 If the exclusive flag of the receiver is true, and the value of E is smaller than 0,
5 return true.
6 If the exclusive flag of the receiver is false, and the value of E is smaller than or
7 equal to 0, return true.
8 Otherwise, return false.
9 15.2.14.4.3 Range#begin
10 begin
12 Behavior: The method returns the start point of the receiver.
13 15.2.14.4.4 Range#each
14 each( &block )
16 Behavior:
18 b) If an invocation of the method respond to? on the start point of the receiver with a
19 direct instance of the class Symbol whose name is succ as the argument results in a
20 falseish object, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
21 c) Let V be the start point of the receiver.
22 d) Invoke the method <=> on V with the end point of the receiver as the argument. Let
23 C be the resulting value.
24 1) If C is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
25 2) If the value of C is larger than 0, return the receiver.
26 3) If the value of C is 0:
27 i) If the exclusive flag of the receiver is true, return the receiver.
28 ii) If the exclusive flag of the receiver is false, call block with V as the argument,
29 then, return the receiver.
218
1 e) Call block with V as the argument.
2 f) Invoke the method succ on V with no argument, and let new V be the resulting value.
3 g) Continue processing from Step d).
4 15.2.14.4.5 Range#end
5 end
7 Behavior: The method returns the end point of the receiver.
8 15.2.14.4.6 Range#exclude end?
9 exclude end?
11 Behavior: If the exclusive flag of the receiver is true, return true. Otherwise, return false.
12 15.2.14.4.7 Range#first
13 first
15 Behavior: Same as the method begin (see 15.2.14.4.3).
16 15.2.14.4.8 Range#include?
17 include?( obj )
19 Behavior: Same as the method === (see 15.2.14.4.2).
20 15.2.14.4.9 Range#initialize
21 initialize( left, right, exclusive =false )
219
1 Behavior:
2 a) Invoke the method <=> on left with right as the argument. If an exception is raised and
3 not handled during this invocation, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
4 If the result of this invocation is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is
5 unspecified.
6 b) If exclusive is a trueish object, let f be true. Otherwise, let f be false.
7 c) Set the start point, end point, and exclusive flag of the receiver to left, right, and f,
8 respectively.
10 15.2.14.4.10 Range#last
11 last
13 Behavior: Same as the method end (see 15.2.14.4.5).
14 15.2.14.4.11 Range#member?
15 member?( obj )
17 Behavior: Same as the method === (see 15.2.14.4.2).
18 15.2.15 Regexp
20 Instances of the class Regexp represent regular expressions, and have the following attributes.
21 pattern: A pattern of the regular expression (see 15.2.15.4). The default value of this
22 attribute is empty.
23 If the value of this attribute is empty when a method is invoked on an instance of the class
24 Regexp, except for the invocation of the method initialize, the behavior of the invoked
25 method is unspecified.
26 ignorecase-flag: A boolean value which indicates whether a match is performed in the

27 case insensitive manner. The default value of this attribute is false.
28 multiline-flag: A boolean value which indicates whether the pattern “.” matches a line-
29 terminator (see 15.2.15.4). The default value of this attribute is false.
220
2 The class Object
4 The following constants are defined in the class Regexp.
5 IGNORECASE: An instance of the class Integer whose value is 2n , where the integer n
6 is an implementation-defined value. The value of this constant shall be different from that
7 of MULTILINE described below.
8 MULTILINE: An instance of the class Integer whose value is 2m , where the integer m
9 is an implementation-defined value.
10 The above constants are used to set the ignorecase-flag and multiline-flag attributes of an in-
11 stance of the class Regexp (see 15.2.15.7.1).
12 15.2.15.4 Patterns
13 Syntax
14 pattern ::
15 alternative
16 | pattern 1 | alternative 2
17 alternative ::
18 [ empty ]
19 | alternative 3 term
20 term ::
21 anchor
22 | atom 1
23 | atom 2 quantifier
24 anchor ::
25 left-anchor | right-anchor
26 left-anchor ::
27 \A | ^
28 right-anchor ::
29 \z | $
30 quantifier ::
31 * | + | ?
221
1 atom ::
2 pattern-character
3 | grouping
4 | .
5 | atom-escape-sequence
6 pattern-character ::
7 source-character but not regexp-meta-character
8 regexp-meta-character ::
9 | | . | * | + | ^ | ? | ( | ) | # | \ | $
10 | future-reserved-meta-character
11 future-reserved-meta-character ::
12 [ | ] | { | }
13 grouping ::
14 ( pattern )
15 atom-escape-sequence ::
16 decimal-escape-sequence
17 | regexp-character-escape-sequence
18 decimal-escape-sequence ::
19 \ decimal-digit-except-zero
20 regexp-character-escape-sequence ::
21 regexp-escape-sequence
22 | regexp-non-escaped-sequence
23 | hexadecimal-escape-sequence
24 | regexp-octal-escape-sequence
25 | regexp-control-escape-sequence
26 regexp-escape-sequence ::
27 \ regexp-escaped-character
28 regexp-escaped-character ::
29 n | t | r | f | v | a | e
30 regexp-non-escaped-sequence ::
31 \ regexp-meta-character
32 regexp-octal-escape-sequence ::
33 octal-escape-sequence but not decimal-escape-sequence
222
1 regexp-control-escape-sequence ::
2 \ ( C- | c ) regexp-control-escaped-character
3 regexp-control-escaped-character ::
4 regexp-character-escape-sequence
5 | ?
6 | source-character but not ( \ | ? )
7 future-reserved-meta-character s are reserved for the extension of the pattern of regular expres-
8 sions.
9 Semantics
10 A regular expression selects specific substrings from a string called a target string according
11 to the pattern of the regular expression. If the pattern matches more than one substring, the
12 substring which begins earliest in the target string is selected. If there is more than one such
13 substring beginning at that point, the substring that has the highest priority, which is described
14 below, is selected. Each component of the pattern matches a substring of the target string as
15 follows:
16 a) A pattern matches the following substring:
17 1) If the pattern is an alternative 1 , it matches the string matched with the alternative 1 .
18 2) If the pattern is a pattern 1 | alternative 2 , it matches the string matched with either the
19 pattern 1 or the alternative 2 . The one matched with the pattern 1 has a higher priority.
20 EXAMPLE 1 "ab".slice(/(a|ab)/) returns "a", not "ab".
21 b) An alternative matches the following substring:
22 1) If the alternative is [empty], it matches an empty string.
23 2) If the alternative is an alternative 3 term, the alternative matches the substring whose
24 first part is matched with the alternative 3 and whose rest part is matched with the
25 term.
26 If there is more than one such substring, the priority of the substrings is determined
27 as follows:
28 i) If there is more than one candidate which is matched with the alternative 3 , a
29 substring whose first part is a candidate with a higher priority has a higher priority.
30 EXAMPLE 2 "abc".slice(/(a|ab)(c|b)/) returns "ab", not "abc". In this case,

31 (a|ab) is prior to (c|b).
32 ii) If the first parts of substrings are the same, and if there is more than one candidate
33 which is matched with the term, a substring whose rest part is a candidate with a
34 higher priority has a higher priority.
35 EXAMPLE 3 "abc".slice(/a(b|bc)/) returns "ab", not "abc".
223
1 c) A term matches the following substring:
2 1) If the term is an atom 1 , it matches the string matched with the atom 1 .
3 2) If the term is an atom 2 quantifier, it matches a string as follows:
4 i) If the quantifier is *, it matches a sequence of zero or more strings matched with

5 the atom 2 .
6 ii) If the quantifier is +, it matches a sequence of one or more strings matched with
7 atom 2 .
8 iii) If the quantifier is ?, it matches a sequence of zero or one string matched with the
9 atom 2 .
10 A longer sequence has a higher priority.
11 EXAMPLE 4 "aaa".slice(/a*/) returns "aaa", none of "", "a", and "aa".
12 3) If the term is an anchor, it matches the empty string at a specific position within the
13 target string S, as follows:
14 i) If the anchor is \A, it matches an empty string at the beginning of S.
15 ii) If the anchor is ^, it matches an empty string at the beginning of S or just after
16 a line-terminator which is followed by at least one character.
17 iii) If the anchor is \z, it matches an empty string at the end of S.
18 iv) If the anchor is $, it matches an empty string at the end of S or just before a
19 line-terminator.
20 d) An atom matches the following substring:
21 1) If the atom is a pattern-character, it matches a character C represented by the pattern-

22 character. If the atom is present in the pattern of an instance of the class Regexp whose
23 ignorecase-flag attribute is true, it also matches a corresponding upper-case character
24 of C, if C is a lower-case character, or a corresponding lower-case character of C, if C
25 is an upper-case character.
26 2) If the atom is a grouping, it matches the string matched with the grouping.
27 3) If the atom is “.”, it matches any character except for a line-terminator. If the atom is
28 present in the pattern of an instance of the class Regexp whose multiline-flag attribute
29 is true, it also matches a line-terminator.
30 4) If the atom is an atom-escape-sequence, it matches the string matched with the atom-
31 escape-sequence.
32 e) A grouping matches the substring matched with the pattern.
33 f) An atom-escape-sequence matches the following substring:
224
1 1) If the atom-escape-sequence is a decimal-escape-sequence, it matches the string matched
2 with the decimal-escape-sequence.
3 2) If the atom-escape-sequence is a regexp-character-escape-sequence, it matches a string

4 of length one, the content of which is the character represented by the regexp-character-
5 escape-sequence.
6 g) A decimal-escape-sequence matches the following substring:
7 1) Let i be an integer represented by decimal-digit-except-zero.
8 2) Let G be the i th grouping in the pattern, counted from 1, in the order of the occurrence
9 of “(” of groupings from the left of the pattern.
10 3) If the decimal-escape-sequence is present before G within the pattern, it does not match
11 any string.
12 4) If G matches any string, the decimal-escape-sequence matches the same string.
13 5) Otherwise, the decimal-escape-sequence does not match any string.
14 h) A regexp-character-escape-sequence represents a character as follows:
15 A regexp-escape-sequence represents a character as shown in 8.7.6.3.3, Table 1.
16 A regexp-non-escaped-sequence represents a regexp-meta-character.
17 A hexadecimal-escape-sequence represents a character as described in 8.7.6.3.3.
18 A regexp-octal-escape-sequence is interpreted in the same way as an octal-escape-sequence

19 (see 8.7.6.3.3).
20 A regexp-control-escape-sequence represents a character, the code of which is com-

21 puted by taking bitwise AND of 0x9f and the code of the character represented by the
22 regexp-control-escaped-character, except when the regexp-control-escaped-character is
23 ?, in which case, the regexp-control-escape-sequence represents a character whose code
24 is 127.
25 15.2.15.5 Matching process
26 A pattern P is considered to successfully match the given string S, if there exists a substring of
27 S (including S itself) matched with P.
28 a) When an index is specified, it is tested if P matches the part of S which begins at the
29 index and ends at the end of S. However, if the match succeeds, the string attribute of the
30 resulting instance of the class MatchData is S, not the part of S which begins at the index,
31 as described below.
32 b) A matching process returns either an instance of the class MatchData (see 15.2.16) if the
33 match succeeds or nil if the match fails.
34 c) An instance of the class MatchData is created as follows:
225
1 1) Let B be the substring of S which P matched.
2 2) Create a direct instance of the class MatchData, and let M be the instance.
3 3) Set the string attribute of M (see 15.2.16.1) to S.
4 4) Create a new empty list L.
5 5) Let O be a pair of the substring B and the index of the first character of B within S.
6 Append O to L.
7 6) For each grouping G in P, in the order of the occurrence of its “(” within P, take the
8 following steps:
9 i) If G matches a substring of B under the matching process of P, let BG be the

10 substring. Let O be a pair of the substring BG and the index of the first character
11 of BG within S. Append O to L.
12 ii) Otherwise, append to L a pair whose substring and index of the substring are nil.
13 7) Set the match result attribute of M to L.
14 8) M is the instance of the class MatchData returned by the matching process.
15 d) A matching process creates or updates a local variable binding with name “˜”, which is
16 specifically used by the method Regexp.last match (see 15.2.15.6.3), as follows:
17 1) Let M be the value which the matching process returns.
18 2) If the binding for the name “˜” can be resolved by the process described in 9.2 as if
19 “˜” were a local-variable-identifier, replace the value of the binding with M.
20 3) Otherwise, create a local variable binding with name “˜” and value M in the uppermost
21 non-block element of [local-variable-bindings] where the non-block element means the
22 element which does not correspond to a block.
23 e) A conforming processor may name the binding other than “˜”; however, it shall not be of
24 the form local-variable-identifier.
26 15.2.15.6.1 Regexp.compile
27 Regexp.compile( *args )
29 Behavior: Same as the method new (see 15.2.3.3.3).
30 15.2.15.6.2 Regexp.escape
226
1 Regexp.escape( string )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If string is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
5 b) Let S be the content of string.
6 c) Return a a new direct instance of the class String whose content is the same as S,
7 except that every occurrences of characters on the left of Table 4 are replaced with the
8 corresponding sequences of characters on the right of Table 4.
Table 4 – Regexp escaped characters
Characters replaced Escaped sequence

0x0a \n
0x09 \t
0x0d \r
0x0c \f
0x20 \ 0x20
# \#
$ \$
( $
) $
* \*
+ \+
- \-
. \.
? \?
[ \[
\ \\
] \]
^ \^
{ \{
| \|
} \}
9 15.2.15.6.3 Regexp.last match
10 Regexp.last match( *index )
227
2 Behavior:
3 a) Search for a binding of a local variable with name “˜” as described in 9.2 as if “˜” were
4 a local-variable-identifier.
5 b) If the binding is found and its value is an instance of the class MatchData, let M be
6 the instance. Otherwise, return nil.
7 c) If the length of index is 0, return M.
8 d) If the length of index is larger than 1, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
9 e) If the length of index is 1, let A be the only argument.
10 f) If A is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior of the method is unspecified.
11 g) Let R be the result returned by invoking the method [] (see 15.2.16.3.1) on M with
12 A as the only argument.
13 h) Return R.
14 15.2.15.6.4 Regexp.quote
15 Regexp.quote
17 Behavior: Same as the method escape (see 15.2.15.6.2).
19 15.2.15.7.1 Regexp#initialize
20 initialize( source, flag =nil )
22 Behavior:
23 a) If source is an instance of the class Regexp, let S be the pattern attribute of source.
24 If source is an instance of the class String, let S be the content of source. Otherwise,
26 b) If S is not of the form pattern (see 15.2.15.4), raise a direct instance of the class
27 RegexpError.
28 c) Set the pattern attribute of the receiver to S.
228
1 d) If flag is an instance of the class Integer, let n be the value of the instance.
2 1) If computing bitwise AND of the value of the constant IGNORECASE of the class
3 Regexp and n results in non-zero value, set the ignorecase-flag attribute of the
4 receiver to true.
5 2) If computing bitwise AND of the value of the constant MULTILINE of the class
6 Regexp and n results in non-zero value, set the multiline-flag attribute of the
7 receiver to true.
8 e) If flag is not an instance of the class Integer, and if flag is a trueish object, then set
9 the ignorecase-flag attribute of the receiver to true.
10 f) Return an implementation-defined value.
11 15.2.15.7.2 Regexp#initialize copy
14 Behavior:
15 a) If original is not an instance of the class of the receiver, raise a direct instance of the
16 class TypeError.
17 b) Set the pattern attribute of the receiver to the pattern attribute of original .
18 c) Set the ignorecase-flag attribute of the receiver to the ignorecase-flag attribute of orig-
19 inal .
20 d) Set the multiline-flag attribute of the receiver to the multiline-flag attribute of original .
22 15.2.15.7.3 Regexp#==
23 = =( other )
25 Behavior:
26 a) If other is not an instance of the class Regexp, return false.
27 b) If the corresponding attributes of the receiver and other are the same, return true.
229
1 15.2.15.7.4 Regexp#===
2 = = =( string )
4 Behavior:
7 c) Test if the pattern of the receiver matches S (see 15.2.15.4 and 15.2.15.5). Let M be
8 the result of the matching process.
9 d) If M is an instance of the class MatchData, return true.
11 15.2.15.7.5 Regexp#=˜
12 =~( string )
14 Behavior:
19 d) If M is nil return nil.
20 e) If M is an instance of the class MatchData, let P be first element of the match result
21 attribute of M, and let i be the index of the substring of P.
22 f) Return an instance of the class Integer whose value is i.
23 15.2.15.7.6 Regexp#casefold?
24 casefold?
26 Behavior: The method returns the value of the ignorecase-flag attribute of the receiver.
230
1 15.2.15.7.7 Regexp#match
2 match( string )
4 Behavior:
9 d) Return M.
10 15.2.15.7.8 Regexp#source
11 source
13 Behavior: The method returns a direct instance of the class String whose content is the
14 pattern of the receiver.
15 15.2.16 MatchData
17 Instances of the class MatchData represent results of successful matches of instances of the class
18 Regexp against instances of the class String.
19 An instance of the class MatchData has the attributes called string and match result, which
20 are initialized as described in 15.2.15.5. The string attribute is the target string S of a matching
21 process. The match result attribute is a list whose element is a pair of a substring B matched
22 by the pattern of an instance of the class Regexp or a grouping in the pattern, and the index I
23 of the first character of B within S. B is called the substring of the element, and I is called the
24 index of the substring of the element. Elements of the match result attribute are indexed by
25 integers starting from 0.
26 Given an instance M of the class MatchData, three values named matched substring, pre-
27 match and post-match of M, respectively, are defined as follows:
28 Let S be the string attribute of M. Let F be the first element of the match result attribute of
29 M. Let B and O be the substring of F and the index of the substring of F. Let i be the sum of
30 O and the length of B.
31 matched substring: The matched substring of M is B.
231
1 pre-match: The pre-match of M is a part of S, from the first up to, but not including the
2 Oth character of S.
3 post-match: The post-match of M is a part of S, from the i th up to the last character of

4 S.
6 The class Object
8 15.2.16.3.1 MatchData#[]
9 []( *args )
11 Behavior: Invoke the method to a on the receiver (see 15.2.16.3.12), and invoke the
12 method [] on the resulting instance of the class Array with args as the arguments (see
13 15.2.12.5.4), and then, return the resulting value of the invocation of the method [].
14 15.2.16.3.2 MatchData#begin
15 begin( index )
17 Behavior:
18 a) If index is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
19 b) Let L be the match result attribute of the receiver, and let i be the value of index .
20 c) If i is smaller than 0, or larger than or equal to the number of elements of L, raise a

21 direct instance of the class IndexError.
22 d) Otherwise, return the second portion of the i th element of L.
23 15.2.16.3.3 MatchData#captures
24 captures
26 Behavior:
232
1 a) Let L be the match result attribute of the receiver.
3 c) Except for the first element, for each element e of L, in the same order in the list,
4 append to A a direct instance of the class String whose content is the substring of e.
5 d) Return A.
6 15.2.16.3.4 MatchData#end
7 end( index )
9 Behavior:

14 d) Let F and S be the substring and the index of the substring of the i th element of L,
15 respectively.
16 e) If F is nil, return nil.
17 f) Otherwise, let f be the length of F. Return an instance of the class Integer whose
18 value is the sum of S and f.
19 15.2.16.3.5 MatchData#initialize copy
22 Behavior:
23 a) If original is not an instance of the class of the receiver, raise a direct instance of the
24 class TypeError.
25 b) Set the string attribute of the receiver to the string attribute of original .
26 c) Set the match result attribute of the receiver to the match result attribute of original .
233
1 15.2.16.3.6 MatchData#length
2 length
4 Behavior:
5 The method returns the number of elements of the match result attribute of the receiver.
6 15.2.16.3.7 MatchData#offset
7 offset( index )
9 Behavior:

14 d) Let S and b be the substring and the index of the substring of the i th element of L,
15 respectively. Let e be the sum of b and the length of S.
16 e) Return a new instance of the class Array which contains two instances of the class
17 Integer, the one whose value is b and the other whose value is e, in this order.
18 15.2.16.3.8 MatchData#post match
19 post match
21 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class String the content of which is the
22 post-match of the receiver.
23 15.2.16.3.9 MatchData#pre match
24 pre match
27 pre-match of the receiver.
234
1 15.2.16.3.10 MatchData#size
2 size
5 15.2.16.3.11 MatchData#string
6 string
8 Behavior:
9 The method returns an instance of the class String the content of which is the string
10 attribute of the receiver.
11 15.2.16.3.12 MatchData#to a
12 to a
14 Behavior:
15 a) Let L be the match result attribute of the receiver.
17 c) For each element e of L, in the same order in the list, append to A an instance of the
18 class String whose content is the substring of e.
19 d) Return A.
20 15.2.16.3.13 MatchData#to s
21 to s
24 matched substring of the receiver.
235
1 15.2.17 Proc
3 Instances of the class Proc represent block s.
4 An instance of the class Proc has the following attribute.
5 block: The block represented by the instance.
7 The class Object
9 15.2.17.3.1 Proc.new
10 Proc.new( &block )
12 Behavior:
13 a) If block is given, let B be block .
14 b) Otherwise:
15 1) If the top of [block] is block-not-given, then raise a direct instance of the class
16 ArgumentError.
17 2) Otherwise, let B be the top of [block] .
18 c) Create a new direct instance of the class Proc which has B as its block attribute.
19 d) Return the instance.
21 15.2.17.4.1 Proc#[]
22 []( *args )
24 Behavior: Same as the method call (see 15.2.17.4.3).
25 15.2.17.4.2 Proc#arity
236
1 arity
3 Behavior: Let B be the block represented by the receiver.
4 a) If a block-parameter is omitted in B, return an instance of the class Integer whose

5 value is implementation-defined.
6 b) If a block-parameter is present in B :
7 1) If a block-parameter-list is omitted in the block-parameter, return an instance of

9 2) If a block-parameter-list is present in the block-parameter :
10 i) If the block-parameter-list is of the form left-hand-side, return an instance of

12 ii) If the block-parameter-list is of the form multiple-left-hand-side:
13 I) If the multiple-left-hand-side is of the form grouped-left-hand-side, return

14 an instance of the class Integer whose value is implementation-defined.
15 II) If the multiple-left-hand-side is of the form packing-left-hand-side, return

16 an instance of the class Integer whose value is −1.
17 III) Otherwise, let n be the number of multiple-left-hand-side-items of the

18 multiple-left-hand-side.
19 IV) If the multiple-left-hand-side ends with a packing-left-hand-side, return

20 an instance of the class Integer whose value is −(n+1).
21 V) Otherwise, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is n.
22 15.2.17.4.3 Proc#call
23 call( *args )
25 Behavior: Let B be the block attribute of the receiver. Let L be an empty list.
26 a) Append each element of args, in the indexing order, to L.
27 b) Call B with L as the arguments (see 11.3.3). Let V be the result of the call.
28 c) Return V.
237
1 15.2.17.4.4 Proc#clone
2 clone
4 Behavior:
5 a) Create a direct instance of the class of the receiver which has no bindings of instance
6 variables. Let O be the newly created instance.
7 b) For each binding B of the instance variables of the receiver, create a variable binding
8 with the same name and value as B in the set of bindings of instance variables of O.
9 c) If the receiver is associated with a singleton class, let Eo be the singleton class, and
19 5) Associate O with En .
20 d) Set the block attribute of O to the block attribute of the receiver.
21 e) Return O.
22 15.2.17.4.5 Proc#dup
23 dup
25 Behavior:
26 a) Create a direct instance of the class of the receiver which has no bindings of instance
28 b) Set the block attribute of O to the block attribute of the receiver.
29 c) Return O.
238
1 15.2.18 Struct
3 The class Struct is a generator of a structure type which is a class defining a set of fields
4 and methods for accessing these fields. Fields are indexed by integers starting from 0 (see
5 15.2.18.3.1). An instance of a generated class has values for the set of fields. Those values can
6 be referred to and updated with accessor methods for their fields.
8 The class Object
10 15.2.18.3.1 Struct.new
11 Struct.new( string, *symbol list )
13 Behavior: The method creates a class defining a set of fields and accessor methods for
14 these fields.
16 a) Create a direct instance of the class Class which has the class Struct as its direct
17 superclass. Let C be that class.
18 b) If string is not an instance of the class String or the class Symbol, the behavior is
19 unspecified.
20 c) If string is an instance of the class String, let N be the content of the instance.
21 1) If N is not of the form constant-identifier, raise a direct instance of the class

22 ArgumentError.
23 2) Otherwise,
24 i) If the binding with name N exists in the set of bindings of constants in the
25 class Struct, replace the value of the binding with C.
26 ii) Otherwise, create a constant binding in the class Struct with name N and
27 value C.
28 d) If string is an instance of the class Symbol, prepend the instance to symbol list.
29 e) Let i be 0.
30 f) For each element S of symbol list, take the following steps:
239
2 2) Define a field, which is named N and is indexed by i, in C.
3 3) If N is of the form local-variable-identifier or constant-identifier :
4 i) Define a method named N in C which takes no arguments, and when invoked,

5 returns the value of the field named N.
6 ii) Define a method named N= (i.e. N postfixed by “=”) in C which takes one
7 argument, and when invoked, sets the field named N to the given argument
8 and returns the argument.
9 4) Increment i by 1.
10 g) Return C.
11 Classes created by the method Struct.new are equipped with public singleton methods
12 new, [], and members. The following describes those methods, assuming that the name of
13 a class created by the method Struct.new is C.
14 C .new( *args )
16 Behavior:
17 a) Create a direct instance of the class with the set of fields the receiver defines. Let I be
18 the instance.
19 b) Invoke the method initialize on I with args as the list of arguments.
20 c) Return I.
21 C .[]( *args )
23 Behavior: Same as the method new described above.
24 C .members
26 Behavior:
240
1 a) Create a direct instance A of the class Array. For each field of the receiver, in the
2 indexing order of the fields, create a direct instance of the class String whose content
3 is the name of the field and append the instance to A.
4 b) Return A.
6 15.2.18.4.1 Struct#==
7 = =( other )
9 Behavior:
11 b) If the class of other and that of the receiver are different, return false.
12 c) Otherwise, for each field named f of the receiver, take the following steps:
13 1) Let R and O be the values of the fields named f of the receiver and other respec-
14 tively.
15 2) If R and O are not the same object,
16 i) Invoke the method == on R with O as the only argument. Let V be the

17 resulting value of the invocation.
18 ii) If V is a falseish object, return false.
19 d) Return true.
20 15.2.18.4.2 Struct#[]
21 []( name )
23 Behavior:
24 a) If name is an instance of the class Symbol or the class String:
25 1) Let N be the name designated by name.
26 2) If the receiver has the field named N, return the value of the field.
241
1 3) Otherwise, let S be an instance of the class Symbol with name N and raise a direct
3 b) If name is an instance of the class Integer, let i be the value of name. Let n be the
4 number of the fields of the receiver.
5 1) If i is negative, let new i be n + i.
6 2) If i is still negative or i is larger than or equal to n, raise a direct instance of the

7 class IndexError.
8 3) Otherwise, return the value of the field whose index is i.
10 15.2.18.4.3 Struct#[]=
11 [] =( name, obj )
13 Behavior:
14 a) If name is an instance of the class Symbol or an instance of the class String:
15 1) Let N be the name designated by name.
16 2) If the receiver has the field named N,
17 i) Replace the value of the field with obj ,
18 ii) Return obj .
19 3) Otherwise, let S be an instance of the class Symbol with name N and raise a direct
21 b) If name is an instance of the class Integer, let i be the value of name. Let n be the
22 number of the fields of the receiver.
23 1) If i is negative, let new i be n + i.
24 2) If i is still negative or i is larger than or equal to n, raise a direct instance of the

25 class IndexError.
26 3) Otherwise,
27 i) Replace the value of the field whose index is i with obj
28 ii) Return obj .
242
1 15.2.18.4.4 Struct#each
2 each( &block )
4 Behavior:
6 b) For each field of the receiver, in the indexing order, call block with the value of the
7 field as the only argument.
9 15.2.18.4.5 Struct#each pair
10 each pair( &block )
12 Behavior:
14 b) For each field of the receiver, in the indexing order, take the following steps:
15 1) Let N and V be the name and the value of the field respectively. Let S be an
16 instance of the class Symbol with name N.
17 2) Call block with the list of arguments which contains S and V in this order.
19 15.2.18.4.6 Struct#members
20 members
22 Behavior: Same as the method members described in 15.2.18.3.1.
23 15.2.18.4.7 Struct#select
243
1 select( &block )
3 Behavior:
5 b) Create an empty direct instance of the class Array. Let A be the instance.
6 c) For each field of the receiver, in the indexing order, take the following steps:
7 1) Let V be the value of the field.
8 2) Call block with V as the only argument. Let R be the resulting value of the call.
9 3) If R is a trueish object, append V to A.
10 d) Return A.
11 15.2.18.4.8 Struct#initialize
12 initialize( *args )
14 Behavior: Let Na be the length of args, and let Nf be the number of the fields of the
15 receiver.
16 a) If Na is larger than Nf , raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
17 b) Otherwise, for each field f of the receiver, let i be the index of f, and set the value of f
18 to the i th element of args, or to nil when i is equal to or larger than Na .
20 15.2.18.4.9 Struct#initialize copy
23 Behavior:
24 a) If the receiver and original are the same object, return an implementation-defined
25 value.
244
1 b) If original is not an instance of the class of the receiver, raise a direct instance of the
2 class TypeError.
3 c) If the number of the fields of the receiver and the number of the fields of original are
4 different, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
5 d) For each field f of original , let i be the index of f, and set the value of the i th field of
6 the receiver to the value of f.
8 15.2.19 Time
10 Instances of the class Time represent dates and times.
11 An instance of the class Time holds the following attributes.
12 Microseconds: Microseconds since January 1, 1970 00:00 UTC. Microseconds is an integer

13 whose range is implementation-defined. The value of microseconds attributes is rounded
14 to fit in the representation of microseconds in an implementation-defined way. If an out of
15 range value is given as microseconds when creating an instance of the class Time, a direct
16 instance of either of the class ArgumentError or the class RangeError shall be raised.
17 Which class is chosen is implementation-defined.
18 Time zone: The time zone.
20 The class Object
21 15.2.19.3 Time computation
22 Mathematical functions introduced in this subclause are used throughout the descriptions in
23 15.2.19. These functions are assumed to compute exact mathematical results using mathematical
24 real numbers.
25 Leap seconds are ignored in this document. However, a conforming processor may support leap
26 seconds in an implementation-defined way.
27 15.2.19.3.1 Day
28 The number of microseconds of a day is computed as follows:
M icroSecP erDay = 24 × 60 × 60 × 106
29 The number of days since January 1, 1970 00:00 UTC which corresponds to microseconds t is
30 computed as follows:
245
( )
t
Day(t) = f loor
M icroSecP erDay
f loor(t) = The integer x such that x ≤ t < x + 1
1 The weekday which corresponds to microseconds t is computed as follows:
W eekDay(t) = (Day(t) + 4) modulo 7
2 15.2.19.3.2 Year
3 A year has 365 days, except for leap years, which have 366 days. Leap years are those which
4 are either:
5 divisible by 4 and not divisible by 100, or
6 divisible by 400.
7 The number of days from January 1, 1970 00:00 UTC to the beginning of a year y is computed
8 as follows:
( ) ( ) ( )
y − 1969 y − 1901 y − 1601
DayF romY ear(y) = 365×(y−1970)+f loor −f loor +f loor
4 100 400
9 Microseconds elapsed since January 1, 1970 00:00 UTC until the beginning of y is computed as
10 follows:
M icroSecF romY ear(y) = DayF romY ear(y) × M icroSecP erDay
11 The year number y which corresponds to microseconds t measured from January 1, 1970 00:00
12 UTC is computed as follows.
Y earF romT ime(t) = y such that, M icroSecF romY ear(y − 1) < t ≤ M icroSecF romY ear(y)
13 The number of days from the beginning of the year for the given microseconds t is computed as
14 follows.
DayW ithinY ear(t) = Day(t) − DayF romY ear(Y earF romT ime(t))
246
1 15.2.19.3.3 Month
2 Months have usual number of days. Leap years have the extra day in February. Each month is
3 identified by the number in the range 1 to 12, in the order from January to December.
4 The month number which corresponds to microseconds t measured from January 1, 1970 00:00
5 UTC is computed as follows.


 1 if 0 ≤ DayW ithinY ear(t) < 31



 31 ≤ DayW ithinY ear(t) < 59 + LeapY ear(t)

 2 if



 3 if 59 + LeapY ear(t) ≤ DayW ithinY ear(t) < 90 + LeapY ear(t)



 90 + LeapY ear(t) ≤ DayW ithinY ear(t) < 120 + LeapY ear(t)

 4 if





6 if 151 + LeapY ear(t) ≤ DayW ithinY ear(t) < 181 + LeapY ear(t)
M onthF romT ime(t) =





 8 if







 10 if





12 if 334 + LeapY ear(t) ≤ DayW ithinY ear(t) < 365 + LeapY ear(t)
{
1 if Y earF romT ime(t) is a leap year
LeapY ear(t) =
0 otherwise
6 15.2.19.3.4 Days of month
7 The day of the month which corresponds to microseconds t measured from January 1, 1970
8 00:00 UTC is computed as follows.


 DayW ithinY ear(t) + 1 if M onthF romT ime(t) = 1



 DayW ithinY ear(t) − 30

 if M onthF romT ime(t) = 2



DayW ithinY ear(t) − 58 − LeapY ear(t) if M onthF romT ime(t) = 3



 DayW ithinY ear(t) − 89 − LeapY ear(t)




 DayW ithinY ear(t) − 119 − LeapY ear(t) if M onthF romT ime(t) = 5


DayW ithinY ear(t) − 150 − LeapY ear(t) if M onthF romT ime(t) = 6
DayW ithinM onth(t) =

















DayW ithinY ear(t) − 333 − LeapY ear(t) if M onthF romT ime(t) = 12
247
1 15.2.19.3.5 Hours, Minutes, and Seconds
2 The numbers of microseconds in an hour, a minute, and a second are as follows:
M icroSecP erHour = 60 × 60 × 106

M icroSecP erM inute = 60 × 106
M icroSecP erSecond = 106
3 The hour, the minute, and the second which correspond to microseconds t measured from
4 January 1, 1970 00:00 UTC are computed as follows.
( )
t
HourF romT ime(t) = f loor modulo 24
M icroSecP erHour
( )
t
M inuteF romT ime(t) = f loor modulo 60
M icroSecP erM inute
( )
t
SecondF romT ime(t) = f loor modulo 60
M icroSecP erSecond
5 15.2.19.4 Time zone and Local time
6 The current time zone is determined from time zone information provided by the underlying
7 system. If the system does not provide information on the current local time zone, the time
8 zone attribute of an instance of the class Time is implementation-defined.
9 The local time for an instance of the class Time is computed from its microseconds t and time
10 zone z as follows.
LocalT ime = t + ZoneOf f set(z)

ZoneOf f set(z) = UTC offset of z measured in microseconds
11 15.2.19.5 Daylight saving time
12 On system where it is possible to determine the daylight saving time for each time zone, a
13 conforming processor should adjust the microseconds attributes of an instance of the class Time
14 if that microseconds falls within the daylight saving time of the time zone attributes of the
15 instance. An algorithm used for the adjustment is implementation-defined.
17 15.2.19.6.1 Time.at
248
1 Time.at( *args )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If the length of args is 0 or larger than 2, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
5 b) If the length of args is 1, let A be the only argument.
6 1) If A is an instance of the class Time, return a new instance of the class Time which
7 represents the same time and has the same time zone as A.
8 2) If A is an instance of the class Integer or an instance of the class Float:
9 i) Let N be the value of A.
10 ii) Create a direct instance of the class Time which represents the time at N ×106
11 microseconds since January 1, 1970 00:00 UTC, with the current local time
12 zone.
13 iii) Return the resulting instance.
15 c) If the length of args is 2, let S and M be the first and second element of args.
16 1) If S is an instance of the class Integer, let NS be the value of S.
18 3) If M is an instance of the class Integer or an instance of the class Float, let NM

19 be the value of M.
21 5) Create a direct instance of the class Time which represents the time at NS × 106 +
22 NM microseconds since January 1, 1970 00:00 UTC, with the current local time
23 zone.
24 6) Return the resulting instance.
25 15.2.19.6.2 Time.gm
26 Time.gm( year, month =1, day =1, hour =0, min =0, sec =0, usec =0 )
28 Behavior:
249
1 a) Compute an integer value for year , day, hour , min, sec, and usec as described below.
2 Let Y, D, H, Min, S, and U be integers thus converted.
3 An integer I is determined from the given object O as follows:
4 1) If O is an instance of the class Integer, let I be the value of O.
5 2) If O is an instance of the class Float, let I be the integral part of the value of O.
6 3) If O is an instance of the class String:
7 i) If the content of O is a sequence of decimal-digits, let I be the value of those

8 sequence of digits computed using base 10.
9 ii) Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
11 b) Compute an integer value from month as follows:
12 1) If month is an instance of the class Integer, let Mon be the value of month.
13 2) If month is an instance of the class String:
14 i) If the content of month is the same as one of the names of the months in the
15 lower row on Table 5, ignoring the differences in case, let Mon be the integer
16 which corresponds to month in the upper row on the same table.
17 ii) If the first character of month is decimal-digit, compute an integer value from
18 month as in Step a). Let Mon be the resulting integer.
19 iii) Otherwise, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
21 c) If Y is an integer such that 0 ≤ Y ≤ 138, the behavior is implementation-defined.
22 d) If each integer computed above is outside the range as listed below, raise a direct
23 instance of the class ArgumentError.
24 1 ≤ M on ≤ 12
25 1 ≤ D ≤ 31
26 0 ≤ H ≤ 23
27 0 ≤ M in ≤ 59
28 0 ≤ S ≤ 60
29 Whether any conditions are placed on Y is implementation-defined.
250
1 e) Let t be an integer which satisfies all of the following equations.
2 Y earF romT ime(t) = Y
3 M onthF romT ime(t) = M on
4 DayW ithinM onth(t) = 1
5 f) Compute microseconds T as follows.
T = t + D × M icroSecP erDay + H × M icroSecP erHour+

M in × M icroSecP erM inute + S × 106 + U
6 g) Create a direct instance of the class Time which represents the time at T since January
7 1, 1970 00:00 UTC, with the UTC time zone.
8 h) Return the resulting instance.
Table 5 – The names of months and corresponding integer
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
9 15.2.19.6.3 Time.local
10 Time.local( year, month =1, day =1, hour =0, min =0, sec =0, usec =0 )
12 Behavior: Same as the method Time.gm (see 15.2.19.6.2), except that the method returns
13 a direct instance of the class Time which has the current local time zone as its time zone.
14 15.2.19.6.4 Time.mktime
15 Time.mktime( year, month =1, day =1, hour =0, min =0, sec =0, usec =0 )
17 Behavior: Same as the method Time.local (see 15.2.19.6.3).
18 15.2.19.6.5 Time.now
251
1 Time.now
3 Behavior: This method returns a direct instance of the class Time which represents the
4 current time with the current local time zone.
5 The behavior of this method is the same as the method new (see 15.2.3.3.3).
6 15.2.19.6.6 Time.utc
7 Time.utc( year, month =1, day =1, hour =0, min =0, sec =0, usec =0 )
9 Behavior: Same as the method Time.gm (see 15.2.19.6.2).
11 15.2.19.7.1 Time#+
12 +( offset )
14 Behavior:
15 a) If offset is not an instance of the class Integer or the class Float, the behavior is
16 unspecified.
17 b) Let V be the value of offset.
18 c) Let o be the result of computing V × 106 .
19 d) Let t and z be the microseconds and time zone attribute of the receiver.
20 e) Create a direct instance of the class Time which represents the time at (t + o) microsec-
21 onds since January 1, 1970 00:00 UTC, with z as its time zone.
22 f) Return the resulting instance.
23 15.2.19.7.2 Time#−
24 -( offset )
252
1 Behavior:
2 a) If offset is not an instance of the class Integer or the class Float, the behavior is
3 unspecified.
4 b) Let V be the value of offset.
5 c) Let o be the result of computing V × 106 .
6 d) Let t and z be the microseconds and time zone attribute of the receiver.
7 e) Create a direct instance of the class Time which represents the time at t−o microseconds
8 since January 1, 1970 00:00 UTC, with z as its time zone.
10 15.2.19.7.3 Time#<=>
11 < =>( other )
13 Behavior:
14 a) If other is not an instance of the class Time, return nil.
15 b) Otherwise, let Tr and To be microseconds attributes of the receiver and other , respec-
16 tively.
17 1) If Tr > To , return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 1.
18 2) If Tr = To , return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 0.
19 3) If Tr < To , return an instance of the class Integer whose value is −1.
20 15.2.19.7.4 Time#asctime
21 asctime
23 Behavior:
24 a) Compute the local time from the receiver (see 15.2.19.4). Let t be the result.
25 b) Let W be the name of the day of the week in the second row on Table 6 which
26 corresponds to W eekDay(t) in the upper row on the same table.
27 c) Let Mon be the name of the month in the second row on Table 5 which corresponds
28 to M onthF romT ime(t) in the upper row on the same table.
253
1 d) Let D, H, M, S, and Y be as follows:
D = DayW ithinM onth(t)

H = HourF romT ime(t)
M = M inuteF romT ime(t)
S = SecondF romT ime(t)
Y = Y earF romT ime(t)
2 e) Create a direct instance of the class String, the content of which is the following
3 sequence of characters:
W M on D H:M :S Y
4 D is formatted as two digits with a leading space character (0x20) as necessary. H, M,

5 and S are formatted as two digits with a leading zero as necessary.
6 EXAMPLE Time.local(2001, 10, 1, 13, 20, 5).asctime returns "Mon Oct 1 13:20:05 2001".
Table 6 – The names of the days of the week corresponding to integers
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fry Sat
8 15.2.19.7.5 Time#ctime
9 ctime
11 Behavior: Same as the method asctime (see 15.2.19.7.4).
12 15.2.19.7.6 Time#day
13 day
15 Behavior:
17 b) Compute DayW ithinM onth(t).
18 c) Return an instance of the class Integer whose value is the result of Step b).
254
1 15.2.19.7.7 Time#dst?
2 dst?
4 Behavior: Let T and Z be the microseconds and time zone attribute of the receiver.
5 a) If T falls within the daylight saving time of Z, return true.
7 15.2.19.7.8 Time#getgm
8 getgm
10 Behavior: Same as the method getutc (see 15.2.19.7.10).
11 15.2.19.7.9 Time#getlocal
12 getlocal
14 Behavior: The method returns a new instance of the class Time which has the same
15 microseconds as the receiver, but has current local time zone as its time zone.
16 15.2.19.7.10 Time#getutc
17 getutc
19 Behavior: The method returns a new instance of the class Time which has the same
20 microseconds as the receiver, but has UTC as its time zone.
21 15.2.19.7.11 Time#gmt?
22 gmt?
24 Behavior: Same as the method utc? (see 15.2.19.7.28).
255
1 15.2.19.7.12 Time#gmt offset
2 gmt offset
4 Behavior: Same as the method utc offset (see 15.2.19.7.29).
5 15.2.19.7.13 Time#gmtime
6 gmtime
8 Behavior: Same as the method utc (see 15.2.19.7.27).
9 15.2.19.7.14 Time#gmtoff
10 gmtoff
12 Behavior: Same as the method utc offset (see 15.2.19.7.29).
13 15.2.19.7.15 Time#hour
14 hour
16 Behavior:
18 b) Compute HourF romT ime(t).
20 15.2.19.7.16 Time#initialize
21 initialize
256
1 Behavior:
2 a) Set the microseconds attribute of the receiver to microseconds elapsed since January
3 1, 1970 00:00 UTC.
4 b) Set the time zone attribute of the receiver to the current local time zone.
6 15.2.19.7.17 Time#initialize copy
9 Behavior:
10 a) If original is not an instance of the class Time, raise a direct instance of the class
11 TypeError.
12 b) Set the microseconds attribute of the receiver to the microseconds attribute of original .
13 c) Set the time zone attribute of the receiver to the time zone attribute of original .
15 15.2.19.7.18 Time#localtime
16 localtime
18 Behavior:
19 a) Change the time zone attribute of the receiver to the current local time zone.
21 15.2.19.7.19 Time#mday
22 mday
24 Behavior:
257
1 b) Compute DayW ithinM onth(t).
3 15.2.19.7.20 Time#min
4 min
6 Behavior:
8 b) Compute M inuteF romT ime(t).
10 15.2.19.7.21 Time#mon
11 mon
13 Behavior:
15 b) Compute M onthF romT ime(t).
17 15.2.19.7.22 Time#month
18 month
20 Behavior: Same as the method mon (see 15.2.19.7.21).
21 15.2.19.7.23 Time#sec
22 sec
258
1 Behavior:
3 b) Compute SecondF romT ime(t).
5 15.2.19.7.24 Time#to f
6 to f
8 Behavior: Let t the microseconds attribute of the receiver.
9 a) Compute t/106 .
10 b) Return a direct instance of the class Float whose value is the result of Step a).
11 15.2.19.7.25 Time#to i
12 to i
14 Behavior: Let t the microseconds attribute of the receiver.
15 a) Compute f loor(t/106 ).
16 b) Return an instance of the class Integer whose value is the result of Step a).
17 15.2.19.7.26 Time#usec
18 usec
20 Behavior:
22 b) Compute t modulo 106 .
24 15.2.19.7.27 Time#utc
259
1 utc
3 Behavior:
4 a) Change the time zone attribute of the receiver to UTC.
6 15.2.19.7.28 Time#utc?
7 utc?
9 Behavior: Let Z be the time zone attribute of the receiver.
10 a) If Z is UTC, return true.
12 15.2.19.7.29 Time#utc offset
13 utc offset
16 a) Compute f loor(ZoneOf f set(Z)/106 ).
17 b) Return an instance of the class Integer whose value is the result of Step a).
18 15.2.19.7.30 Time#wday
19 wday
21 Behavior:
23 b) Compute W eekDay(t).
24 c) Return an instance of the class Integer whose value is the result of Step b)
260
1 15.2.19.7.31 Time#yday
2 yday
4 Behavior:
6 b) Compute DayW ithinY ear(t).
8 15.2.19.7.32 Time#year
9 year
11 Behavior:
13 b) Compute Y earF romT ime(t).
15 15.2.19.7.33 Time#zone
16 zone
19 a) Create a direct instance of the class String, the content of which represents the name
20 of Z. The exact content of the instance is implementation-defined.
21 b) Return the resulting instance.
22 15.2.20 IO
24 An instance of the class IO represents a stream, which is a source and/or a sink of data.
25 An instance of the class IO has the following attributes:
261
1 readability flag: A boolean value which indicates whether the stream can handle input
2 operations.
3 An instance of the class IO is said to be readable if and only if this flag is true.
4 Reading from a stream which is not readable raises a direct instance of the class IOError.
5 writability flag: A boolean value which indicates whether the stream can handle output
6 operations.
7 An instance of the class IO is said to be writable if and only if this flag is true.
8 Writing to a stream which is not writable raises a direct instance of the class IOError.
9 openness flag: A boolean value which indicates whether the stream is open.
10 An instance of the class IO is said to be open if and only if this flag is true. An instance
11 of the class IO is said to be closed if and only if this flag is false.
12 A closed stream is neither readable nor writable.
13 buffering flag: A boolean value which indicates whether the data to be written to the
14 stream is buffered.
15 When this flag is true, the output to the receiver may be delayed until the instance methods
16 flush or close is invoked.
17 An instance of the class SystemCallError may be raised when the underlying system reported
18 an error during the execution of methods of the class IO.
19 The behavior of the method initialize of the class IO is unspecified, i.e. whether a direct
20 instance of the class IO other than the constnats STDIN, STDOUT and STDERR of the class
21 Object (see 15.2.1) can be created is unspecified.
22 NOTE Note that an instance of the class File, which is a subclass of the class IO, can be created by
23 the method new because the behavior of the method initialize is specified in 15.2.21.4.1.
24 In the following description of the methods of the class IO, a byte means an integer from 0 to
25 255.
27 The class Object
29 The following module is included in the class IO.
30 Enumerable
262
2 15.2.20.4.1 IO.open
3 IO.open( *args, &block )
5 Behavior:
6 a) Invoke the method new on the receiver with all the elements of args as the arguments.
7 Let I be the resulting value.
8 b) If block is not given, return I.
9 c) Otherwise, call block with I as the argument. Let V be the resulting value.
10 d) Invoke the method close (see 15.2.20.5.1) on I with no arguments, even when an
11 exception is raised and not handled in Step c).
12 e) Return V.
13 EXAMPLE If block is given, the method close is invoked automatically.
14 File.open("data.txt"){|f|
15 puts f.read
16 }
17
18 If block is not given, the method close should be invoked explicitly.
19 f = File.open("data.txt")
20 puts f.read
21 f.close
22
23 NOTE The behavior of invoking the method new on the class IO is unspecified. Therefore, the
24 behavior of invoking the method open on the class IO is also unspecified; however, the method open
25 can be invoked on the class File, which is a subclass of the class IO.
27 15.2.20.5.1 IO#close
28 close
30 Behavior:
31 a) If the receiver is closed, raise a direct instance of the class IOError.
263
1 b) If the buffering flag of the receiver is true, and the receiver is buffering any output,
2 immediately write all the buffered data to the stream which the receiver represents.
3 c) Set the openness flag of the receiver to false.
5 15.2.20.5.2 IO#closed?
6 closed?
8 Behavior:
9 a) If the receiver is closed, return true.
11 15.2.20.5.3 IO#each
12 each( &block )
14 Behavior:
16 b) If the receiver is not readable, raise a direct instance of the class IOError.
17 c) If the receiver has reached its end, return the receiver.
18 d) Otherwise, read characters from the receiver until 0x0a is read or the receiver reaches
19 its end.
20 e) Create a direct instance of the class String whose content is the sequence of characters
21 read in Step d). Call block with this instance as an argument.
22 f) Continue processing from Step c).
23 15.2.20.5.4 IO#each byte
24 each byte( &block )
264
1 Behavior:
3 b) If the receiver is not readable, raise a direct instance of the class IOError.
4 c) If the receiver has reached its end, return the receiver.
5 d) Otherwise, read a single byte from the receiver. Call block with an argument, an
6 instance of the class Integer whose value is the byte.
7 e) Continue processing from Step c).
8 15.2.20.5.5 IO#each line
9 each line( &block )
11 Behavior: Same as the method each (see 15.2.20.5.3).
12 15.2.20.5.6 IO#eof ?
13 eof?
15 Behavior:
16 a) If the receiver is not readable, raise a direct instance of the class IOError.
17 b) If the receiver has reached its end, return true. Otherwise, return false.
18 15.2.20.5.7 IO#flush
19 flush
21 Behavior:
22 a) If the receiver is not writable, raise a direct instance of the class IOError.
23 b) If the buffering flag of the receiver is true, and the receiver is buffering any output,
24 immediately write all the buffered data to the stream which the receiver represents.
265
1 15.2.20.5.8 IO#getc
2 getc
4 Behavior:
6 b) If the receiver has reached its end, return nil.
7 c) Otherwise, read a character from the receiver. Return an instance of the class Object
8 which represents the character (see 15.2.10.1).
9 15.2.20.5.9 IO#gets
10 gets
12 Behavior:
14 b) If the receiver has reached its end, return nil.
15 c) Otherwise, read characters from the receiver until 0x0a is read or the receiver reaches
16 its end.
17 d) Create a direct instance of the class String whose content is the sequence of characters
18 read in Step c) and return this instance.
19 15.2.20.5.10 IO#initialize copy
22 Behavior: The behavior of the method is unspecified.
23 15.2.20.5.11 IO#print
24 print( *args )
266
2 Behavior:
3 a) For each element of args in the indexing order:
4 1) Let V be the element. If the element is nil, a conforming processor may create
5 a direct instance of the class String whose content is “nil” and let V be the
6 instance.
7 2) Invoke the method write on the receiver with V as the argument.
9 15.2.20.5.12 IO#putc
10 putc( obj )
12 Behavior:
13 a) If obj is not an instance of the class Integer or an instance of the class String, the
14 behavior is unspecified. If obj is an instance of the class Integer whose value is smaller
15 than 0 or larger than 255, the behavior is unspecified.
16 b) If obj is an instance of the class Integer, create a direct instance S of the class String
17 whose content is a single character, whose character code is the value of obj .
18 c) If obj is an instance of the class String, create a direct instance S of the class String
19 whose content is the first character of obj .
20 d) Invoke the method write on the receiver with S as the argument.
21 e) Return obj .
22 15.2.20.5.13 IO#puts
23 puts( *args )
25 Behavior:
26 a) If the length of args is 0, create a direct instance of the class String whose content is a
27 single character 0x0a and invoke the method write on the receiver with this instance
28 as an argument.
29 b) Otherwise, for each element E of args in the indexing order:
267
1 1) If E is an instance of the class Array, for each element X of E in the indexing
2 order:
3 i) If X is the same object as E, i.e. if E contains itself, invoke the method

4 write on the receiver with an instance of the class String, whose content is
6 ii) Otherwise, invoke the method write on the receiver with X as the argument.
7 2) Otherwise:
8 i) If E is nil, a conforming processor may create a direct instance of the class

9 String whose content is “nil” and let E be the instance.
10 ii) If E is not an instance of the class String, invoke the method to s on the E.
11 If the resulting value is an instance of the class String, let E be the resulting
12 value. Otherwise, the behavior is unspecified.
13 iii) Invoke the method write on the receiver with E as the argument.
14 iv) If the last character of E is not 0x0a, create a direct instance of the class
15 String whose content is a single character 0x0a and invoke the method write
16 on the receiver with this instance as an argument.
18 15.2.20.5.14 IO#read
19 read( length =nil )
21 Behavior:
23 b) If the receiver has reached its end:
24 1) If length is nil, create an empty instance of the class String and return that
25 instance.
26 2) If length is not nil, return nil.
27 c) Otherwise:
28 1) If length is nil, read characters from the receiver until the receiver reaches its end.
29 2) If length is an instance of the class Integer, let N be the value of length. Other-
30 wise, the behavior is unspecified.
268
1 3) If N is smaller than 0, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
2 4) Read bytes from the receiver until N bytes are read or the receiver reaches its end.
5 15.2.20.5.15 IO#readchar
6 readchar
8 Behavior:
10 b) If the receiver has reached its end, raise a direct instance of the class EOFError.
11 c) Otherwise, read a character from the receiver. Return an instance of the class Object
12 which represents the character.
13 15.2.20.5.16 IO#readline
14 readline
16 Behavior:
18 b) If the receiver has reached its end, raise a direct instance of the class EOFError.
19 c) Otherwise, read characters from the receiver until 0x0a is read or the receiver reaches
20 its end.
23 15.2.20.5.17 IO#readlines
24 readlines
26 Behavior:
269
3 c) If the receiver has reached to its end, return A.
4 d) Otherwise, read characters from the receiver until 0x0a is read or the receiver reaches
5 its end.
6 e) Create a direct instance of the class String whose content is the sequence of characters
7 read in Step d) and append this instance to A.
8 f) Continue processing from Step c).
9 15.2.20.5.18 IO#sync
10 sync
12 Behavior:
14 b) If the buffering flag of the receiver is true, return false. Otherwise, return true.
15 15.2.20.5.19 IO#sync=
16 sync =( bool )
18 Behavior:
20 b) If bool is a trueish object, set the buffering flag of the receiver to false. If bool is a
21 falseish object, set the buffering flag of the receiver to true.
22 c) Return bool .
23 15.2.20.5.20 IO#write
24 write( str )
270
1 Behavior:
2 a) If str is an instance of the class String, let S be str .
3 b) Otherwise, invoke the method to s on str , and let S be the resulting value. If S is not
4 an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
5 c) If S is empty, return an instance of the class Integer whose value is 0.
6 d) If the receiver is not writable, raise a direct instance of the class IOError.
7 e) Write all the characters in S to the stream which the receiver represents, preserving
8 their order.
9 f) Return an instance of the class Integer, whose value is implementation-defined.
10 15.2.21 File
12 Instances of the class File represent opened files.
13 A conforming processor may raise an instance of the class SystemCallError during the execution
14 of the methods of the class File if the underlying system reports an error.
15 An instance of the class File has the following attribute:
16 path: The sequence of characters which represents the location of the file. The correct
17 syntax of paths is implementation-defined.
19 The class IO
21 15.2.21.3.1 File.exist?
22 File.exist?( path )
24 Behavior:
25 a) If the file specified by path exists, return true.
28 15.2.21.4.1 File#initialize
271
1 initialize( path, mode ="r" )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If path is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
5 b) If mode is not an instance of the class String whose content is a single character “r”
6 or “w”, the behavior is unspecified.
7 c) Open the file specified by path in an implementation-defined way, and associate it with
8 the receiver.
9 d) Set the path of the receiver to the content of path.
10 e) Set the openness flag and the buffering flag of the receiver to true.
11 f) Set the readability flag and the writability flag of the receiver as follows:
12 1) If mode is an instance of the class String whose content is a single character “r”,
13 set the readability flag of the receiver to true and set the writability flag of the
14 receiver to false.
15 2) If mode is an instance of the class String whose content is a single character “w”,
16 set the readability flag of the receiver to false and set the writability flag of the
17 receiver to true.
19 15.2.21.4.2 File#path
20 path
22 Behavior: The method creates a direct instance of the class String whose content is the
23 path of the receiver, and returns this instance.
24 15.2.22 Exception
26 Instances of the class Exception represent exceptions. The class Exception is a superclass of
27 all the other exception classes.
28 Instances of the class Exception have the following attribute.
29 message: An object returned by the method to s (see 15.2.22.5.3).
272
2 is invoked on an instance of the class Exception, the message attribute shall be copied from the
3 receiver to the resulting value.
5 The class Object
6 15.2.22.3 Built-in exception classes
7 This document defines several built-in subclasses of the class Exception. Figure 1 shows the
8 list of these subclasses and their class hierarchy. Instances of these built-in subclasses are raised
9 in various erroneous conditions as described in this document. The class hierarchy shown in
10 Figure 1 is used to handle an exception (see Clause 14).
Figure 1 – The exception class hierarchy
Exception
StandardError
ArgumentError
LocalJumpError
RangeError
RegexpError
RuntimeError
TypeError
ZeroDivisionError
NameError
NoMethodError
IndexError
IOError
EOFError
SystemCallError
ScriptError
SyntaxError
LoadError
12 15.2.22.4.1 Exception.exception
13 Exception.exception( *args, &block )
15 Behavior: Same as the method new (see 15.2.3.3.3).
273
2 15.2.22.5.1 Exception#exception
3 exception( *string )
5 Behavior:
6 a) If the length of string is 0, return the receiver.
7 b) If the length of string is 1:
8 1) If the only argument is the same object as the receiver, return the receiver.
9 2) Otherwise let M be the argument.
10 i) Create a direct instance of the class of the receiver. Let E be the instance.
11 ii) Set the message attribute of E to M.
12 iii) Return E.
13 c) If the length of string is larger than 1, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
14 15.2.22.5.2 Exception#message
15 message
17 Behavior:
18 a) Invoke the method to s on the receiver with no arguments.
19 b) Return the resulting value of the invocation.
20 15.2.22.5.3 Exception#to s
21 to s
23 Behavior:
24 a) Let M be the message attribute of the receiver.
274
1 b) If M is nil, return an implementation-defined value.
2 c) If M is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
3 d) Otherwise, return M.
4 15.2.22.5.4 Exception#initialize
5 initialize( message =nil )
7 Behavior:
8 a) Set the message attribute of the receiver to message.
10 15.2.23 StandardError
12 Instances of the class StandardError represent standard errors, which can be handled in a
13 rescue-clause without a exception-class-list (see 11.5.2.5).
15 The class Exception
16 15.2.24 ArgumentError
18 Instances of the class ArgumentError represent argument errors.
20 The class StandardError
21 15.2.25 LocalJumpError
22 Instances of the class LocalJumpError represent errors which occur while evaluating block s and
23 jump-expressions.
27 15.2.25.2.1 LocalJumpError#exit value
275
1 exit value
3 Behavior: The method returns the value of the instance variable @exit value of the
4 receiver.
5 15.2.25.2.2 LocalJumpError#reason
6 reason
8 Behavior: The method returns the value of the instance variable @reason of the receiver.
9 15.2.26 RangeError
11 Instances of the class RangeError represent range errors.
14 15.2.27 RegexpError
16 Instances of the class ArgumentError represent regular expression errors.
19 15.2.28 RuntimeError
21 Instances of the class RuntimeError represent runtime errors, which are raised by the method
22 raise of the class Kernel by default (see 15.3.1.2.12).
25 15.2.29 TypeError
27 Instances of the class TypeError represent type errors.
276
3 15.2.30 ZeroDivisionError
5 Instances of the class ZeroDivisionError represent zero division errors.
8 15.2.31 NameError
9 Instances of the class NameError represent errors which occur while resolving names to values.
10 Instances of the class NameError have the following attribute.
11 name: The name a reference to which causes this exception to be raised.
13 is invoked on an instance of the class NameError, the name attribute shall be copied from the
18 15.2.31.2.1 NameError#name
19 name
21 Behavior: The method returns the name attribute of the receiver.
22 15.2.31.2.2 NameError#initialize
23 initialize( message =nil, name =nil )
25 Behavior:
26 a) Set the name attribute of the receiver to the name.
277
1 b) Invoke the method initialize defined in the class Exception, which is a superclass of
2 the class NameError, as if a super-with-argument were evaluated with a list of arguments
3 which contains only message as the value of the argument-without-parentheses of the
4 super-with-argument.
6 15.2.32 NoMethodError
7 Instances of the class NoMethodError represent errors which occur while invoking methods which
8 do not exist or which cannot be invoked.
9 Instances of the class NoMethodError have attributes called name (see 15.2.31) and arguments.
10 The values of these attributes are set in the method initialize (see 15.2.32.2.2).
12 is invoked on an instance of the class NoMethodError, those attributes shall be copied from the
15 The class NameError
17 15.2.32.2.1 NoMethodError#args
18 args
20 Behavior: The method returns the value of the arguments attribute of the receiver.
21 15.2.32.2.2 NoMethodError#initialize
22 initialize( message =nil, name =nil, args =nil )
24 Behavior:
25 a) Set the arguments attribute of the receiver to the args.
26 b) Perform all the steps of the method initialize described in 15.2.31.2.2.
278
1 15.2.33 IndexError
3 Instances of the class IndexError represent index errors.
6 15.2.34 IOError
8 Instances of the class IOError represent input/output errors.
11 15.2.35 EOFError
13 Instances of the class EOFError represent errors which occur when a stream has reached its end.
15 The class IOError
16 15.2.36 SystemCallError
18 Instances of the class SystemCallError represent errors which occur while invoking the methods
19 of the class IO.
22 15.2.37 ScriptError
24 Instances of the class ScriptError represent programming errors such as syntax errors and
25 loading errors.
27 The class Exception
279
1 15.2.38 SyntaxError
3 Instances of the class SyntaxError represent syntax errors.
5 The class ScriptError
6 15.2.39 LoadError
8 Instances of the class LoadError represent errors which occur while loading external programs
9 (see 15.3.1.2.13).
11 The class ScriptError
12 15.3 Built-in modules
13 15.3.1 Kernel
15 The module Kernel is included in the class Object. Unless overridden, instance methods defined
16 in the module Kernel can be invoked on any instance of the class Object.
18 15.3.1.2.1 Kernel.‘
19 Kernel.‘( string )
21 Behavior: The method ‘ is invoked in the form described in 8.7.6.3.7.
22 The method ‘ executes an external command corresponding to string. The external com-
23 mand executed by the method is implementation-defined.
26 b) Execute the command which corresponds to the content of string. Let R be the output
27 of the command.
28 c) Create a direct instance of the class String whose content is R, and return the instance.
280
1 15.3.1.2.2 Kernel.block given?
2 Kernel.block given?
4 Behavior:
5 a) If the top of [block] is block-not-given, return false.
7 15.3.1.2.3 Kernel.eval
8 Kernel.eval( string )
10 Behavior:
12 b) Parse the content of the string as a program (see 10.1). If it fails, raise a direct instance
13 of the class SyntaxError.
14 c) Evaluate the program (see 10.1) within the execution context as it exists just before
15 this method invoked. Let V be the resulting value of the evaluation.
16 d) Return V.
17 In Step c), the local variable scope which corresponds to the program is considered as a
18 local variable scope which corresponds to a block in 9.2 d) 1).
19 EXAMPLE 1 The following program prints “123”.
20 x = 123
21 Kernel.eval("print x")
22 EXAMPLE 2 The following program raises an exception.
23 Kernel.eval("x = 123") # the scope of x is the program "x = 123"。

24 print x # x is undefined here.
25 15.3.1.2.4 Kernel.global variables
26 Kernel.global variables
281
1 Behavior: The method returns a new direct instance of the class Array which consists of
2 names of all the global variables. These names are represented by direct instances of either
3 the class String or the class Symbol. Which of those classes is chosen is implementation-
4 defined.
5 15.3.1.2.5 Kernel.iterator?
6 Kernel.iterator?
8 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.block given? (see 15.3.1.2.2).
9 15.3.1.2.6 Kernel.lambda
10 Kernel.lambda( &block )
12 Behavior: The method creates an instance of the class Proc as Proc.new does (see 15.2.17.3.1).
13 However, the way in which block is evaluated differs from the one described in 11.3.3 except
14 when block is called by a yield-expression.
15 The differences are as follows.
16 a) Before 11.3.3 d), the number of arguments is checked as follows:
17 1) Let A be the list of arguments passed to the block. Let Na be the length of A.
18 2) If the block-parameter-list is of the form left-hand-side, and if Na is not 1, the

20 3) If the block-parameter-list is of the form multiple-left-hand-side:
21 i) If the multiple-left-hand-side is not of the form grouped-left-hand-side or packing-

22 left-hand-side:
23 I) Let Np be the number of multiple-left-hand-side-items of the multiple-

24 left-hand-side.
25 II) If Na < Np , raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
26 III) If a packing-left-hand-side is omitted, and if Na > Np , raise a direct

27 instance of the class ArgumentError.
28 ii) If the multiple-left-hand-side is of the form grouped-left-hand-side, and if Na

29 is not 1, the behavior is unspecified.
282
1 b) In 11.3.3 e), when the evaluation of the block associated with a lambda invocation is
2 terminated by a return-expression or break-expression, the execution context is restored
3 to Eo (i.e. the saved execution context), and the evaluation of the lambda invocation
4 is terminated.
5 The value of the lambda invocation is determined as follows:
6 1) If the jump-argument of the return-expression or the break-expression is present,

7 the value of the lambda invocation is the value of the jump-argument.
8 2) Otherwise, the value of the lambda invocation is nil.
9 15.3.1.2.7 Kernel.local variables
10 Kernel.local variables
12 Behavior: The method returns a new direct instance of the class Array which contains all
13 the names of local variable bindings which meet the following conditions.
14 The name of the binding is of the form local-variable-identifier.
15 The binding can be resolved in the scope of local variables which includes the point of
16 invocations of this method by the process described in 9.2.
17 In the instance of the class Array returned by the method, names of the local variables are
18 represented by instances of either the class String or the class Symbol. Which of those
19 classes is chosen is implementation-defined.
20 15.3.1.2.8 Kernel.loop
21 Kernel.loop( &block )
23 Behavior:
25 b) Otherwise, repeat calling block .
26 15.3.1.2.9 Kernel.p
27 Kernel.p( *args )
283
1 Behavior:
2 a) For each element E of args, in the indexing order, take the following steps:
3 1) Invoke the method inspect (see 15.3.1.3.17) on E with no arguments and let X
4 be the resulting value of this invocation.
5 2) If X is not an instance of the class String, the behavior is unspecified.
6 3) Invoke the method write(see 15.2.20.5.20) on Object::STDOUT with X as the

7 argument.
8 4) Invoke the method write on Object::STDOUT with an argument, which is a new

9 direct instance of the class String whose content is a single character 0x0a.
11 15.3.1.2.10 Kernel.print
12 Kernel.print( *args )
14 Behavior: Invoke the method print of the class IO (see 15.2.20.5.11) on Object::STDOUT
15 with the same arguments, and return the resulting value.
16 15.3.1.2.11 Kernel.puts
17 Kernel.puts( *args )
19 Behavior: Invoke the method puts of the class IO (see 15.2.20.5.13) on Object::STDOUT
20 with the same arguments, and return the resulting value.
21 15.3.1.2.12 Kernel.raise
22 Kernel.raise( *args )
24 Behavior:
25 a) If the length of args is larger than 2, the behavior is unspecified.
284
1 1) If the location of the method invocation is within an operator-expression 2 of an
2 assignment-with-rescue-modifier, a fallback-statement-of-rescue-modifier-statement,
3 or a rescue-clause, let E be the current exception (see 14.3).
4 2) Otherwise, invoke the method new on the class RuntimeError with no argument.
5 Let E be the resulting value.
6 c) If the length of args is 1, let A be the only argument.
7 1) If A is an instance of the class String, invoke the method new on the class
8 RuntimeError with A as the only argument. Let E be the resulting instance.
9 2) Otherwise, invoke the method exception on A. Let E be the resulting value.
10 3) If E is not an instance of the class Exception, raise a direct instance of the class
11 TypeError.
12 d) If the length of args is 2, let F and S be the first and the second argument, respectively.
13 1) Invoke the method exception on F with S as the only argument. Let E be the
14 resulting value.
15 2) If E is not an instance of the class Exception, raise a direct instance of the class
16 TypeError.
17 e) Raise E.
18 15.3.1.2.13 Kernel.require
19 Kernel.require( string )
21 Behavior: The method require evaluates the external program P corresponding to string.
22 The way in which P is determined from string is implementation-defined.
25 b) Search for the external program P corresponding to string.
26 c) If the program does not exist, raise a direct instance of the class LoadError.
27 d) If P is not of the form program (see 10.1), raise a direct instance of the class SyntaxError.
28 e) Change the state of the execution context temporarily for the evaluation of P as follows:
29 1) [self ]
contains only one object which is the object at the bottom of [self ] in the
30 current execution context.
285
1 2) [class-module-list] contains only one list whose only element is the class Object.
2 3) [default-method-visibility] contains only one visibility, which is the private visi-

3 bility.
4 4) All the other attributes of the execution context are empty stacks.
5 f) Evaluate P within the execution context set up in Step e).
6 g) Restore the state of the execution context as it is just before Step e), even when an
7 exception is raised and not handled during the evaluation of P.
8 NOTE The evaluation of P may affect the restored execution context if it changes the at-
9 tributes of objects in the original execution context.
10 h) Unless an exception is raised and not handled in Step f), return true.
12 15.3.1.3.1 Kernel#==
13 = =( other )
15 Behavior:
16 a) If the receiver and other are the same object, return true.
18 If the class Object is not the root of the class inheritance tree, the method == shall be defined
19 in the class which is the root of the class inheritance tree instead of in the module Kernel.
20 15.3.1.3.2 Kernel#===
21 = = =( other )
23 Behavior:
24 a) If the receiver and other are the same object, return true.
25 b) Otherwise, invoke the method == on the receiver with other as the only argument. Let
26 V be the resulting value.
27 c) If V is a trueish object, return true. Otherwise, return false.
286
1 15.3.1.3.3 Kernel# id
2 id
4 Behavior: Same as the method object id (see 15.3.1.3.33).
5 15.3.1.3.4 Kernel# send
6 send ( symbol, *args, &block )
8 Behavior: Same as the method send (see 15.3.1.3.44).
9 If the class Object is not the root of the class inheritance tree, the method send shall be
10 defined in the class which is the root of the class inheritance tree instead of in the module
11 Kernel.
12 15.3.1.3.5 Kernel#‘
13 ‘( string )
15 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.‘ (see 15.3.1.2.1).
16 15.3.1.3.6 Kernel#block given?
17 block given?
19 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.block given? (see 15.3.1.2.2).
20 15.3.1.3.7 Kernel#class
21 class
23 Behavior: The method returns the class of the receiver.
287
1 15.3.1.3.8 Kernel#clone
2 clone
4 Behavior:
5 a) If the receiver is an instance of one of the following classes: NilClass, TrueClass,

6 FalseClass, Integer, Float, or Symbol, then raise a direct instance of the class
7 TypeError.
8 b) Create a direct instance of the class of the receiver which has no bindings of instance
10 c) For each binding B of the instance variables of the receiver, create a variable binding
12 d) If the receiver is associated with a singleton class, let Eo be the singleton class, and
22 5) Associate O with En .
23 e) Invoke the method initialize copy on O with the receiver as the argument.
24 f) Return O.
25 15.3.1.3.9 Kernel#dup
26 dup
28 Behavior:
29 a) If the receiver is an instance of one of the following classes: NilClass, TrueClass,

30 FalseClass, Integer, Float, or Symbol, then raise a direct instance of the class
31 TypeError.
288
1 b) Create a direct instance of the class of the receiver which has no bindings of instance
3 c) For each binding B of the instance variables of the receiver, create a variable binding
5 d) Invoke the method initialize copy on O with the receiver as the argument.
6 e) Return O.
7 15.3.1.3.10 Kernel#eql?
8 eql?( other )
10 Behavior: Same as the method == (see 15.3.1.3.1).
11 15.3.1.3.11 Kernel#equal?
12 equal?( other )
14 Behavior: Same as the method == (see 15.3.1.3.1).
15 If the class Object is not the root of the class inheritance tree, the method equal? shall be
16 defined in the class which is the root of the class inheritance tree instead of in the module
17 Kernel.
18 15.3.1.3.12 Kernel#eval
19 eval( string )
21 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.eval (see 15.3.1.2.3).
22 15.3.1.3.13 Kernel#extend
23 extend( *module list )
25 Behavior: Let R be the receiver of the method.
289
1 a) If the length of module list is 0, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
2 b) For each element A of module list, take the following steps:
3 1) If A is not an instance of the class Module, raise a direct instance of the class
4 TypeError.
5 2) If A is an instance of the class Class, raise a direct instance of the class TypeError.
6 3) Invoke the method extend object on A with R as the only argument.
7 4) Invoke the method extended on A with R as the only argument.
8 c) Return R.
9 15.3.1.3.14 Kernel#global variables
10 global variables
12 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.global variables (see 15.3.1.2.4).
13 15.3.1.3.15 Kernel#hash
14 hash
16 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class Integer. When invoked on the
17 same object, the method shall always return an instance of the class Integer whose value
18 is the same.
19 When a conforming processor overrides the method eql? (see 15.3.1.3.10), it shall override
20 the method hash in the same class or module in which the method eql? is overridden
21 in such a way that, if an invocation of the method eql? on an object with an argument
22 returns a trueish object, invocations of the method hash on the object and the argument
23 return the instances of the class Integer with the same value.
24 15.3.1.3.16 Kernel#initialize copy
27 Behavior: The method initialize copy is invoked when an object is created by the
28 method clone (see 15.3.1.3.8) or the method dup (see 15.3.1.3.9).
290
1 a) If the classes of the receiver and the original are not the same class, raise a direct
4 15.3.1.3.17 Kernel#inspect
5 inspect
7 Behavior: The method returns a new direct instance of the class String, the content of
8 which represents the state of the receiver. The content of the resulting instance of the class
9 String is implementation-defined.
10 15.3.1.3.18 Kernel#instance eval
11 instance eval( string = nil, &block )
13 Behavior:
14 a) If the receiver is an instance of the class Integer or the class Symbol, or if the receiver
15 is one of nil, true, or false, then the behavior is unspecified.
16 b) If the receiver is not associated with a singleton class, create a new singleton class. Let
17 M be the newly created singleton class.
18 c) If the receiver is associated with a singleton class, let M be that singleton class.
19 d) Take steps b) through the last step of the method class eval of the class Module (see
20 15.2.2.4.15).
21 If the class Object is not the root of the class inheritance tree, the method instance eval shall
22 be defined in the class which is the root of the class inheritance tree instead of in the module
23 Kernel.
24 15.3.1.3.19 Kernel#instance of ?
25 instance of?( module )
27 Behavior: Let C be the class of the receiver.
28 a) If module is not an instance of the class Class or the class Module, raise a direct
291
1 b) If module and C are the same object, return true.
3 15.3.1.3.20 Kernel#instance variable defined?
4 instance variable defined?( symbol )
6 Behavior:
8 b) If N is not of the form instance-variable-identifier, raise a direct instance of the class

10 c) If a binding of an instance variable with name N exists in the set of bindings of instance
11 variables of the receiver, return true.
13 15.3.1.3.21 Kernel#instance variable get
14 instance variable get( symbol )
16 Behavior:

21 variables of the receiver, return the value of the binding.
22 d) Otherwise, return nil.
23 15.3.1.3.22 Kernel#instance variable set
24 instance variable set( symbol, obj )
26 Behavior:
292

5 variables of the receiver, replace the value of the binding with obj .
6 d) Otherwise, create a variable binding with name N and value obj in the set of bindings
7 of instance variables of the receiver.
8 e) Return obj .
9 15.3.1.3.23 Kernel#instance variables
10 instance variables
12 Behavior: The method returns a new direct instance of the class Array which consists of
13 names of all the instance variables of the receiver. These names are represented by direct
14 instances of either the class String or the class Symbol. Which of those classes is chosen is
16 15.3.1.3.24 Kernel#is a?
17 is a?( module )
19 Behavior:
20 a) If module is not an instance of the class Class or the class Module, raise a direct
22 b) Let C be the class of the receiver.
23 c) If module is an instance of the class Class and one of the following conditions holds,
24 return true.
25 The module and C are the same object.
26 The module is a superclass of C.
27 The module and the singleton class of the receiver are the same object.
28 d) If module is an instance of the class Module and is included in C or one of the super-
29 classes of C, return true.
293
1 15.3.1.3.25 Kernel#iterator?
2 iterator?
4 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.iterator? (see 15.3.1.2.5).
5 15.3.1.3.26 Kernel#kind of ?
6 kind of?( module )
8 Behavior: Same as the method is a? (see 15.3.1.3.24).
9 15.3.1.3.27 Kernel#lambda
10 lambda( &block )
12 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.lambda (see 15.3.1.2.6).
13 15.3.1.3.28 Kernel#local variables
14 local variables
16 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.local variables (see 15.3.1.2.7).
17 15.3.1.3.29 Kernel#loop
18 loop( &block )
20 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.loop (see 15.3.1.2.8).
21 15.3.1.3.30 Kernel#method missing
294
1 method missing( symbol, *args )
3 Behavior:
4 a) If symbol is not an instance of the class Symbol, the behavior is unspecified.
5 b) Otherwise, raise a direct instance of the class NoMethodError which has symbol as
6 its name attribute and args as its arguments attribute. A direct instance of the
7 class NameError which has symbol as its name attribute may be raised instead of
8 NoMethodError if the method is invoked in 13.3.3 e) during evaluation of a local-
9 variable-identifier as a method invocation.
10 If the class Object is not the root of the class inheritance tree, the method method missing
11 shall be defined in the class which is the root of the class inheritance tree instead of in the
12 module Kernel.
13 15.3.1.3.31 Kernel#methods
14 methods( all =true )
16 Behavior: Let C be the class of the receiver.
17 a) If all is a trueish object, invoke the method instance methods on C with no arguments
18 (see 15.2.2.4.33), and return the resulting value.
19 b) If all is a falseish object, invoke the method singleton methods on the receiver with
20 false as the only argument (see 15.3.1.3.45), and return the resulting value.
21 15.3.1.3.32 Kernel#nil?
22 nil?
24 Behavior:
25 a) If the receiver is nil, return true.
27 15.3.1.3.33 Kernel#object id
295
1 object id
3 Behavior: The method returns an instance of the class Integer with the same value
4 whenever it is invoked on the same object. When invoked on two distinct objects, the
5 method returns an instance of the class Integer with different value for each invocation.
6 15.3.1.3.34 Kernel#p
7 p( *args )
9 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.p (see 15.3.1.2.9).
10 15.3.1.3.35 Kernel#print
11 print( *args )
13 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.print (see 15.3.1.2.10).
14 15.3.1.3.36 Kernel#private methods
15 private methods( all =true )
17 Behavior:
18 a) Let MV be the private visibility.
20 c) If the receiver is associated with a singleton class, let C be the singleton class.
21 d) Let I be the set of bindings of instance methods of C.
22 For each binding B of I, let N and V be the name and the value of B respectively, and
24 1) If V is undef, or the visibility of V is not MV, skip the next two steps.
296
5 Symbol) or the same content (if S is an instance of the class String) as S, append
6 S to A.
7 e) For each module M in included module list of C, take step d), assuming that C in that
8 step to be M.
9 f) Let new C be the class of the receiver, and take step d).
10 g) If all is a trueish object:
11 1) Take step e).
12 2) If C does not have a direct superclass, return A.
13 3) Let new C be the direct superclass of current C.
14 4) Take step d), and then, repeat from Step g) 1).
15 h) Return A.
16 15.3.1.3.37 Kernel#protected methods
17 protected methods( all =true )
19 Behavior: Same as the method private methods (see 15.3.1.3.36), except to let MV be
20 the protected visibility in 15.3.1.3.36 a).
21 15.3.1.3.38 Kernel#public methods
22 public methods( all =true )
24 Behavior: Same as the method private methods (see 15.3.1.3.36), except to let MV be
25 the public visibility in 15.3.1.3.36 a).
26 15.3.1.3.39 Kernel#puts
297
1 puts( *args )
3 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.puts (see 15.3.1.2.11).
4 15.3.1.3.40 Kernel#raise
5 raise( *args )
7 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.raise (see 15.3.1.2.12).
8 15.3.1.3.41 Kernel#remove instance variable
9 remove instance variable( symbol )
11 Behavior:

16 variables of the receiver, let V be the value of the binding.
17 1) Remove the binding from the set of bindings of instance variables of the receiver.
18 2) Return V.
20 attribute.
21 15.3.1.3.42 Kernel#require
22 require( *args )
24 Behavior: Same as the method Kernel.require (see 15.3.1.2.13).
298
1 15.3.1.3.43 Kernel#respond to?
2 respond to?( symbol, include private =false )
4 Behavior:
6 b) Search for a binding of an instance method named N starting from the receiver of the
7 method as described in 13.3.4.
8 c) If a binding is found, let V be the value of the binding.
9 1) If V is undef, return false.
10 2) If the visibility of V is private:
11 i) If include private is a trueish object, return true.
12 ii) Otherwise, return false.
13 3) Otherwise, return true.
15 15.3.1.3.44 Kernel#send
16 send( symbol, *args, &block )
18 Behavior:
20 b) Invoke the method named N on the receiver with args as arguments and block as the
21 block, if any.
22 c) Return the resulting value of the invocation.
23 15.3.1.3.45 Kernel#singleton methods
24 singleton methods( all =true )
299
1 Behavior: Let E be the singleton class of the receiver.
3 b) Let I be the set of bindings of instance methods of E.
4 For each binding B of I, let N and V be the name and the value of B respectively, and
6 1) If V is undef, or the visibility of V is private, skip the next two steps.
11 Symbol) or the same content (if S is an instance of the class String), append S
12 to A.
13 c) If all is a trueish object, for each module M in included module list of E, take step b),
14 assuming that E in that step to be M.
15 d) Return A.
16 15.3.1.3.46 Kernel#to s
17 to s
19 Behavior: The method returns a newly created direct instance of the class String, the
20 content of which is the string representation of the receiver. The content of the resulting
21 instance of the class String is implementation-defined.
22 15.3.2 Enumerable
24 The module Enumerable provides methods which iterates over the elements of the object using
25 the method each.
26 In the following description of the methods of the module Enumerable, an element of the
27 receiver means one of the values which is yielded by the method each.
29 15.3.2.2.1 Enumerable#all?
300
1 all?( &block )
3 Behavior:
4 a) Invoke the method each on the receiver.
5 b) For each element X which the method each yields:
6 1) If block is given, call block with X as the argument.
7 If this call results in a falseish object, return false.
8 2) If block is not given, and X is a falseish object, return false.
9 c) Return true.
10 15.3.2.2.2 Enumerable#any?
11 any?( &block )
13 Behavior:
15 b) For each element X which each yields:
16 1) If block is given, call block with X as the argument.
17 If this call results in a trueish object, return true.
18 2) If block is not given, and X is a trueish object, return true.
19 c) Return false.
20 15.3.2.2.3 Enumerable#collect
21 collect( &block )
23 Behavior:
301
2 c) Invoke the method each on the receiver.
3 d) For each element X which each yields, call block with X as the argument and append
4 the resulting value to A.
5 e) Return A.
6 15.3.2.2.4 Enumerable#detect
7 detect( ifnone =nil, &block )
9 Behavior:
11 b) Invoke the method each on the receiver.
12 c) For each element X which each yields, call block with X as the argument. If this call
13 results in a trueish object, return X.
14 d) Return ifnone.
15 15.3.2.2.5 Enumerable#each with index
16 each with index( &block )
18 Behavior:
20 b) Let i be 0.
22 d) For each element X which each yields:
23 1) Call block with X and i as the arguments.
24 2) Increase i by 1.
25 e) Return the receiver.
302
1 15.3.2.2.6 Enumerable#entries
2 entries
4 Behavior:
7 c) For each element X which each yields, append X to A.
8 d) Return A.
9 15.3.2.2.7 Enumerable#find
10 find( ifnone =nil, &block )
12 Behavior: Same as the method detect (see 15.3.2.2.4).
13 15.3.2.2.8 Enumerable#find all
14 find all( &block )
16 Behavior:
20 d) For each element X which each yields, call block with X as the argument. If this call
21 results in a trueish object, append X to A.
22 e) Return A.
23 15.3.2.2.9 Enumerable#grep
303
1 grep( pattern, &block )
3 Behavior:
6 c) For each element X which each yields, invoke the method === on pattern with X as
7 the argument.
8 If this invocation results in a trueish object:
9 1) If block is given, call block with X as the argument and append the resulting value
10 to A.
11 2) Otherwise, append X to A.
12 d) Return A.
13 15.3.2.2.10 Enumerable#include?
14 include?( obj )
16 Behavior:
18 b) For each element X which each yields, invoke the method == on X with obj as the
19 argument. If this invocation results in a trueish object, return true.
20 c) Return false.
21 15.3.2.2.11 Enumerable#inject
22 inject( *args, &block )
24 Behavior:
304
1 b) If the length of args is 2, the behavior is unspecified. If the length of args is larger
2 than 2, raise a direct instance of the class ArgumentError.
3 c) Invoke the method each on the receiver. If the method each does not yield any element,
4 return nil.
5 d) For each element X which each yields:
6 1) If X is the first element, and the length of args is 0, let V be X.
7 2) If X is the first element, and the length of args is 1, call block with two arguments,
8 which are the only element of args and X. Let V be the resulting value of this call.
9 3) If X is not the first element, call block with V and X as the arguments. Let new
10 V be the resulting value of this call.
11 e) Return V.
12 15.3.2.2.12 Enumerable#map
13 map( &block )
15 Behavior: Same as the method collect (see 15.3.2.2.3).
16 15.3.2.2.13 Enumerable#max
17 max( &block )
19 Behavior:
21 b) If the method each does not yield any elements, return nil.
22 c) For each element X which the method each yields:
23 1) If X is the first element, let V be X.
24 2) Otherwise:
25 i) If block is given:
26 I) Call block with X and V as the arguments. Let D be the result of this
27 call.
305
1 II) If D is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
2 III) If the value of D is larger than 0, let new V be X.
3 ii) If block is not given:
4 I) Invoke the method <=> on X with V as the argument. Let D be the

5 result of this invocation.
7 III) If the value of D is larger than 0, let new V be X.
8 d) Return V.
9 15.3.2.2.14 Enumerable#min
10 min( &block )
12 Behavior:
14 b) If the method each does not yield any elements, return nil.
15 c) For each element X which the method each yields:
16 1) If X is the first element, let V be X.
17 2) Otherwise:
18 i) If block is given:
19 I) Call block with X and V as the arguments. Let D be the result of this
20 call.
22 III) If the value of D is smaller than 0, let new V be X.
23 ii) If block is not given:
24 I) Invoke the method <=> on X with V as the argument. Let D be the

25 result of this invocation.
27 III) If the value of D is smaller than 0, let new V be X.
28 d) Return V.
306
1 15.3.2.2.15 Enumerable#member?
2 member?( obj )
4 Behavior: Same as the method include? (see 15.3.2.2.10).
5 15.3.2.2.16 Enumerable#partition
6 partition( &block )
8 Behavior:
10 b) Create two empty direct instances of the class Array T and F.
12 d) For each element X which each yields, call block with X as the argument.
13 If this call results in a trueish object, append X to T. If this call results in a falseish
14 object, append X to F.
15 e) Return a newly created an instance of the class Array, which contains only T and F
16 in this order.
17 15.3.2.2.17 Enumerable#reject
18 reject( &block )
20 Behavior:
24 d) For each element X which each yields, call block with X as the argument. If this call
25 results in a falseish object, append X to A.
26 e) Return A.
307
1 15.3.2.2.18 Enumerable#select
2 select( &block )
4 Behavior: Same as the method find all (see 15.3.2.2.8).
5 15.3.2.2.19 Enumerable#sort
6 sort( &block )
8 Behavior:
11 c) Insert all the elements which the method each yields into A. For any two elements Ei
12 and Ej of A, the following condition shall hold:
13 1) Let i and j be the index of Ei and Ej , respectively.
15 i) Suppose block is called with Ei and Ej as the arguments.
18 iii) If this invocation results in an instance of the class Integer whose value is
19 larger than 0, j shall be larger than i.
20 iv) If this invocation results in an instance of the class Integer whose value is
21 smaller than 0, i shall be larger than j.
22 3) If block is not given:
23 i) Suppose the method <=> is invoked on Ei with Ej as the argument.
26 iii) If this invocation results in an instance of the class Integer whose value is
27 larger than 0, j shall be larger than i.
28 iv) If this invocation results in an instance of the class Integer whose value is
29 smaller than 0, i shall be larger than j.
308
1 d) Return A.
2 15.3.2.2.20 Enumerable#to a
3 to a
5 Behavior: Same as the method entries (see 15.3.2.2.6).
6 15.3.3 Comparable
8 The module Comparable provides methods which compare the receiver and an argument using
9 the method <=>.
11 15.3.3.2.1 Comparable#<
12 <( other )
14 Behavior:
15 a) Invoke the method <=> on the receiver with other as the argument. Let I be the
16 resulting value of this invocation.
17 b) If I is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
18 c) If the value of I is smaller than 0, return true. Otherwise, return false.
19 15.3.3.2.2 Comparable#<=
20 < =( other )
22 Behavior:
26 c) If the value of I is smaller than or equal to 0, return true. Otherwise, return false.
309
1 15.3.3.2.3 Comparable#==
2 = =( other )
4 Behavior:
8 c) If the value of I is 0, return true. Otherwise, return false.
9 15.3.3.2.4 Comparable#>
10 >( other )
12 Behavior:
16 c) If the value of I is larger than 0, return true. Otherwise, return false.
17 15.3.3.2.5 Comparable#>=
18 > =( other )
20 Behavior:
24 c) If the value of I is larger than or equal to 0, return true. Otherwise, return false.
25 15.3.3.2.6 Comparable#between?
310
1 between?( left, right )
3 Behavior:
4 a) Invoke the method <=> on the receiver with left as the argument. Let I1 be the resulting
5 value of this invocation.
6 1) If I1 is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
7 2) If the value of I1 is smaller than 0, return false.
8 b) Invoke the method <=> on the receiver with right as the argument. Let I2 be the
10 1) If I2 is not an instance of the class Integer, the behavior is unspecified.
11 2) If the value of I2 is larger than 0, return false. Otherwise, return true.
311

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Programming Languages — Ruby

IPA Ruby Standardization WG Draft

August 25, 2010

©Information-technology Promotion Agency, Japan 2010

4 Terms and deﬁnitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

13 Classes and modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

15 Built-in classes and modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

5 This document does not specify

6  the limit of size or complexity of a program text which is acceptable to a conforming

8  the minimal requirements of a data processing system that is capable of supporting a

11  the method for reporting syntactic and runtime errors.

21  IEC 60559:1989, Binary ﬂoating-point arithmetic for microprocessor systems.

2  not produce output dependent on any unspeciﬁed or implementation-deﬁned behavior.

3 A conforming Ruby processor shall

5 A conforming Ruby processor may

16 A conforming Ruby program is one that is acceptable to a conforming Ruby processor.

17 4 Terms and definitions

26 NOTE The behavior is a set of methods which can be invoked on an instance.

15 In this clause, the following terms are used:

25 5.2.1 General description

34 A production deﬁnes a set of sequences of characters represented by a nonterminal symbol X

4  If A directly refers to B, then A refers to B ;

5  If A refers to a nonterminal symbol C, and if C refers to B, then A refers to B.

6 NOTE 1 A syntactic term represents a set of sequences of characters as described in 5.2.3.

13 When a nonterminal symbol Y directly refers to a nonterminal symbol Z, “Z of Y ” indicates a

15 NOTE 2 For example，a sequence x of characters represented by X whose production is “X :: Y Z ”

18 “Z in Y ” indicates a part of a sequence of characters represented by Y, which is represented by

20 “Each Z of Y ” indicates a sequence of characters deﬁned by the following a) to c):

26 c) “Each Z of Y ” indicates a part of y represented by Z which appears repeatedly in Yi .

27 If the number of Z referred to by Y in productions in a subclause is only one, “Z ” is used as a

13 5.2.3 Syntactic term sequences

24 ( line-terminator | whitespace | comment )∗

31 alias new-name aliased-name

2 A syntactic term represents a sequence of characters, or a constraint to a sequence of characters

5 NOTE Note that a syntactic term is speciﬁed recursively.

14 EXAMPLE 2 A binary-digit deﬁned by the following production represents “0” or “1”.

21 EXAMPLE 3 The following example represents an alpha-numeric-character or a line-terminator.

31 EXAMPLE 4 The following example means that an argument-without-parentheses shall not

6 EXAMPLE 5 The following example means no line-terminator shall occur there.

13 4) other special term

23 [ beginning of a line ] =begin

3 f) zero or more repetitions

11 g) one or more repetitions

23 EXAMPLE 12 The following exmaple represents a source-character but not a single-quoted-string-

25 source-character but not single-quoted-string-meta-character

26 5.2.5 Conceptual names

4 EXAMPLE 2 logical-AND-expression (see 11.2.4) has the following production.

8 Since logical-AND-expression is a conceptual name, a sequence of characters represented by a keyword-

14 5.4 Attributes of execution contexts

17 EXAMPLE [self ] is one of the attributes of execution contexts.

27  A value which is referred to by a variable (see 6.2);

28  A value which is passed to a method as an argument;

29  A value which is returned by a method;

32 Other values are not objects, unless explicitly speciﬁed as objects.

2 6.2.1 General description

10 There are ﬁve kinds of variables:

11  instance variables (see 6.2.2);

12  constants (see 6.5.2);

13  class variables (see 6.5.2);

14  local variables (see 9.2);

15  global variables (see 9.3).

16 Any variable can be bound to any kind of object.

22 6.2.2 Instance variables

9 A method is a procedure which, when invoked on an object, performs a set of computations on

6 the limit of size or complexity of a program text which is acceptable to a conforming

8 the minimal requirements of a data processing system that is capable of supporting a

11 the method for reporting syntactic and runtime errors.

21 IEC 60559:1989, Binary ﬂoating-point arithmetic for microprocessor systems.

2 not produce output dependent on any unspeciﬁed or implementation-deﬁned behavior.

4 If A directly refers to B, then A refers to B ;

5 If A refers to a nonterminal symbol C, and if C refers to B, then A refers to B.

27 A value which is referred to by a variable (see 6.2);

28 A value which is passed to a method as an argument;

29 A value which is returned by a method;

11 instance variables (see 6.2.2);

12 constants (see 6.5.2);

13 class variables (see 6.5.2);

14 local variables (see 9.2);

15 global variables (see 9.3).