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OVERVIEW
f = C / 2T (1)
T = C / 2f (2)
For a wavespeed of 3450 m/s and a peak frequency value of 3.42 kHz, the
calculated thickness of the plate is 0.5 m, which agrees with the actual
plate thickness is 0.5 m.1
Reflection spectra are the inputs to the neural network. In the first
design approach, two outputs were used which represented 1) the
probability of a flaw and 2) the depth of the flaw. This design proved
too difficult; an analysis is presented in the next section. The final
network design used 11 output neurons: one is the probability that a
flaw exists and ten others are for the approximate depth of the flaw.
The ten depth outputs give the flaw depth within each 10% increment of
the structure's thickness.
The sampling and triggering parameters for the data acquisition card are
under software control, and are set so that the data is taken
automatically when an impact is produced. All the signal analysis is
done in software, including the FFT amplitude spectrum computation and
the neural network simulation. These two algorithms account for the
majority of the processing time. A supervisory program is being
developed with the capacity to gather test data for training new
networks, run tests using previously trained networks, and display the
reflection spectrum and network output. At the present stage of
development, a single test takes about two seconds from the time the
impact is produced to the point at which the output is displayed on the
screen.
To train the network, the program presents the facts one at time and
computes the actual network output for that fact. The actual output is
compared to the known result and the difference is used to make
adjustments to the network connections. Facts for which the network's
output is not within the training tolerance are considered bad, and
statistics are displayed as such on the screen. The inputs, outputs,
and hiddens can be displayed as numbers, symbols, pictures or
thermometers. While training, the network is shown all of the facts,
over and over until it learns everything to the performance level
specified.
The first design used only two output neurons: one for the probability
of a flaw and the other represented the depth of the flaw directly by
its numeric output value. Although this network trained quickly (86
runs in 15 minutes on a 25 MHz 386), it did not test well. It was
observed that the output was sensitive to the amplitude of the inputs
rather than the features. It did not pass the test on laboratory
samples within the required accuracy. Upon consideration, it was
thought that the network was experiencing difficulty in the way a person
might. Imagine trying to judge the exact length of lines on a wall from
quite a distance away with nothing to compare them to. This is a
difficult task. But if asked what the relative length of two lines is
(e.g., Is the first line half the length of the second?), it becomes an
easy task. This concept sparked an idea for a new design. The new
design allowed the neural network to answer "yes" or "no" to questions
like "Is there a flaw at a depth of 10 - 20%?", rather than ask it to
come up with a precise number.
Still, after increasing the number of output neurons, the network had
difficulty passing the test on laboratory samples. After training,
histogram diagrams were examined. The histogram shows that the neuron
connections are tending to bunch up toward the negative end of the
weight values. This is often a bad sign that the network is making
major changes to the weights without being effective (the number correct
is only 47 out of 54 at this point). Sometimes a network eventually
trains and tests out well when this happens, but this one did not. It
was found that 10 hidden layer neurons was too few.
The ability of the neural network to learn the key features of input
patterns makes it a useful tool for interpreting impact-echo reflection
spectra. The relative ease with which a network can be defined,
trained, and used makes the technique attractive for developmental work
where the system is likely to undergo many revisions before a final
system is produced. Once the design change to 11 outputs was conceived,
implementation was accomplished in a few hours.
Other approaches for finding flaws range from the drilling of core
samples to the use of radar. The first method is destructive,
time-consuming and only permits checking a small percentage of the area.
The second require expensive equipment and isn't effective when there's
steel reinforcement. These approaches experience the same problem when
the sensor is not placed directly over the flaw. They also have other
problems of not being capable of rapidly testing large areas, reliable
under various site conditions or easy to use. A neural network is
better because it uses a non-destructive technique, the system can be
built from off-the-shelf parts, its speed enables quicker interpretation
of results, its flexibility lends it to use as a developmental tool, and
the results will be consistent.
CONCLUSION
To date, the impact-echo testing technique has been used in trail field
studies for detecting voids in a concrete ice-skating rink [6] and in
reinforced concrete slabs [7]. Once a rapid field instrument is
developed, the method can be used routinely for nondestructive testing
of plate-like structures such as slabs, pavements and walls. For these
applications, it is expected that a neural network will be used to
automate signal processing.
A Canadian mining company is currently negotiating with Cornell
University for a system that will help them determine if the structure
of a decommissioned mine is safe enough to recommission the mine.
Acknowledgements:
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