HISTORY OF

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SECOND EDITION, REVISED <£ ENLARGED

 <2 * DURHAM
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HISTORY OF
WORLD ART LINCOLN

SECOND EDITION GLOUCESTER •CAMBRIDGE

by XETER #BATH ^LONDON /f V7 \

'SALISBURY
Everard M. Upjohn, Paul S. Wingert,
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*&?£/
and Jane Gaston Mahler GHEN T
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This is a revised and enlarged edition
J CAEN^-n (\ i \
of an authoritative introduction to the
MONT ST. MICHEL
SpARiTY^'^M
history of world art. Broader in scope
CHARTRES^ S
than any comparable survey, the volume
examines architecture, sculpture, paint-
S^ BLOIS-
>VEZELAY
ing, and the minor arts from pre-history BOURGES
AUTUN
to the present.
The text has been enlarged to include
a chapter on Pre-Historic Art, another
on the arts of the American Indians in •CLERMONT >*-* ' f\
FERRAND MILAN
Peru and Mexico, and a third on the
Art of Primitive Peoples. The chapters
i^- / J \
PAVIA.

on the arts of the twentieth century in /.AVIGNON-GENOA"

TOULOUSE
NIMES
Europe and America have been greatly
expanded to incorporate the further ar-
IARCASSONNE
>ARLES "1 f v

tistic achievement and increased histori-

cal perspective of the past decade. Full

attention is also given to the art of the BARCELONA
Near and Far East.
The illustrations, previously grouped
at the front of the book, have been in-
tegrated with the text. In almost every
case the illustration of a particular
of art is reproduced at the point of dis-
work
^
cussion. In addition to 702 illustrations
in black and white, the new edition has
seventeen color plates, on which twenty-
five works of art are reproduced. There
are end-paper maps, one of Europe and
one of the East, ni>d a line drawing at

the bead of each chapter. A glossary of

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HISTORY OF WORLD ART

Duccio di Buoninsegna (c. 1255-1319) Temptation of Christ, Detail, Majestas,

Cathedra] of Siena (1308-11) Frick Collection, New York. Tempera on wood.

HISTORY
OF
WORLD ART
EVERARD M. UPJOHN
PROFESSOR OF FINE ARTS
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

PAUL S. WINGERT
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF FINE ARTS
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

JANE GASTON MAHLER

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF FINE ARTS
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED

ARCHBISHOP MITTY HIGH SCHOOL
LIBRARY
MITTY AVENUE
5ti00
SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA 95129

new york •
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS • 1958
 © 1Q^8 BY OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, INC.

history of world art,

First edition of
copyright 1949 by Oxford University Press, Inc.

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 57-10391

Fourth Printing, 1965

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 03359

Obi V^

Preface

The task of preparing this volume has not been that of a simple revision but has

been rather a complete reworking and rewriting of the entire book. Encouraged
by the enthusiastic reception accorded the first edition, and guided by the frank,
friendly, and constructive criticisms of colleagues throughout the country, we have
effected major changes in organization, content, and format.
The noticeably striking change in this edition is the revised format. In almost
every case the work of art being studied is reproduced at the point of discussion.
The pertinent physical data is also given, and where appropriate an architectural
plan accompanies the illustration. By this scheme the student can constantly refer

to the pictures and corroborate the text; he can appreciate the uses made of materials,
apply the dimensions and plans given in the text to the impression of the work as it

appears in the illustration.

In making the textual changes we have trimmed, reorganized, and added with
careful consideration for the basic requirements of introductory courses through-

out the country. We have added a chapter on the art of prehistoric man, another
on the arts of the American Indians of Peru and Mexico before the Spanish con-
quest and of the post-Conquest tribal art of the Indians, and a third on the arts of
Negro Africa and of Islands of the South Pacific. Furthermore, those chapters that
deal with the arts of the twentieth century in Europe and America have been com-
pletely rewritten and greatly expanded since even the short span of a decade has
brought further artistic achievement and increased historical perspective.

Finally the most dramatic addition to this revision has been the inclusion of

twenty-five works of art on seventeen plates in full color. Line, mass,and space
can be understood through black and white illustrations. Color cannot. These
works have been chosen as representative examples from artists and periods where
the element of color plays an unusually important role. It should be added that
considerable care and expense has gone into the preparation of the plates to make
certain a high quality of color reproduction.
It is impossible to over-emphasize our indebtedness to those colleagues and
critics who have had a share in shaping this new volume. The following suggested
revisions in the original edition and read portions of the revised manuscript at the
VI PREFACE

request of the publisher: Mr. John R. Stafford, Professor of Art at City College
of San Francisco, Mr. Richard G. Tansey, Associate Professor of Art at San Jose
State College, Mr. Carl K. Hersey, Professor of Fine Arts at University of Roches-
ter, Mr. John Galloway, Assistant Professor of Art at University of Alabama,
Mr. John F. Kienitz, Professor of Art History at University of Wisconsin, Miss
Eleanor P. Spencer, Professor of Fine Arts, Goucher College, Mr. Edwin C. Rae,
Associate Professor of Art at University of Illinois, Mr. Frederick Hartt, Professor
of History of Art at Washington University, and Mr. Francis S. Grubar, Assistant
Professor of Art at University of Maryland. Nor can we forget that our thanks are
due to our distinguished former colleagues Professor William B. Dinsmoor and
Professor Margarete Bieber for their comments of the classical chapters, to Professor
Ralph Fanning of Ohio State University and the late Mr. Peyton Boswell of the
Art Digest for their constructive criticisms of the chapters on Western art, to Mr.
John Pope and Dr. Richard Ettinghausen of the Freer Gallery in Washington, D.C.,
and Miss Pauline Simmons of the Metropolitan Museum in New York for their

careful reading of and suggestions for the chapters on Oriental art. We want further
to express our appreciation of the care and imagination taken in the design of

this volume by Mr. John Begg of the Oxford University Press and of the careful

editorial guidance given us by Miss Leona Cape] ess of that organization.

Acknowledgment of the courtesy of the many museums and private individuals
from whom photographs have been obtained will be found in the list of illustra-

tions, and mention must be made of Francis G. Mayer, who fur-

in this regard
nished color Kodachromes for eighteen of the color illustrations, and of the kind-
ness of the late Mr. Joseph Powers.

Columbia University e.m.u.

New York, N. Y. p.s.w.
1 October 1957 j.g.m.
 Table oi Contents

Preface, v
I. In General, 3 List of Color Plates, ix

II. Prehistoric Art, 16 List of Illustrations, xi

III. The Pre-Classical Arts, 24

IV. The Beginnings of Greek Art, 55

V. Greek Art during the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C., 78
VI. The Character of Later Classic Sculpture, 104

VII. Roman Architecture, 120

VIII. The Arts of the Early Church, 134

IX. Romanesque Art, 155

X. The Early Development of French Gothic Art, 180

XI. The Diffusion and Later History of Gothic Art, 205
XII. The Early Renaissance in Italy, 244
XIII. The Sixteenth Century in Italy, 281
XIV. The Renaissance in the North, 339
XV. The Italian Baroque, 356
XVI. Some Spanish Painters, 370

XVII. Painting in the Low Countries, 380

XVIII. The Seventeenth Century in France and England, 397
XIX. The Eighteenth Century — Rococo and Georgian Art, 413
XX. Arts of the American Indian, 438
XXI. The Birth of American Art, 463
XXII. Neoclassicism in Europe, 477
XXIII. Romanticism, 485
XXIV. The Later Nineteenth Century in Europe, 510
XXV. The Art of Primitive Peoples, 545
XXVI. The Growth of American Art, 564
XXVII. Twentieth-Century Art, 617
XXVIII. Persia,
647
XXIX. India and Southeast Asia, 674 Glossary, 831
XXX. China, 728 Suggested Readings, 841
XXXI. Japan, 782 Index, 851
.
List of Color Plates

Frontispiece

Duccio, Temptation of Christ. Copyright, The Frick Collection, New York.

Plate I. Facing p. 268

Thutmose I and Queen Sensonbe. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum, New York.

Plate II. Facing p. 269

Apse Mosaic, San Vitale, Ravenna. Photo: Florence Arquin.

Annunciation, Chartres Cathedral. Photo: Prof. James Johnson.

Plate III. Facing p. 300

Fra Angelico, Coronation of the Virgin.

Piero della Francesca, Federigo da Montefeltro.

Plate IV. Facing p. 301

Titian, Madonna of the Cherries.

Plate V. Facing p. 332

Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Peasant Wedding.

Plate VI. Facing p. 333

El Greco, Nino de Guevara. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum, New York.

Plate VII. Facing p. 364

Rubens, Emperor Maximilian I.

ix
X LIST OF COLOR PLATES

Plate VIII. Facing p. 365

Vermeer, Girl with Water Jug. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum, New York.
Constable, Hay Wain.

Plate IX. Facing p. 556

Bella Coola, Mask. Photo: Wingert.

Paracas Necropolis, Peru, Textile. Photo: Courtesy of Junius Bird.

Plate X. Facing p. 557

Monet, Etretat. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum, New York.

Vlaminck, Les Maisons a Chatou. Courtesy of the Sidney funis Gallery, New York.

Plate XI. Facing p. 588

Gauguin, Mahana No Atua. Courtesy of the Art Institute of Chicago.

Plate XII. Facing p. 589

Cezanne, Still Life.

Picasso, Pitcher and Bowl of Fruit.

Plate XIII. Facing p. 620

Central Congo, Mask. Photo: Wingert.

Figure of Conch Shell, New Hebrides. Photo: Wingert.

Plate XIV. Facing p. 621

Kandinsky, Landscape with Red Spots. Courtesy of the Sidney Janis Gallery, New York.
Chagall, Accordionist. Courtesy of M. Knoedler and Co., New York.

Plate XV. Facing p. 652

Dali, Apparition of a Face and Fruit Dish on a Beach.

Courtesy of the Wadsworth Athenaeum, Hartford, Connecticut.

Plate XVI. Facing p. 653

Bihzad, Sultan Hussein Mirza in a Garden.

List oi Illustrations

DECORATIONS BY JANE RANDOLPH

Composition: Harmony, Sequence, Ba- 40. Maiden from

Acropolis.
lance.
41 Statuette from Ligourio.
-

Elephant, Castillo. 42. Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, Athena and

Mammoth, Les Combarelles. Warriors.
Animal Group, Lascaux. 43- Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, Wounded
Group of Archers, Valltorta Gorge. Warrior.
Stonehenge. Courtesy of the British Infor- 44- Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, West Pedi-
mation Services. ment.
Typical Mastabas. 45- Temple of Zeus, Olympia, East Pediment.
Pyramids and Sphinx, Gizeh. 46. Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Centaur and
Temple of the Sphinx, Gizeh. Lapith.
Temple of Khonsu, Karnak. 47- Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Apollo.
Temple of Horus, Edfu. 48. Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Apollo, Head.
Temple of Anion Ra, Karnak. Photo: 49- Temple of Zeus, Olympia, Heracles and
Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum, the Cretan Bull.
New York. 50. Myron, Discobolus.
*3-Temple of Rameses II, Abu Simbel. 5
1 - Charioteer of Delphi.
M- Seated Scribe. 5
Parthenon, Athens.
2 -

!>• Khafra. 53- Athena, Lemnia.

l6. Ranefer. 54- Parthenon, Athens, Centaur and Lapith.
17. Seti I Offering to Osiris. 55- Parthenon, Athens, Horsemen.
l8. Palace of Sargon, Khorsabad, plan. 56. Parthenon, Athens, Seated Gods.
19. Palace of Sargon, Khorsabad, Perspective. 57- Parthenon, Athens, Demeter, Persephone,
20. Gudea, Patesi of Lagash. Iris.

21. Ashur-nasir-pal Storming a City. 58. Parthenon, Athens, Theseus.

22. Wounded Lioness. 59- Erechtheum, Athens, plan.
2 3-Palace at Cnossus, plan. 60. Erechtheum, Athens, North Porch.
-4- Palace at Cnossus, Stairhall. 61. Propylaea, Athens, plan.
-v Palace at Cnossus, Bull Leapers. 62. Propylaea, Athens.
26. Cretan Snake Goddess. Courtesy of the 63. Polyclitus, Doryphorus.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 64. Slaughter of the Niobids, vase.
2 7- Gold Cup from Vaphio. 65- Corinthian Capital.
28. Greek Doric Order. 66. Praxiteles, Hermes Carrying the Infant
29. Parthenon, Athens, plan. Dionysus.
30. Temple of Wingless Victory, Athens, plan. 67. Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Cnidus.

3
1- Temple of Hera, Paestum. 68. Mausoleum, Halicarnassus, Frieze.
32 - Greek Ionic Order. 69. Lysippus, Agias.
33 Youth. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Mu- 70. Aphrodite of Melos.
seum, New York. 71 - Nike of Samothrace.
34- Hera of Samos. 72 - Dying Gaul.
35- Chares of Branchidae. 73- Altar of Zeus, Pergamum, Frieze.
36. Micciades and Archermus, Nike of Delos. 74- Boethus, Boy with a Goose.
37- Treasury of Siphnians, Frieze. 75- Farmer Driving His Bull to Market.
38. Execias, vase. 76. Portrait of an Unknown Roman. Courtesy
39- Euphronius, vase. of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

77- Augustus from Prima Porta. 130. La Madeleine, Vezelay, tympanum.

78. Ara Pads Augustae, Rome, Frieze. 131. St. Lazare, Autun, capital.
79' Arch of Titus, Rome, Spoils of Jerusalem. 132. Moutier St. Jean, capital. Courtesy of the
SO. Column of Trajan, Rome, Trajan's Cam- Fogg Museum of Art, Cambridge, Mass.
paign. *33- Liber Vitae, Newminster.
House of Vettii, Pompeii, Cupids as Wine 134. Morienval, ambulatory vault.
Dealers. !35- Romanesque and Gothic Vaults.
Roman Orders. 136. Amiens Cathedral, interior.
83. Maison Carree, Nimes. *37- Notre Dame, Paris, interior.
84. Pont du Gard, Nimes. 138. Amiens Cathedral, section.
85. Structure of an Arch. 139. Ste. Chapelle, Paris.
86. Pantheon, Rome, plan. 140. Rheims Cathedral, exterior.
8-. Pantheon, Rome, Portico. 141. Notre Dame, Paris, fagade. Courtesy of the
88. Colosseum, Rome, exterior. French Government Tourist Office.
89. Colosseum, Rome, plan. 142. Chartres Cathedral, interior.
90. Arch of Constantine, Rome. H3- Chartres Cathedral, facade.
9.1. Basilica of Constantine, Rome. 144. Chartres Cathedral, plan.
92. Basilica of Constantine, Rome, plan. M5- Chartres Cathedral, west portals.
93- Baths of Caracalla, Rome, plan. 146. Chartres Cathedral, Royal Ancestors of
94- Baths of Caracalla, Rome, restored. Christ.
95- Early Christian Basilica, typical plan and 147. Notre Dame, Paris, north tympanum.
section. 148. Amiens Cathedral, Beau Dieu.
96. San Clemente, Rome. 149. Rheims Cathedral, Annunciation and Visi-
97- Jonah Sarcophagus. tation.
98. Santa Costanza, Rome, mosaic. 150. Amiens Cathedral, Signs of the Zodiac.
99. Santa Pudenziana, Rome, apse mosaic. 151. Salisbury Cathedral, plan.
100. Vatican Virgil. 152. Salisbury Cathedral, interior.
101. Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, isometric. !53- Salisbury Cathedral, north flank.
102. Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, plan. *54- Gloucester Cathedral, cloisters.
103. Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, exterior. St. Maclou, Rouen, exterior.
104. Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, interior. 156. Cloth Hall, Ypres, exterior.
105. Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, capital. !57- Bodiam Castle, exterior.
106. Typical Byzantine plan, Second Golden 158. Bodiam Castle, plan.
Age. 159. Jacques Coeur House, Bourges.
Little Metropolitan Church, Athens. 160. Compton Wynyates.
108. Throne of Maximianus. 161. Amiens Cathedral, Vierge Doree
109. Christ Crowning the Emperor Roman IV 162. Sluter, Moses.
and Eudoxia. 163. Female Saint. Courtesy of the Museum of
110. St. Mark's, Venice, mosaic, Chastity. Historic Art, Princeton.
111. Book of Kells, St. Matthew Initial. 164. Nicola Pisano, Nativity. Baptistry, Pisa.
112. Pisa Cathedral, plan. 165. Nicola and Giovanni Pisano, Nativity,
113. Pisa Cathedral, interior. Siena.
114. Pisa Cathedral, exterior. 166. Andrea Pisano, South Doors, Florence
115. Santiago de Compostela, plan. Baptistry.
116. Santiago de Compostela, nave. 167. Andrea Pisano, Feast of Herod, South
117. St. Sernin, Toulouse, apse. Doors, Florence Baptistry.
118. Sant' Ambrogio, Milan, plan. 168. Metz Pontifical.
119. Sant' Ambrogio, Milan, transverse section. 169. La Martorana, Palermo, Death of the
120. Sant' Ambrogio, Milan, nave. Virgin.
121. Sant' Ambrogio, Milan, exterior. 170. Duccio, Majestas.
122. St. fitienne, Caen, plan. 171. Duccio, Corruption of Judas.
123. St. Etienne, Caen, nave. 172. Simone Martini, Sant' Ansano Annuncia-
124. St. Etienne, Caen, fagade. tion.
125. Durham Cathedral, nave. *73- Simone Martini, Guidoriccio da Fogliano.
126. St. Trophime, Aries, portal. 174. Cimabue, Madonna Enthroned.
127. St. Trophime, Aries, Apostles. *75- Giotto, Return of Joachim to the Shep-
128. St. Pierre, Moissac, St. Peter. herds.
129. St. Pierre, Moissac, tympanum. 176. Giotto, Bewailing of Christ.
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll

1
77 . Giotto, Death of St. Francis. 226. Farnese Palace, Rome, court.
178. Bernat Martorel, St. George Killing the 227. Leonardo, Madonna of the Rocks.
Dragon. Courtesy of the Art Institute of 228. Leonardo, Last Supper.
Chicago. 229. Leonardo, Madonna and St. Anne.
Pol de Limbourg, Chantilly Hours, Feb 230. Michelangelo, Pieta.
ruary. 231. Michelangelo, David.
Hubert and Jan van Eyck, Ghent Altar- 232. Michelangelo, Bound Slave.
piece, Singing Angels. 2 33- Michelangelo, Tomb of Giuliano de' Me-
Jan van Eyck, Madonna of the Canon van dici.

der Paele. 234. Michelangelo, Night, Tomb of Giuliano

182. Van der Weyden, Deposition. de' Medici.
183. Van der Goes, Portinari Altarpiece. 2 35- Michelangelo, Creation of Man, Sistine
184. Memling, Martin van Nieuvenhoven. Chapel.
185. Florence Cathedral, exterior. 236. Michelangelo, Jeremiah, Sistine Chapel.
186. Pazzi Chapel, Florence, plan. 2 37- Michelangelo, Decorative Figure, Sistine
187. Pazzi Chapel, Florence, exterior. Chapel.
188. San Lorenzo, Florence, interior. 238. Raphael, Madonna del Cardellino.
189. Riccardi Palace, Florence, plan. 239. Raphael, Baldassare Castiglione.
190. Riccardi Palace, Florence, exterior. 240. Raphael, School of Athens.
191. Rucellai Palace, Florence, exterior. 241. Giorgione, Tempest.
192. San Francesco, Rimini, exterior. 242. Giorgione, Sleeping Venus.
193. Certosa, Pavia, facade. 243. Titian, Assumption of the Virgin.
194. Quercia, San Petronio, Bologna, Tempta- 244. Titian, Bacchus and Ariadne.
tion. 245. Titian, Young Englishman.
195. Quercia, Fonte Gaia, Siena, Wisdom. 246. Titian, Rape of Europa. Courtesy of the
196. Ghiberti, Baptistry, Florence, East Doors. Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston.
197. Ghiberti, Baptistry, Florence, Story of 247. Correggio, Madonna of St. Jerome.
Abraham. 248. Correggio, lo.
198. Donatello, David. 249. Tintoretto, Presentation of the Virgin.
199. Donatello, Lo Zuccone. 250. Tintoretto, Marriage of Bacchus and
200. Donatello, Gattamelata. Ariadne.
201. Andrea della Robbia, Annunciation. 251. Veronese, Marriage at Cana.
202. Desiderio da Settignano, Madonna and 252. Library, Venice, exterior.
Child. 2 53- Bronzino, Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time.
203. Bernardo Rossellino, Tomb of Leonardo 2 54- Annibale Carracci, ceiling detail, Farnese
Bruni. Palace, Rome.
204. Antonio Pollaiuolo, Hercules and Antaeus. 2 55- Caravaggio, Death of the Virgin.
205. Verrocchio, Colleoni. 256. Sansovino, Bacchus.
206. Antonello da Messina, II Condottiere. 2 57- Giovanni da Bologna, Flying Mercury.
207. Masaccio, Expulsion from the Garden. Photo: National Gallery of Art, Washing-
208. Masaccio, Tribute Money, detail. ton, D.C.
209. Uccello, Battle of San Romano. 258. Giovanni da Bologna, Rape of the Sabines.
210. Piero della Francesca, Resurrection. 259. St. Peter's, Rome, plan, Bramante, and
211. Signorelli, The Damned. plan, Michelangelo.
212. Mantegna, St. James Led to Execution. 260. St. Peter's, Rome, west end.
213. Mantegna, Camera degli Sposi, ceiling. 261. St. Peter's, Rome, facade.
214. Angelico, Annunciation. 262. St. Peter's, Rome, nave.
215. Filippo Lippi, Madonna and Child. 263. Villa Rotonda, Vicenza, exterior.
2l6. Botticelli, Birth of Venus. 264. Villa Rotonda, Vicenza, plan.
217. Botticelli, Primavera. 265. II Gesu, Rome, plan.
2l8. Perugino, Crucifixion. 266. II Gesu, Rome, interior.
219. Giovanni Bellini, Madonna, Frari. 267. II Gesu, Rome, facade.
220. Tempietto, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome. 268. Villa d'Este, Tivoli, fountain.
221. San Biagio, Montepulciano, interior. 269. Francis I wing, Chateau, Blois.
222. San Biagio, Montepulciano, plan. 270. Chateau, Chambord, exterior.
223. Cancelleria Palace, Rome, facade. 271. Chateau, Chambord, plan.
224. Farnese Palace, Rome, plan. 272. Lescot wing, Louvre, Paris.
225. Farnese Palace, Rome, facade. 273. Goujon, Nymph.
 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

-"4 Pilon, Christ of the Resurrection. 323 Pantheon, Paris, plan.

2 ~5 Diirer, Adoration of the Magi. 324 Watteau, Embarkation for Cvthera.
276 Diirer, Four Saints. 3
25 Watteau, Gilles.
277 Holbein, Georg Gisze. 326 Boucher, Vulcan Presenting to Venus the
2? 8 Holbein, Jane Seymour. Arms
of Aeneas.
279 Frangois Clouet, Elizabeth of Austria. 3 Chardin, The Blessing.
2 7'
280 Bruegel the Elder, Peasant Dance. 328, Fragonard, The Swing.
281 San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, 329. Greuze, The Return of the Prodigal Son.
plan. 330, Falconet, The Bather.
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, 33 1 ' Clodion, Nymph and Satyr. Courtesy of
facade. the Metropolitan Museum, New York.
283 Bernini, Apollo and Daphne. 33 2 ' Pigalle, Tomb of Marshal Saxe.
284 Bernini, Francesco d'Este. 333' Houdon, Voltaire.
285, Bernini, Vision of St. Theresa of Avila. 334- Prior Park, Bath.
286. Bernini, Tomb of Alexander VII. 335- Home House, London, plan.
287. Guercino, Burial of St. Petronilla. 336. Lord Derby's House, London.
288. Pozzo, ceiling, Sant' Ignazio, Rome. 337- Hogarth, Marriage a la Mode I.

289. Tiepolo, Institution of the Rosary. 338. Reynolds, Dr. Johnson.

290. El Greco, Purification of the Temple. 339- Gainsborough, The Honorable Mrs.
Courtesy of the Minneapolis Institute of Graham.
Arts. 340. Detail of Cornice Soffit, Chavin de
291, El Greco, Burial of the Count of Orgaz. Huantar.
292, El Greco, Resurrection. 34 1 - Pottery Jar, Mochica. Photo: American
293. Velasquez, Innocent X. Museum of Natural History, New York.
294. Velasquez, Las Meninas. 342. Pottery Jar, Nazca. Photo: American Mu-
295. Murillo, Immaculate Conception. seum of Natural History, New York.
296. Rubens, Descent from the Cross.
343- Stone Figure, Stela Bennett, Tiahuanaco.
29-. Rubens, Rape of the Daughters of Leu-
344- Stone Architecture, Inca, near Cuzco.
cippus.
345- Anthropomorphic Urn, Monte Alban-
298. Rubens, Helena Fourment.
Zapotec. Photo: Museum of the American
299. Van Dyck, Maria Louisa van Tassis.
Indian, New York.
300. Hals, Officers of St. Andrew's Company.
346. Face type from Stone Head, La Venta-
301. Hals, The Jolly Toper.
Olmec.
302. Rembrandt, Dr. Tulp's Anatomy Lesson.
347- Stela 14, Piedras Negras, Maya. Photo:
303. Rembrandt, The Night Watch.
Rembrandt, The Rabbi. The Museum, Philadelphia.
University
304.
Rembrandt, Rembrandt Laughing Before 348. Stone Architecture, The Nunnery, Uxmal,
305.
the Bust of a Roman Emperor. Mava.
306. Jakob van Ruysdael, The Mill. 349- Stone Palma, Totonac. Photo: The Amer-
307. Poussin, Kingdom of Flora. ican Museum of Natural Historv, New
308. Poussin, Et in Arcadia Ego. York.
309. Claude Lorrain, Marriage of Isaac and 350. Stone Figure, Aztec. Photo: Museum of
Rebecca. Primitive Art, New York.
310. Louvre, Paris, east front. 35 1 - Figure, raised arm in form of Vase, Tara-
311. Palace, Versailles, plan. scan.
312. Palace, Versailles, Hall of Mirrors.
35 2 Pottery Bowl, Mimbres. Photo: Museum
-

3*3- Palace, Versailles, garden front. American Indian, New York.

of the
3M- Puget, Milo of Croton.
353- Stone Pipe, Moundbuilder, Ohio. Photo:
3*5- Coysevox, Le Brun. Museum of the American Indian, New
316. Banqueting House, Whitehall, London. York.
3*7- St. Mary-le-Bow, London, steeple. 354- Painted Buffalo Robe, Dakota Tribes.
318. St. Paul's, London, plan. Photo: American Museum of Natural His-
319. St. Paul's, London, exterior. Courtesy of tory, New York.
the British Information Service. Totem Pole, Haida, Northwest Coast.
355-
320. Salon de la Princesse, Hotel de Soubise, Parson Capen House, Topsfield, plan.
356.
Paris. Parson Capen House, Topsfield, exterior.
357-
321. Petit Trianon, Versailles. Photo: Wayne Andrews.
322. Pantheon, Paris, exterior. Isaac Royall House, Medford, plan.
358.
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV

Isaac Royall House, Medford, exterior. 405. Cezanne, Mt. Ste. Victoire. Courtesy of
359
Photo: Wayne Andrews. the Phillips Memorial Gallery, Washing-
360 Copley, Jeremiah Lee. Courtesy of the ton, D.C.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 406. Cezanne, Bathers. Courtesy of the Phila-
361 Stuart, Thomas Jefferson. Courtesy of Bow- delphia Museum of Art.
doin College, Brunswick, Me. 407. Bouguereau, Birth of Venus.
362 State Capitol, Richmond. Photo: Museum 408. Figure, Dogon, West Africa. Photo: The
of Modern Art, New York. University Museum, Philadelphia.
363 La Madeleine, Paris. 409. Figure Baoule, West Africa. Photo: Win-
364 Canova, Perseus. gert.

365 David, Death of Socrates. Courtesy of the 410. Figure, Yoruba, West Africa. Photo: Win-
Metropolitan Museum, New York. ger*.
366 David, Madame Seriziat. 411. Mask, Ibo, West Africa. Photo: Museum
367. Fonthill Abbey, interior. of Primitive Art, New York.
368, Houses of Parliament, London. 412. Mask, Cameroons, West Africa. Photo:
369. Rude, Departure of the Volunteers. Wingert.
370. Rude, Marshal Ney. 413. Mask, Cameroons.
37 1 ' Barye, Jaguar Devouring a Hare. 414. Metal Covered Figure, Gabun, Central
372. Goya, Maja Desnuda. Africa.
373- Goya, Execution of Madrilenos. 415. Figure, Fang, Gabun, Central Africa.
374- Goya, Hasta la Muerte. Photo: Museum of Primitive Art, NewYork.
375- Gros, Napoleon in the Pest House at Jaffa. 416. Figure, Western Congo, Central Africa.
376. Cericault, Raft of the Medusa. Photo: The Brooklyn Museum.
377- Delacroix, Massacre of Scio. 417. Mask, Sepik River, New Guinea. Photo:
378. Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People. American Museum of Natural History,
379- Delacroix, Algerian Women. New York.
380. Ingres, Odalisque. 418. Mask, New Britain. Photo: The Denver
381. Turner, The Fighting Temeraire. Art Museum.
382. Rousseau, The Oaks. 419. Superposed Figures, New Ireland.
383. Corot, La Matinee. 420. Canoe-prow Figure, Solomon Islands.
384. Corot, Honfleur, Houses on the Quay. Photo: Wingert.
385- Millet, The Sower. Courtesy of the Mu- 421. Fly-whisk Handle, Tahiti. Photo: Wingert.
seum of Fine Arts, Boston. 422. Figure, Hawaii. Photo: Wingert.
386. Reading Room, Bibliotheque Ste. Gene- 423. Relief, House Panel, Maori, New Zealand.
vieve, Paris. Photo: Wingert.
387. Opera House, Paris, facade. 424. Stone Figure, Marquesas. Photo: The Uni-
388. Opera House, Paris, stairway. versity Museum, Philadelphia.
389. Carpeaux, The Dance. 425. Wooden Ancestor Figure, Easter Island.
390. Rodin, The Kiss. 426. Andalusia. Courtesy of Clay Lancaster.
391. Rodin, Balzac. 427. Greenough, Washington. Courtesy of the
392. Daumier, Gargantua. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
393- Daumier, Washwoman. Courtesy of the 428. Trinity Church, New York. Photo: Upjohn.
Museum of Modern Art, New York. 429. Brown, Washington.
394- Courbet, Burial at Ornans. 430. Rogers, Coming to the Parson. Courtesy
395- Courbet, The Wave. of the New York Historical Society.
396. Manet, Olympia. 431. Durand, In the Woods. Courtesy of the
397- Manet, Bar of the Folies Bergere. Metropolitan Museum, New York.
398. Renoir, Moulin de la Galette. 432. Inness, Autumn Oaks. Courtesy of the
399- Renoir, Seated Bather. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum, New York.
Durand-Ruel Gallery, New York. 433. Homer, Northeaster. Courtesy of the
400. Degas, Ballet Dancer on the Stage. Metropolitan Museum, New York.
401. Seurat, Sunday on the Grande Jatte. Cour- 434. Trinity Church, Boston.
tesy of the Art Institute of Chicago. 435. Marshall Field Warehouse, Chicago.
402. Gauguin, Manao Tupapau. Courtesy of 436. Agricultural Building, World's Columbian
the Museum of Modern Art, New York. Exposition, Chicago.
403. Van Gogh, La Berceuse. Courtesy of the 437. Transportation Building, World's Colum
Art Institute of Chicago. bian Exposition, Chicago.
404. Van Gogh, Landscape at Auvers. 438. Lincoln Memorial, Washington.
 XVI
439. Saint Gaudens, Admiral Farragut
ment.
440. Whistler, Old Battersea Bridge.
441. Sargent, Daughters of Asher Wertheimer.
442. Cloudscraper Project.
443. Wainwright Building, St. Louis.
444. Woolworth Building, New York.
445. Ferriss, Zoning Law Diagram.
446. Second Prize, Chicago Tribune
Competition.
447. Chicago Daily News Building.
448. Barclay-Vesey Telephone Building, New
York. Photo: Sigurd Fischer.
449. Lever House, New York. Courtesy of Lever
Brothers Company.
450. Unity Church, Oak Park.
451. Coonley House, Riverside.
452. Kaufmann House, Bear Run. Photo:
Wayne Andrews.
453. Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New
York. A recent rendering from the office
of Frank Lloyd Wright.
454. Lachaise, Statue of a Woman.
455. Zorach, Mother and Child.
456. Noguchi, Kouros. Photo: Rudolf Burck-
hardt.
457. Lippold, New Moonlight. Courtesy of the
Willard Gallery, New York.
458. Sloan, Backyard, Greenwich Village. Cour-
tesy of the Whitney Museum of
Art, New York.
459. Bellows, Dempsey and Firpo. Courtesy of
the Whitney Museum of American Art,
New York.
460. Hartley, Portrait of German Officer.
a ing Camel. Photo: Courtesy of the Oriental
Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum,
New York.
461. Marin, Woolworth Building No. 31.
462. Demuth, My Egypt. Courtesy of the Whit-
ney Museum of American Art, New York.
463. Hopper, Lighthouse at Two Lights.
464. Curry, The Tragic Prelude. Copyright Mrs.
J. S. Curry.
465. Orozco, Christ and His Cross. Courtesy of
Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H.
466. Pereira, Transverse Parallels. Photo: Oliver
Baker.
467. Graves, Blind Bird. Courtesy of the Mu-
seum of Modern Art, New York.
468. Matisse, The Dance.
469. Picasso, Fernande. Courtesy of the Bignou
Gallery, New York.
470. Picasso, Still Life. Courtesy of
Clifford.
471. Picasso, The Spring.
472. Mondrian, Composition in White, Black,
and Red. Courtesy of the Museum of
Modern Art, New York.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Monu- 473. Dali, Persistence of Memory. Courtesy of
the Museum of Modern Art, New York.
474. Maillol, Seated Woman.
475. Archipenko, Medrano.
476. Brancusi, Leda. Courtesy of the Museum
of Modern Art, New York.
477. Pevsner, Abstract Portrait of Marcel Du-
champ. Photo: Yale University Art Gallery,
Tower New Haven.
478. Moore, Recumbent Figure.
479. Arp, Human Concretion. Courtesy of the
Museum of Modern Art, New York.
480. Bauhaus, Dessau. Photo: Museum of Mod
em Art, New York.
481. Tugendhat House, Brno, plan.
482. Tugendhat House, Brno, exterior. Photo:
Museum of Modern Art, New York.
483. Tugendhat House, Brno, interior. Photo:
Museum of Modern Art, New York.
484. Painted Jar with Ibex. Courtesy of the
Oriental Institute, Chicago.
485. Finial. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston.
486. Pectoral of Lioness. From M. Rostovtzeff,
The Animal Style.
487. Tomb
of Xerxes, near Persepolis. Courtesy
of the Oriental Institute, Chicago.
488. Tomb of Cyrus, Pasargadae. Courtesy of
Dr. E. Herzfeld.
American 489. Apadana of Xerxes, Persepolis. Courtesy of
the Oriental Institute, Chicago.
490. Gate of Xerxes, Persepolis. Courtesy of
Dr. E. Herzfeld.
491 Palace of Xerxes, Persepolis, Bactrian Lead-
.
Institute, Chicago.
492. Palace of Xerxes, Persepolis, Lion Attack-
ing Bull. Photo: Courtesy of the Oriental
Institute, Chicago.
493. Palace of Artaxerxes II, Susa, Double Bull
Capital.
494. Palace of Artaxerxes II, Susa, Column Base
495. Taq-i-Kisra, Ctesiphon. From A. U. Pope,
A Survey of Persian Art.
496. Investiture of Ardashir I. Courtesy of Mr.
E. Schroeder.
497. Peroz I Hunting. Courtesy of the Metro-
politan Museum, New York.
498. Detail of Frieze, Mschatta.
499. Interior of North Dome, Congregational
Mosque, Isfahan. Courtesy of Mr. E.
Schroeder.
Henry 500. Northwest I wan, Congregational Mosque,
Isfahan. Photo and Copyright, Dr. M. B.
Smith, Archive for Islamic Art.
501. Silver Ewer details. Courtesy of the British
Museum, London.
502. Bowl with Polychrome Painting
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVI

503. Physicians Cutting Plant. Courtesy of the 532. Kali. Courtesy of the William Rockhill
Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas City.
504. Stag and Doe. Courtesy of the Pierpont 533. Descent of the Ganges. Cliche Musee
Morgan Library, New York. Guimet, Paris.
505. David Summoned to be King. Courtesy of 534. Kailasa Temple, Elura. Courtesy of the
the University of Edinburgh. India Office, London.
506. Bihzad, Sultan Hussein Mirza Revelling. 535. Ravana under Mt. Kailasa. Copyright, Ar-
Courtesy of the Iranian Institute, New chaeological Survey of India.
York. 536. Saiva Trinity, Elephanta. Photo: Johnston
507. The Old Court and Minaret, Meshed. and Hoffman.
Courtesy of the Iranian Institute, New 537. Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhgaya. Photo:
York. Johnston and Hoffman.
508. Tahmlna Visiting Rustam. Courtesy of the 538. Temple No. 17, Sanchl. Copyright, Ar-
Fogg Museum of Art, Cambridge. chaeological Survey of India.
509. Bihzad, King Darius and Herdsmen. Com- 539. Durga Temple, Aihole. Copyright, Archae
tesy of the Iranian Institute, New York. ological Survey of India.
510. Queen of Sheba. Courtesy of the Anet 540. Parasuramesvara Temple, Bhuvanesvara.
Collection, Paris. Photo: Johnston and Hoffman.
511. Torso, Harappa. Copyright, Archaeological 541. Lingaraja Temple, Bhuvanesvara. Photo:
Survey of India. Johnston and Hoffman.
512. DancingGirl, Mohenjo-Daro. Copyright, 542. Black Pagoda, Surya Temple, Konarak.
Archaeological Survey of India. Photo: Johnston and Hoffman.
513. Asokan Capital. Copyright, Archaeological 543. Wheel, Black Pagoda, Surya Temple, Ko-
Survey of India. narak. Photo: Johnston and Hoffman.
514. Stupa No. 1, Sanchl. Photo: Courtesy of 544. Gopuram, Madura. Courtesy of Prof. B.
Dr. A. Coomaraswamy Rowland.
515. YakshI, Sanchl. Photo: Courtesy of Dr. A. 545. Jain Temple, Mt. Abu. Photo: Johnston
Coomaraswamy. and Hoffman.
516. Surya, Bodhgaya. Courtesy of Prof. B. 546. Taj Mahall, Agra. Courtesy of India Tour-
Rowland. ist Office, New York.
517. Chaitya Hall, Karll. Photo: Johnston and 547. Pearl Mosque, Agra. Photo: Ware Library,
Hoffman. Columbia.
518. Casket of Kanishka. Copyright, Archae- 548. Rajput-Raiasthanl. Courtesy of the Mu-
ological Survey of India. seum of Fine Arts, Boston.
519. Buddha, Hotl-Mardan. 549. Illumination from Hamza-namah. Cour-
520. Bodhisattva, Sahri Bahlol. tesy of the Metropolitan Museum, New
521. Mara, Hadda. Cliche Musee Guimet, Paris. York.
522. Colossal Buddha, Bamiyan. Courtesy of 550. Jahanglr. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine
Prof. B. Rowland. Arts, Boston.
523. Bodhisattva of Friar Bala. Courtesy of Prof. 551. Inayat Khan. Courtesy of the Museum of
B. Rowland. Fine Arts, Boston.
524. Heracles and Nemean Lion. Copyright, 552. Buddha Nirvana, Polonnaruva. Courtesy of
Archaeological Survey of India. Prof. B. Rowland.
525. Representation of a Stupa, Amaravatl. 553. Buddha Nirvana with Ananda, Polon-
Courtesy of the India Office, London. naruva.
526. Buddha and the Elephant, Amaravatl. 554. Dancing Siva. Courtesy of the Museum,
Cliche Musee Guimet, Paris. Colombo.
527. Buddha Preaching in the Deer Park. Copy- 555. Great Stupa, Barabudur. Courtesy of the
right, Archaeological Survey of India. Military Intelligence Service, Batavia.
528. Cave XIX, Ajanta. Photo: Johnston and 556. Dhyani Buddha, Barabudur.
Hoffman. 557. Reliefs, Barabudur.
529. The Beautiful Bodhisattva, Ajanta. Copy- 558. Hari-Hara.
right. Archaeological Department, Hy- 559. Head of Divinity. Courtesy of Mr. C. T
derabad. Loo.
530. Dancing Siva. Courtesy of the Superin- 560. The Bavon, Angkor Thorn. Courtesy o
tendent, Government Museum, Madras. Mr. W.F. Barden.
531. Parvati. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of 561. Angkor Vat. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. W. F
Art, Washington, D.C. Bardpj?
XVI 11 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

562. Dancing Girls, Angkor Vat. Photo: Cour- Preceptress. Courtesy of the British Mu-
tesy of Mr. W. F. Bar den. seum, London.
563. Buddha. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine 591, Hui-tsung, Ladies Preparing Newly Woven
Arts, Boston. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine
Silk.

564. Palace Courtyard, Bangkok. Arts, Boston.

565. Jeweled Buddha. Courtesy of the Museum 59: Hui-tsung, The Five-Colored Parakeet.
of Fine Arts, Boston. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts r
566. Painted Pot. Courtesy of the Ostasiatiska Boston.
Samlingarna, Stockholm. 593. Fan K'uan, A Temple Among the Snowy
567. Owl from Anyang. Hills. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine
568. Beaker, Type Ku. Courtesy of the William Arts, Boston.
Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas 594- Tung Yuan, Clear Weather in the Valley.
Citv. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts,
569. Wine Vessel, Type Chiieh. Courtesy of Boston.
the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. 595- Liang K'ai, The Poet Li T'ai-po. Photo:
570. Tripod Vessel, Type Ting. Courtesy of the Count Matsudaira Collection, Tokyo.
Art Institute of Chicago. 596. Liang K'ai, The Priest Hui-neng. Photo:
571. Bell, Type Chung. Courtesy of M. A. Count Matsudaira Collection, Tokyo.
Stoclet, Brussels. 597- Mu Ch'i, Persimmons.
572. Mirror. Courtesy of the Art Institute of 598. Ma Yiian, Bare Willows and Distant
Chicago. Mountains. Courtesy of the Museum of
573. Horse Trampling Barbarian Warrior. Fine Arts, Boston.
Cliche Musee Guimet, Paris. 599- Hsia Kuei, Rain Storm. Courtesy of Baron
574. Red Bird, Pillar of Shen. Cliche Musee T. Kawasaki.
Guimet, Paris. 600. Mi Fei, Misty Landscape. Courtesy of the
575. Scene from Tomb of Liang Tzu,Wu Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.
Shantung. Courtesy of the Fogg Museum 601. Li T'ang, Man on a Water Buffalo. Cour-
of Art, Cambridge. tesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
576. House Model. Courtesy of the William 602. Ma Lin, Ling Chao-nii Standing in the
Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art. Kansas Snow. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine
City. Arts, Boston.
577. Prince Meets a Sick Man, Yiin-kang. 603. Return of Lady Wen-chi to Ying Ch'uan.
Cliche Musee Guimet, Paris. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts,
578. Colossal Buddha, Yiin-kang. Photo: Iwata. Boston.
579. Buddha, Lung-men. Courtesy of the Metro- 604. Ch'en Jung, Nine Dragon Scroll. Courtesy
politan Museum, New York. of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
580. Empress as Donor, Lung-men. Courtesy of 605. Ma Fen, Hundred Geese Scroll. Courtesy
the William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of of the Honolulu Academy of Arts.
Art, Kansas City. 606. Hsi-chin Chii-shih, One of the Ten Kings
581. Tuan Fang Shrine. Courtesy of the Mu- of Hell. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Mu-
seum of Fine Arts, Boston. seum, New York.
582. Kuan Yin. Courtesy of the Museum of 607. Lin T'ing-kuei, Arhats Giving Alms to
Fine Arts, Boston. Beggars. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine
583. Camel and Driver. Courtesy of the Art Arts, Boston.
Institute of Chicago. 608. Lu Hsin-chung, Vanavasi Gazing at a
584. Amitabha Paradise, Tun-huang. Cliche Lotus Pond. Courtesy of the Museum of
Musee Guimet, Paris. Fine Arts, Boston.
585. Adoring Bodhisattva, Tun-huang. Courtesy 609. Ting Ware Bowl. Courtesy of the Museum
of the Fogg Museum of Art, Cambridge. of Fine Arts, Boston.
586. Avalokitesvara as the Guide of Souls. Cour- 610. Kuan Tao-sheng, Bamboo. Courtesy of the
tesy of the British Museum, London. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
587. Colossal Vairocana Buddha, Lung-men. 611 Ni Tsan, Landscape. Courtesy of the Freer
Photo: Iwata. Gallery of Art, Washington,' D.C.
588. Guardians, Lung-men. Courtesy of Dr. L. 612. Yen Hui, An Immortal.
Sickman. 613. Altar of Heaven, Peking.
589. Buddha. Courtesy of the Metropolitan 614. Tai Chin, Breaking Waves and Autumn
Museum, New York. Winds. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of
590. Ku K'ai-chih, Admonitions of the Imperial Art, Washington, D.C
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIX

615. Chu Tuan, Man and Boy in a Boat under 643. Toba Sojo, Hare Chasing a Monkev.
Museum of Fine
Trees. Courtesy of the 644. Kichijoten, Joruri-ji Temple, Kyoto. Photo:
Arts, Boston. Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa.
616. Leng Mei, Lady Walking on Garden Ter- 645. Burning of the San jo Palace. Courtesy of
race. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Boston. 646. Jizo. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Mu-
617. Chu Ta, Kingfisher on a Lotus Stalk. seum, New York.
Courtesy of the Kuwara Collection, Kyoto. 647. Koshun, Hachiman as a Priest. Courtesy of
618. The Great Shrine, Izumo. the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
619. Horyu-ji Temple, Nara. Photo: Japan Tour- 648. Unkei, Hosso Patriarch Muchaku. Photo:
Bureau.
ist Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa.
620. Lecture Hall, Toshodai-ji. 649. School of Unkei, Basu-sennin. Photo:
621. Kwannon, Horyu-ji Temple. Photo: Cour- Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa.
tesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. 650. Jokei, Kongorikishi. Photo: Courtesy of
622. Tori Shaka and Two Bosatsu,
Busshi, Mr. S. Ogawa.
Horyu-ji Temple. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. 651. Red Fudo, Hokkedo.
S. Ogawa. 652. Uesugi Shigefusa, Kamakura.
623. Kudara Kwannon, Horyu-ji Temple. Photo: 653. The Great Buddha, Kamakura. Photo:
Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa.
624. Guardian Figure Bishamonten, Horyu-ji 654. Golden Pavilion, Rukuon-ji Temple, Kyoto.
Temple. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa.
625. Bodhisattva in Meditation, Horyu-ji Tern- 655. So-ami, Chinese Landscape Screen. Cour-
pie. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. tesy of the Metropolitan Museum, New
626. Tamamushi Shrine, Horyu-ji Temple. York.
Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. 656. Josetsu, Catfish and Gourd.
627. Shrine of Lady Tachibana, Horyu-ji Tern- 657. Sesshu, Winter Landscape. Courtesy of the
pie. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. Imperial Household Museum, Tokyo.
628. Shrine of Lady Tachibana, screen and halo, 658. Sesson, Boat Returning in a Storm. Cour-
Horyu-ji Temple. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. tesy of the Nomura Tokushichi Collection,
S. Ogawa. Osaka.
629. Amida Enthroned, Horyu-ji Temple. 659. Kano Sanraku, Peonies. Photo: Courtesy
Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. of Mr. S. Ogawa.
630. Yakushi, Yakushi-ji Temple, Nara. Photo: 660. Castle, Nagoya. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S.
Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. Ogawa.
631. Pagoda, Yakushi-ji Temple, Nara. Photo: 661. Sanraku, Uji Bridge. Courtesy of the Mizo-
Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. guchi Collection, Tokyo.
632. Pagoda, section, Yakushi-ji Temple, Nara. 662. Tohaku, Screen with Gibbons. Courtesy of
Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
633. The Priest Ganjin, Toshodai-ji Temple. 663. Korin Ogata, Plate. Courtesy of the Mu-
Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. seum of Fine Arts, Boston.
634. Bodhisattva, Shosoin, Nara. 664. Yomeimon Gate, Nikko.
635. Bonten, Todai-ji Temple, Nara. Photo: 665. Kiyomasu, Actor Matsumoto Shigemaki as
Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. a Woman. Courtesy of the Museum of
636. Thousand-Armed Kwannon, Toshodai-ji Fine Arts, Boston.
Temple, Nara. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. 666. Harunobu, The Crow and the Heron.
Ogawa. Courtesy of Mr. Louis V. Ledoux.
637. Asura, Kofuku-ji Temple, Nara. Photo: 667. Kiyonaga, The Debarkation. Courtesy of
Courtesy of Mr. S. Ogawa. the Art Institute of Chicago.
638. Red Fudo, Myooin Temple, Mt. Koya. 668. Utamaro, Three Geisha. Courtesy of the
639. Unkei, Dainichi. Photo: Courtesy of Mr. S. Art Institute of Chicago.
Ogawa. 669. Sharaku, Ichikawa Ebizo IV as Washizuka
640. Phoenix Hall, Byodoin Temple, Uji. Kwandayu. Courtesy of the Metropolitan
641. Jocho, Amida of Hoodo. Photo: Courtesy Museum, New York.
of Mr. S. Ogawa. 670. Hokusai, The Wave. Courtesy of the Mu-
542 Takayoshi, Illustration of Genji Monoga- seum of Fine Arts, Boston.
rari. Courtesy of the Tokugawa Collection, 671. Hiroshige, Shono. Courtesy of the Mu-
Tokyo. seum of Fine Arts, Boston.
HISTORY OF WORLD ART
 w wy \0

In General

A fundamental human demand calls art These reveal his desire to add something
into being. Its primary purpose is to add to his tools beyond pure utility. To adorn
to the interpretation and completeness them cost him time and effort, but only
of life. It may be, and at times has been, under the lash of necessity has humanity
made to serve other ends, the glorifica- been willing to forgo the pleasure it

tion of religion, propaganda, symbolism; gains by seeing and handling well-made

but these aims, whether laudable or not, objects that not merely satisfy their prac-
are foreign to its main goal. They may tical purpose but in addition delight the
even hinder artistic achievement. This hand and eye, the mind and soul.

achievement does not contribute in it- Few activities of man offer such a va-
self to the necessities of being. Mankind riety of legitimate interpretations as his

cannot live without food, shelter, and art. It has a different meaning to every-
clothing; it can exist without art. Under one. To an Aristotle, it suggests the for-
frontier conditions, since art has no im- mulation of an aesthetic theory; to a
mediate and practical value, it may be Spengler, the reflection of a civilization.
subordinated to more pressing needs. A scientist or an engineer may be con-
Nevertheless, man's craving for art is cerned only with its techniques; a poet
very deep-rooted; it has appeared con- with its personal expression as well. It

tinuously since prehistoric days through- is an opportunity for intellectual organi-

out the world. All that we know of early zation, in painting, sculpture, or archi-
man, except what may be gleaned from tecture. Its beauty may enhance man's
his bones, is learned from his handicrafts. pleasure in the objects with which he
 IN GENERAL

surrounds himself. The sensitive creator He draws the figures as masses existing
or observer may find room here for emo- in space; the color of the costumes is

tional catharsis. that of the cloth itself; the light is made

The existence of these and many to appear in the painting as it is in the

other paths to the understanding of art, artist's studio wherein the scene is laid.

or any conceivable combination of The means available to the painter are

them, should compel tolerance. Aes- here utilized to convey to the spectator
thetic creeds are like customs; each has the content or representational aspects
validity in its time and place. So long as of the design. To recognize the domi-
mankind is composed of individuals, nance of content in this instance is not
each will take the way he finds most to deny other values in the work. Be-

congenial. Some avenues are open to cause the color, for example, of the
everyone, regardless of training; others Infanta's dress records that fact, we need
require experience or information or not conclude that it has no decorative
both. But that person will receive the or expressive value; on the contrary,
richest satisfaction to whom the greatest these factors amplify and reinforce the
number of approaches is available. content. The Apollo and Daphne (fig.

A work of art is like a triangle whose 283) by Bernini avails itself of the
sides are content, expression, and deco- means of sculpture to describe an inci-
ration. These three factors are inter- dent of classic mythology. Each contrast
dependent, but not necessarily equal. An of texture in flesh, hair, textile, or foliage
artist may choose to develop one phase is rendered by the artist; the movement
beyond another. Since none of these ele- dramatizes the chase, and also contrib-
ments is inherently of more value than utes to the decorative or expressive pos-
its companions, to emphasize decoration sibilities.

is neither better nor worse than to stress Representation cannot exist in archi-
expression or content. tecture and in many of the so-called
The sides of our triangle are distinct minor arts; the corresponding element
from the artistic vehicles, such as line, in these categories is function, the pur-
mass, volume, space, color, and texture, pose the building or object is designed
which may serve the artist in developing to meet. Architecture diverges from the
content, expression, and decoration. Let representational arts in the importance
us examine each side in turn, beginning of this factor. In painting and sculpture,
with content. Almost all examples of content, as we have used the term to
painting and sculpture have a subject; refer to descriptive possibilities, may be
they represent something, although in primary or it may be negligible. With
recent times some artists have mini- very few exceptions, function is vital to
mized if not eliminated this factor. In architecture. Effective provision for the
Las Meninas (fig. 294), Velasquez re- use of a building is a prerequisite; if the
cords an incident of the Spanish court. edifice is not necessarily successful be-
 CONTENT, EXPRESSION
5

cause it fulfills its function, it is unsuc- Martini's portrait of Guidoriccio da Fo-

cessful if it fails to do so. gliano (fig. 173), fortified towns, spears
By expression, we mean the artist's and pennons, and palisade not only
comment on, or interpretation of, his represent the martial character of the
theme. Theoretically an artist may at- man but intensify it by their spiky angu-
tempt a dispassionate statement in paint larity of silhouette. The mobility of a
or stone of what he sees; a colored pho- horse intrigued Simone. Repeated curves
tograph, so to speak, of an event or in both horse and rider create a sug-
object. Practically, such impersonality gestion of motion as vivid in its conven-
seldom exists. The portrait of Georg tionality as it could be in the most scien-
Gisze (fig. 277) by Holbein is objective, tific record of a horse in movement,
but its very strength of characterization though the latter might reveal a more
is in effect the artist's analysis of his equine, less undulating action. To
sitter's personality. The very selection of Maillol, the mass and weight of the
subject involves some comment by the Seated Woman (fig. 474) have the
artist, since it indicates what seems to greatest significance and are so empha-
him important or of aesthetic interest. sized. Color also can be made interpre-
Usually much more than this is in- tive. The color of the gaunt figures in
volved. Two artists rarely respond to the Picasso's 'blue period' enhances their
same problem in the same way. An inci- poignancy. At the time, 1901-3, this

dent of daily life may be humorous to Spaniard's life intensified his feeling for
one artist, tragic to another, or to a the tragedies of existence. He experi-
third an opportunity to appraise society. mented with painting in a single color,
Such variety of response reveals the blue,which to him best conveyed de-
artists' personalities. At times this re- pression. Evidently the prevailing tone
sponse is highly individual, and there- was not chosen for representation, since
fore susceptible of complete understand- the subjects would be clearer if painted
ing only by others of similar tempera- with a wider palette, nor does the unity
ment. Since personality is unique, its of color enhance the decorative aspect.
extreme expression may be comprehen- It must be, then, an emotional mirror
sible only to the artist, but this is not a of Picasso's view of life.

common occurrence. Allied to expression is artistic charac-

The painters of China and Japan use ter, applicable especially to architecture.
line as a means of expression to a greater The phrase describes the revelation of
extent than any European artist. The the purpose of an edifice in its design.
fine lines of the waves and rigging and We expect a church to look like a
especially those in the twigs of the tree church, a bank like a bank. Function
in Sesson's painting of a Boat Returning should mold the plan, which involves
in a Storm (fig. 658) express the power the size, shape, and disposition of the
of the wind. In the Italian Simone several spaces in a building. Since the
 IN GENERAL

plan in turn governs the exterior, it re- in conveying the liquid nature of this

veals the building's character. Thus, in placid sea, but their decorative rhythms
theorv, the character of any structure predominate. It would be easy to con-
stems properly from adequate planning. ceive a method, even through line alone,
In practice, character tends to become that would more clearly depict water, as

recognizability, which is conditioned by in fact Hokusai has in The Wave (fig.

our knowledge. We expect a school to 670), and perhaps one that would better
look not merely like a school, but like express its limpid surface; to find a more
schools familiar to us. This is unfortu- telling decorative passage might be hard.
nate if the buildings we identify as The rich color of medieval stained glass

schools do not function well as such. is highly decorative. A window in

Moreover, we may expect the design to Chartres (Plate 11, facing p. 269) makes
express spirituality in a church, enter- no pretense to accurate representation
tainment in a theater. We may find of objects. In the Parable of the Sower
character in painting and sculpture. A from Canterbury, the trees and plants
carved or painted altarpiece is devo- are a golden yellow, blue, or purple, not
tional in intent, and different in ex- because green was not available— it ex-

pression from a picture destined for a ists in the same window— nor because
boudoir, or a statue designed for a hall the designer saw purple bushes, but be-
of state. cause those tones in their particular

Decoration is the third side of our combination afford a rich decorative en-

triangle. The term refers to formal or- semble. A Persian manuscript by Bihzad
ganization in any design beyond that (Plate xvi, facing p. 653) is magnifi-
which may be demanded by content or cent as decoration.
expression. It is not essential to narra- These three factors then, content, ex-
tive or illustrative clarity; indeed, it may pression, and decoration, are present in
act in opposition. Nor does it, of itself, works of art. The artist may select one
extend the expressive possibilities. It of them, or any combination that suits
may include such matters as composi- his needs; or historical formulation of
tion, proportion, scale (at times), and the problem may determine the combi-
other qualities which are in themselves nation. In any case he must try to

pleasing to the eye. If it is sometimes achieve such unity that his primary pur-
difficult to separate content from ex- pose will be impressed on the observer.
pression, it is impossible wholly to dis- Though several aims may be included,
tinguish decoration from the other two. like plot and sub-plots in a novel, one
Nevertheless, in Gauguin's painting, usuallv dominates. Introduction of for-
Mahana No Atua (Plate xi, facing eign subject matter, no matter how ex-

p. 588), the lines limiting shapes in the pressive or decorative such extraneous
water are essentially decorative. These material may be, is apt to weaken the
watery lines have some illustrative value concentration on the main theme. To
 DECORATION, COMPOSITION
7

• ••••» • • • • 4

• ••••• •••••
® ®
• • -

lihlilihlihlil ttttTtt,..-,

®
1. Composition: Harmony, Sequence, Balance.

take an extreme case, imagine a still life lines or areas. \\ 'ith b, a simple motive,
depicting a bowl of fruit on a table. A the circle, is adopted and a vague pat-
knife and fork lying beside the bowl tern appears. The sense of order, though
may seem appropriate, but if the artist minor, is due to the repetition of a series
were to substitute a sword or an ax, of circles. In size and arrangement, how-
one's mind would rebel. The sword ever, there is still no harmony. Make all

might provide just the right shape, size, the circles of the same size, as in c,

and color, but one would still feel it to and a contributory factor enhances the
be a disintegrating element. Converselv, harmonv; place them in some specific

pertinent material can enrich a theme. relation to one another, for example, at
By painting Georg Gisze (fig. 277) in the corners of squares, triangles, hex-
his office surrounded by his businesss agons, or in any other fundamental sys-
equipment, Holbein helps to character- tem, and a recognizable pattern results,

ize the man. The artist may also de- d. Not only is the familiar polka dot de-
liberately introduce contrasting objects sign so created, but most all-over pat-

to heighten the effect, but in this case terns of textiles and wallpapers adopt
the material is not extraneous. this foundation.

Aesthetic unity in a work of art is Sequence, or rhythm, the second ele-

achieved through composition or design; ment of composition, may be defined as

that is, a visual co-ordination of its parts. regularity of change. While not always
Composition has three factors, though distinguishable from harmony, which
not all need be exploited in a single also involves regularity, sequence is

example. The first, harmony, refers to nevertheless distinct. It has two forms.
the creation of a sense of order by repe- In e, the regularity of change is that of
tition of aesthetic motives. In figure 1, alternation of long and short, large and
a illustrates lack of harmony in size, small; it may be of different tones or
shape, value, and arrangement of the colors, or of contrasting motives. Such
8 IN GENERAL

schemes can be considered as two pat- Or again, in Titian's painting called the
terns illustrating harmony superposed on Duke of Norfolk (fig. 245), the central
one another. Or a motive may show a line of the canvas passes through the left

sequence of progression, /. Applied to eye of the subject, so that the head is

size, it results from repeated forms seen slightly to the left, as is the right hand.
in perspective, as when one looks along But, though small, the cuff of the left

a line of telegraph poles, or down a hand is placed so far to the right that
railway track. We know the distant ties a sense of equilibrium is established be-
are as large as those in the foreground, tween the three light areas in the design.

but they appear to diminish in size. A Perhaps the majority of Far Eastern
spiral, like a mathematical progression, paintings are based on occult balance.
shows regularity of change in direction, These elements of composition are so
as in an Ionic capital (fig. 32) . Or again, broad as to admit of no exceptions,
a sequence of direction exists in a group although an artist may apply them
of curves becoming successively flatter, either deliberately or by instinct. Order
or a series of angles more and more can be analyzed in these terms, not only
acute. The anthemion motive forming in the visual arts, but in other forms of
a band below the capitals of the north artistic expression, and in nature herself.
porch on the Erechtheum in Athens The organization of nature in general is

(fig. 60) is an application of this device. so complex as to defy analysis, but in

The third of our factors, balance, her component parts she affords count-
again has two types. Axial balance, or less illustrations of harmony, sequence,
symmetry, refers to the duplication of and balance. The symmetry of a pine
motives on either side of an imaginary and the balanced distribution of leaves
central line or point, g. One of our dia- on either side of a stem in certain plants
grams might apply to many late fifteenth- are homely illustrations. The color se-
century or early sixteenth-century Italian quence of a rainbow, the radial arrange-
paintings, such as the Castelfranco Ma- ment of the petals in a daisy, the pro-
donna by Giorgione. What we define gressive length of feathers in a bird's
as asymmetrical or occult balance is the wing come to mind. Harmony is so uni-
arrangement of motives unlike in shape, versal that one need only cite the billow-
size, color, and so on, but whose visual ing masses of cumulus clouds or the
sum creates a sense of equilibrium broken wisps of cirrus to prove the
around a point. For example, h is based point. Occasionally nature destroys her
on Whistler's painting of his mother. own organization; more commonly the
Furthermore, diagonal lines might be activities of man accomplish the same
made equal and regular, but a series of result. The disorder resulting from a
diagonals moving in one direction can forest fire, a timber cutting, or a hurri-
be balanced by another series, not iden- cane destroys the beauty of a landscape.
tical, moving in the opposite direction. In the sister arts, too, these elements,
 COMPOSITION

though perhaps called by other names, the vertical strips of windows might

are present. Rhythm and meter in form an element of contrast, but they
poetry are harmony; rhyme often shows are not so left. Over the main area, the

sequence of alternation. The repetition windows of the second, third, and

of phrases or variations on a theme in fourth floors from the top of the princi-
music accomplish the same end. For the pal mass are again tied together in short

dance, as also in music, the time factor vertical bands, serving not only to recall

leads to an emphasis on sequence, the vertical accents of the end pavilions

rhythm. but also to advertise the vertical termi-

Although the application of these ele- nation. Once more the plain window
ments will recur in the following chap- form recurs in a single row above that.

ters, two examples may be analyzed Then the first setback takes up the
here as demonstrations. The Chicago theme again. At or near the bottom of
Daily News Building (fig. 447), by the building, the voids and solids are
Holabird and Root, consists of a har- larger; at the top also that scheme is

mony of cubical masses. Like most pub- reintroduced as a crowning member.

lic buildings, it is symmetrical, the voids Such an analysis, however incomplete,
and solids balanced on either side of an takes many words; but the effect of
axis. Most of the windows are identical, unity is perceived instantaneously, even
separate units, but at both ends of the when the observer does not take pains
main front two vertical rows are united to examine the way in which the unity
in a projecting mass as continuous strips. is achieved.
That projection and those strips termi- In the Purification of the Temple
nate the design from side to side, but (fig. 290), El Greco depicts Christ in
the same projecting feature also includes the center of a compact knot of figures.
a row of normal windows like those in That group forms a rectangle whose pro-
the large area of the front, not tied to- portions are similar to the shape of the
gether in bands and so repeating the whole canvas. Another area of like pro-

motive of the central treatment. More- portions exists in the portraits of four
over, beyond these terminal sections, the artists in the lower right corner, a clear
plane of the wall is recalled in a single- example of harmony of shape. In the
windowed bay. A bay is a unit of archi- mother and child to the right of the
tectural design extending from the axis main characters, and in the men of the
of one column or section of wall to the extreme background, the movement tilts

center of the next support. See, too, how to the right. The vertical standing fig-

these terminals are repeated with varia- ures limit the principal theme on its

tions on the end of the building, so that right edge, but in Christ the action
from most points of vision the front and causes the upper part of His figure to
sides of the structure act together as shift to the left. As the traders try to
parts of a single design. In themselves, escape His lash, their bodies lean more
io IN GENERAL

and more to the left, until they reach any particular work can select his pal-

the diagonal motive of the woman deal- ette, limiting himself but achieving
ing in doves. El Greco recalls that diag- thereb y possibilities of harmony. ^aA
onal in the seated man at the right (gogh^may prefer tones of maximum or
corner of the group, and again in the nearly maximum intensity, and reach
infant lying on the steps. Such a se- harmony by that means. In many of his
quence toward the diagonal needs some- landscapes, Corot does just the oppo-
thing to terminate it; hence the strong site, choosing to employ only low inten-
vertical of the woman's arm, and of the and further avoiding very high and
sities,

man b ehind her. very low values. The richness of Vene-

\E1 Grecojaccents Christ as the princi- tian painting is due in part to its tonal-
pal figure. His head centers on the open- ity; that is, the sense of a general tone
ing to the piazza against the front of dominating the several colors. In this
one of the distant palaces. For dramatic school, a transparent yellowish glaze,

interest, Jesus, though in the center, is spread over the strong local colors, leaves
distinct from the group. Compact else- them in the same relation to one an-
where, the group opens up in v-shaped other, but pulls them all toward the tone
voids to His right and left, more appar- of the glaze. Thus a white dress may
ent in the original than in any reproduc- seem to be white in relation to a red
tion because of the color. This, too, passage next to it, whereas in actuality if

contributes its share to the composi- we isolate the 'white' area, we shall find

tional unity. Each major tone of red, it to be yellow in color. A similar conse-
blue, yellow, or green is echoed again quence stems from nature in Monet's
and again through this design. painting of the mists at Giverny, where
If one is to speak precisely about all tones are drawn toward the tone of
color, one must realize that the word the fog.
includes three properties that together Egyptian artists (Plate i, facing p. 268)
are better called tone. The three ele- accepted the fact that paintings exist in
ments of tone have many names. The only two dimensions, and drew their
first is color properly speaking, its red- figures as silhouettes with almost no in-

ness, blueness, or yellowness. One may dication of projection or recession in or

produce two tones, both pure blue, but around them. Line served to define the
one a bright blue and one a gray blue. shape and form of the figures. In the
This vividness or dullness of tone is three-dimensional arts of sculpture and
known as intensity. Finally, tone may architecture, line may play an important
change in lightness or darkness, that is role, such as in the silhouette of any
in value. statue against its background. This sil-

This triple division offers certain op- houette differs with every change in the

portunities to the artist. The complete angle of vision, but the sum of the sil-

range of tone is infinite, but an artist in houettes defines the form of the statue.
 COLOR, LINE, MASS, SPACE, TEXTURE 11

Further, changes of surface in sculpture space. The volumes of nave, aisles, and
may be arranged in a system of lines, as transepts in Santiago de Compostela
in The Great Buddha at Kamakura (fig. (fig. 116) are relatively distinct; those of
653). The facade of the Cancelleria Chartres (fig. 142) flow into one an-
Palace, Rome (fig. 223), is a pattern of other. In most buildings of the past, the
n arrow li nes of shadow. spaces enclosed are thought of as some-
( Giotto} on the other hand, feels that thing different from the out-of-doors;
the solidity or mass of his human figures in the Tugendhat House, Brno (fig.

(fig. 175) is more essential than the flat 483), the glass walls provide a mini-
surface of his wall. He therefore draws mum separation of internal and external
them in varied tones of light to create space.
in them an illusion of roundness, a sense Finally, an artist may find an inter-

of mass or form. Similarly, Maillol em- est in texture. Bernini in sculpture (fig.

phasizes the weight, the mass, of his 283) or Vermeer in painting (Plate vm,
Seated Woman (fig. 474), as do the facing p. 365) simulate the texture of
Pyramids at Gizeh (fig. 8). Volume is flesh or cloth. Seurat (fig. 401) is in-

the antonym of mass. The shape of the different to this, but through his tech-

Bauhaus, Dessau (fig. 480), is almost as nique creates texture with the pigment
simple as that of the Pyramids, but the itself. Richardson exploits the texture of
observer is forced to perceive the space stone in the Marshall Field Warehouse,
contained within this shape in contrast Chicago 435). In these matters a
(fig.

to the apparent and actual solidity in contemporary artist finds himself re-
the mass of the Pyramid. markably free. In the past, his client
When Giotto perceived his figures as decided on the subject; the Church dic-
masses, it was necessary to create three- tated its arrangement; and often the
dimensional space for them. In his case very pigments were specified in advance.
this is limited, but Pozzo in his ceiling Today, the artist limits himself when he
paintings (fig. 288) creates an illusion selects the problem through the de-
of vast depth. The three figures in mands of composition, and by the me-
Raphael's Madonna del Cardellino (fig. dium or material chosen.
238) form a compact pyramid, con- Each substance offers only certain
tained within itself and distinct from possibilities because of its physical prop-

the unlimited space of the landscape. erties—the strength and weight of stone,
The figures in Watteau's Embarkation the lightness and workability of wood,
for Cythera 324) merge with space.
(fig. the toughness of metal. Giovanni da
A similar contrast is apparent in the Bologna's Flying Mercury (fig. 257),
Parthenon, Athens (fig. 52), and in feasible in bronze, would be impossible
Rheims Cathedral (fig. 140). The for- in stone. The small cross section through
mer is a prism discrete from surrounding the wind from the mouth of Aeolus
space; but the cathedral fuses with would hardly support the weight of a
12 IN GENERAL

stone figure. Neither could marble be Toshodaiji, founded on wood construc-

carved into the flowing wings or the tion, is composed of such horizontal rec-

shape of the caduceus. This is obvious, tangles, not only in its proportions but
but the sensitive designer will respect in its details. The weight of stone com-
somewhat narrower limits than those pels a different form. beam as A stone
imposed by the physical properties. long and thin as the wood members of
For example, the range of color, value, the Kodo would break of its own weight
and intensitv available for fresco paint- and certainly could not support any
ing is more restricted than in oil paint- additional load of a roof or floor. There-
ing. The possibilities of brush work in fore stone beams must be short and the
oils are not identical with those in water supports close together. Similar factors
color. In sculpture, the choice of stone suggest heavier proportions for stone col-
compels some compactness of concep- umns. The result must be vertical rec-

tion. The actual limits are however very tangles, taller than they are wide.

wide. In his Apollo and Daphne (fig. The earliest examples of architecture,
283), Bernini shows what technical dex- such as prehistoric Stonehenge (fig. 6),
terity can do with stone. But perhaps illustrate this stone aesthetic. The design
his pictorialism here exceeds the proper of this ring of monoliths spanned by
limits of his medium. The sculpturesque short beams composed of repeated ver-
is

diorite portrait of Khafra (fig. 15) has tical rectangles. Most Western architec-
more respect for stone. Its design con- ture was based on stone construction
veys the weight of material; its compact- until recent times. Such styles as the
ness confines our attention within the eighteenth-century Georgian in America
block, instead of leading our eve out of often employed wood, but both propor-
it, as do the extended arms of the tion and architectural vocabulary derive
Apollo or the Daphne. A clever imita- from styles developed in masonry. In
tion of textures by Bernini almost con- this case, sympathetic craftsmanship
vinces one that marble has ceased to be adapted details to the new material; col-
stone; their absence in the Khafra allows umns were attenuated to a point where
full expression to the texture of the they could not be executed in marble.
stone itself. The bearing of material on design is

Though the effect on design in archi- not only apparent in the distinction of
tecture is no greater than in sculpture or wood and stone, but may be narrowed
painting, the results are easier to isolate. to the treatments appropriate to oak or
Wood, a fibrous material strong in pro- mahogany, to granite or marble. The
portion to its weight, can be cut into hardness of granite suggests that its de-
long members for beams or columns. sign should rely on simple proportions
Slender wood posts supporting long with little surface interruption. The
beams result in a rectangle longer than Temple of the Sphinx at Gizeh (fig. 9)
it is high. The Lecture Hall (fig. 620) at speaks with solemn grandeur through its
 RELATION OF DESIGN TO MATERIAL *3

prismatic blocks supporting plain beams. orous New England climate. Architec-
In the marble Parthenon, Athens (fig. ture in a desert exhibits a flat roof, as in

52), greater detail is possible because of the Indian pueblos of the Southwest or
the comparative ease of cutting marble. in Egyptian temples (fig. 10). However,
The same is true in sculpture. The dio- so many other considerations exist, such
rite portrait of Khafra (fig. 15) is severe as the wind, the type and materials of
as compared with the marble figure of construction, or the transmission of an
Michelangelo's Night (fig. 234) on the architectural style from one region to
Medici Tomb. another, that precipitation is not a para-
The matters discussed so far are in- mount factor.

herent in the artistic problem. If the A third and more important effect of

artist lived in a void, only such consid- geography, especially in the past with its

erations would be pertinent. Since that primitive methods of transportation, is

cannot be true, other forces bear on any the supply of local materials. Where
specific creation. These stem from the wood is plentiful, it will be used and so
time and place in which the work is will shape the design. Greece, because
born. They shape the problem con- of its marble quarries, developed a stone
fronting the artist; they also mold his architecture. Mesopotamia, lacking both
mentality. stone and wood, had to resort to clay,
Geography, though its effect is often and a style in brick came into being.
overrated, has some bearing especially on Finally, geography often accounts for
architecture. First, the site chosen for a the spread of artistic styles from one
building may determine its direction and land to another. Trade routes as well as
character. Except for the prevailing inci- propinquity bear on the history of art
dence of sun or wind, a structure on a more than is often realized.
plain might face in any direction. A slop- Economic conditions are even more
ing plot restricts such freedom. More- influential. A continued period of eco-
over, a design suited to the great plains nomic chaos can eliminate the arts. The
may be inappropriate for wooded, moun- period of the Hundred Years' War in
tainous terrain. France, which brought to an end the
Second, where an architecture is in- epoch of cathedral building, was, by
digenous, we might expect to find a low comparison, artistically barren. The
pitched roof in southern countries, a Thirty Years' War blighted those parts
high pitched roof in northern. The gen- of Germany touched by it. The centuries
tle slope of the roof of the Parthenon of poverty and confusion
Western in
(fig. 52) suffices to void any rainfall, but Europe following the collapse of the
would be less suitable if snow were a Roman Empire nearly extinguished the
serious consideration. The steep roof of creative flame. A few insignificant build-
the Parson Capen House in Topsfield, ings, some manuscripts and ivory carv-
Massachusetts (fig. 357), implies the rig- ings, enamels, and other small objects
 IN GENERAL
H
are all that remain in the West from this Academy were not always admirable; on
time. the contrary, the progressive work of the
It docs not follow that a period of nineteenth century was done in protest
economic prosperity will be great in the against the official stand. Still, though its

arts; merely that some surplus beyond aims were sometimes misdirected, its

the minimum needs of man is essential efforts have contributed a stimulus to

for aesthetic activity. Moreover, it is the general field.

almost a rule that cultural expression Even more vital is the broad social
lags a generation or more behind an structure of an age, since that, in the last
economic or political rise, since it may analysis, establishes its problems. The
take years to train men to the appro- power of imperial Rome created a civili-

priate expression. zation, and therefore an art, to reflect it-

In another sense economics impinges self — immense in scale, sumptuous in

on art. The change from a handicraft to colored marbles, crass in effect. The aris-

a machine technique in the production tocratic democracies of Greece nourished

of building materials is one cause of the philosophical and aesthetic discussion,
new style of twentieth-century architec- and were bound to develop balance,
ture. Labor is a factor; the higher the
delicacy, and refinement in art. The em-
cost of skilled labor, the less can one
phasis on the salon in eighteenth-century
afford its products.
France produced a boudoir art, small in
Although the form of government in
scale, playful, lawless, but never crude.
itself may not be important, neverthe-
Finally, religion has often taken the
less by preserving order a strong state
lead in artistic development, in part be-
can promote conditions suited to artistic
cause of the common identification of
growth. When taxation was based on
religion and government. Egyptian archi-
the number or size of windows, builders
limited
tecture, as we know it, exists chiefly in
themselves in these respects;
the temple and the tomb, and the bulk
when levied on the number of stories in
of sculpture and paintings was produced
the wall of a house, prompted the de-
it

velopment of the mansard roof, a device

for them. Most Greek sculpture is also

to add a story within the roof. More

religious in purpose. The nature of the

important is patronage. The wealth and belief calls for a specific expression. The
power of the Church in the Middle Ages basic contrast between Greek temples
accounts for the primarily ecclesiastical and Gothic cathedrals stems from the
art of that time. Official support and en- different conceptions of God held by
couragement of the Academy in France these two cultures. Most directly of all,

since the seventeenth century helped to the usages of any liturgv write the pro-
give hei the leadership she held in the grams for the artist to follow.
world of from that time almost to
art That the arts are produced by the
the present. The results achieved b\ the spirit of an age is self-evident, but not
 ART AND CIVILIZATION *5

the whole story. The arts have also done eral of these factors may hold good at
their share to shape their cultures. Just any moment in history over large geo-

as the poems of Homer crystallized the graphical areas, others may not, or may
concepts of the Olympic deities, so too be of differing degrees of significance
the Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals, within smaller regions. Consequently, we
themselves in part formed by medieval have to take into account not only the
ritual and faith, in turn helped to form Gothic or Renaissance styles, but also
that ritual and to clarify that faith. Sub- the dissimilarities of English as con-
sequent to Giotto's innovations in paint- trasted with French Gothic, of Flemish
ing, men could no longer conceive of with Italian Baroque. Finally, any indi-
man as they had before. Perhaps therein vidual artist may respond differently to
lies the greatest contribution that the the same conditions of time and place.
arts have made through human history. A Michelangelo and a Raphael do not
In so far as any period is itself a his- react alike to their times. Both are char-
torical unit, the government, religion,' acteristic of the High Renaissance in
and form of society act to produce a Italy, but as personalities their work is

unity of expression. Hence we may speak distinct. It is because of the interaction

of a Gothic age, or the epoch of the of time, place, and person upon the ar-

Renaissance or the Baroque, to indicate tistic problem that the history of art
the existence of some similarities in con- through the centuries is so infinite in
temporary production. But though sev- variety.
II Prehistoric Art

The earliest art of man was created in art, particularly in the north Spanish and
the dim geological past when slowly re- French areas, where it appears largely
ceding glaciers still covered much of on the walls of caves as incised and/or
northern Europe. Remains of it have painted forms, although small sculptures
been discovered archaeologically in many in the round in bone, antler, ivory, stone,

sites in Europe, Africa, the Near East, and clay are numerous at many sites.

and Asia. But the best-known and most Paleolithic art was discovered only a cen-
spectacular examples of this art appear tury ago; but since then the gradual and
in caves and rock shelters in south-cen- often accidental discovery of more than
tral France, and in northern and eastern a hundred caves has contributed to a
Spain, occupied in the late Paleolithic constantly increasing knowledge of Pre-
period, which is frequently referred to as historic man and his art.
the Ice age and believed to date some In many parts of the world early man
twelve thousand to twenty thousand pecked, engraved, or painted on the rock
years ago. The climate, and the flora and surfaces of shelters or caves. Examples
fauna were then very different from have been found in south, central, and
those of today. During part of this period north Africa; in a number of areas of
it was extremely cold and dry, and such western United States; in various islands
animals as the mammoth, bison, rein- of the South Seas; and in many parts of
deer, and wild horse were plentiful and Australia and elsewhere. Not all of this
provided food for these early hunters. rock art was of the same antiquity; in
Animal representation dominates the fact, the age of much of it is still some-
16
 PALEOLITHIC ART *7

what speculative; but the distribution of animals of these Ice-age peoples, it

it indicates the appearance of an early would seem that they were depicted to

art of comparable media and technique insure a plenitude of the animal or the
in many widespread areas. It is certain, actual securing of it in the hunt. Both
too, that in some regions this art per- motivations may very well have been
sisted until fairly recent times. The ear- behind the art.

liest and most important development Many believe that Prehistoric art be-
of it was, however, that of the Paleolithic gan with small three-dimensional sculp-
age in southwestern Europe. tures and engravings. These small sculp-
Two areas of this ancient European tures have been found often deep in the

art have been differentiated, that of debris on cave floors in association with
northern Spain and southwestern France, archaeologically datable chipped and
known as the Franco-Cantabrian area; flaked stone tools. Although the majority
and the somewhat less ancient art of the of small sculptures represent animals or
east Spanish or Levantine area to the details of animals, some female figurines,

south. Franco-Cantabrian art may be complete or in fragments, are carved in

divided into two Upper or Late Pale- a rigid, highly stylized manner with cer-

olithic chronological periods, the Aurig- tain strongly exaggerated physical fea-
nacian or earlier and the Magdalenian tures. The best-known examples are the
or later, both named after southwestern so-called Venus of Willendorf, a 4V2
French sites. Prehistoric art of this north- inch limestone figurine found near the
ern area occurs often deep within caves; Danube River in lower Austria, and the
while that of the southern region is Lespugue Figure discovered in south-
found on the rock walls of open shelters west France. Small animal sculptures
beneath overhanging cliffs. were produced in considerable quantity

Northern Paleolithic caves with dec- in Aurignacian and later periods; but un-
orated walls did not serve as shelters or like the more symbolic human represen-
habitations, since evidences of human tations, animal figures have a remarkable
occupation are found only at or near vitality of pose and realization of natural
their entrances. The paintings and en- form.
gravings frequently appear in almost in- On the basis of style conventions ap-
accessible chambers within the caves, parent in many hundreds of examples,
seemingly special areas set aside for use it is evident that Franco-Cantabrian cave
as sanctuaries or ceremonial centers and paintings and engravings date from both
used again and again in this way for the earlier and later Paleolithic periods.
some millennia. It is impossible, how- The earliest of this art is represented by
ever, to do more than speculate on what finger tracings of geometric designs and
the motivating beliefs for this art may of simple animal outlines on the damp
have been; but since the subjects repre- clay walls, and by hands stenciled nega-
sented are, with few exceptions, the food tively against a red or black background.
i8 PREHISTORIC ART

These were followed by pecked outline characterize the animal with a strong,
engravings and paintings of animals, direct visual realitv. Momentary poses, a
sometimes accompanied by geometrical, suggestion of varied movement, and the
possibly symbolic, patterns. A fine ex- basic 'seen' nature of the animal, in con-
ample of early or Aurignacian art is the trast to an intellectual knowledge of its

elephant in the cave of Castillo in the structure, typify this vibrant art; while a

Pyrenees area of northern Spain (fig. 2). monumentality or largeness of scale is

evident whether the animal is only

inches or several feet in size.

Remains of Paleolithic pigments re-

veal that they were ochres, largely min-
eral oxides, ranging in color from red
through various browns to black, with a

deeper carboniferous black obtained

from burned bones. The pigments were
used as sticks for drawing or were ground
and mixed with animal fat to produce
the 'oil' paints for the great wall decora-
tions. Monochrome color outlines or sol-
2. Elephant (c. 16,000 b.c.) Castillo. Red out-
idly painted forms and, in the great or
line drawing, i'i".
Magdalenian period, polychrome render-
It is a simple drawing in red ochre with ings are characteristic. Not any of the

only two legs rendered and no details paintings are realistic, since only the es-

given within the outlines. In contrast, a sentials of the form and a few details

mammoth of slightly later date in the are given, a representation based on a

Combarelles cave in the famous Dor- memory image of the animal observed
dogne area of France shows an engraving during the hunt.
with four legs rendered in perspective
and a broken lower outline suggesting
the long hair of the animal (fig. 3) . The
cave of Combarelles, discovered in 1901,
contains only engravings; but here the
styles cover almost the full range of this
medium in Paleolithic times, such as
continuous to broken outlines, and the
use of etched lines to suggest texture.
Animal representations in Prehistoric
art, whether in the round, in relief, in-
cised, or painted, have one outstanding
3. Mammoth (c. 15,000 b.c.) Les Comba-
feature in common: they all depict or relles. Mural engraving, 2 '4" wide.
 ^
CAVE PAINTING *9

4. Animal Group (c. 12,000 B.C.) Lascaux. 5'6" wide. From Maringer and Bandi, Art in the
Ice Age, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc.

Altamira, found in 1868 near Sant- striking. Distinctive of the paintings at

ander in northern Spain, was the earliest Altamira are the remarkable richness of
of the caves discovered. It was not until colors and the manner in which irregular

1879, however, that a little girl noticed geological formations on the surface of
that there were paintings on its walls the ceiling are utilized as relief forms
and ceiling. It is a large cave, almost within the painted rendering of the
1000 feet in length, containing both animal.
painted and engraved animals in its dec- Of the many Franco-Cantabrian caves,
orations, some outlined in black, some Font-de-Gaume, discovered in 1901, and
painted solidly red or black, and others Lascaux, in 1940, both in the Dordogne
rendered in polychromy. The most im- district of France, are of great impor-
portant and famous Altamira painting tance. At Lascaux practically all Pre-
is the so-called 'great fresco' on its ceil- historic painting and engraving styles,
ing, a work measuring 46 feet long. More from the early Aurignacian to the late
than twenty animals of late Paleolithic Magdalenian periods, are represented in
species, such as the deer, wild boar, and its many galleries and chambers; while

bison, are represented mostly in poly- the quality of the art of each period
chrome, some of them from four to warrants the evaluation of this cave as
seven feet long and incised before being one of the most significant of all Paleo-
colored. The reality in the pose of these lithic sites so far discovered (fig. 4).
animals, running, wounded, or at bay, is The numerous superpositions of later
20 PREHISTORIC ART

figures over indistinct earlier ones, cou- north. For example, the presence of
pled with the lack of any compositional dancing, hunting, and fighting scenes
arrangement of the animals, constitute involving both human and animal fig-

two of the most consistent and striking ures at once sets them apart from the
features of Franco-Cantabrian art. These animal representations in the French
characteristics appear in the majority of and Spanish caves; while in some scenes,
cave paintings and are readily observable such as the one in the rock shelter near
in those at Lascaux, where an excep- Cogul, female figures in skirts dance
tional freshness of color has survived. around a nude male figure, perhaps sym-
The art of Lascaux, together with that bolizing or representing an initiation or
of Altamira and Font-de-Gaume, repre- fertility dance or ritual involving only

sents the greatest achievements of Paleo- human beings. Clothed female figures
lithic artists. also appear in the large painting in the

East Spanish or Levantine rock paint- cave or grotto of La Vieja near Alpera,
ing differs in a number of respects from
that to the north. In east Spain relatively
small paintings are found in rock shelters
or beneath overhanging cliffs, rather
than deep within caves. They are painted
in solid colors, mostly red, sometimes
black, and represent compositional ar-

rangements of humans and animals in

which an idea or narrative is portrayed.
The animals, including stag, wild horse,
boar, and antelope, are usually depicted
in silhouette in flat, summary fashion,
in contrast to the depth, roundness, and
vitality of form in the Franco-Cantabrian
art. Human figures, rarely found in
northern paintings, are small, solidly
painted forms, often stylized almost to
the point of abstraction. Since super-
position is likewise common to this art,
5. Group of Archers (c. 7000 B.C.) Valltorta
it seems likely that the east Spanish sites
Gorge. 3'io" high. From Maringer and Bandi,
may also have been sanctuaries or ritual Art in the Ice Age, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc.
centers.
But a number of features in these and numerous hunters in vigorous, styl-
southern paintings indicate a different ized postures and forms were painted in
motivation and possibly a later chronol- various east Spanish sites, particularly
ogy than those of Ice-age art to the well represented in the shelters of the
 NEOLITHIC ART 21

Valltorta Gorge (fig. 5). An intense, this period many of the basic features
dramatic movement is characteristic of of later historic civilizations were devel-
this art, while non-naturalistic shapes oped or invented. One of the important
indicate details of the body and costume differences between the Paleolithic or
as an intellectual interpretation rather Old Stone age and the Neolithic or New
than as a visual perception of the object. Stone age was the manufacture of more
Hunters, often represented in rapid pur- efficient tools and weapons through the
suit of animals, are armed with the bow process of grinding and polishing of
and arrow, a weapon not depicted in stone. Of these New Stone age tools the
Paleolithic Franco-Cantabrian art. most significant was the stone axe or
It seems likely that at least some east celt, polished to a refined form and sur-
Spanish rock paintings are of a later date face and ground to a strong, sharp, cut-
than those of the Ice age to the north, ting edge, a tool vastly superior to the
possibly from the Neolithic period. Le- chipped and flaked stone blades of Paleo-
vantine painting, a thoroughly interest- lithic peoples.

ing and aesthetically exciting Prehistoric During the Neolithic period plants,

art, has numerous analogies with early particularly grains, and animals were do-
rock-shelter paintings in south-central mesticated. These two fundamental de-
Africa. velopments led to permanent homes in
The achievements of Upper Paleo- villages or communities, a drastic change
lithic art have been ascribed to Cro- from the earlier seasonal nomadic hunt-
Magnon man, but it now appears that ing life based on following the migratory
he was only one of a number of the movements of game animals. Food stor-

species Homo sapiens responsible for it. age pits indicate that there were now
Following the Paleolithic period and the reserves of food, a contributing factor to
further recession of glacial ice fields, the a rapid rise in population, more leisure,

Mesolithic period, roughly eight thou- and a greater degree of specialization. It

sand to twelve thousand years ago, slowly is clear, too, that during this period fight-

developed an era during which the cli- ing, aggression, and protective defense
mate, geography, and biology of the Eu- measures became pronounced. The arts

rope of today gradually emerged. Meso- of Neolithic man, aside from the aes-

lithic art was very meager, almost limited thetically satisfying shape and finish of

to small, water-rounded pebbles painted tools, also included pottery and mega-
with geometric designs in red ochre, pos- lithic stone structures. Pottery at first

sibly symbolizing human figures or ritual was handmade, coarse and undecorated,
objects. but later its manufacture was improved
In central and western Europe a com- and engraved or imprinted geometric
paratively long Neolithic period followed decorations appeared, and still later mod-
the Mesolithic and may be dated ap- eled pottery objects and vessels were
proximately 8000 to 2000 B.C. During produced.
22 PREHISTORIC ART

6. Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain, England (c. 2000-1500 B.C.) 25' high.

The megalithic stone structures are in often large stones set vertically in two
many instances associated with burials, parallel rows with a large stone slab
perhaps as memorials to the dead, but placed across their tops as a roof or lid.

sometimes as tomb-like coverings over Beneath it one or more burials were

graves. Two main types of structures made and afterward the entire construc-
were erected, the menhir and the dol- tion was covered with a mound of earth.
men. The menhir is a single small or A good example of a dolmen has been
large stone monolith set up vertically in unearthed near Bagneux in western
the ground at or near a burial site. Some France.
menhirs are unshaped, slab-like stones, At Stonehenge, near Salisbury in Eng-
others are roughly formed to taper to- land, is seen the remains of one of the
ward the top, and a few of them are most famous, complex, and, even in its

crudely engraved with geometric designs. present ruinous condition, impressive of

They occur in many and
areas in Spain, early stone constructions (fig. 6). Stone-
in western France, where the menhir at henge has been hypothetically dated be-
Penmarch in Brittany measures almost tween 2000 and 1500 B.C., and so falls a
25 feet high; while at nearby Carnac ten bit beyond the end of the Neolithic pe-
avenues of small menhirs lead away from riod. It consisted originally of a large
a circle of menhirs, known as a cromlech. circular earthwork surrounding a circle
The dolmen is a construction of several of tall stone uprights, their tops con-
 MEGALITHIC ARCHITECTURE 23

nected by stone lintels held in place by known; although it seems likely that it

cut tenons and sockets. An inner circle was a ceremonial center of religious and
of smaller menhirs paralleled this outer perhaps sacrificial intent. While neither
ring. This circle surrounded five great the menhirs nor the dolmens, nor in fact
separated pairs of almost 25-foot-high Stonehenge, can actually be considered
uprights, with their connecting lintels, architecture, the presence of these con-

set in a horseshoe-shaped ground plan. structions does reveal permanent me-

This plan was repeated by an inner row morials or markers and suggests a ritual
of small menhirs, and within these con- centering around the dead.
centric horseshoe rows was placed a large Aside from its remarkable aesthetic
stone slab, over 16 feet long and 3 feet qualities, Prehistoric art is of further
wide, known as the 'altar/ The purpose value for the insight it permits us into
and significance of Stonehenge are not the thoughts and life of Prehistoric man.
Ill The Pre-Classical Arts

EGYPT

History, as we know it, starts in the otus described Egypt as the gift of the
eastern Mediterranean area along the river. By simplifying existence in many
valley of the Nile, or possibly that of the ways and by complicating it in a few, the
Tigris-Euphrates. Recent archaeology in- Nile stimulated culture as does a hot-
Mesopotamian civilization
dicates that house. Primitive methods of agriculture
may have begun before the Egyptian. sufficed in a soil whose fertility the river
But there is little difference between renewed with layers of silt deposited
these two regions in date, and since from annual inundations. Irrigation by
through large parts of its history Egvpt water wheels or by a device like a well-
was self-contained, one may consider its sweep was essential after the floods had
development first. To be sure, Egyptian subsided, since rain was unknown and
isolation is only comparative. Egyptian one hot cloudless day followed another.
pottery has been found in Crete, and Not only did the Nile water the land and
through trade and war the Nile valley fertilize it, but the river also served as
had some contact with neighboring an avenue for communication and trans-
countries. Nevertheless, though Egypt portation, binding the country together.
partly inspired such other cultures as the The cliffs that flank the valley provided
early Greek, she accepted little in return. stone; if need arose this could be ferried
That civilization should flower early up or down the Nile. Clay, too, was
in the Nile vallev was inevitable. Herod- available foi less permanent buildings,

M
 EGYPT - GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 25

such as houses, and for unimportant the strong rulers of the Middle Kingdom
tomb figures. Satisfactory timber was (2160-1785 b.c.) of the XI and XII
scarce; the palm was not a desirable Dynasties rescued her. Then the feudal
building material. Although at the out- system set up by these kings at Thebes
set the Egyptians relied on reeds of the in turn decayed. The warlike Pharaohs
lotus or the papyrus bundled together of the XVIII Dynasty established the
and matted with when theclay, build- Empire or New Kingdom, as it is some-
ings became monumental the earlier times called (1580-1100 b.c). It grew in
system of construction came to be power through the XIX Dynasty, push-
adapted to stone. ing its conquests into Nubia in the south
These geographical advantages were and into Mesopotamia or the Fertile
balanced by a few difficulties. The floods Crescent to the northeast; these were
of the Nile obliterated landmarks and the Pharaohs who accomplished the
so compelled an early development of bondage of Israel. Though still fairly

surveying to re-establish boundaries. Dis- strong, the XX Dynasty lacked the en-
putes were bound to arise, however, and ergy of its predecessors; its wars were de-
a legal system must have been devised fensive, and it was followed by another
to care for them. During Egypt's long time of weakness and foreign domina-
history of over three thousand years, four tion when the Assyrian warrior kings cap-
periods of strong government rose and tured the land. Finally, the XXVI Dy-
fell, separated by centuries of weakness. nasty formed the Saite period (663-525
These four periods coincide with the b.c), named from its capital at Sais in
times of artistic activity, presumably be- the Nile delta, whose rulers drove out
cause they imposed settled conditions the Semitic invaders and returned to
in which the arts could flourish. During purely Egyptian forms of expression. Still

the third century before Christ, an Egyp- later, the Greek Ptolemies and Rome in

tian priest named Manetho listed the turn ruled Egypt, but the fact that Egyp-
rulers of Egypt according to dynasties, tian art clung to its native character in
therebv providing a convenient chrono- these later centuries as that of no other
logical system. country has ever done to the same ex-
The earliest epoch of strong govern- tent, demonstrated the force of tradition
ment is often called the Old Kingdom, in the Nile valley.
comprising Dynasties III-VI, which flour- On close inspection Egyptian art dif-
ished about 3000-2500 b.c. The power fered slightly in each of these eras of
of the rulers, whose capital was at Mem- history; the sculpture of the Old King-
phis, declined during the VI Dynasty, dom, for example, is realistic when com-
and Egypt subsided into chaos and ar- pared with the conventionality of the
tistic inactivity after the brilliant achieve- Middle Kingdom, or with the elegant or

ments of early sculpture and the building colossal works of the Empire, but such
of the Pyramids, a condition from which sweeping generalizations admit of many
26 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

exceptions. A broader view shows not Christianity; the khu, or spark of divine
divergence but uniformity. The art of no fire; and the body. Immortality required
other country, even over a shorter span the preservation of all four. The ba and
of time, displays such adherence to estab- khu y as spiritual elements, could be sus-

lished forms. tained by prayers and did not profoundly

This continuity was a consequence of affect art. Preservation of the body as

Egyptian social and religious customs. the home of the ka, however, involved
The Pharaoh was the head of the state mummification and, what is still more
both in religion and politics. As priest important, protection of the mummy
and prince, from being the representative from damage. The Egyptians strained
of the god on earth, he was soon to be every nerve to preserve their tombs in-

himself deified, at first after death, and tact since the ka lived there. As the ka
later even while alive. The very name was identical with the deceased, save in

Pharaoh, meaning 'great house,' indi- its lack of substance, the tomb became
cated his sanctity by so oblique a refer- a house for the dead, equipped to sup-
ence to his sacred person. And yet the port life after death and to make it en-
Pharaoh was not free; the priesthood, joyable. Foreseeing the possibility of
whose figurehead he was, controlled him. damage to or disintegration of the
The priests and the nobility would not mummy, the Egyptians placed one or
jeopardize their position by allowing more effigies of its owner within the
change of any kind. Early in their civili- tomb. As substitutes that the ka might
zation, the Egyptians found an expres- inhabit in case the body were destroyed,
sion in art so satisfactory to them that these portrait statues were often made
any change could only be for the worse. in hard materials. Granite might be ex-

It is significant that the one period of pected to outlast wood or limestone, and
experimentation and comparative free- was preferable in that respect, though
dom in Egyptian art occurred during the the difficulty of working granite re-

reign of Ikhnaton in the XVIII Dynasty, stricted its use, and its hardness militated
when the ruler turned from polytheism against realism in portraiture.
to monotheism— a departure from tradi- If the ka could exist in the mummy,
tion that was reversed by the priesthood or in the portrait statues, and live in the
after his death. tomb, it had to be fed. The offerings of
The most important aspect of Egyp- pious descendants supplied this want,
tian religion in its bearing on art was but within a few generations this duty
the nature of its belief in the after life. might be neglected. Since the ka was
Four components were present in every itself immaterial, its food and drink
human being: the ka, or double, a de- could be carved or painted on the walls.
materialized replica of the body, anal- From this, it was but a step to represent
ogous to our conception of a ghost; the food in preparation, its production, and
ba, which approximates the soul in eventually all the activities of life. Thus
 EGYPT - RELIGION, TOMBS 27

the tomb became a picture book of communication from the outside.

Egyptian life. Though often undecorated, this room
Mastabas (fig. 7), the characteristic contains the portrait of the owner, as
tombs of the nobility in the Old King- well as the treasure and utensils to sus-
dom, clustered around the Pyramids at tain the ka in his ethereal existence.
Gizeh, the necropolis of ancient Mem- The only opening in the outer walls
phis. They vary in length from 15 to 170 of the mastaba leads to the chapel where
the living could place offerings for the
dead. On one wall of the chapel a sculp-
tured relief of the owner sometimes
comes through a false door to welcome
his descendants. Perhaps above or to
one side of this door, the owner appears
again, this time at table, partaking of
the offering. Scenes in paint or low re-

lief cover the other walls, and show the

L activities of the owner, and his wife, his

7. Typical mastabas.
children, his servants, his ox, and his
ass, and everything that is his. Through
feet, from 10 to 30 feet in height. These these decorations, the ka could enjoy in
simple rectangular buildings are oriented; death what he had possessed in life.

that is, laid out according to compass The colossal pyramids are royal tombs.
directions. The sides face north, east, Whatever their origin, whether in a

south, and west. The outer walls are not mound of stones or in a superposition of
vertical, but slope inward in the form mastabas, they are the outstanding mon-
called a batter. Such a battered wall is uments of the Old Kingdom. The largest,

more stable than a vertical one, and was those at Gizeh (fig. 8), are the sepul-
adopted no doubt because it promised chers of the IV Dynasty Pharaohs. So
greater permanence. From the top of precisely were they oriented that one
the mastaba, a shaft descends through might see Polaris from any point in the
the mass into the rock below, leading to long and narrow entrance passage, which
the burial chamber where the sarcoph- led in turn through other passages too
agus is placed. This shaft, which in complex to describe in detail to the
some examples is more than 100 feet burial chamber in the center of the mass.
deep, is filled with rubble after the coffin After interment, the blocks of stone
receives its mummy and the opening is slipped into these passages completely
sealed to disguise it as part of the roof. cut off the interior from the outside
Little of value is interred with the body. world. Where the entrance had been
A second chamber, called the serdab, was concealed with the utmost care. It
also is embedded in the mass without was all to no avail. Entrance to the pyra-
28 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

8. Pyramids and Sphinx, Gizeh (c. 2700-2600 B.C.) Limestone, pyramid height originally 479';
breadth 767'; sphinx total height, 66'.
J
mids was forced even in antiquity. Since and direct such an army of laborers
the pyramids were closed, the chapel had argues organizing ability of a high order.
to be separate, and thus developed an These pyramids have always captured
independent existence. man's imagination. Although today we
The pyramids are composed of large see them composed of flights of colossal
blocks of stone cut with metal tools, and steps, these steps were sheathed with a
heaped step upon step to the apex. In smooth coating of limestone, the face of
proportion of width at the base to each forming one unbroken plane. This
height, they are almost precisely 11 to 7, strict adherence to geometry appeals to
which suggests that these numbers had man's sense of organization, just as does
special significance even at that time. So a crystal ball; nothing detracts from the
huge an undertaking— the base of the unity. But a small model, capable of
Great Pyramid of Khufu is about 750 resting on the hand, may be equally com-
feet square— presupposes an army of plete without stimulating awe. Surely it

slaves acting under the king's foremen. is the size of this simple form that makes
It has been calculated that ten thousand it imposing. We measure ourselves
men must have worked on them for against it and feel overwhelmed.
twenty years. To support, administer, The shape of the pyramid is appro-
 EGYPT - PYRAMIDS 29

priate. Except perhaps for the cone, a access to the chapel. Its columns, like
pyramid is the most stable of geometric those within, are not constructed, but
forms. Its immobility of mass is the es- allowed to remain when the surrounding
sence of permanence; it comes as near to rock is cut away. The functions of the
being eternal as any man-made object serdab seem to have been combined with
can. Not without reason have the Pyra- those of the chapel, forming a niche or
mids come to be associated with change- sanctuary in it. A shaft to the burial
lessness. chamber might be cut through the
The cost in labor of the Pyramids for- chapel floor, or into the cliff from in
bade their being undertaken on so im- front of the portico.
posing a scale by any but powerful mon- By the Empire period, it had become
archs. The Middle Kingdom abandoned obvious that no strength of blocked pas-
them in favor of the shallow rock-cut sages within a tomb would avail to ex-
tombs in the cliffs along the Nile valley. clude thieves. The visibility of the tomb
The best preserved are at Beni Hasan. advertised the treasure concealed within,
Here a small colonnaded portico gives and the challenge was accepted by rob-

9. Temple of the Sphinx, Gizeh (c. 2700-2600 B.C.) Granite, monoliths i3'6" high.
3° THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

bers of Egyptian days despite severe laws order to light the interior, its architect
against desecration. Yielding to neces- invented the clearstory, an architectural
sity, the Pharaohs of the Empire period, device that reached its apogee thousands
who dug their tombs in the Valley of the of years later in the Christian church.
Kings near Thebes, sacrificed the pres- The roof over the central aisle was raised
tige of a visible tomb to security. They above the side aisles to allow space for
chose to tunnel a shaft into the foot of small windows that admit shafts of light
the cliffs. The existence of the tomb it- to the interior.

self was concealed by broken stone, such While the Temple of the Sphinx is
as might have fallen from the cliffs. The exceptional, the Temple of Khonsu at
tomb of Tutankhamen remained intact Karnak (fig. 10), from the Empire pe-
until the twentieth century of our era,
having defied searchers for more than
three thousand years. The corridor-like ?f»

shaft, sometimes more than 400 feet

long, led to one or more decorated cham-
bers, furnished with models of all that
the soul could desire. Although these
deep, rock-cut tombs add another step
in the development of sepulchral design,
and although the treasures of Egyptian Vfc$t$$\
art preserved in them are invaluable, as
10. Temple of Khonsu, Karnak (c. 1200 b.c.)
architecture they are negligible. To elab- Limestone, c. 225' x 105'.
orate an architectural setting not to be
seen by a living eye would be absurd, at riod, illustrates the normal elements of
least to the modern mind. By this time the Egyptian temple. An avenue lined
the chapel was completely divorced from with sphinxes introduces the axis along
the tomb and was placed near the river. which the principal units follow. The
However much their decoration tells first part of the temple proper is the
us of Egyptian life, the tombs as archi- pylon, a monumental gateway composed
tecture do not compare with the Egyp- of two tall masses of masonry flanking a
tian temples. One of the earliest pre- door. The Pharaoh who finished the
served is the IV Dynasty Temple of the building placed his obelisks and statues
Sphinx at Gizeh 9), which is con-
(fig. to either side in front of the pylon, which
nected with the pyramid of Khafra by was further enlivened by flagpoles set in
a covered causeway. Exceptional in plan narrow grooves. Behind the pylon is the
and in severity of design, its granite peristyle, an open court bounded by col-

monoliths support plain granite beams, onnades on three or four sides. This
impressive through their austerity and leads to the hypostyle hall, where files of
their reliance on beauty of material. In columns support a roof. The last prin-
 EGYPT - TEMPLES 3
1

cipal component of the plan, the sanc- inevitable in this rainless climate. The
tuary, lies behind the hall. hypostyle hall in the great Temple of
These four elements, pylon, peristyle, Amon Ra at Karnak (fig. 12), in the
hypostyle, and sanctuary illustrate se- XIX Dynasty, is too large to be even
quence of composition. The top or roof dimly lighted from the peristyle. This re-

of each part becomes lower from the quired a clearstory taller than the tenta-
entrance to the sanctuary. In answering tive one in the Temple of the Sphinx.
movement, the hvpostyle floor is a few Some of the most characteristic Egyp-
steps above that of the peristyle, the tian forms seem to recollect primitive
sanctuary a step above the hypostyle. construction in mud reinforced by lotus
The height of each unit, therefore, less- or papyrus reeds. If a clay wall were
ens as one proceeds. Moreover, though strengthened with a surface of vertical
the open peristyle is brilliantly lighted, reeds, these stems would have to be
the hypostyle hall gets its light only anchored to the wall near its top. A
through the door leading from the peri- horizontal bundle of reeds could effect
style, and is dark in consequence, while this. In time the weight of clay might
the sanctuary, lighted only from the bend outward the tips of the reeds above
hypostyle, is still darker. This progres- the anchor. Perhaps this accounts for
sive darkening must have enhanced the the typical Egyptian cornice over the
mystery associated with the abode of the door of the Temple of Horus at Edfu
god. The mystery was further increased (fig. 11), which curves outward in a

by the fact that the laity had access only quarter circle above a small round
to the peristyle and hypostyle, whereas molding.
the sanctuary was reserved for the con- The whose earliest
clustered column,

secrated priests of the god and, of course, examples date from the Old Kingdom,
the Pharaoh as the head of the state looks like a bundle of lotus or papyrus
religion. Thus the people could see but stems strapped together just below the
dimly the ritual performed by the awe- capital.These plant forms no doubt
some white-robed priests within. sheathed a core of clay. The Empire pe-
The visual stability of the battered riod sometimes smoothed over the sur-

walls of the pvlon, like the same device faces of the separate reeds but retained

in the mastaba, reveals again the Egyp- to the end the horizontal band under
tian craving for permanence that we the capital (fig. 12). Moreover, whether

have already noticed in the pyramid. clustered or round, the column bulges

Pier and lintel construction is almost slightly outward just above the base, and
universal, because of its stability and is enriched by painted leaves, like the

simplicity. Though the arch is known, its stems of certain plants just above the
dynamic forces are contrary to the Egyp- roots. The proportions of these columns

tian genius and it is therefore restricted were adapted to stone when that ma-
to utilitarian structures. The flat roof is terial came into use.
3
2 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

-^to*

11. Temple of Horus, Edfu (237-212 b.c.) Pylon c. 250' wide x c. 145' high.

The capital is that part of the column zontal beam above. The campaniform
above the shaft. Three types of Egyptian capital does this well, but the presence
capitals derive from buds, flowers, or of a tall block above it interrupts this
leaves. The
first is shaped like closed transition. In the bud capital, no at-

buds above the several stems of clustered tempt at all is made to perform this func-
shafts, or as a single bud when the shaft tion; on the contrary, its constricting
is round. In either case, sepals are lines accentuate the change from vertical
painted on it. The open flower of the to horizontal, so that the beam appears
lotus inspires the second, or campani- to be impaled on the shaft. The struc-
form, capital, like an inverted bell dec- tural purpose of the capital is to provide
orated with petals and sepals. The third a larger surface than the top of the shaft
type with leaves curling out from its to support the ends of beams. Here again
surface is usually later. These types are the bud capital, whose bearing surface
not wholly satisfactory in either structure may be smaller in diameter than the
or design. The aesthetic purpose of a shaft, fails, and although the campani-
capital is to afford a transition for the form capital and the similar palm-leaf
eye from the vertical shaft to the hori- type may seem to be satisfactory, their
 EGYPT - TEMPLES 33

thin rims are too fragile to give even the bottom of the columns luxuriant plants
appearance of adequate support. Thus flourish in low relief, birds flutter above
neither the bell nor the bud types, the them, and gold stars sparkle on a blue
commonest forms of Egyptian capital, ceiling. Prayers in hieroglyphics and
can be judged as entirely successful, representations of ceremonial enrich the
though the bell shape is the better one. sanctuary and the rooms around it,

The Egyptian temple was always which Egyptologists believe were de-
adorned with sculpture and painting, signed to house the equipment and treas-
sometimes so richly as to lose the value ure of the temple.
of contrast. For example, the Temple This type of temple constitutes the
of Horus at Edfu (fig. n) of Ptolemaic bulk of Egyptian architecture. In the
times shows the walls of the pylon cov- hemi-speos temple, illustrated by the
ered with low-relief sculpture. This de- Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut
picts the prowess of the king capturing of the XVIII Dynasty at Deir-el-Bahari,

and slaying his enemies. The Pharaoh the sanctuary and hypostyle are en-
is drawn at larger scale than the others tombed in the rock, but the open courts,
to emphasize his superiority. Similar corresponding to the peristyles in con-
scenes line the walls of the peristyle in structed temples, rise one above another
Egyptian temples, but in the hypostyle as terraces. Here we may see employed
hall the action is less violent. This cham- the sixteen-sided shaft. It was developed
ber is conceived as a microcosm of the by cutting off the corners of square piers,
world; around the lower walls and at the such as those in the Temple of the

W^%S^'''
^^
'
mmgm
:::.

"•^ •ill;
: 1 1 ]
,jtJ I

'
r
"

LJ .IIP ll li
i ii
12. Hypostyle Hall, Temple of Anion Ra, Karnak (c. ;oo B.C.) Model, Metropolitan Museum,
New York. Central columns 69' high, 12' diameter.
34 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

Sphinx, and then again cutting the cor- chitecture and its instinct for geometric
ners. The repeated vertical lines so pro- mass endow it with an imposing but
duced dramatize the idea of support, of austere character, as in the pyramids,
upward or downward movement in the even if it lacks the clarity, delicacy, and
column; and the simplicity of the courts sophistication of the Greek, or the com-
surrounded by such shafts commands a plex organization of the Roman. Though
respect that is hardly attained in the some of its forms, like the clustered col-
sumptuous architecture of the usual umn and the bud capital, derive from
temple. plants, the forms themselves are well
In the speos temples, such as that of adapted to the stone medium, while
Rameses II of the XIX Dynasty at Abu other units, such as the pylons, are con-
Simbel (fig. 13), not only are the sanc- ceived in stone, with a monumentality
tuary and hypostyle cut out of the living rarely equaled and never surpassed by
rock, but the peristyle is also. The ar- later civilizations. In the smaller tem-
rangement and the architectural vocabu- ples, organization dominates the ordered
lary are not substantially different from sequence of one element after another.
those already discussed. Carved figures However, in some of Egypt's greatest
of Osiris, god of the underworld, stand buildings, the Pharaohs sacrificed unity
before and in part supplant the piers to their desire to outstrip their prede-
within the temple, but this somewhat cessors in size, by adding to a plan al-
exceptional motive is known in normal ready complete in itself other hypostyle
temples. Externally, the only visible unit halls, other peristyles, and especially
is the pylon, with its gigantic guardian other pylons. The largest temples, those
statues, cut from the face of the cliff. of Karnak and Luxor, are the worst of-

The human craving for permanence, fenders; in consequence, they seem to

more pronounced in Egypt than else- sprawl. Finally, the inordinate love of
where, is confined to Egypt's religious decoration defeats one of its important
architecture. The immortality of the functions: if decoration be for accent,
gods dictated this need in their homes, too much of it results in equal emphasis
while a belief in the after life, immeas- everywhere, leaving an accent nowhere.
urably longer than man's sojourn on Naturally the same religious factors
earth, called for a similar timelessness mold Egyptian sculpture that play so
in the tomb. Houses for the living, even large a part in shaping the architecture.
the royal palace, need be no more than It is customary to speak of Egyptian
temporary. Mud brick sufficed for them, sculpture of the Old Kingdom as real-
and as a consequence they have van- istic, or of the Middle Kingdom as con-

ished, though the type and method of ventional, but one must realize at the
construction have affected Egyptian outset that these terms are relative. If
building. by realism we understand an attempt to
At its best, the scale of Egyptian ar- reproduce nature, and by conventional-
 EGYPT - SCULPTURE
35

13. Temple of Rameses II, Abu Simbel (1257 B.C.) Facade 119' wide, colossi 65' high.

ism a willingness to accept certain Pharaoh Khafra of the IV Dynasty, with

shapes as symbolical or typical of natural whose pyramid the Sphinx is connected.
forms, then we must admit that the Or again, in the colossi of Rameses II
most realistic Egyptian statue is conven- at Abu Simbel (fig. 13) from the Em-
tional when compared with a Roman pire period,about 65 feet high, the
portrait (fig. 76). Moreover, statues of effectiveness results from their enormous
Pharaohs are usually idealized; that is, scale. Size in itself may not ensure per-
their individuality is minimized and manence but at least it suggests it. The
their features carved in general terms to selection of obdurate materials, how-
suggest their power and immortality. ever, is a moreeffective way of assuring
Certain traits persist from dynasty to durability. Though such soft media as
dynasty. The desire for permanence dic- limestone and sandstone, and even wood,
tates the choice of materials and the are employed, the harder stones like
dimensions of the sculpture. The love of granite, basalt, and diorite are common
size, apparent in the Pyramids, is obvi- in Egyptian sculpture, in spite of the
ous in the Sphinx (fig. 8). This mon- difficulties involved in working them.
ster's head, with an ear larger than a The use of an effigy as a substitute for
man, is an idealized portrait of the the body, in case it should be destroyed,
36 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

created a demand for portraits. This re- the inlaid eyes are colored white with a

quired a moderate realism, most pro- black pupil and iris, to enhance the
nounced in the Old Kingdom, where it effect of life.

appears especially in the heads. How- The Seated Scribe belongs to the serv-
ever, such realism is apt to be present ant class. On the other hand, Ranefer
in inverse ratio to the social position (fig. 16) in the V Dynasty represents
of the subject. The Seated Scribe (fig. the dominant priesthood. His pose, the

14) from the Old Kingdom, now in the commonest in Egyptian sculpture, shows
him walking, the left foot forward, the
weight evenly distributed between the
feet, the axis of the body erect. While
some concern for the details of nature

is obvious in the articulated toes and

knees, and in a few indications of the
torso, nevertheless, the treatment of the
sharp shin, narrow hips, broad shoulders,
and the absence of much anatomical
detail prove that for such a person a
generalized appearance was preferred.
By this stately pose, and above all by
the head, the artist has portrayed a per-
son independent and accustomed to
command. Ranefer at once depicts an
individual and the class to which he be-
longs. We must regard some of the con-
ventions as expressions of the material.
For instance, the slab at his back not
14. Seated Scribe (c. 2500 b.c.) Louvre, Paris.
Limestone, painted red, 21" high.
only strengthens the statue but preserves
the cubic form of the block of stone
Louvre, betrays his sedentary occupa- from which the figure was hewn. The
tion by the rolls of flesh on his torso. In body follows the original limits of this
naive fashion, his toes appear to have block; the shoulders extend as far as
sunk into the limestone block so that they may, the arms hang vertical, and
only three are visible. But in the head, therefore the hips are small to permit
the artist displays his power of observa- room for the arms within the prism of
tion. He records the bony structure of stone.
the skull; the eyes and mouth reveal the If statues of the lower classes are
scribe's close attention to the dictation carved with moderate realism, those of
of his master. As on most Egyptian the Pharaohs, because of their semi-
statues, the male flesh is painted red, divine character, are idealized. The
 ^
EGYPT - SCULPTURE 37

, round appear monotonous. This uni-

formity results in part from the limited
number of types the sculptor was al-

lowed to develop. The most common

is the standing or walking type with one
foot forward. The figure may also sit on
a block, or cross-legged on the floor, or
more rarely kneel on both knees. Beyond
these possibilities the sculptor seldom
experimented. This repetition of pose is

the more pronounced since all these at-

titudes approximate a cubic form and
respect the law of frontality: that is,

a rigid verticality of the body with no

deviation of its axis from side to side, no
bending of the body, and but little ani-

15. Khafra, detail, from the Temple of the mation. These types, established at the
Sphinx (c. 2700-2600 b.c.) National Museum,
Cairo. Diorite, complete figure 5'6" high. dawn of Egyptian history, remain un-
changed through its dusk, three thou-
regular features and absence of individu- sand years later. But tradition enforced
ality create an ideal or even god-like uniformity in Egypt in other ways. A
personage in the diorite Khafra (fig. 15). comparison of the Ranefer (fig. 16) and
No later age has ever surpassed the maj- the colossi of Rameses II (fig. 13) is

esty and serenity of this five thousand- illuminating here. There is convention
year-old masterpiece. It is outstanding in both, but in the former the narrow
for its related masses, its sculpturesque hips, sharp shins, and simplified forms
repose, its feeling for the material, and may be deliberate, so largely do they en-
its detail selected with an eye to expres- hance the design. In the latter, the legs
sive and decorative value more than for and arms, the puffy cheeks, the phara-
representation, though that also is served onic headdress seem perfunctory. Ab-
to some extent. The simplified forms sorbed by the scale at which he is

may be due in part to the material, but working, the sculptor is content with
it seems probable that the idealization these conventions because by the XIX
is an attribute of the royal sitter, and Dynasty they have been sanctioned by
therefore deliberate. age-old custom.
In spite of occasional masterpieces, Although tradition plays a large role
such as the seated Khafra or the Ranefer, in sculpture in the round, it is even
and in spite of the simplification and more obvious in sculpture in relief or in

feeling for the material, any consider- painting, two modes of expression that
able number of Egyptian figures in the in Egypt are basically one, since the re-
38 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

and cheapest method, scratch relief, en-

graves the outlines of its figures but
makes no attempt to model them within
the limits of that outline.
The exquisite bas-relief of Seti I Offer-
ing to Osiris (fig. 17), from the XIX
Dynasty, in his mortuary temple at
Abydos, shows the same subtlety of de-
tail as does the figure of Khafra. No
amount of convention can destroy the
delicacy of the planes that indicate the
light garment worn by the Pharaoh, the
bodily forms seen through it, or the ele-
gance resulting from these refinements.
Such a relief bespeaks a sculptor of real
sophistication, sensitive to the decora-
tive possibilities of line and of subtle
changes of surface.
Such reliefs as this adorned the tem-
ple walls and the chapels in tombs. As
we have seen, these reliefs were practical
in purpose, to record and glorify the ex-

ploits of the kings, to depict religious

practices, or to perpetuate by representa-

tion human activities necessary to the

16. Ranefer (c. 2500 b.c.) Cairo Museum. life hereafter. As such, they become
Limestone, painted red, 5'n" high. pictographs whose legibility is of cardi-
nal importance. Their over-abundance
lief is almost flat and was regularly as decoration is due to this purpose: the
painted. Indeed, painting was a hand- more recorded, the better. The Egyptian
maid to relief sculpture, or a cheap sub- distaste for blank walls is to be ex-

stitute for it. Three methods were in plained by their desire to tell as much as
common use. The first, low or bas-relief possible; they often added hieroglyphics
proper, consists of figures carved with a to whatever spaces were not filled by
slight projection from the background. figures or other represented objects. To
In sunk relief, the figures are also mod- this need for exposition, aesthetic con-
eled but the surrounding background is siderations were subordinated.
not cut back to allow them to project; Many of the conventions of Egyptian
consequently each object is embedded reliefs are also traceable to this cause.
behind the surfaces around it. The third The peculiar angularity of the figures re-
 EGYPT - SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 39

suits from each part being drawn in its

most easily recognizable shape, its most

characteristic attitude. The feet are
drawn in profile (Plate I, facing p. 268),
regardless of the pose of the figure. It is >l
easier to achieve a shape that will be
immediately recognized as a foot when
drawn in profile than when drawn from
the front, from which point of view the
foot would have to be foreshortened or
rendered in perspective. That Seti I (fig.

17) has two right feet did not bother his

sculptor so long as the feet were read-
able, nor need it bother us. The profile

view is maintained from the feet through

the hips, but at the waist the body half
turns so that the shoulders are repre-
sented facing front, again because they
are readily identifiable in that position.
For the same reason, the head is in pro-

file, but the eye in full front. Thus, the

figure consists of an alternation of the
facing and profile positions, each de- 17. Seti I Offering to Osiris, Abydos (c. 1300
b.c.) Limestone.
signed to be legible, even if the result
seems incongruous to eyes conditioned or the varied tones of birds, animals,
by realistic painting. trees, and water. It is a primitive method,
Such figures, and indeed all objects in naive, but clear through its conventions.
the scene, are painted in a few standard Certain other arbitrary devices must
tones, laid on in flat washes; that is, also be described. An obvious way of
within an outline no change of color or emphasizing one figure in a group is to
value occurs. We must not expect shad- enlarge that figure. The owner may be
ows in Egyptian painting. This method several times as large as his servants.
is known as line and flat tone. The avail- Often the husband is drawn at a bigger
able palette was simple, too. A brick- scale than his wife; for example, the
red tone distinguishes the flesh of men; queen of Rameses II at Abu Simbel
ochre-yellow of women. Hair and the (fig. 13) stands between his legs. Of
pupil and iris of the eye are black, course, the smaller size of subordinates
though the ball of the eye is white. permits a greater number of them within
These tones, with green, blue, and a few any area. Rather than break up the wall
others, may depict details of necklaces into separate scenes, the Egyptian artist
4° THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

treats his minor figures in bands, allow- swimming in the blue water. Or it may
ing one incident to carry over into the be represented as though seen from
next with nothing like a frame to sepa- above— fundamentally the same profile

rate them. A further result of the small full-front device used in figures. Thus,
size of minor characters is that several we see a lake as though from the air,

bands of them are possible, one above but the trees on its banks and even the
another. A modern painter, by applying figures within the pond are drawn from
perspective, may arrange one action be- the side. Finally, in the details of na-
hind another with the plane of the ture, the artist reduces many things to
ground receding into the distance. The patterns: the lotus or papyrus stems in
Egyptian painter, without perspective, a marsh, or the zigzag lines on a blue
draws a single line to represent the background to indicate water.
ground, scatters his figures along it, and The bulk of Egyptian decoration con-
then repeats another ground line above sists of these formulas, established early
their heads. and followed by generation after genera-
These conventions negate any illusion tion of artists. Rigid though they are, a
of space. In perspective, a larger figure wide variety of action can be indicated
may appear to be closer to us than within them. Indeed they form a script
smaller ones, but this is not so when less limited in its possibilities of expres-
both sizes stand on a single ground line.
sion than many languages. Moreover,
Then they all appear to be in one plane, was imposed on the
this conventionality
that of the wall. Only when one form unreasonable
artist by his patrons; it is
overlaps another do we have any indica-
through
to suppose that he adhered to it
tion of its relative position in space.
inability to observe nature. Convention
Perhaps as something intangible, the
is more pronounced in the human fig-
Egyptian painter was indifferent to
ure than in other objects, where we may
space. The absence of perspective has
suppose conservatism was less necessary
several other consequences. If a number
to preserve the status quo. Even in the
of persons are engaged in the same ac-
figure, there are some departures from
tion, or if more than one identical object
the norm. Semitic captives are distin-
is to be recorded, instead of representing
guished from Egyptians not only by
each one behind the other, the artist

draws one of them in the required pos- their costumes, but by their bearded
faces and prominent noses; Nubians, by
ture, and then repeats the front half of
his outline as often as may be necessary. their color and their negroid features.

This serves well for things that stand on Rarely the profile full-front tradition is

the ground, but what of things that par- abandoned; for example, a painting of
allel the plane of the ground? Two solu- dancing girls and the musicians who
tions are possible. A lake or a river may play for them is a clear attempt at nat-
be painted in cross section with fish uralism, created during the reign of
 MESOPOTAMIA 41

lkhnaton, when the power of priestly gled with each other for survival, and
conservatism was momentarily broken. also with the Semitic Akkadians, who
A genuine love of nature impels the conquered them about 2750 b.c, but
painter to observe and record some of through the rest of the millennium
her minutiae. If papyrus in a swamp the balance of power in Babylonia
tends to become a pattern, its details are shifted backand forth between Semitic
precise. The famous Geese from Medum, and non-Semitic tribes. During the sec-
a masterpiece dating from the Old King- ond millennium, the Semitic Assyrians
dom, repeats the colors and outlines of were slowly rising to power and laying
those fowls with great fidelity; the shrike the foundations for their empire, which
and other birds on the walls of the tomb flourished under strong rulers from the
of Khnumhotep at Beni Hasan, from ninth to the seventh centuries. Finally,
the Middle Kingdom, are no mere sym- at the end of the seventh century, the
bols; they are readily identifiable. In Assyrian capital at Nineveh was utterly
part, this naturalism may be attributed destroyed by the Chaldeans from Baby-
to the artist's desire to make them rec- lonia, who were themselves in the next
ognizable for what they are, but in any century to fall before the might of
case he has not reduced them to a for- Persia. The Fertile Crescent gave birth

mula. to three of the great faiths of the

Many Egyptian reliefs and paintings, world— Judaism, Christianity, and Mo-
despite their conventions, are interesting hammedanism. Our system of chronol-
for the same reason that the figurines ogy and the source of astronomy are
once buried in the tombs but now dis- traceable to Mesopotamia; its cuneiform
played in museums arouse the curiosity writing, by means of wedge-shaped
of visitors. They provide a panorama of marks, evolved into an alphabet that
a rich and varied culture, and bring us served as the origin of all Western writ-

close to the very existence of the past. ten languages.

Whereas Egyptian architecture at its
MESOPOTAMIA outset was hampered by a lack of timber
Like the Egyptian civilization, that of suitable for building, the lower part of
Mesopotamia began in the fourth mil- the Tigris-Euphrates valley provided
lennium before Christ. Born in the neither wood nor stone. These materials
Tigris-Euphrates valley, it spread through had to be brought from a distance; on
the whole of the Fertile Crescent, which the other hand, clay pits abounded.
bounds the deserts of Arabia on the Consequently an architecture in brick
north and west. Bv 3000 b.c, the non- developed. The relative absence of stone
Semitic Sumerian tribes were already hampered sculpture even more, since
settled in city kingdoms, and had begun although clay is easily modeled, its

to make the contributions of this region products are neither monumental nor
to civilization. These kingdoms strug- durable. Thus, the corpus of Mesopo-
 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

tamian art is limited compared to that scribes the city walls at Agbatana, which

of Egypt. was inspired by the Mesopotamian cul-

Like the Egyptians, the Sumerians be- ture, as having the battlements colored
lieved in a life after death, but in their white, black, scarlet, blue, orange, silver,

religion the after life did not depend on and gold in that order, a sequence of
the preservation of the body, or on the tones rising to a climax of brilliance.
sustenance of the spirit by physical ob- Because of their material, these zig-

jects or representations of them. Since gurats have disintegrated into mounds

the religious motive, which in Egypt of clay, but they must have had a garish
had demanded an illustration of exist- audacity in antiquity. However, it seems
ence, was absent, we find no such total doubtful that they could ever have
record of life here as we did in the Nile rivaled the pyramids in grandeur. For
valley. In its place, the artists celebrate one thing, the material lacks the impli-
the king and his exploits in hunting and cation of permanence that stone gives
warfare; the more so since most of the us; for another, the stepped form has
sculpture preserved to us appears to have not the austerity of the Egyptian geo-
been executed at the royal command. metric monuments.
Divinities are represented either as pro- The palaces of the Assyrian kings
tectors of the king or as worshiped by were both military and domestic in pur-
him. pose. The huge platform, which at
One consequence of the difference of Khorsabad served as a bastion in the
religion from that of Egypt is that the city fortifications, raised the palace 60
tomb ceases to be an architectural prob-
lem. In its place is the palace; and of
course the temple, or at least the temple
tower, is prominent. The latter, a fea-
ture of the Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad
(fig. 19) built during the eighth century
B.C., in mass is like the Egyptian pyramid.
Here was only part of the palace
it

chapel, but in large independent exam-

ples, the temple consisted of six or
seven stages, whose vertical faces were
laced by ramps that gave access to the
shrine of the god on the top. This tower,
called a ziggurat, was exactly oriented
with its angles pointing to the cardinal
points of the compass. Built of unbaked
brick, perhaps faced with glazed brick,
18. Palace of Sargon, Khorsabad ( 722-70:
each section was colored. Herodotus de-
B.C.) IO50' wide x 1140' deep.
 MESOPOTAMIAN ARCHITECTURE
43

BHHHN^ **"-"" . _ .... ..... _J

19. Palace of Sargon, Khorsabad (722-705 b.c ) Front, c. 1050' long.

feet above the level of the city (fig. 19). Khorsabad (fig. 18) consists of several
The task involved in building this mass courts surrounded by long and narrow
of brick, 1140 by 1050 feet in dimen- rooms. One large court formed the nu-
sions, staggers the imagination, and cleus of the service quarters; another,
could only have been accomplished by the men's portion, accommodated the
slave labor, the unwilling service of war king and his retainers; and a third cor-
captives. To void any moisture that responded to the harem. The presence
might find its way into this pile, it was of a ziggurat indicates that a temple was
honeycombed with drains. These were incorporated in the palace complex, like
arched to carry the weight above them. the chapels of medieval fortresses. The
In the absence of other materials, brick multiplicity of chambers and courts of-

was also employed for the single-story fered opportunities in design, which
palace. Probably the roof was used as a were only partly seized. In so far as the
terrace in the cool of the evening, as it courts expressed the purposes of the
certainly was in Palestine at the other palace, we may characterize the design
end of the Fertile Crescent. Several as functional. It is less successful in the
Biblical incidents, such as the story of lack of relation between the parts, and
David and Bathsheba, refer to this use the seemingly indiscriminate location of
of the roof. the rooms around the courts. The units
The plan of the Palace of Sargon at of the Egyptian temple were related to
 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS
44
one another; the rooms here are not. ing provided a further reason for the

However, before we condemn these solid walls.

builders, let us remember two things. The description of such a palace

With their knowledge of the purposes sounds forbidding, but textile hangings
of these parts, they may have had more and carpets, sumptuous in color, miti-

reason for this apparent disorder than gated the severity of the interior. That
we can guess. Secondly, the problem part of the world has always been famous
they were facing was more complex for its rugs. Indeed, the slab that paved
than that offered in the Egyptian, or the entrance to the Palace of Sen-
for that matter the Greek, temple. nacherib at Kouyunjik was carved with a

The narrow shape of the rooms re- pattern derived from rugs, but trans-
sults from the material and the system muted into stone because of the wear to

of construction it imposed. Sunbaked be expecred in this location. Also brick,

brick is not strong; it does not lend itself glazed and painted with patterns or fig-

to a columnar system, like that of the ures or animal designs, accented door-

Egyptians, although remains show that ways and other important features. But
brick columns were employed in rare sculpture provided the most interesting

cases. Instead, it suggests thick walls

decoration. Monsters carved in stone

with as few openings as possible: pre- guarded the portals, while friezes or

cisely what we bands of sculpture in low relief adorned

see in this plan. Still
the interiors and recounted the prowess
more important, since a brick is too
small to serve as a beam, and since the
of the monarch in arms or in the hunt.

As in Egypt, so in Mesopotamia the

region provided no adequate timber
early sculpture displayed a degree of
nearer than the cedars of Lebanon, the
realism absent in later work. The frag-
Mesopotamian builders were compelled
mentary figures from Tello, carved in
to develop the arch and vault as a means
the twenty-fourth century B.C., especially
of covering space. The drains in the
that of Gudea, Patesi of Lagash (fig.
platform show that several forms of
20), are the best known. Whether
vault were known. It seems certain that
standing or seated with the hands folded
the long narrow rooms were so planned
in deference, these statues adhere to the
partly to facilitate covering them with law of frontality as do the Egyptian.
semicylindrical, or barrel, vaults. No One consideration, not present in Egypt,
doubt some, if not all, of the square hampered any tendency the sculptor
chambers were domed. These vaults may have had toward anatomical real-
might have been visible externally, but ism: Egyptian men were clad only in a
the evidence indicates that the roof loin cloth; both sexes in Babylonia and
above them was generally level, with a Assyria encased their bodies in robes of
solid filling of brick or clay between the heavy stuffs. The cylindrical mass pro-
vaults. The weight of this form of roof- duced by these garments adds to the
 MESOPOTAMIAN SCULPTURE
45

20. Gudea, Patesi of Lagash (c. 2400 b.c.) Louvre, Paris. Diorite, 30" high.

sense of weight and of simplified form form. That these artists were capable of
to produce a sculpturesque result. Never- observation and considered some accu-
theless, the garment blocks the sculp- racy of anatomy worthy of attention ap-
tor's opportunity to study the human pears in those parts of the body that
46 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

remained unclothed. The joints of the the slab is carved at one end as well as
toes, the toenails, and the sinews of the on the side. Because of their architec-
foot are emphasized. The fleshy arms tural position, they are carved in the
are fully muscled, and the bony struc- three-quarter round. These curiosities

ture of the head, missing in this exam- have the body and feet of a lion, or
ple, is clearly perceived. For details, sometimes of a bull, the wings of a
patterns replace realism, a phenomenon bird, and a human head crowned with
common in the early stages of art in the horned headdress peculiar to deities
many countries. The heavy eyebrows, a in Mesopotamia. The primitive love of
racial trait, form a herringbone design pattern comes out here, not only in the
of lines engraved in the stone; the hair hair and eyes, but in the pattern-like
is reduced to a formula; and fringes of treatment of the feathers that form the
drapery are also abstract. Nonetheless, wings, and in a diagrammatic indication
the squat proportions, large heads, and of the muscles. One naive detail results
simplification endow these statues with from their being viewed from the
a sculptural feeling that almost rivals front as well as from the side. As one
the best of Egyptian work. approaches the entrance the monsters
In later Assyrian times, examples of appear to be standing still, their weight
sculpture in the round are even less carried on the two forelegs, while from
common. The incipient realism of the within the portal they seem to be walk-
Gudea disappears in the ninth-century ing, with all four legs visible; conse-
Ashur-nasir-pal, in the British Museum. quently they have five legs in all, one of
Cut from a thin slab of stone, the linear the front legs being represented twice.
conventions are more pronounced. Rows These creatures form monumental ac-

of artificial curls alternating with zigzag cents in the architectural ensemble, and
bands portray a formal beard. Heavy their sculpturesque masses which par-
eyebrows join over the root of a Semitic allel the original planes of the block of
nose. Ringed ridges accentuate the bulg- stone give them an artistic integrity
ing eyes of the figure. Robes cover the worthy of their prominent position in
body from shoulders to toes, and their the palace.
pattern-like details absorb the sculptor's But the largest body of Assyrian sculp-
attention. The artistic impetus of the ture consists of friezes in low relief,

early phases of Mesopotamian art has which lined the lower part of the walls
faded into formalism. in the important rooms of Mesopo-
One peculiar conception is illustrated tamian palaces. The sculptor faced the
by the creatures who guard the entrance same problem here as did the Egyptian
to the Assyrian palaces. These are not sculptor, and some of the conventions
cut in the round, since they do not stand are the same, though modified by the
free of the wall, nor are they in relief traditions of the region. As in Egypt, a
in the ordinary sense of that term, since series of wavy lines represents water.
 MESOPOTAMIAN SCULPTURE
47

21. Ashur-nasir-pal Storming a City, from Palace at Nimrud (884-859 B.C.) British Museum,
London. Height of frieze, 3'.

The slab of Ashur-nasir-pal Storming a gates of their own city or to enter its
City (fig. 21), of the ninth century, buildings. If this discrepancy in size

and drapery in the usual

treats the hair occurred only in the king or in the
Assyrian manner, but tends, as in Egypt, Assyrian soldiers, one might conclude
to alternate full-front and profile aspects that the artist imagined them to be
for the several parts of the body. The nearer to the observer, and therefore
eye, for example, is rendered full front that their size was an indication of dis-
in a profile head; the legs are in profile, tance, but the soldiers within the walls
but the shoulders are not always twisted prove that this was not the case. It must

around so fully as they had been along be interpreted means of emphasis,

as a

the banks of the Nile, and therefore the to call attention to what the sculptor
result is less angular. Where not hidden or his audience considered important.
by drapery, the anatomy, as in the calf Though human beings in Assyrian art
of the leg, is symbolic, each muscle de- are conventionalized, animals are drawn
fined as an area with rounded edges, with greater freedom. The Wounded
with ridges between indicative of ten- Lioness (fig. 22) from the Palace of
dons. Thus the leg becomes the basis Ashur-bani-pal, of the seventh century,
of a pattern as formal as the reduction is a masterpiece. Here the sculptor grap-
of a flower to a rosette. For emphasis, ples with a problem involving represen-
the royal figure and his attendant deities tation and expression. In the solution
are exaggerated in scale and, similarly, of the former, he only half succeeds.
landscape features are introduced to ex- The head and forequarters convey its

plain the setting without regard for their appearance, but because the dragging
comparative size. The defenders of the hindquarters, paralyzed by the arrows
fortress can hardly be contained within that transfix her, are too difficult for
it; they are too large to pass through the him to represent he resorts to the
48 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

X v^y

L* J

22. Wounded Lioness, from Palace of Ashur-bani-pal, Nineveh (668-626 b.c.) British Museum,
London. 25" x 40".

Assyrian conventions for muscles. On these reliefs illuminate the civilization

the other hand, the expression is vivid. that produced them. Because the sub-
The artist feels to the limit the strength jects are restricted to royal activity, they

and courage of the lioness. Though yield little information about ordinary
wounded to the death she still drags her- life. Instead, they depict the military
self forward, snarling, to the attack. A caste, headed by the ruler and his court,
more realistic version might convey less whose occupation was warfare and whose
of her spirit than this simplified design. diversion the hunt. They confirm the
The forward movement is not achieved reputation for ferocity that caste has
by the posture alone, but more by the won in literature. The heads of the
flowing curves, which really create it. To king's enemies are impaled on spikes,

find a clearer example of the expressive their headless bodies strewn over the
possibilities of line in sculpture would ground. When Ashur-bani-pal dines with
be difficult. his favorite queen— almost the only in-

Though less completely than in Egypt, stance where a woman is represented

 AEGEAN ARCHITECTURE 49

in Assyrian sculpture — the food is served light, and these have yet to yield their

in the palace garden. His majesty, dressed secrets. The enthusiasm of the one-time
in embroidered robes, half reclines on indigo merchant Heinrich Schliemann,
a couch and drinks from a bowl brought by his excavations at Troy, Tiryns, and
to him by his attendants. Perhaps his Mycenae first brought proof of a pre-
wine was the sweeter for the heads of Greek civilization. However, when early

foes impaled on a tree in his line of in the present century Sir Arthur Evans
vision. discovered the Cretan remains at Cnos-
The civilization of this region, through sus, became clear that the Aegean
it

conquest and trade, spread in all direc- civilization had developed and reached
tions. Persia, for instance, which ulti- its apogee in Crete, and that the Myce-
mately conquered Mesopotamia, was an naean age on the mainland was merely
artistic province, except in architecture. the afterglow, a barbaric imitation of a
The same three-quarter-round monsters higher culture. This Minoan culture has
we have already seen in Assyria, but been named from Minos, the mythical
without the fifth leg, have been discov- name of the sea kings of Crete.
ered at Persepolis (fig. 490); the Frieze Thus the island Palace of Cnossus,
of Archers from the Palace of Darius at its present remains dated in the middle
Susa in glazed brick adopts a technique of the second millennium, outshines the
and a style developed in Mesopotamia.
Here, and in the Frieze of Lions, also in
glazed brick, the repetition of stylized
forms in rich color results in a decora-

tive magnificence derived from the art

of the Fertile Crescent.

THE AEGEAN

The Aegean culture, third and last of

the great cultures of the Mediterranean

area previous to the classical, was un-
known and its existence unsuspected
until about a centurv ago. Even now,
everything we know of this civilization
23. Palace, Cnossus (c. 1800-1600 b.c.) c.
is deduced from its art. Egyptian hiero- 400' square.
glyphs, deciphered a century ago by
Champollion, provide us with a mass of mainland fort at Tiryns. Its plan (fig.

recorded history; the clay tablets of 23) has as many rooms as a Mesopo-
Babylonia and Assyria, first read by tamian palace, but in several ways is

Layard, document their past; but in the more advanced. The elements are
Aegean, few inscriptions have come to grouped around one principal court, and

ARCHBISHOP MITTY HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY

San Jose. California
5° THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

although their purpose is not certain, at inclusion of courts or light wells to illu-

leastsome of the rooms form a suite, mine the ground floor. The stair wells

one chamber leading to another with a were built with columns, tapered toward
definite order in their disposition. The the bottom as seen in paintings, and of
Cretan palace had at least two stories the type adopted in tombs on the main-
and perhaps three or four. Therefore, land of Greece. Made of wood, the col-

stairs were essential, and because a stair- umns have vanished, but the stone
case is an element of two or more sockets where they rested are preserved
stories, its relation to the second and and make it possible to restore the hall
third floors had to be visualized before (fig. 24). The peculiar bulging capital
the ground story was built. In itself, this of these columns has some resemblance
requirement postulates a more than rudi- to the later Greek Doric form, though
mentary architectural training. Further- any historic connection between them is

more, the upper stories compelled the conjectural. In other ways besides its

advanced plan, the palace of Cnossus

bespeaks a high state of civilization.

Extensive piping and a flush toilet pro-

vided sanitation. The latter invention,

so essential in modern life, was not des-

tined to reappear in European civiliza-
tion until the sixteenth century after
Christ, a lapse of over three thousand
years. Cnossus in its heyday was unforti-

fied; evidently the sea kings of Crete

relied on their navy for protection. In
fact the late fortifications probably indi-

cate that Crete lost control of the sea

toward the end of her long history, and
had to provide those land defenses that
had been superfluous during her prime.
The Palace at Tiryns on the mainland
of Greece, built somewhat later than
that of Cnossus, in contrast is fortified,

like a medieval castle, with thick walls

of huge stones laid together without
mortar, and with its gates defended by
additional walls. The sequence of gates,

courts, and rooms probably comes from

24. Palace at Cnossus (c. 1800-1600 b.c/
Stairhall, restored. Crete, as does the type of column used
 AEGEAN ARCHITECTURE 5
1

in the entrances to the palace proper. one below it, its interior surface project-

The principal chamber, entered from ing further into the void.
the portico, is doubtless to be identified The discovery of Egyptian pottery in
as the megaron, familiar to us from the Crete proves that there had been some
Homeric poems; it has an open hearth trade with Egypt, a conclusion corrobo-
in the center. A second suite of rooms, rated by the abundant paintings of the
presumably the thalamus, or women's region. The design, called the Bull Leap-
quarters, connects with the megaron by ers, from the Palace of Cnossus (fig.

a circuitous route easy to control. The 25), like Egyptian painting, is executed
various rooms of this, as of the Cretan in line and flat tone, the several parts
palace, were roofed with timber, but of the composition outlined, and each
such contemporary tombs as the Treas- area then filled with a single tone. In
ury of Atreus at Mycenae adopt the Crete, however, a slight modification of
so-called corbel vault. Built under- the major tone may appear along the
ground, its single chamber is shaped like edges of each area, which mitigates the
a beehive, which looks like a true vault; stiffness characteristic of Egyptian work.
but whereas in a true vault the stones The red-brown men and the pale yellow
are wedge-shaped and the joints between women recall a similar color scheme in

each course or layer of stone radiate the Nile valley. Even the conventions of
from a point within the void covered the body have some parallels; the eye in
by the vault, in the corbel system the full front in a profile head, the hips even
stones are laid with the joints horizon- narrower than in Egyptian painting, and
tal, so that each block lies flat on the the shoulders broader; but the profile

«f CKCOLCHff CM
25. Bull Leapers, from Palace at Cnossus. Candia Museum. Fresco, 5*3" wide.
<>
 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

full-front alternation is not quite so potamia. Except for the Lion Gate at
regular. Mycenae, which comes from the bitter
In spite of these points of correspond- end of this civilization, no monumental
ence, Cretan painting differs from Egyp- carving has been discovered. In the
tian and is more pleasing to many peo- minor arts, sculpture on a small scale
ple today. The less precise blocking out does exist. The exquisite Snake Goddess
is partly responsible, but more important
is the remarkable sense of selection. In-
stead of crowding the composition with
a host of details, the Cretan artist real-
izes the value of open space and stresses
fundamentals, ignoring the rest. The lin-

ear rhythm of the bull and the figures

is cardinal; all that is needed to dram-

atize action is included and nothing else.

Extraneous material is so conspicuously

avoided that the painting looks almost
Oriental. The bull strikes an attitude
that is improbable from a naturalistic
point of view, but that lends itself to
design and to the suggestion of move-
ment. Curves are simplified to make
them expressive. Such drawing is not the
work of an amateur but of a highly so-
phisticated artist. These lines are swept
in with consummate assurance. With
such artistic success, the fact that we
cannot surely interpret the scene is of
small significance; whether these figures
vaulting over the back of the bull are to
26. Cretan Snake Goddess (16th cent. B.C.)
be interpreted as acrobats, as performers Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
of a dance, or as engaged in some reli-

gious rite, one does not know. The fre- (fig. 26), in the Boston Museum, has
quency with which the bull recurs in her body and dress made of ivory, but
Aegean art colors the supposition that the nipples of her breasts, the flounces
the animal was connected with religion, of her skirt, and the writhing snakes held
but just how is still a matter for archae- in her hands are of gold. Though only
ology to determine. about seven inches high, she conveys the
Painting in Crete takes the place oc- impression of a larger figure, freely mod-
cupied by sculpture in Egypt and Meso- eled and idealized with aristocratic fea-
 AEGEAN PAINTING AND MINOR ARTS 53

tures. This independent little lady stands islands in the Aegean Sea, and spread
with the utmost assurance, her arched her style to them. Then, during the sec-

back balancing her outstretched arms. ond millennium, barbarian Greeks from
The narrow waist and the elaborate cos- the north began to arrive in the Pelopon-
tume, both of which occur in paintings, nesus, to touch the hem of this culture
follow the fashion of the day. and to learn its elements. These people,
who form the Mycenaean civilization,
catch a provincial reflection of the so-
phisticated Minoan art; for example, a
version of the Bull Leapers in Tiryns is

the same in subject as the masterpiece

from Cnossus, but its technique is ama-
teurish. Presumably, these people under-
mined the power of the sea kings until
they forced the addition to Cnossus of
the late fortifications.
That these Mycenaeans were the

27. Gold Cup from Vaphio (c. i6th-i2th Greeks who fought the Trojan War, and
cent b.c.) National Museum, Athens. 3" high.
of whom Homer wrote, seems certain.
The sites of the Homeric poems, Troy,
In the famous Gold Cups from Vaphio Tiryns, Mycenae rich in gold/ as the
(fig. 27) the artist demonstrates his skill
poet says, which yielded over a ton of
in metalwork. Bulls again form the sub-
gold objects to the excavations of Hein-
ject; on one cup they are grazing, while
rich Schliemann, are the sites modern
on the other they are captured in nets.
archaeology has found most fruitful of
Though some realistic shortcomings are
Mycenaean remains. Homer speaks with
evident, the total result is remarkably
wonder of the walls of Tiryns, of Crete
natural. However, the artistic quality
and its ninety cities. The poems men-
comes from the creative selection, the
tion only one statue, but describe in
rhythm, and the technique with which
detail several objects of the minor arts,
the material is handled.
such as the cup of Nestor and the shield
Though much remains unknown
of Achilles. If one allows for poetic ex-
about this civilization, its general course
aggeration, these descriptions might ap-
is clear. It rose slowly through the third
millennium before Christ, until the sea ply to the metalwork of Mycenaean
kings of Crete brought their culture to days. But pale reflection of Crete though
its apex during the second millennium, this be, it was yet superior in culture to

when the Palace at Cnossus with its anything known to the new waves of

masterpieces of painting was created. At barbarian Greeks who began to arrive in

this time, Crete controlled some of the the Peloponnesus toward the end of
54 THE PRE-CLASSICAL ARTS

the second millennium. The Homeric Centuries were to elapse before these
Greeks had learned something from new tribes, the Greeks as we know them,
Crete, but had not had time themselves were to find their own manner of artistic

to become fully civilized; for the new- expression, one that was to be distinct
comers, Dorian, Ionian, and Aeolian from the Mycenaean or that of any
tribes, overthrew the long-haired, mail- other civilization which had preceded
clad Achaeans of whom Homer wrote, them.
IV The Beginnings of Greek Art

According to tradition, the historic it was 'a rugged land but a good nurse
Greeks entered the Peloponnesus in of men,' and the description might ap-
noo b.c. To accept this literally is ab- ply to all Greece. Life was not so easy
surd; the Greeks did not arrive on sched- here as in the Nile valley, but the
ule like a conducted tour. The process Greeks' very struggles for existence may
was slower and less simple, one of infil- have stimulated their innate energv,
tration by successive waves of migration their resourcefulness, their willingness to
by these peoples from the north, like experiment and to adventure on untried
the barbarian invasions that centuries lines of endeavor. The mountains that
later upset the Roman Empire. Like break up the country and the arms of
and better-known movement,
that later the sea that penetrate it fostered small
the Greek migration was followed by city states, often at war with their neigh-
several centuries of the 'Dark Ages/ bors, but intensely proud of themselves.
so-called partly because we know little Although the Homeric poems were read
about them, and partly because they throughout the Greek world and helped
cover the time when these peoples were to give the Greeks a feeling of brother-
taking the first toddling steps toward hood distinct from the barbarian or
what would one day emerge as a glori- non-Greek world of the older civiliza-

ous culture. tions, still it required the danger of a

The land where these newcomers Persian invasion to compel one city even
found themselves was very different partly to co-operate with another. How-
from either Egypt or Mesopotamia. ever, the smallness of the city state,

Odysseus said of his native Ithaca that which enabled every citizen to play an
55
56 THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

active part in civic life, promoted public balance of strength and delicacy, a per-
spirit and an atmosphere of free dis- fect relation of the parts to the whole
cussion stimulating to the individual. and of the parts to their purposes, which
The artists of older civilizations knew has never been surpassed. Any structural
when they were doing good work and member in architecture may be clas-
must have been proud of it. We may sified according to function in one of
assume that this was true in Mesopo- three types: a base or foundation mem-
tamia and Egypt; in Greece, the indi- ber, a supporting member, or a crowning
vidual, even the humblest potter, pa- or terminating member. In the Doric
raded his pride of creation in dozens order these functions are expressed in
of inscriptions, while the prominent the three principal divisions, the same
sculptors won reputations that have triple memberships carrying through
lasted down to this daw even the minor units. A base or stere-
Moreover, this land supplied all the obate serves as and expresses the foun-
materials necessary for sculpture and ar- dation of the temple; the columns stand
chitecture. Good timber could be had on it; and they in turn support an en-
and was used for domestic building as tablature which reflects the roof. Several
well as for the roofs of temples, and at steps, generally three, compose the stere-
the beginning probablv for the whole obate. Since the Doric column has no
temple. Limestone was plentiful, vary- individual base, the stylobate or top step
ing from the coarse grained poros, used serves a double function: it terminates
for some early examples of sculpture, to the stereobate and it serves as a founda-
finer types. But above all, the quarries tion to the colonnade. This combination
yielded the fine-grained marbles of Paros of purposes in the stylobate links the
and Pentelicus, stones hard enough to stereobate and the colonnade. The shaft
wear well, yet workable under the sculp- of the column, which gives the height
tor's chisel. Given an intellectual people necessary for the temple, has its essen-
stimulated by their surroundings, with tial movement emphasized by narrow
the raw materials of architecture and vertical grooves or flutes (collectively,

sculpture at hand, a brilliant artistic de- fluting). In the Doric order, these are
velopment was bound to occur. shaped as elliptical curves and meet one
The first of the visual arts to emerge another in an edge. The shaft is not
was architecture. Sometime during the quite cylindrical; it tapers toward the
Dark Ages, the Greek temple and the top, an expressive device in that the bot-
two principal orders of Greek architec- tom of the shaft must support the mass
ture developed. An order is a specific of the column in addition to the weight
type of base, column, and entablature. of the entablature. This tapering is not
The more important of the orders is the uniform but is cut in a flat curve, called
Doric (fig. 28), which, when matured entasis, which gives the shaft a vigorous
in the fifth century, was to exhibit a rare beauty.
 THE DORIC ORDER
57

completes the transition from the circu-

lar plan of the shaft and echinus to the
rectangular shapes of the entablature
above, and yet is not too high to break
the transition from the vertical to the
horizontal line afforded by the echinus.
The abacus not only terminates the
capital it also serves as a base for the
lowest of the three members of the en-
tablature, the architrave, a plain beam
that spans the void from column to
column. This, in turn, is topped by a
T-f^T-^-f-M
narrow molding, which links it to the
frieze, the middle member of the en-
tablature. The Doric order is peculiar in
that the frieze, a continuous band in
•
the other orders, alternates triple vertical
bars, called triglyphs, and almost square
slabs, either plain or sculptured, the
metopes. The alternation of verticals

and plain areas in the frieze recalls the

alternation of vertical columns and open
spaces in the colonnade, though there
are almost twice as many triglyphs as
columns. Above the frieze, horizontal
28. Greek Doric Order.
moldings compose the cornice, the third
member of the entablature, analogous
The column terminates with a capital,
to the eaves of a wooden roof; it ex-
which also consists of three parts: the
presses the roof and throws rainfall away
fluted necking, separated from the shaft
from the stonework below. The lower
by a narrow groove; the bulging cushion-
or bed moldings of the cornice support
like molding, the echinus; and, at the the upper projecting members, on which,
top, a square block, the abacus. Through above each triglyph and each metope,
its similarity to the shaft, the necking appear flat blocks, called mutules. These
merges that part with the capital. The recall the divisions below, and so estab-
strong freehand curve of the echinus lish the harmony between the frieze
creates an enlarged area to help in sup- and the cornice. Peg-like ornaments,
porting the beams, and both in appear- guttae, decorate the under surface of the
ance and in actuality is strong enough mutules. Finally, since the climate of
to hold considerable weight. The abacus Greece is not rainless, a low gable roof
5§ THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

is necessary. The triangular ends of that is designed to be seen from without

roof over the front and back of the tem- rather than from within. Finally, the
ple are called pediments. The entabla- only type of Egyptian column at all re-

ture, except the top molding of the sembling the Doric is the sixteen-sided
cornice, continues as a horizontal band column. Although at first glance the
below the pediments, but most of the similarity is striking, closer examination
cornice must be repeated along the slope suggests that these parallels are fortu-
of the roof, where it is called the raking itous. Nothing in Egypt corresponds to
cornice. Most of these terms apply to the entablature of the order and, al-

other orders besides the Doric and recur though the shafts look alike, many de-
through later architectural history. tails differ. The Egyptian column has an
The Doric order raises two questions. abacus but no true capital. Most sig-

First, to what extent, if at all, was this nificant, the Egyptian shaft is light in
architecture influenced by previous civi- its proportions, which are like those
lizations, and second, did its forms of the Greek Doric of later days, but
originate in stone or wood? The vaulted unlike the heavy proportions of the
architecture of Mesopotamia was foreign early Doric. Egypt could have suggested
to the Greeks; for although they knew only the pier and lintel system to the
the principle of the arch and used it for Greeks. Even that seems doubtful, since
unimportant structures and in incon- so elementary a method is probably in-

spicuous positions, its dynamic nature digenous in any region, like Greece,
contradicted the serenitv and quietness where appropriate materials are avail-

they considered essential in monumen- able.

tal buildings. The colonnaded architec- Geography implies that the Aegean
ture of Egypt might have suggested a area might well have influenced the
colonnaded style to the Greeks, but this early Greeks. The portico, restored as
assumption involves several difficulties. an entrance to the Palace at Tiryns, re-

For one thing, while Egvpt during the sembles the colonnaded porches of some
Saite period welcomed the Greeks, that smaller Greek temples. Moreover, the
period postdates the earliest steps in the capital of Aegean columns vaguely sug-
formation of the temple and the Doric gests the cushion-like Doric echinus, and
order. Secondly, the Egyptian temple there are some details in Aegean archi-
is an internal form; its colonnades line tecture that may have prompted the
the interior of the peristyle and support triglyph and metope system of the
the roof of the hypostyle hall; only the Doric. On the other hand, the Minoan
pylon is enriched externally, but that column tapers toward the bottom, ex-
member has no parallel in Greek archi- actly opposite to the Greek. It is con-
tecture. With the Greek temple, how- ceivable that some memories of the ear-
ever, the converse is true. Essentially a lier architecture of the Aegean area may
shrine and a monument to the god, it have persisted in the later Doric forms,
 THE DORIC ORDER
59

but if so, they were so slight that we suggested them. Finally woodenin a

may consider the Doric order as a purely roof the rafters must be covered with
Greek development. planks to support tiles, shingles, or slate.
Less difficult is the question whether Are not the mutules the projecting ends
the Doric order originated in wood or of these planks again pegged into posi-
stone. Advocates of the latter theory tion with guttae?
maintain that its details and proportions One of the earliest large temples is

are so expressive of stone that they could the Heraeum (Temple of Hera) at
hardly have developed in wood. The Olympia. In its present form it is not
massive, close-spaced columns support earlier than about 600 b.c. In this tem-
this argument. As we have seen in the ple, the original wood columns were re-

first chapter, timber construction tends placed from time to time in the current
to produce a horizontal rectangle with style of stone columns. As one might
slender, widely spaced supports. The expect under these circumstances, they
Doric column, notably in the early ex- differ from one another in their propor-

amples, is heavy and squat. It could be tions and details. Pausanias, who wrote
true that the early Greeks took the a guide book of Greece during the sec-

trunks of trees for their first columns, ond century after Christ, tells us that
but nevertheless it seems absurd to sup- one column in the back porch was still

pose that they would have chosen such of wood in his day. If the columns were
large trees and spaced them so closely. originally of wood, then the entabla-
In reply to this, the proponents of a ture must also have been of wood. This
wooden origin assume that,when the building, therefore, would seem to set-
order was translated from wood to stone, tle the argument; and so it might, if we
a complete change of proportions in the could prove that the existing stone
column was effected. They rest their members were wooden shafts
like the
case on the evidence of the order itself they replaced, and we could demon- if

and on certain historical indications. strate that the vanished wood entabla-
First, it is not wise to expose the cross ture was Doric. The presumption is
section of a wood beam to the weather. strong that it was, but final proof is im-
Moisture and consequent decay pene- possible. Still, the Heraeum, coupled
trate deeper into the ends of timbers with the evidence of the order itself,

than through their sides. The triglyphs makes so clear a case for a wooden origin
look like cleats placed for protection of the Doric that one can only assume
over the ends of beams that might have that the column proportions were
supported the ceiling of the temple. Sec- adapted to stone when that material
ond, the guttae attached to blocks below came into use.
the triglyphs resemble wooden pegs in- The Greeks crystallized the arrange-
tended to hold the triglyphs in place. ment of the temple early in their his-
It is hard to imagine what else can have tory. It is planned (fig. 29) with a rec-
6o THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

width. Fifth-century temples usually

have on the side one column more than
twice the number that thev have across
the front. Thus the Parthenon has eight
columns in front and seventeen on the
side; the contemporary Theseum in

Athens has six and thirteen columns.

29. Parthenon, Athens (447-432 b.c.) 101' x
With the passing centuries, the en-
tablature lightened as compared with
the total height of the temple or that
tangular chamber, the cella or sanctuary,
of the columns. In early examples, it
ringed by a free-standing colonnade.
was a crushing mass almost half as high
This scheme, sometimes with one or two
as the column and therefore a third of
additional chambers behind the cella for
the height of the building above the
storage, was followed in all the larger
stylobate; but by the fifth century, the
Greek temples from the seventh or
entablature became about a third as
eighth century before Christ to the end
high as the column, and so a quarter
of Greek history. Smaller examples, such
of the total building height. Meanwhile,
as the Temple of Wingless Victory at
the shaft grew taller in proportion to its

width at the base, referred to as its lower

diameter. The early examples might be

only four lower diameters in height;
when the Parthenon was designed, they

30. Temple of Wingless Victory, Athens (427- were almost five-and-a-half lower diam-
424 b.c.) 26'io" x 17'c)". eters. These figures, of course, tell us
nothing of the actual height of the col-

Athens (fig. 30), omit the colonnade on umn, which depends on the size of the

the sides. To refine and perfect this temple, but simply the proportions of
plan, the Greeks devoted their architec- the column. The last development to
tural energies for the next few centuries. be mentioned is found in the echinus.
So long a period of experiment and ad- In the early capitals of the Heraeum
justment alone made possible the ex- this member flared out from the shaft
quisite balance of the Parthenon. In with a bulging curve that, as time went
general, this development followed cer- on, became less marked and rose at an
tain clear lines. The Heraeum is about angle of approximately 45 degrees. This
three times as long as it is wide, with flatter curve and sharper rise is both

sixcolumns in front and in back and more powerful in support and more
sixteen on each side. Later examples subtle in appearance than the early
such as the Parthenon are more com- type.
pact with a length just over twice the The fifth-century Temple of Hera at
 DORIC TEMPLES 6l

-.,

31. Temple of Hera, Paestum (c. 460 B.C.) Limestone, front 79/8" wide.

Paestum (fig. 31), formerly identified as top of the temple, leaving simpler forms
the Temple of Poseidon, in southern below. Color added a final grace; tones
Italy, while not perfected in detail, of bright red and blue gave contrast to
forms a fitting illustration of the type, the smaller moldings of the entablature,
though the emphasis still is more on that otherwise could hardly be seen
robustness than on refinement. Com- from the ground. Any patterns applied
pactness of form, held in such high es- to these moldings, either in color or by
teem by the Greeks and illustrated in carving, repeat on their surfaces the
Greek tragedy, here has its exact archi- shape of the moldings in cross section.
tectural expression. To this form noth- For example, a molding that is rectangu-
ing is lacking, and from it nothing can lar in section may be adorned with a
be subtracted; its unity is outstanding. fret, composed of straight lines and
Furthermore, the decoration is re- right angles, a molding whose profile
strained. In some examples sculpture in forms a quarter circle, in curved shapes.
the round filled the pediments, the Thus the pattern repeats in design the
metopes were carved in high relief, and shape of the surface where it is placed.
groups placed above the angles of the To the Greeks, the strong Doric order
pediments served to accent those parts. was masculine; the grace of the Ionic
All this decoration was restricted to the was feminine. Developed at the same
62 THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

time as the Doric, the less simple and The shaft, more slender than even the
less vigorous Ionic order was popular in developed Doric shaft, tapers less than
the islands of the Aegean and on the the Doric. The semicircular flutes are

mainland of Asia Minor, but not so deeper, and are separated from one an-
other by a narrow band. A pair of flank-

t ing
straight
volutes
and curving
or scrolls

lines
connected by
compose the
capital. It is as though paper had been
aneMttflM
rolled up from either end, with the
edges of these scrolls visible on the front
and back of the capital. Charming as

the result is, it raises several problems.

&T:TX.ttX&$i®&'£'yw.*f&W Since the front and side of the capital

contrast, an adjustment must be made
at the corner of the building, lest either

the front or the side colonnade exhibit

one capital different in appearance from
the others in the same range. The Greek
solution before Hellenistic times was to
bend the volute on the corner capital

outward to a 45-degree angle, and so

force an approximate similarity of ap-
pearance on the neighboring faces of
the capital. Though this device has been
praised as showing the ingenuity of the
Greeks, it is in fact awkward. A lopsided
Z L capital does not look well from any
point of view; its resemblance to its

neighbors is superficial, while its irregu-

larity betravs it as a makeshift. The

32. Greek Ionic Order.
Hellenistic Greeks solved the problem

common in the Peloponnesus and in of the corner capital of the Ionic order

southern Italy. Its first point of differ- by changing its shape. The canted volute
ence (fig. 32) is the individual base un- was repeated at all four corners of the

der each column. A square plinth or capital; this made it symmetrical and
block of stone may serve as a founda- so adapted it for use equally on the
tion (though not in the Athenian build- corner and in the center of a colonnade.
ings), with convex and concave mold- The truth is that the earlier Greek Ionic,
ings above combined in several ways. though graceful in itself, can be entirely
 THE IONIC ORDER 63

successful only where the colonnade original beauty of the statues mav have
does not turn a corner. been. In this connection, much depends
The Ionic entablature, like the Doric, on how we value the judgment of an-
has architrave, frieze, and cornice, but cient critics; some, like Pliny, confused
the architrave is broken into three bands fame with artistic merit and admired
adorned by small moldings. The con- some statues for reasons modern critics

tinuous frieze is sometimes adorned do not consider important. Others, such

with sculpture. A distinguishing element as Lucian, appear to have been more
in the Ionic cornice is the dentil range, sensitive to qualities other than mere
broken into square blocks like a row verisimilitude. From the period that an-
of teeth, which supports the overhang- tiquity, including so discerning a critic

ing parts of the cornice. as Lucian, regarded as the culmination

That the Ionic order developed from of Greek sculpture, few, if any, of the
wood is universally admitted. The dentil famous originals are preserved. We
range, for instance, derived from the know approximately what many of these
ends of rafters, and the earliest examples statues looked like, because they were
show proportions in the column hardly copied for the Roman market, just as
possible except in wood. When the or- photographs or casts of 'old masters'
der was converted to stone, these pro- are available today.
portions became more robust, but never These late Greek or Roman copies
rivaled the massiveness of the Doric. seldom warrant the praise bestowed on
Scrolls of early capitals seem to grow them bv the nineteenth century. Their
out of the shaft; only later were they quality varies but often is dull and un-
connected with one another. Like the inspired. One would not dream of try-

Doric, the most splendid examples of ing to evaluate the painting of Titian,
the order occur in the fifth century. for example, on the basis of copies, even

Whereas architecture begins to ex- if they were made by men of recog-

hibit its characteristic, if still archaic, nized talent, since the hand of the copy-
forms at least as early as the seventh ist must alter the subtle relations estab-

century, sculpture becomes important lished by the original master, and yet
only toward the end of that century. this what one must do with the
is

That this art reached a high level in famous masters of Greek sculpture. Two
Hellenic times is the universal testimony courses, therefore, remain open today.
of ancient authors. Their comments are The first is to deflate the prestige of
valuable in two ways: first, their descrip- Greek sculpture, at least during the
tions identify some of the famous stat- period of its maturity, on the ground
ues and connect them with sculptors that the copies do not justify a high
whom antiquity regarded as masters; opinion. To accept this position is to
and second, their criticismsand com- reject the testimony of classic critics

parisons allow us to imagine what the (who saw the originals) as based on the
64 THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

idea that art must hold the mirror up direction of a master— what, in other
to nature. The ether and fairer approach epochs, are called 'school' works. If these
is to withhold judgment, to admit the originals are so superior to the copied

shortcomings in extant copies, and, in masterpieces, how much more allowance

the absence of other evidence, to accept we should make for the discrepancy be-

the dicta of the more discerning critics tween those copies and the lost master-

of antiquity. We should test these dicta pieces on which they were based.
so far as possible by comparisons, but Though not productive of monumen-
must make allowance for qualities that tal sculpture, the Dark Ages laid the
may have been present in the original, foundations of civilization in Greece.
but which the copyist might have lost, During this time, Greece came into con-
partly through inability and partly tact with the older cultures of the Medi-
through copying in marble a statue de- terranean region. Then, too, the Homeric
signed by the master in bronze— a pro- poems received their definite form. The
found modification to be remembered poet looks back longingly from his own
in most of the famous copies. day to the heroic past— that is, to the
However, some original Greek work Mycenaean civilization. In The Iliad,

of two sorts is extant. First, archaic Homer says that Ajax picked up a large
sculpture was not sufficiently esteemed stone to cast at his adversary; no one in
by the Romans to be carted away by the poet's time could lift such a stone.
them; much of it, too, had been buried This pessimism may be an instinctive
by accident, or, after it had been dam- tendency to admire 'the good old times,'

aged during the Persian wars. Second, but comparison of the Vaphio Cups
some architectural sculpture, the met- with geometric vases of the eighth cen-
opes and friezes and the figures in the tury goes far to explain Homer's atti-

pediments of Greek temples, remains to tude. The Aegean proficiency of tech-

us. The marbles of the Parthenon, for nique has vanished. Most of the surface
example, are Greek originals of the fifth of these large funerary vases is banded
century and, in the absence of more with patterns, but in a few of the wider
famous statues, must establish for us the bands the craftsman drew 'memory pic-

character of the period. The slightest tures,' extreme simplifications of human

comparison of these originals with Ro- forms. The figures these contain are dia-
man copies from other contemporary grammatic, their legs shaped like those

work demonstrates the vitality of the of wasps, their torsos inverted triangles,
former and the dullness of the latter. and their heads circles. No less symbolic
But in antiquity, architectural decora- is the drawing of horses. In many vases
tions like these were secondary in im- of this period, and even more so in the
portance, worth only a passing mention seventh-century vases from Rhodes, Ori-
by critics, and often the product of less ental animal motives testify to the con-
celebrated artists working under the tact with Egypt and particularly with
 GREEK SCULPTURE - GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 65

Mesopotamia. Wherever space permits on a basis of realistic knowledge, the

among the figures, horses, and chariots, Greek sculptor molded his idealized

the craftsman inserted decorative mo- conceptions of the Olympic pantheon

tives. Nothing remains of the beauty of until, a century later, he eliminated the
technique or of the sophistication of the individual, the incidental, and the acci-

Vaphio Cups, and yet the geometric dental.

vases have a primitive vigor. Their pat- Naturally, this idealism was not
terns are well adapted to the surfaces reached overnight. The first century and
they decorate. The fact is that these a half of Greek sculpture, called the
vases are not crude attempts to preserve archaic period, extends from the late
Mycenaean tradition; on the contrary, seventh century to the end of the Per-
they illustrate the birth of a promising sian wars in 480 B.C.; it is a time of ex-
Hellenic culture. perimentation, of observation of the
Perhaps the most important result of body and its possibilities, of struggle for
the Homeric poems was to vivify the mastery over stone— all calculated to
gods of the Olvmpic pantheon. No one, reach this realistic first goal. Especially
after reading The Iliad, can think of at the beginning, the sculptors were
Zeus and Hera, Ares and Aphrodite as
hampered by ignorance of how to pre-
abstract conceptions; they are too indi-
sent the body accurately, and how far it
vidual and human. Unlike the deities
was safe to cut into the block of stone. In
of Egypt and Mesopotamia, these gods
lieu of these skills, at least in part, the
are envisioned in human form, though
archaic tendency for pattern provided
more perfect phvsically and more
an outlet for the creative energies of the
powerful than ordinary mankind. To
craftsmen. This concern with design
overemphasize the importance of this
produced masterpieces of high quality,
anthropomorphism in religion is impos-
possibly a purer expression than might
sible. When the Greeks began to carve
have been reached had the sculptor been
statues of their gods, they found the
whole force of religion behind them, more sophisticated. That the trend of

impelling them Greek sculpture was away from conven-

to seek a result that
would incorporate this human concep-
tion and toward realism is historical

tion. No conventionalized version could fact. For better or worse, the Greeks

long prove satisfactory. Since gods were regarded these limitations, that may re-

like men, their statues had to be rea- sult in a sculptural mass and a design
sonably realistic. But once the sculptor based upon the sense of pattern, as re-

acquired the ability to carve a realistic strictions to be escaped as soon as possi-

figure, he had to conceive and render ble. Consequently the Greek sculptor
forms more perfect than any to be experimented constantly. Recognizing
found on earth, shapes that might be the realistic defects of his own or his
at once human and superhuman. Hence master's works, he sought to rectify
66 THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

them. Unlike Egypt, tradition could be The sculpture of the first seventy-five
ignored. years (625-550 b.c.) exhibits a limited
number of types or poses, the most im-
portant of which is the standing nude
male figure. Though called the 'Apollo'
type, these figures are not all identified.
Some may be statues of that god, but
some others are statues of athletes, vic-
tors in the Olympic games or one of the
other festivals. The similarity to the
Egyptian priest Ranefer (fig. 16) is obvi-
ous. Like him, the Youth or Kouros
(fig. 33) walks forward, the weight car-
ried on both feet; the erect body re-

spects the law of frontality; the shoulders

are broad and, since the arms are locked
to the sides, the hips are narrow. Clearly
the material dominates the conception.
Perhaps the sculptor started with a pris-

matic block of stone, drew the silhouette

of his figure first on the front of the
block and then chiseled away the parts
that were not within that outline. The
procedure was repeated on the sides of
the block. When the edges of this rough
mass were rounded off, an approxima-
tion of the human form resulted, but
the planes of such a figure tended to
mirror the original planes of the block
and so expressed the material. Moreover,
details show that the craftsman was
afraid to cut deeply into the stone. The
hands are not free of the body, and in-

deed in the earliest examples almost the

whole length of the arm is attached to
the torso. The long hair falls over the
shoulders to strengthen the neck at its

weakest point. Instead of cutting into

33. Youth, from Attica (c. 600 b.c.) Metro- the stone to embed the eyes beneath
politan Museum, New York. Island marble,
6'i" high. the brows, the eyes bulge out to pre-
 ARCHAIC SCULPTURE 67

serve the ovoid mass of the head. The

compact sculpturesque result of the
early archaic figures comes in part from
these considerations.
But if the 'Apollos' parallel Egyptian
standing or walking figures, the differ-

ences are even more prophetic. The slab

of stone that served as a background for
Ranefer is gone. The Greek figure is

nude, innocent even of the loin cloth,

ihat almost universally appears in Egypt;
this points to the Greek concern with
the body as the primary vehicle for
sculpture. Significant is the willingness
to experiment with anatomy. The sculp-
tor of the Youth indicates the muscular
divisions of the torso, articulates the
kneecap, and represents the bony struc-
ture of the body, as in the shoulder
blades. The characteristic archaic smile
to modern eyes creates a stilted, even
irritating, impression of complacency;
the hair is reduced to patterns, with
snail-shell curls over the forehead and
repeated wavy lines for the mass of the
hair. As a work of art, the Youth is not
equal to the Ranefer; it lacks the assur-
ance, the competence, and the strength
of the Egyptian. The Greek sculptor
does not yet rival his predecessors in
technique. But the statue itself contains
the germs of progress.
The standing female type of the Hera
of Samos (fig. 34), dated about 550 b.c,
is almost as common as the 'Apollo'
34. Hera of Samos (c. 550 b.c.) Louvre, Paris.
type. Its cylindrical mass presupposes Marble, 6' high.

earlier statues in wood, images carved

from trunks of trees; and although the rate themselves from the mass; the arms
.sculptor is here working in stone, he pre- join the body through their entire
.serves the familiar shape. No parts sepa- length. At this time, the female figure
68 THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

35. Chares of Branchidae (late 6th cent, b.c.) British Museum, London. Parian marble, 4'io'
high.
 ARCHAIC SCULPTURE 69

in Greek art is always clothed; there- outward over the breast. The sequence
fore, the sculptor seizes the opportunity in direction of these wider folds serves

to use the drapery for design in pure as a foil to the vertical harmony below,
pattern. Small parallel folds compose at once enhancing and being enriched
the skirt as though it were accordion- by it. Unrealistic though she is, the com-
pactness and the pattern make the Hera
of Samos a masterpiece comparable with
any.
Other early figure types are less com-
mon. If the 'Apollo' type recalls the
contact Greece had with Egypt during
the seventh century, the seated Chares
of Branchidae (fig. 35) has Mesopo-
tamian qualities. Like the Gudea (fig.

20), it is draped so heavily that little of

the underlying body can be perceived.
The folds of the garment, indicated by
lines, are flattened on the surface rather
than modeled with any considerable
projection and recession. So block-like is

this figure and so intimately connected

with its chair, that it could not rise

without taking the throne with it. Al-

though compact, the result seems heavy.
The archaic Greek artist rarely essayed
bolder problems. The winged Nike or
Victory of Delos (fig. 36) is the oldest
Greek statue ascribed, however doubt-
fully, to known sculptors, Micciades and
Archermus of Delos. Literary evidence
indicates that the Nike was carved early
in the sixth century. This kneeling fig-

ure corresponds to Egyptian methods of

36. Micciades and Archermus, Nike of Delos
representing the body, as though an
(550-520 b.c.) National Museum, Athens.
Marble, 3' high. Egyptian relief were converted into
sculpture in the round. The head and
pleated, and contrast with the plain shoulders are viewed from in front, but
overskirt and with another system of at the waist the figure half turns so that
lines in the upper garment that sweep the legs are seen in profile. In short,
down from the left shoulder and spread Micciades and Archermus transferred to
7° THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

37. Seated Gods, Frieze, Treasury of Siphnians, Delphi (550-520 B.C.) Museum, Delphi. Marble, ;

height of frieze 25".

sculpture in the round a convention un- sibilities inherent in earlier work. These
derstandable in relief. They conceived artists seem not to have concerned
of their statue not as something the themselves with the possibilities of the
spectator may inspect from all sides, but body. Most of the figures are draped,
as something to be seen from a single and the body serves more as a frame to
point of view, as relief sculpture is. If hold patterns of clothing than as some-
the result is not quite successful, to thing interesting in itself, although the
attempt the Nike of Delos at all took drapery is often pulled so tight that it

courage. These sculptors were eager to reveals the contours of the figure. The
portray new poses still beyond their bodies are heavy in proportion, puffy
technical ability. rather than muscular, with the archaic
The early sculptors laid the founda- smile, patterned hair, and bulging eyes
tions and established the traditions to still prominent. On the other hand, the
be developed in the next seventy years, draperies themselves invite rich designs.
from 550 to 480 b.c. The frieze of the The folds are not cut deep enough to
Treasury of the Siphnians at Delphi destroy the expression of mass, but they
(fig. 37) represents a struggle of gods are arranged with a superb feeling for
and giants; it exploits the decorative pos- rhythm. Their variety may indicate dif-
 ARCHAIC SCULPTURE AND VASES 71
-•
such as that by Execias (fig. 38) . Within
the bowl, Dionysus sails through a
school of porpoises. The setting is sym-
bolic, with no indication of the sea save
for the presence of the fish. These and
the grapevine that Dionysus brings to
man approximate a scalloped pattern
around the rim of the vase to echo and
harmonize with its shape. Up to this
time, Greek vases retained the black-
figured style, wherein the motives are
glazed in black, sometimes with other
colors added, on the red ground of the
38. Execias (active 6th cent, b.c.) Dionysus baked clay.
(c. 530 B.C.) Museum, Munich. Black-figured However, the late sixth century re-
vase, diameter 12".
versed this technique to the red-figured
ferences in the costumes, but it also dis- style, that allowed greater freedom to
plays a love of design and fertility of the artist. This is illustrated in the vase

imagination. by Euphronius, whose theme is the

The archaic decorative sense predom- struggle of Heracles and Antaeus (fig.

inates in the vases of the mid-century, 39). Once more the omission of land-

39. Euphronius (active 6th cent, b.c.) Heracles and Antaeus (c. 500 b.c.) Louvre, Paris. Red-
figured vase.
72
THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

scape details enables the painter to con-

centrate his whole attention on the
human figures. This preoccupation with
^
man could be explained in sculpture by
the nature of the medium, which does
not lend itself to the indication of land-
scape. The same omission in painting
testifies to the Greek belief in the pre-
ponderant importance of humanity as
an artistic motive. The figures, drawn
in line alone, show the same eagerness
to experiment with pose that charac-
terizes archaic sculpture. The drapery of
the female figure on the right falls in

repeated parallel folds ending in a zig-

zag line.

This same motive reoccurs in the Kore

or Maiden from the Acropolis (fig. 40),
who looks like the artistic daughter of
the Hera of Samos (fig. 34). Many fig-

ures of this type were dedicated in

Athens in late archaic times. Some of
them were damaged when the Persians
sacked Athens, and were buried on the
Acropolis when the Athenians returned
to their city. Posed as quietly as the
Hera, the right arm extends forward
from the elbow, bearing an offering in
k ,/.^
its hand. This part of the figure was
carved from a separate stone fitted into
a socket on the main block. Though
their pattern is still prominent, the folds 40. Maiden from the Acropolis (c. 530 B.C.)
of drapery have become somewhat more Acropolis Museum, Athens. Marble, 4' high;
complete figure 6' high.
plastic or three-dimensional than on the
Hera, and have more realism of detail. tomed to think of sculpture as mono-
The extended right arm and the left chromatic and executed chiefly in white
arm cut free of the body bespeak an marble because most of us get our first

increased mastery of the material. impressions of sculpture from colorless

The use of color in these figures is Roman copies of Greek statues, from
noteworthy. We have become accus- carvings by Renaissance or modern
 ARCHAIC SCULPTURE 73

blue, or less frequently with other hues.

Perhaps they were garish, but in these
Maidens only details are picked out in
color, black for the hair, red lips, black

eyes, and above all patterns of embroi-

dery on the hem of the garments. These
well-selected touches of color enhance
the loveliness of the work and contribute
to its realism. They do not conceal the
texture and inherent beauty of the stone
*
as had the more completely painted
earlier examples.
^r W
II;
The bronze Statuette from Ligourio
(fig. 41) has the same relation to the
'Apollo' type as the Acropolis Maiden
has to the Hera of Samos. It reflects

the athletic style of Ageladas of Argos.

This statue stands at ease, not at atten-
tion like the earlier figures. Surely Agel-
adas was dissatisfied with the formalism
of his predecessors. He would discard
the law of frontality, and allow one leg
to carry more weight than the other.
Therefore the axis of the torso need be
vertical no longer, but curved so that

one hip is higher than the other, bal-

anced by raising the opposite shoulder.
The right arm swings free of the body,

and the head turns a little to the side.

How much of this new-won freedom of
%
m movement was made possible by the

Mu- tensile strength of bronze is uncertain,

41. Statuette from Ligourio (c. 460 b.c.)
seum, Berlin. Bronze, 5" high. but it is quite certain that most famous
later artists preferred bronze to marble.
sculptors who choose uncolored marble If this movement helps to create a
or limestone, and from white plaster lifelike figure, so too does the anatomy.
casts. In truth, most great ages of sculp- The muscles of the torso are not
ture have known the value of judicious scratched in lines on the surfaces but
color. Many of the earliest Greek works modeled as plastic masses to approxi-
were painted in strong tones of red and mate the body of a sturdy young man.
74 THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

He looks like an athlete, perhaps a have become second nature to him and
weight-thrower or a wrestler. Indeed, to his critical audience. Unlike the ar-

sculpture of this type is sometimes called tists of our own day, who must base
the school of athletic art. The athletic their work on a few models observed in
festivals in Greece, such as the Olympic the relatively cramped quarters of the
games, and the preparations for them studio, these artists had as their models
must account for these sculptured ath- the flower of Greek youth. That the
letes. In the palaestra, the youth of Greeks should have developed their
Greece trained in the nude; constant study of the male figure beyond that of
observation of young men running, the female is illuminating. Woman in

jumping, wrestling, and throwing the sculpture remains archaic long after man
discus or the javelin gave the Greek ar- has become natural. Indeed, the Greeks
tist an opportunity for study enjoyed by themselves realized the disadvantage
sculptors of no other country. He had under which the sculptor labored in

continually before him the spectacle of representing the female figure. When,
the body in action. Through long famil- in the fourth century, the people of
iarity, a knowledge of the figure must Croton ordered a painting of Helen by

42. Athena and Warriors, West Pediment, Temple of Aphaia, Aegina (c. 495-485 b.c.) Glypto-
thek, Munich. Marble, figure of Athena 5'6" high.
 AEGINA PEDIMENTS
75

Zeuxis, they tried to compensate for this conventional pose of the 'Apollos.'
deficiency by affording him as nearly These are athletic types too, hard mus-
parallel an opportunity as possible to cular figures that bespeak hours of exer-
observe the figures of the fairest maidens cise. The muscles of these men are
of the city. blocked out, sharp and crisp, and do not
The sculpture of the pediments from flow into one another as in later and
the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina (fig. more facile productions. The sculptor

42), at the beginning of the fifth cen- exults in his mastery of the medium,
tury b.c, restored by Thorvaldsen, points but that control has been so recently
this contrast. The goddess Athena in acquired that he has not forgotten the
the center of the group more con- is demands of stone; he knows that it is

servative in style than the warriors on hard to carve, his new technical skill is

either side. Like the Maidens from the not taken for granted, and consequently
Acropolis, her frontal figure is clothed a certain stony quality lingers in his
in a patterned garment, but the male design. Only in the heads are the con-
figures take advantage of the new free- ventions of archaism still obtrusive. The
dom. The sculptor, possibly Onatas, who hair on the scalp is engraved in wavy
was then the leader of the school of lines, with a row of curls over the fore-

Aegina, has posed them with extraor- head; the eyes, not yet sunk under the
dinary freedom: they lie wounded, on brows, do not rival the realism of the
their elbows, crouch in defense behind bodies; and the archaic smile still pre-

shields, stoop forward to assist a fallen dominates. The latter contrasts with
comrade or, spear in hand, to await the freedom of the figures, as it did in
the attack of an enemy. The action of the 'Apollos,' where it shared in the
these figures is far removed from the general formalization. To see a warrior

43. Wounded Warrior, West Pediment, Temple of Aphaia, Aegina (c. 495-485 B.C.) Glypto-
thek, Munich. Marble, height of head 18".
76 THE BEGINNINGS OF GREEK ART

(fig. 43), wounded no doubt to the stands in the center; warrior balances
death, smile while he pulls a javelin warrior; each pose duplicates the figure
from his breast is incongruous, unless opposite. And yet, much remains to be
we read the smile as a grimace of pain. solved. Though the balance is complete,
The problem of design within the low it is achieved by means too obvious to
triangle of the pediment offered a chal- sustain the interest of an observer. The
lenge to the artist. In the early pedi- axis is emphasized more than necessary.
ments, such as that of the Treasury of Though some rhythmic relation of the
the Siphnians at Delphi, the sculptor figures exists, their connection is not
had allowed the action to progress from strong enough to unite the design. The
left to right. Since the triangle of the carving of each individual figure has so
pediment established an axis, it de- absorbed the artist that little creative
manded in sculpture a balanced design. energy remains to solve the larger prob-
Moreover, realism requires that figures lem of the whole pediment.
within a single composition must all The century and a half that separates
approximate the same scale; therefore, the earliest 'Apollos' and the Aegina
if figures stand erect to fill the center pediments witnesses the sculptor's acqui-
of the pediment, it follows that those sition of the technical knowledge which
designed for the outer angles cannot enables him to carve stone with freedom
also be posed standing. This axiom was while retaining great respect for his me-
not grasped by the earlier designers; for dium. Progressing from crude attempts
example, the lateral figures of the Siph- at representation in the beginning, the
nian pediments are midgets alongside latest works show remarkable skill. Most
of the principal characters. of the fundamental problems have been

*%,,£a«L. ^JmS2%J>

44. West Pediment Restored, Temple of Aphaia, Aegina (c. 495-485 b.c.) Pediment 45' wide.

These problems are partly solved in solved. One problem remains— that of
the Aegina pediments (fig. 44). The the head. Even at Aegina, the conven-
subject, the Trojan Wars, appears to tions of the head obtrude themselves
have been arranged as two lines of bat- as archaisms in these otherwise advanced
tle, opened out like the leaves of a book. works.
Athena, who directs the fortunes of war, To previous generations, this century
 AEGINA PEDIMENTS 77

and a half had a merely archaeological ductions of more sophisticated ages,

interest; the absence of anatomical real- Though the goal of Greek sculpture
ism implied inability. Today we realize had not been reached, the sense of pat-
that while many of these statues do tern and design, the feeling for the ma-
solve only in part the twin problems of terial and for sculpturesque mass, pro-

design and representation, the best wel- vide these not yet mature works with an
come comparison with the greatest pro- artistic quality that needs no apology.
V Greek Art during the Fifth and Fourth Centuries b.c.

The end of the Persian Wars in 480 B.C. bronze Athena Promachos by Phidias
loosed a surge of creative energy in was made from the spoils of the battle
Greece to flow in all directions. To on the plains of Marathon. Athens in
have repulsed the unmeasured forces of particular enjoyed a generation or more
the Achaemenid empire with their own of great prosperity, partly due to the
small numbers and resources must Delian League; the smaller cities of this

have confirmed the Greeks' confidence league, which had banded together un-
in themselves. Surely the gods approved der Athenian leadership during the
their civilization and had protected it. Persian Wars, contributed money to
In literature, this date introduces the construct and man a navy for mutual
flowering of Greek drama at the hands defense. When peace returned, the
of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, Athenians assumed that, so long as pro-
while in the visual arts it marks the in- tection was provided, they might use
ception of that era which the later the funds of the League for their own
Greeks were to deem the climax of their ends. The civic works program under-
sculptural and architectural history. taken by Pericles in Athens, an extraor-
The Persians had destroyed much, es- dinary effort considering the size of the
pecially in Athens, and so had cleared city, could hardly have been completed
the ground for new undertakings. Also, without this money. However, the full

the spoils of war helped to provide the effects of the new wealth and the new
wealth for new creations: the colossal self-confidence did not at once reveal

78
 SCULPTURE FROM OLYMPIA 79

45. East Pediment Restored, Temple of Zeus, Olympia (468-460 b.c.) Pediment 91' wide.

themselves. About a generation had to finally, the transitions from group to

elapse before these conditions bore group leave something to be desired.
fruit. As regards the separate figures, a cor-

The largest corpus of sculpture from responding change appears. The sculp-
this generation is that from the Temple tor of the Centaur and Lapith (fig. 46)
of Zeus at Olympia, dated about 460 b.c. is no longer so conscious of his hard
It includes two pedimental groups and material.The extra decades of experi-
twelve metopes. The former (fig.
45) ence enable him to execute in stone
at once demand comparison with the
earlier pediments at Aegina. In the east
pediment, where we find the chariot
race of Pelops and Oenomaus, the tra-

ditional origin of the Olympic games,

chariots separate the principal charac-
ters from the subordinate. Conse-
quently, some concentration on the
major characters replaces the distrib-

uted interest at Aegina. In the Battle

of the Centaurs and Lapiths in the west
pediment, the figures are grouped in
twos and threes. Here, group balances
group, but only approximately, not
with the duplication of figure and even
of action that marked the late archaic
example. However, a few matters in

design remain to receive their final pol-

ish. The central group in the east pedi-
ment is monotonous because of the
repeated verticals of five standing fig-

ures; in both pediments a single erect 46. Centaur and Lapith, West Pediment, Tem-
ple of Zeus, Olympia (468-460 b.c.) Museum,
form too openly strikes the axis; and, Olympia. Marble, 6'8" high.
8o GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

whatever he wishes. While it is not yet and less defined than hitherto; as if to
true that he has lost respect for his emphasize their flowing contours, dra-
medium, he leaves his marble with less pery falls over his shoulder and wrist;
of the stony feeling than did his Aegina its plain lines and surfaces enrich, and
predecessors. Perhaps this is to say that are enriched by contrast with, the body.
he has become more realistic. Few stat-

ues have ever reached a finer balance

between conception and execution than
the Apollo (fig. 47) of the west pedi-

48. Head of Apollo, West Pediment, Temple

of Zeus, Olympia (468-460 B.C.) Museum,
Olympia. Marble, 17" high.

The obvious archaisms present at

Aegina vanish here (fig. 48); the hair

is less patterned, the eyes lose their

protrusion and the mouth its archaic

smile. In many figures details are sup-
pressed. The hair, for example, is sug-

gested by a raised surface like a skull

47. Apollo, West Pediment, Temple of Zeus, cap, a summary treatment possible be-
Olympia (468-460 b.c.) Museum, Olympia.
Marble, complete figure 10' high.
cause of the height above the ground
c.
at which these figures must be seen,
ment. This godlike figure guides the and because of the use of paint to dis-
fortune of battle by his presence alone, tinguish such parts as were visible. A
calm and majestic, with outstretched uniformity of expression in the faces
hand and quiet glance. Muscular masses tempts one to conclude that the artist

are still in evidence, but a little rounder was indifferent to human emotions, but
 SCULPTURE FROM OLYMPIA

49. Heracles and the Cretan Bull, detail, Metope, Temple of Zeus, Olympia (468-460 B.C.)
Museum, Olympia. Marble, complete metope $'•$" high, 5' wide.

a further glance at the Centaur and The metopes, placed not on the out-
Lapith (fig. 46) proves that such a side of the temple but over the porches
conclusion is unwarranted. The Cen- front and back, within the colonnade,
taur's distorted features convey his an- recount the twelve labors of Heracles.
ger and excitement, his bestiality in the The finest in design, that of Heracles

heat of battle as he bites the Lapith's and the Cretan Bull (fig. 49), conveys
arm, but the latter can hardly have the dynamic tension of action adjusted
been so stoical as this. The statue dem- to a sense of balance. In this location,
onstrates the Greek feeling that Lapiths, diagonals are the more desirable since
the gods, and the Greeks themselves they contrast with the vertical lines of
are above emotional display, though the triglyphs to either side and with
that may be permitted to inferior be- the horizontal direction of the other
ings liks Centaurs. Such higher beings parts of the entablature. These metopes
as Greeks and gods are uniformly se- are better preserved than the pediments
rene, detached from reality; they look because of their protected situation in
not at you but through you. the temple; but after all allowances
 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

Acropolis in Athens, was so natural that

cows used to low at it as they passed—
or so it was said. His most famous
statue today, the Discobolus or Discus
Thrower (fig. 50), must have been
popular in antiquity to warrant the
number of copies still preserved. Since
the original bronze has vanished, it is

hard to judge the quality of Myron's

work in most respects; but from the
pose and proportions of the copies, we
can recognize his preference for ath-
letic figures in violent movement, or,

more precisely, in a moment of equi-

librium between two periods of action.
This youth is modeled at just the mo-
ment when the backward swing of the
discus has been completed and the for-

ward revolutions of the exercise have

not yet commenced. In consequence a

certain poise is preserved, and the mus-

cles are not strained to the utmost. He
has the supple balance of a well-trained
50. Myron (c. 490-430 b.c.) Discobolus (c.

460 b.c.) Reconstruction, c. 4'6" high. athlete. The free pose, with the head
looking backward toward the hand that
have been made for weathering of the holds the discus, as Lucian describes
pedimental figures, it is apparent that it, consists of a series of curves that
the metopes are more carefully finished. turn the spectator's attention back into
In so large a body of sculpture, it seems the figure. Conceived in bronze, it is

probable that even if the work were de- not block-like, as were the archaic fig-

signed and controlled by a single artist, ures, but still retains the contained or
more than one man must have shared enclosed quality of the composition.
in the execution. Such an assumption The inadequacy of Roman copies in
may account for the variation in style conveying the beauty of the original
between the pediments and metopes at may be measured by turning from the
Olympia. Discus Thrower to the Charioteer from
At about this time, Myron reached Delphi (fig. 51), dated about 470 b.c.
his full creative power. He was famed Its sculptor is unknown, though on tenu-
in antiquity for the realism of his ous evidence the name of Calamis of
bronzes; his Heifer, set up on the Athens has been associated with it.
 MYRON - CALAMIS 83

51. Charioteer of Delphi (c. 470 b.c.) Museum, Delphi. Bronze, 5'n" high.
84 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

That an increased realism is compatible artistic center of Greece. On the Acrop-

with design is evident here; the deep olis, to replace the damage of the Per-
folds of the garment below the waist, sian Wars, the Parthenon, the Erech-
different one from another in depth and theum, the Propylaea, and the Temple
spacing, develop into smaller rhythmic of Wingless Victory were designed
folds over the shoulders. A compactness anew on a grand scale and with exqui-
and sculpturesque simplification form site refinement of detail. These, com-
the basis of this masterpiece. At the bined with other buildings constructed
same time, a love of realism is evi- elsewhere in the city and in Athenian
dent in the modeled feet, in the lively territory at this time, constitute a civic

curls escaping from the fillet with its effort unparalleled elsewhere in history.
inlaid silver fret which binds the hair It was the more remarkable in view of
over the temples, in the soft half- the size of this city state of 300,000
grown sideburns of youth untouched as inhabitants, including slaves. Pericles
yet by a razor, and in the eyes, which entrusted the supervision of these un-
are inserted in white paste with a black dertakings to Phidias, then the leading
disk to imitate pupil and iris. He looks sculptor in Athens; but for the archi-
as though at any moment he might tecture of the various buildings other
step from his chariot or turn his head men were responsible.
to speak to you. We must also recog-
In the Parthenon, begun in 447 and
nize that the proportions, the crisp ar-
completed by 432 B.C., Ictinus and
ticulation of the features, and the broad
Calibrates undertook to create the most
modeling of the surfaces are elements
splendid temple in Greece, one that
of continuity from earlier times.
should be worthy of Athena and a fit
These works illustrate the final steps
shrine for her image. Though not the
toward freedom taken by the Greek
largest Greek temple, its size is excep-
artist. By this time, near the middle of
tional, approximately 228 by 101 feet,
the fifth century, he controls his re-
measured along the stylobate (fig. 29).
sources; his medium, whether bronze or
Consequently, the usual six-column
stone, continues to influence his de-
front is here expanded to eight col-
signs, but it no longer dominates and
restricts them; his ability to conceive is
umns, with seventeen along each side.
Its proportions of width to length ap-
not hampered by an inability to exe-
cute; and, if he chooses to avail himself proximate the simple ratio of four to
of it, an accurate knowledge of the hu- nine. Built of Pentelic marble through-

man figure is at his disposal. out, the Parthenon marks the culmina-
When Pericles rose to power in tion of the Greek Doric temple. The
Athens during the 460's, a time of great adjustment of all its parts is the fruit

prosperity, he adopted a program de- of centuries of experiment by Greek

signed to make Athens the cultural and architects. Where the earlier temples
 PARTHENON 85

52. Ictinus and Callicrates, Parthenon, Athens (447-432 B.C.) 101' wide, 228' long.

had emphasized weight and power in the unbroken walls of the temples
proportions, the Parthenon (fig. 52) seemed to repulse the common man; in
balances strength and grace. The col- democratic Greece, the steps of the
umns, about five and a half lower diam- base and the open colonnade on all

eters in height, look sturdy but not sides invite him to enter its shade.
ponderous, and require a lighter entab- Greek religion was not a religion of
lature, approximately one fourth the the spirit, as Christianity is. It might be
height of the building. crudely described as a system of barter;
If the Parthenon has a completeness if an individual respected certain cus-
and perfection of form rarely found toms and performed sacrifices, he might
elsewhere, we must remember that the expect protection or favor from the god.
temple form is a simple problem by Emotion, love, adoration had little

comparison with the complex require- place here. A rational attitude dictated
ments of a Roman bath on the one its architectural expression, which seems
hand, or a medieval cathedral on the to cling to the earth. Moreover, unlike
other. The form seems expressive of a church, worship took place outside a
Greece. The deities of the Olympic Greek temple, at an altar in front of it.

pantheon, though more powerful than Within such a building, one could
men, and though immortal, were sub- hardly slaughter victims or pour out
ject to human passions— to anger, jeal- libations of oil or wine. The temple
ousy, and love. The scale of the Parthe- was a shrine to house the statue of the
non is not so large that man is insig- god, and though people could enter it

nificant in relation to it, as he is in the to see the statue, it was not intended to
French cathedrals. In autocratic Egypt, accommodate crowds. Consequently, its
86 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

visual effectiveness was greater on the To the Greek, man was incomparably
exterior than on the interior. the subject most worthy of his study.
Furthermore, the care lavished on the The purpose of the Greek sculptor, in
structure shows itself not only in the the century and a half after the Persian
larger aspects of design, but also in the Wars, was to achieve a version of the

processes of construction. While the figure that should be not so much like

columns seem to be vertical and evenly the individuals of his experience as an

spaced, careful measurements show that embodiment of their possibilities, an
the central openings are wider than ideal concept worthy to represent the
those at the corners, both on the front gods of Olympus. This goal is manifest
and the sides of the temple. Moreover, both in what he chose to do, with the

the columns tilt inward. The variations consent of his patrons, and in how he
in spacing and the departure from verti- did it. With all of the new knowledge
cally are so minute as to be almost at his disposal, the sculptor still limited
invisible, but they contribute to the im- himself to a few age types. His males
pression of stabilitv. The eye rightly de- might be adolescents, boyish forms of
mands in stone buildings some hint of fifteen or sixteen, slight and graceful,
greater strength at the corners— such but without the malproportions that so
strength being rooted in sound con- often mark that stage in a man's devel-
struction. But the most curious feature opment. A second type is the young man
of the Parthenon lies in the curvature (fig. 63) in his early twenties, now
of its main horizontal lines; the stylo- physically developed; and beyond that
bate is not a dead level but curves up- in turn, the type adopted for the older

ward slightly, 1V2 inches in a length of gods, Zeus and Poseidon, still in the
101 feet on the front, and on the side prime of life and physical vigor, full

4V4 inches in 228 feet. This refinement bearded, the muscles hardened by years
is visible when one sights along the line of exercise. The young woman, such as
of the top step. That the regular curves the Athena Lemnia (fig. 53), in age and
are due neither to accident nor time is growth is a fit sister to the young man,

certain; the Greeks felt it worthwhile to adult and sturdy; her type also matures,
incur the trouble and expense of such as in the Demeter of the Parthenon
careful construction to counteract an east pediment (fig. 57), heavier but
illusion of sagging, said to be produced with no signs of age yet apparent. To
when a series of vertical lines rest on the Greeks of this period, infancy was
a long horizontal line, or, in other immature and unworthy of the sculp-
words, by columns based on a stylo- tor's study, whereas old age, with its

bate. Whether such an illusion might attendant physical decline, was also
exist or not, the refinements prevented avoided. Only ideal types were suitable.
a mechanical appearance in the build- Furthermore, the artist was concerned
ing. only with the body as it might be, per-
 PERICLEAN SCULPTURE

tellectual and objective analysis of the

human figure. Through this approach
both the figures and their parts involve
clarity of definition, unity of structure,

and a formal description that tran-

scends reality and endows them with an
Olympian detachment.
The sculpture of the Parthenon is

basic today for an understanding of the

art of Periclean Athens, though it would
not have been so for one of Phidias'
contemporaries, who could examine his
huge gold and ivory Athena Parthenos
and the still larger Zeus at Olympia,
statues on which rested Phidias' repu-
tation in antiquity. But the intrinsic

worth of the materials of these statues

invited their destruction, and the copies
of them have only an archaeological in-
terest, whereas the Parthenon sculp-
ture is original. Although Phidias had
charge of that sculpture, its quantity is

too great to have been the product of

a single chisel. Its harmony of design
and its adaptation to the architecture
exhibit a unity postulating some guiding
spirit, but to carve 92 metopes, some
520 feet of frieze, and the monumental
figures of the pediments called for the

work of many hands. One may imagine,

53. Athena Lemnia (c. 450 b.c.) Head, Mu- without proof, that the opportunities
seum, Bologna; body, Museum, Dresden. Mar- drew to Athens in these years many
ble copy, 6'6" high.
artists— some of them of an older gen-
feet in proportions and detail, not as it eration, whose artistic style crystallized

ordinarily is. His treatment was general- about the time of the Aegina pedi-
ized, selective in the extreme; he elimi- ments, others who grew up with the
nated all accidentals and individualisms sculptors of Olympia— and there were
that might distract attention from his doubtless many men, still in the forma-
broad purpose. He thus created an in- tive stage of their careers, whose meth-
88 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

y-

54. Centaur and Lapith, Metope, Parthenon, Athens (447-432 B.C.) British Museum, L( idon.
Marble, 3'n" x 4' 2".

ods of expression might have been ferences of hand; some are mediocre,
shaped by Phidias himself. reminiscent of the angularity but de-
The metopes, completed before the void of the quality of the Aegina mar-
frieze and pediments, confirm this sup- bles; others seem to show the influence
position. Their position on the building of Myron. A few are wholly Phidian in
proves that they were in place bv style (fig. 54). Here a Lapith of superb

438 B.C., by which time the building physique has pulled a Centaur back on
was roofed. The best-preserved exam- his haunches. Surely such an incident
ples deal with the struggles of Centaurs might have occurred this way— or could
and Lapiths. They exhibit striking dif- it have? How could the Lapith's robe
 PARTHENON SCULPTURE 89

fall behind the Centaur? The sculptor ens, magistrates, and young men come
has ignored the actual for the sake of to pay honor and offer sacrifices to the

design. To emphasize the broad masses patron of their city. In the west frieze,
of the bodies he has used the alternate youths form the procession, standing
lights and darks of simple folds, as he beside their horses or mounting them
has used the thrusts of the Lapith and (fig. 55). The parade moves along each
Centaur to left and right to create a side toward the east, so that it accom-
dynamic composition suited to its posi- panied, so to speak, the visitor to the
tion on the building. Perhaps this met- Parthenon. As he walked along the side
ope was carved by the master, since he of the building toward the door at that
probably executed one or two himself end, he glimpsed it at the top of the

as models for his assistants. cella wall inside the colonnade. On the
The frieze illustrates the Panathenaic east end a group of seated gods (fig.

procession, the culmination of the 56), guests at Athena's festival, form,

quadrennial celebration in honor of as it were, a divine reviewing stand, and
Athena, which carried to her in the look backward toward the procession
Parthenon the robe embroidered during as it approaches around the corners of
the preceding four years by maidens of the building.
Athens. In this ceremony all the citi- To treat without monotony a band of
zenry of Athens are represented: maid- sculpture so long and narrow— it meas-

ly. Horsemen, West Frieze, Parthenon, Athens (447-432 b.c. British Museum, London.
Marble, -$'q" high.
9o GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

. :

jgjft.

56. Seated Gods, East Frieze, Parthenon, Athens (447-432 b.c.) British Museum, London.
Marble, 3*4" high.

ures over 520 feet in length but only Ordinarily in low-relief sculpture, the
3 feet 4 inches in height— called for parts of the figure project from the
fertility of imagination. The clothed or background in proportion to their
nude figures vary in pose, in their rela- roundness or mass in the human figure;

tion to the horses, mounted or on foot, would project

thus, the calf of the leg
in front or behind, active or quiet. more than the ankle, the head more
Chariots, sheep and cows for the sacri- than the neck. However, with the light
fices, youths on foot bearing water jars, coming from below, a normal projection
magistrates, maidens, and gods add to of feet and legs would allow them to
the wealth of material filling the frieze cast heavy shadows, and so draw over-
without crowding it. Its location on the much attention to themselves at the
building under the ceiling of the porch, expense of the head and torso. There-
where light could not reach it directly fore, Phidias invented a system of slop-
but had to be reflected from the floor ing outward the planes of relief. The
of the porch or the ground outside, de- boldest projection of the upper parts of
manded an exceptional technical scheme. the relief may reach 2. A
1
inches, while
 PARTHENON SCULPTURE 91

those in the lower part are restricted to the single figure, which overstressed the
a maximum of i A
l
inches. Also, to indi- axis of the pediment, is replaced here
cate several planes, as when a man by a group of two figures to create a

stands behind a horse, or as in a four- a dynamic contrast of action. In the

horse team, he lets the planes overlap west pediment, for example, Poseidon's
like shingles, to create more apparent movement to the right answers that of
depth than would ordinarily be possible Athena,who draws away to the left.
with this degree of relief. Second, on either side group echoes
The pediments climax this sculptural group without duplication; in any pair,

scheme. In the east pediment, Phidias Phidias varies the pose, sex, or costume
depicts the Birth of Athena; in the west, without losing the larger balance.
the Contest of Athena and Poseidon Third, a sequence of action leads the
for the patronage of the land of Attica. eye from the angles up to the climax
Though the central groups of both pedi- in the center, and fourth, individual
ments have now vanished, it is possible, figures and groups alike exhibit a series

through sketches made centuries ago of beautiful transitions from one to an-
and from descriptions, to reach some other. For example, in the three figures

idea of their arrangement. Their com- identified as Demeter, Persephone, and

position is the culmination of the line Iris (fig. 57), the first leans against the
of development in pedimental sculpture second, whereas Iris is more independ-
that began back in archaic times. First, ent. However, the extended arm of

> .

57. Demeter, Persephone, and Iris, East Pediment, Parthenon, Athens (447-432 b.c.) British
Museum, London. Marble, Persephone, $'4" high.
02 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

58. Theseus, East Pediment, Parthenon, Athens (447-432 B.C.) British Museum, London.
Marble, 5'8" long.

Persephone overlaps that of Iris to carry lest they destroy the effect of ideal in-

the eye from one to the other. More- tellectualized conceptions in godlike
over, the deep fold of drapery that form. The so-called Theseus (fig. 58)
sweeps back from Iris's shin leads over illustrates the same method as that ap-

in one direction to the lap of Perseph-

one, and in the other develops into
reversed curves to complete the action
of Iris.

In the drapery of these figures, Phid-

emphasize those
ias selects his detail to

folds and movements that help to ex-

plain the meaning of each character; for
instance, the flowing curves of Iris's cos-
59. Erechtheum, Athens (421-405 b.c.) North
tume express her haste to spread the
porch 5' 2" wide.
3
news of Athena's birth. Minor folds
which might be accurate in a realistic plied to the figure. The principal masses
sense would have no artistic validity are firmly defined; veins, wrinkles, minor
here and are suppressed bv the sculptor, changes of surface are ignored, not be-
 PARTHENON SCULPTURE 93

cause Phidias and his associated artists these minutiae seemed incidental. Such
were unaware of them, but because, in elimination of detail, if carried to an
their intellectual analysis of the figure, extreme, may result in lifeless generali-

60. Erechtheum, Athens (421-405 b.c.) North porch 35V wide.

94 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

61. Mnesicles, Propylaea, Athens (437-432 B.C.) Central portico 69' wide.

zation, as it does at the hands of Roman these characteristics also exist in the
copyists, but judiciously employed it copies of the Athena Parthenos.
produces epic conceptions. As a nine- Great as is the artistic effort repre-
teenth-century sculptor remarked on sented by the Parthenon and its sculp-
first seeing these marbles, They look ture, it was only one of the Periclean
like human beings, but where is one undertakings for the beautification of
to find such models?' Such models do Athens. If, in the Parthenon, the apogee
not, and never did, exist; given a thor- of the Greek Doric order is reached,
ough knowledge of the body, one must the Ionic order comes to its peak in the
then analyze it, distinguish the impor- Erechtheum. The asymmetrical, not to
tant from the incidental, and give form say amorphous, plan (fig. 59) of this

to the significant parts. The Theseus is edifice as built is unique in Greek archi-
particularly interesting, since it alone of tecture, which makes it more than prob-
allthe figures of the pediments has the able that the conception of the archi-
head preserved. The broad skull and tect was not completed. The north
rounded cheeks appear to indicate the porch (fig. 60), exquisite in propor-
type of head preferred by Phidias, since tions, is graceful but has only as much
 PERICLEAN ARCHITECTURE 95

strength as this lighter order permits. line the central passage Mnesicles se-

The Ionic never lends itself to an ex- lected the slender Ionic, which left a
pression of austere power, unlike the more open interior. This passage is ac-

Doric. The door of the north porch is cented by a large portico, flanked by
sumptuous, the size of the jambs and smaller colonnades on either side, one
of the cornice at the top proportioned of which gives access to the little Ionic

to the scale of the opening. On the Temple of Wingless Victory (fig. 30)
south front of the Erechtheum, in the on a bastion in front of the Acropolis.
A sculptured frieze or parapet sur-

rounded this eminence, adorned with

low reliefs of Victories driving cows to
sacrifice. The style is similar to but
more developed than that of the Par-
thenon, the clinging drapery thinner
and with less elimination of detail.
A second sculptor of this generation,
62. Propylaea, Athens (437-432 b.c. Central
portico 69' wide.
almost as famous in antiquity as Phid-

ias, was Polyclitus. The uninspired

small Porch of the Maidens, the archi- copies from late Greek or Roman days
tect substituted six female figures for of his best-known statue, the Dorypho-
columns to support the superstructure. rus or Spearbearer (fig. 63), give little

In theory, it is dubious whether such idea of his ability. Pliny implies that
a motive is desirable, but one must ad- much of the beauty in the bronzes of
mit that the device handled with tact Polyclitus lay in the surface treatment,
on a small scale adds a charming vari- always the first quality lost in a copy.
ant to the customary portico. The sturdy However, we see here the so-called
figures look capable of carrying the walking motive of Polyclitus. Like the
weight above, which is lightened by the Statuette from Ligourio (fig. 41), the
omission of the frieze from the entabla- Spearbearer rests his weight on one foot,
ture. hardly touching the ground with the
The Acropolis, as the ceremonial cen- other. Therefore, the axis of the body
ter of Athens, needed a suitable gate- assumes a slightly reversed curve, with
way. Mnesicles designed the Propylaea one hip higher than the other, but the
(fig. 61) for this purpose, and although torso bent enough to balance the fig-

circumstances prevented his ambitious ure. The ease of posture realized in this
plan (fig. 62) from being carried out in way was carried further by the succeed-
its entirety, even the part that was built ing century. Polyclitus modeled the
exhibits a monumentality of scale fit for Doryphorus to illustrate his canon or
an entrance to this great center. The theory of the ideal proportions of the
principal colonnades are Doric, but to human body. He himself said, 'Success-
96 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

ful attainment in art is the result of Polyclitus worked out his arithmetic of
minute accuracy in a multitude of the figure. The head, for example, was
arithmetic proportions/ With parts of one seventh the height of the figure; the
the body as units of measurement, foot three times the length of the palm
of the hand; the lower leg to the knee-
cap, six palms; from the kneecap to the
middle of the abdomen, six palms; and
so on. As in the proportions of the Par-

thenon, these are simple ratios.

Polyclitus defines each part of the

figure with a clarity of shape that leaves
it an integral and yet independent unit
of the larger whole. Indeed this tend-
ency is characteristic of Greek thought
at this time on all matters. The column
is so defined as an entity in itself that

it can be and has been set up by itself

as a monument, such as the column of

Trajan in Rome, and yet for all its own
unity, it subordinates itself to the larger
unity of the temple. The singleness of
purpose and expression of the temple is

composed of the sum of its parts. Simi-

larly, the choruses in Aeschylus and

Euripides are poems, independent enti-
ties, and yet essential to the larger ex-

pression of the drama, as that in turn

forms part of the trilogy. This craving
for clarity of form was deep-rooted in the

Greek mind. It is suggestive that Greek

mathematics, as far as it was devel-
oped, found no place for the concept of
infinity; that, by definition, is unformed,
amorphous, and thus incomprehensible
to the Greek mind. This clarity of form
applied to sculpture derives from the
linear structure of archaic figures,

whose forms attain greater breadth and

63. Polyclitus (active 450-420 b.c.) The Do- more idealism in the fifth century. Poly-
ryphorus, National Museum, Naples. Roman
copy, 6' 6" high. clitus gave perfect form to the ideal
 POLYCLITUS - VASE PAINTING 97

toward which the Greek sculptors had ficed for both support and setting, the

been moving for centuries. later painter feels it necessary to indi-

By this time, vase painting also had cate uneven ground and to suggest by
freed itself of the last traces of archa- repetition of the ground line the exist-

ism. Although the figures are still indi- ence of two or more planes in depth.
cated in line, the Slaughter of the That such an innovation is a step in the
Niobids (fig. 64) on the Orvieto vase direction of realism of setting is unde-
shows how free the painter is to repre- niable; but this needless complication

--""' ' ..•;—': "'

64. Slaughter of the Niobids (460-450 B.C.) Louvre, Paris. Red-figured vase; height of band
c. 10".

sent his characters in any posture he destroys the clarity of design and the
may wish. Some of the types are ideal- adaptation of the figures to the surface.
ized and reminiscent of statues by Phid- The gain in reality hardly compensates
ias; the drawing and the composition, for the decline in decorative value and
on the other hand, reflect the manner the indifference to the medium. The
of Polygnotus, the foremost painter of great period of vase painting had
the time of Pericles.At least as signifi- passed; and as realism advanced, the art
cant as new-won freedom is the
the declined to a craft, its place being taken
irregular ground line on which Apollo by the celebrated painters whose works
and Artemis and the children of Niobe have vanished.
stand or lie. Whereas in archaic vases, Toward the end of the fifth century,
such as the Heracles and Antaeus (fig. the Peloponnesian War grew out of the
39), the lower border of the scene suf- struggle for supremacy between Athens
98 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

and Sparta and, before it ended, in-

volved and weakened most of the Greek
city states. It foretells the uninspiring
history of the fourth century, a dismal
series of petty wars, when one city after

another, singly or in coalition, rose to

pre-eminence for a few years, only to
fall before the jealousy of its neigh-
bors. The spectacle was hardly edifying;
it tended to lower the prestige of the
state. In Pericles' time the city had
been the great patron of the arts. The
Parthenon and the Temple of Zeus,
with their sculpture, were civic under-
takings, grand in scale and public in
purpose; so, too, were the gold and

ivory Athena and the Olympian Zeus

of Phidias, as well as Polyclitus' Hera
of Argos of the same materials. In the
fourth century the cities, impoverished
65. Corinthian Capital, Tholos, Epidaurus (c.
by war, could not afford such enter-
360-320 b.c.) Museum, Epidaurus.
prises, and the citizens, partly inspired

by the philosophers, developed their Portraits became commoner and more

own individualism, and no longer sub- literal than the generalization of fifth-

merged their personalities as before in century examples. None of these changes

the collective expression of the city. are carried to excess, but they point the
Inevitably, the artists worked more new direction for art, and introduce
than hitherto for private individuals. At some of the tendencies that, after the
least by comparison, they began to turn death of Alexander, became more pro-
from idealism to reality, although they nounced.
did not yet carry that quality to an ex- In architecture, a feature of the late
treme. They concerned themselves with fifth century, seen in the Temple of
the minor gods, or with intimate aspects Apollo Epicurius at Bassae, is the inven-
of the greater deities. The Olympian tion or development of the Corinthian
divinities lose their abstract grandeur, order, in detail the richest of the three
their serene dignity; within limits, they Greek orders. Somewhat similar to the
display more human emotions. The Ionic, the column has a more elaborate
artist and his patrons began to approach base. Its capital, the easiest identifica-
the work subjectively, and substituted tion card of the order, is illustrated in
sentiment and prettiness for grandeur. the fourth-century Tholos at Epidaurus
 FOURTH CENTURY 99

(fig. 65); its inverted bell-shaped mass tional aspects of life, an interest sug-
is encircled with two rows of acanthus gested by the wide-open eyes, the lips
leaves, whose tips curl away from the parted as though the figure were breath-
bell; above them, paired tendrils coil ing heavily, and the tragic implications
like watch springs under the corners of of much of his subject matter.
an abacus, concave on all four sides. Praxiteles, on the other hand, pre-

Such a capital, less austere and less ferred the cheerful and pleasant side of
functional than the Doric, seems analo- existence. The number of his works
gous to the subjectivity of its contem- cited in ancient literature exceeds that
porary sculpture. An entablature, richer of Scopas', and testifies to his popular-
than the Ionic, is characterized by a ity. He was exceptional among the great
cornice, supported on modillions, brack- sculptors of Greece in that he preferred
ets of stone whose under surface is

formed by a curling acanthus leaf. How-

ever, the Greeks seem to have used this

order sparingly, and mainly in small

buildings, such as the Choragic Monu-
ment of Lysicrates in Athens; whereas
its richness was to bring it popularity
in Roman times.
Three sculptors rose to fame at this
time, namely, Praxiteles, Scopas, and
Lysippus. The first two were active early
in the fourth century, but of Scopas
little is known. Classic authors mention
25 works by him. Of these, the very
fragmentary sculpture of the Temple of
Athena Alea at Tegea reflects his style,

and even this bears the same relation

to Scopas that the Parthenon marbles
do to Phidias. His most famous statue,
the Meleager, was often copied. One of
the best versions is that in the Fogg
Museum in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
but the discrepancies among existing
replicas are so pronounced that few
trustworthy conclusions about Scopas
can be deduced from them. This wan-
dering artist seems to have concerned 66. Praxiteles (active c. 390-330 B.C.) Hermes
Carrying the Infant Dionysus. Museum, Olym-
himself with the stormier, more emo- pia. Parian marble, 6'n" high.
100 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

marble to bronze. Consequently the

designs of his statues, such as the
Hermes Carrying the Infant Dionysus
(fig. 66), an original Greek work, take
into account, within limits, the ma-
terial. Extant marble copies of the
Discus Thrower and the Doryphorus
(fig. 63) derived from originals in
bronze; since the cross section of stone
at the ankles seemed weak, the copyist
introduced the ungainly tree stump to
support these athletes. But Praxiteles
used the support as part of the motive,
so that, no longer extraneous, it became
an integral unit of the design. In this

instance Hermes, at rest for a moment

on his journey, lounges against the tree

stump over which his drapery falls.

The pose of the figure involves a re-

versed curve in its axis, what is often

called the S-curve of Praxiteles. This
device developed from Polyclitus' walk-
ing motive, but is softer and more re-

laxed. Subtlety has replaced power; en-

ergy has given way to languor. The
dreamy eyes suggest the introspective,
as though Hermes' thoughts were far
67. Praxiteles (active c. 390-330 b.c.) Aphro-
away. This effect comes from lids drawn dite of Cnidus. Vatican, Rome. Roman copy,
half over the eyeball, the lower lid marble, 6'8" high.

barely indicated, its edges blurred. The

beauty of finish that ancient writers technique. Definition has yielded to a
extol in the work of Praxiteles is illus- softer, filmier approximation of reality.

trated in the textures of the drapery, No longer do we see each muscular

which simulates cloth with remarkable mass separated, and the whole figure
success; of the hair, looking more like composed of the sum of its parts; in-

hair than the formal versions of earlier stead, the parts fuse, one plane melts
designs; and of the flesh, with its subtle into another; for Praxiteles was more
sensuousness. The modeling, closer to concerned than Polyclitus, for example,
clay modeling than to stone carving, with the visual effect of the figure, and
rebels against the fifth-century sculptor's consequently less interested in an in-
 PRAXITELES 101

tellectualized statement of its structural in the whole world/ Today it is impos-

parts. sible to accept this glowing opinion of
These changes entail a decline in what seems to have been the first ren-
sculpturesque quality and open the path dering of the female nude in Greek
to the softness and sentiment of later sculpture in the round. The motive,
times. The Hermes itself, however, re- Aphrodite preparing for the bath, per-
tains because of its idealism much no- mits the goddess to drop her clothing
bility of conception. The effeminacy, on a vase beside her, which gives the
often observed in copies of Praxiteles' same kind of support within the com-
work and in statues influenced by him, position as that provided by the stump
resulted from an overemphasis by the on which Hermes leans. This theme,
later craftsmen of qualities that he him- though subjective and sensuous, avoids
self kept under control. The wide dif- sensuality; the goddess is unaware of or
ference in quality between the Hermes indifferent to the presence of specta-
and the Aphrodite of Cnidus (fig. 67) tors, and is in fact as languid as the

testifies to the inadequacy of Roman Hermes. By analogy with the Hermes,

copies. The former is probably unique it seems only fair to conclude that the
as the only extant example carved by extraordinary fame in the past of this
the chisel of an artist whom antiquity Aphrodite was partly owing to a beauty
ranked among the great. The latter, far of finish in the original, and possibly in
more famous than the Hermes in classic part to the sensational nature of the
times, was according to Pliny 'the fin- motive.
est statue not only by Praxiteles but The death of Mausolus, Satrap of

68. Greeks and Amazons, Frieze, Mausoleum, Halicarnassus (c. 350 b.c.) British Museum,
London. Marble, 2'n" high.
102 GREEK ART DURING THE FIFTH AND FOURTH CENTURIES B.C.

Caria, in the middle of the fourth cen- eighth the height of the figure rather
tury, gave hiswidow Artemisia the op- than the one seventh that Polyclitus
portunity to build the Mausoleum at deemed ideal. The Apoxyomenos, a
Halicarnassus as his tomb and memo- statue of an athlete, who after exercise
rial. Its scale and the quantity of its scrapes from his skin the dust and the
sculpture made it one of the seven oil with which young men anointed
wonders of the ancient world. Three themselves, is extant only in later copies;
friezes in high relief, a chariot group, it seems to illustrate these taller pro-
and manv individual statues enriched portions. The Agias, on the other hand,
it. One frieze showed a chariot race, is a Greek statue (fig. 69), probably
with figures influenced by Scopas; an- produced by the workshop of Lysippus
other the Battle of Centaurs and Lap-
iths; while a third dealt with the strug-
gle of the Greeks and Amazons (fig.

68), and at once invites comparison

with the Parthenon frieze. In the Mauso-
leum, the characters, rendered in bolder
relief, are widely spaced, thus creating
an emphasis on each individual figure.

The violence of action demanded by

the subject permits insistence on the
diagonal line, as the fighters attack or
withdraw from their adversaries. The
drapery of many of the Amazons is so
disposed that the figures are seen virtu-
ally in the nude, another example of the
fourth-century interest in the female fig-

ure previously displayed by Praxiteles.

The story of fourth-century sculpture
closes with the career of Lysippus, a
younger man than Praxiteles or Scopas,
and one of the court portraitists of Alex-
ander the Great. Tradition says that Agias,
69. Lysippus (active c. 370-325 b.c.)
Lysippus worked in a bronze foundry, Museum, Delphi. Marble, 6' 5" high.

and, though he did not restrict himself

to that medium, he seems to have pre- himself and, if so, under his personal
ferred it to marble. The lighter propor- supervision. The academic quality of

tions of the figure favored in his gen- the Apoxyomenos is less obvious here,
eration are emphasized by his new canon as though Lysippus' new formula had
of proportions, wherein the head is one not yet been developed, but the ap-
 LYSIPPUS

proach to a more visual rendering is tion,paralleling the change in Greek

evident. Pliny tells us that 'while others drama between the tragedies of Euripi-
had made men as they were, he had des and the comedies of Aristophanes.
made them as they were seen to be During these two centuries, the
(quales viderentur esse) J The statement Greeks first acquired such knowledge
characterized the direction taken by and skill as enabled them to be realistic

fourth-century sculpture culminating in in their version of the figure. That in

Lvsippus, namely a decline in the intel- formation was no sooner available than
lectual analysis of the figure, replaced they turned to an intellectual ideal.

bv a softer articulation of the body, less Then the austerity of that concept
definition of its separate parts, and yielded in turn to more intimate and
hence a greatei naturalism. The old human conceptions, which inevitably
clarity of structure is no longer sought; led to a realism that was to mature only
in its place, there is a looser organiza- after the death of Alexander.
VI The Character of Later Classic Sculpture

HELLENISTIC

Short-lived though it was, the empire pantheon was already waning, partly un-
of Alexander the Great created a pro- der the influence of the philosophers
found change in Greek life and ideals. and partly in the normal course of his-

For the two previous centuries, Greek tory, when Greece was brought into
culture had exhibited a completeness closer contact with the religions of
within itself. The archaic influences Egypt and the Near East. Oriental cults,

from Egypt and Mesopotamia had dis- some of them mystic, rose to momen-
solved or had been absorbed, permitting tary or permanent consequence: for ex-

the Greek or Hellenic civilization its ample, the Oriental conception of Ar-
purest expression. With the armies of temis as the earth mother. As in mod-
Macedonia, Hellenic culture overflowed ern times, many shades and varieties of
the geographic limits of Greece, affect- belief existed simultaneously.
ing the art of other countries as remote Moreover, the Hellenistic age gave
as India; but as it spread, Hellenic cul- birth to criticism and erudition, one
ture itself was modified by the ideals cannot say at the expense of creative
of the conquered lands, thus producing and imaginative energy, but supplemen-
a Hellenistic or Greek-like world. Some tary to it and modifying it. Libraries
of its characteristics grew from seed al- were founded, such as that at Perga-
ready planted in the fourth century. mum, and especially the one at Alexan-
The old confidence in the Olympic dria which contained half a million

104
 THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD 105

scrolls. Scholarly editions of the 'classics united in different combinations. A

of literature' were compiled, just as to- wider range is now permitted the sculp-
day we have annotated versions of tor; no longer is he restricted to a lim-
Shakespeare and Chaucer. After all, ited series of types, but rather he may
Homer was as remote from the Greeks turn at his discretion to figures of old
of the third century as Chaucei is from age or infancy, to genre scenes based
us in the twentieth century. With schol- on incidents of daily life, and even to
arship came a development of science. narrative or descriptive topics handled
Aristotle, after the middle of the fourth as pictures in relief sculpture.

century, tended to base his philosophy These tendencies gain momentum

more on the world as he found it than during the third century, but reach
did Plato, who early in the same cen- their climax only after the conquest of

tury dealt with the world as he would Greece by Rome, that is, about 146 B.C.,

have liked it to be. Plato's Republic de- the date of the fall of Corinth. Then
scribes an ideal state; in The Poetics, the Greek cities were pillaged of their
Aristotle examines tragedy, for instance, art treasures. Some generations earlier
by an analysis of the elements that ap- the Roman conquest of Greek cities in

pear in successful tragedies. During the southern Italy and Sicily had stimu-
third century, Archimedes had diverse lated Roman admiration for Greek art.

interests in many branches of science; But with the growth of Rome, there
he experimented with the lever, discov- were not enough originals to satisfy the
ered the principle of specific gravity, and demand and a thriving trade in copies
contributed also to astronomy. Euclid of famous originals sprang up, analo-
developed his theorems of geometry, for gous to our production of casts and cop-
centuries the basis of that division of ies of paintings or even photographs of
mathematics. Eratosthenes measured masterpieces. These copies, often made
the earth, computed its diameter and by Greek craftsmen, provide much of
circumference, and came remarkably our information about noted Greek stat-
close to the truth. ues. However, through most of its his-

Such a complex background is apt to tory, the Roman taste was realistic and
produce an art period without the con- measured the success of a work of art
sistency characteristic of earlier Greek by its fidelity to nature; this taste helps
epochs. Strains and counterstrains weave to explain not only the naturalism of
a diverse texture, difficult of compact their own sculpture, but also the avid-
treatment. An art of the connoisseur ap- ity with which the Romans sought cop-
pears, with the variety of delicate fig- ies of Greek originals from the time of
urines from Tanagra and elsewhere— the Parthenon and later, but paid slight
statuettes in terra cotta made from attention to the archaic period. Occa-
molds in which the head, the body, sionally, but only occasionally, do we
and perhaps other elements might be find artists who recognized the beauty
io6 THE CHARACTER OF LATER CLASSIC SCULPTURE

of pattern in archaic art enough to use

it for inspiration. From the more so-
phisticated generations the later design-
ers borrowed freely, sometimes from one
man, sometimes from another, or stole
ideas from Lysippus to combine with
others more likely to be found in the
fifth century. This free borrowing from
the past, called eclecticism, like so many
other characteristics of late classic sculp-
ture, is echoed in recent times.

One of the finest examples of Hellen-

istic sculpture is the Aphrodite of Melos
(fig. 70), to which archaeologists have
assigned many dates from the fifth cen-
tury on. But so far as is known, the
fifth century avoided the nude female
figure in art, and while the fourth cen-
tury accepted it, such statues as the
Aphrodite of Cnidus (fig. 67) are com-
pletely nude. It remained for later times

to try the effect of a partly draped fig-

ure. The small head exaggerates the

lighter proportions instituted by Lysip-
pus, again an indication of late work,
and the cryptic motive also seems un-
likely in earlier times. But although in

all probability a late work, the Aphro-

dite of Melos has an undoubted beauty;
its idealization and its sense of form
rank it with the masterpieces of any
epoch.
70. Aphrodite of Melos ( 3rd-2nd cent. B.C.)
The one thread that leads through Louvre, Paris. Marble, 6'8" high.
the maze of these later centuries is the
emphasis on realism, the precise record tuosity. The Victory of Samothrace (fig.

of the visual, the individual, and even 71), reconstructed from many frag-

the accidental, in contrast to a concern ments, is conceived sensationally as she

with the imaginary or ideal in form. lands on the prow of a ship to sound
Such a purpose demanded a technical the trumpet of victory. The whole fig-

dexterity that at times approached vir- ure is made to convey movement. A

 HELLENISTIC SCULPTURE IO7

71. Nike of Samothrace (c. 200 b.c.) Louvre, Paris. Marble, 6'6" high.
io8 THE CHARACTER OF LATER CLASSIC SCULPTURE

thin flowing costume, reminiscent of lus I, late in the third century. This
late fifth-century statues, gathers here ruler commemorated his defeat of the
and there in heavy masses, as it might Gauls by sculptured groups, some deal-
have toward the middle of the fourth ing with the subject itself, while others,
century. However, these eclectic fea- like the struggles of the Gods and
tures merge with the Hellenistic desire Giants, of the Greek and Amazons, or
for intricacy when this drapery sweeps of the Greeks and Persians, implied
around from the front to the side, draw- comparison of his success with the epic
ing with it the attention of the spec- and historic contests of civilization and
tator. The front seems incomplete in barbarism. Two and a half centuries
itself; so too does the side; and only earlier, an archaic sculptor had rejoiced
when the work is seen from several in his new-won command of pose and
points of view can the artist's concep- material in the Wounded Warrior (fig.

tion be fully grasped. In short, he insists 43) from Aegina. He had carved all es-

that his admirer walk around the work. sentials of the athletic body freely and
This attitude, at the opposite extreme with understanding to create the effect
from the method of archaic sculpture, he wanted. Anatomical details and pe-
had been growing steadily, until here it culiarities of the individual were unim-
reached its full possibilities. portant to him. On the other hand, the
The purest realism of the time char- sculptor of the Dying Gaul (fig. 72)
acterizes the first school of Pergamum, enhances the impression of physical
represented by the dedications of Atta- prowess with the Gaul's superb body,

72. Dying Gaul, Pergamum (c. 225 b.c.) Capitoline Museum, Rome. Marble, 3' high.
 HELLENISTIC SCULPTURE IO9

73. Gods and Giants, Frieze, Altar of Zeus, Pergamum (197-159 b.c.) Museum, Berlin. Marble,
'6" high.
7

whose anatomy is thoroughly observed figures implied that to defeat the vigor-
and recorded, no part overemphasized ous Gauls was even more difficult than
and none neglected. The hair, matted it had been two and a half centuries
with grease, follows the custom of the before to repulse the Persians.
Gauls. His calloused feet are cut and If these dedications of Attalus I form
scratched on the soles, as though by the first school of Pergamum, the chief
sharp stones. Gore drips from the monument of the second school of Per-
wound in his side, while on the ground gamum under Eumenes II, early in the
litter of the battlefield creates a similar second century before Christ, is the Al-
reality of setting. However, it is his tar of Zeus at Pergamum. The altar

courage, his reluctance to accept defeat itself, surrounded on three sides with
while he yet breathes, that gives vitality Ionic colonnades and on the fourth ap-
to the figure. These qualities are vividly proached by a flight of steps, was placed
in contrast to those of the Dead Per- on a high platform on whose walls a
sian of the same series of statues, who frieze of figures in high-relief sculpture
seems soft even in death. This latter, (fig.73) depicted the time-honored, if
dressed in trousers which the Greeks not hackneyed, theme of the struggle of
considered effeminate, has crooked his gods and giants. The designer's concept
arm under his head as though to wel- of his subject typifies the scholarship of
come death as an escape from the lash hisown day. To represent only the well-
of his masters. The contrast of these known gods of the Olympic pantheon
no THE CHARACTER OF LATER CLASSIC SCULPTURE

would not have provided enough figures less real strength in these gods or giants
to fill this length of over 400 feet. It than in the Dying Gaul; in fact they
seems as though the sculptor had read look like professional strong men, mus-
all the available sources in literature to cle-bound in every part. Thus as repre-
compile as complete a catalogue of gods sentation they leave something to be
as possible, together with all attributes, desired; in other respects, they are even
whether objects or attendants, that less satisfactory. Emphasis on every-
could be associated with them. Many thing results in emphasis on nothing;
of these characters did not enter into the protrusion of each small mass in the
the common knowledge of the people figures creates a monotony of small
of his day; therefore the sculptor had to lights broken bv deep shadows. A sense
label each figure. In the Parthenon such of strain and of striving for effect re-
an expedient was unnecessary, since the sults from the exaggerated muscular
principal figures would be recognized in- structure, the agitation, and the sensa-
stantly by any Greek and it made little tional treatment. The sculptor is a re-
difference whether the minor individ- markable technician, not to say a vir-

uals were identified or not; their deco- tuoso, but he lacks that supreme gift

rative and expressive bearing on the of the artist, a knowledge of when to

major theme was too clear to need com- stop. In literature the concept of Zeus,
ment. That this later sculptor felt it king of gods and men, enthroned on
necessary to label his characters indi- Mt. Olympus and able to enforce his
cates an atmosphere of pedantry rather will by the thunderbolt that only he
than of imaginative creation, as though can wield, is grand and vivid. But a
a Shakespearian actor paused in the thunderbolt hardly lends itself to defi-

midst of his lines to deliver a footnote nition in stone; to render it as a torch,

to his audience on the interpretation of spiked at one end, that could be twirled
'miching mallecho.' in the hand like a tomahawk, or could
The many figures in the Pergamene project, splinter-like, from a leg, destroys

relief are well united, partly because the that concept. Admirable in some re-

legs of the giants change into serpents spects, and typical of its generation, the
whose coils wind in and out among the Pergamene frieze, nevertheless, grows
characters to bind them together. Like tiresome, whereas the beauties of the
the Parthenon frieze, but unlike that Parthenon frieze increase with famili-
of the Mausoleum, figures fill the space; arity.

in other respects the contrast is marked. This Hellenistic advance in realism

These figures exaggerate reality, if such involved a decline or disappearance of
be possible, and so insist on the muscu- idealism. If that is true of style in the
lar structure that each independent Dying Gaul and the Pergamene altar,
mass in the torso clamors for attention. the abandonment of idealized subjects
Heavy though the muscles are, one feels further exemplified it. While not un-
 HELLENISTIC SCULPTURE 111

known before, genre figures— that is, Even when a child was a part of the
characters taken from daily life whose subject, as in Praxiteles' Hermes Carry-
interest lies more in their action than ing the Infant Dionysus (fig. 66), the
in their abstract implications— now ac- earlier artists had avoided the character
quired wide popularity. The tendency of of infancy. That character, inherently
the fourth-century sculptors toward hu- human, is here essential to the effect.

manization and the growth of emotion Reality again predominates in the pic-
and sentiment prepared the way. In torial reliefs, also called pastoral, Hel-

subject, these genre figures are diverse, lenistic, and Alexandrian reliefs. They
but a passion for realism binds them correspond in spirit as well as in date

together in treatment. For example, we with the Idylls of Theocritus and his

find a Drunken Old Woman singing in associates. Some of them may have
her cups, her knees clasping the wine come from the workshops in Alexandria

jar, her scrawny neck like that of a in Egypt; they first appear in Hellen-

plucked chicken, her features haggard,

her skin loose, and the physical decline
of old age apparent in every detail. Such
a work reaches its realistic goal. Equally
literal is the Old Market Woman in the

Metropolitan Museum, even to the in-

dication of feathers on the fowl she car-

ries to market in her basket; if she is

less disgusting than the previous exam-

ple, one should observe that in each
case it is the subject and its associations,
not sculptural considerations, which dic-
tate one's reaction. Aside from the vir-

tuosity of technique, the artist was con-

tent to rest his case on his subject,

presented as vividly as possible. Some of

these genre figures, such as the second-
century Boy with a Goose (fig. 74) by
Boethus, are humorous and mock-he-
roic. The subject stimulates in us a 74. Boethus (active 2nd cent, b.c.) Boy with
a Goose, Museum, Munich. Marble, 2 '9" high.
pleasant sensation compounded of sen-
timent and amusement. To be convinc- istic times, though they continue to be
ing in its comedy, the figure must have produced much later; frequently their
the proportions of infancy, the large subjects are pastoral, reflecting an urban
head and the plump arms and legs. dweller's attraction to the simplicity
112 THE CHARACTER OF LATER CLASSIC SCULPTURE
— *-
V""- •*.
T\>"

75. Farmer Driving His Bull to Market. Museum, Munich. Marble, 11" x 12".

and peace of country life and nature; resentation or narrative, even to the
and there is a strong tendency to design inclusion of landscape elements, such as
the relief as though it were a painting. buildings and trees in the background.
Typical is the Farmer Driving His Bull Such details of setting may descend
to Market (fig. 75), a pleasant bucolic from the litter of the battlefield on the
scene of a peasant carrying a basket of bases of the dedications of Attalus I

produce; he and his bull pass a build- (fig. 72), or from the pictorial features
ing, partly in ruins, and approach what that helped to fill the great frieze from
may be an arched city gate. In the upper Pergamum. The artist keeps some of
left-hand corner, some distance away, is these features in very low relief, and al-

a shrine housing a statue. The same lows others to project boldly; thus he
technical skill is in evidence here as in implies depths that do not exist and
the genre figures. The sculptor presents prepares the way for the illusionism
a picture in stone, remarkable as rep- sometimes present in Roman sculpture.
 ROMAN SCULPTURE AND PAINTING "3
ROMAN
With the growth of realism and indi-
vidualism, an objective attitude in por-
traiture is inevitable. Such portraits as

exist from the fifth century in Greece

and many even from the fourth century
are idealized and generalized. They
show types, not persons, hardly to be
distinguished from statues of gods. The
Hellenistic sculptors, however, turned
eagerly to portraiture and have left us

many individualized statues of such

men as Demosthenes. By Roman times,
the patron demanded of his artist a de-
scription of his features as precise as an
official report. The matter-of-fact, prac-
tical spirit of the Romans dwelt in real-
ity, not in an imaginative sphere. Con-
sequently, their architecture deals with
specific problems, their sculpture re-

cords the men who for centuries ruled

the Western world. The Unknown Ro-

man (fig. 76) of the first century before
Christ is a speaking likeness. One can
76. Portrait of an Unknown Roman ( 1st cent.
imagine this stern individual debating b.c.) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Terra
in the senate, or leading the legions to cotta.

fresh conquests; one cannot picture him

enraptured by art or literature. For his first and second centuries of the Chris-
portrait, he would expect that the indi- tian era. These paintings were made
vidual bony structure of his skull, the during the lifetime of their subjects.
worried furrows of his brow, all his fa- After death, these life-sized portraits
cial peculiaritieswould be present in were held in place over the head of the
true proportion. He would want to com- mummy by wrappings so arranged that
pare his bust to himself. And yet this the painting would be visible. The me-
portrait reveals his character through his dium selected was encaustic, in which a
features. considerable range of pigment sus-

Realism as an artistic goal is no less pended in melted wax could be applied

evident in the series of painted portraits to a surface of wood. The artist de-
from Fayum in Egypt, mostly from the voted his greatest attention to the head,
n4 THE CHARACTER OF LATER CLASSIC SCULPTURE

77. Augustus, from Prima Porta (c. 10 B.C.) Vatican, Rome. Marble, 6'8" high.
 ROMAN SCULPTURE "5

78. Frieze, Ara Pads Augustae, Rome (13-9 b.c.) Uffizi, Florence. Marble, $'5" high.

delineated in light and shade, with un- The procession on the frieze of the
usually large eyes, and with much suc- Ara Pacis Augustae (fig. 78) contains
cess in characterization. The costumes, a double file of portraits, including
on the other hand, are indicated in a those of Augustus and Livia, and be-
broad or impressionist manner. tween them her son. The same indi-

The purpose of a state portrait is dif- viduality reigns here, though Augustus
ferent, but only slightly. The Augustus appears rather as a citizen than as a
from Prima Porta (fig. 77) not only re- ruler. The foreground figures are in high
sembles Augustus as a man, but also relief, those of the background in low
indicates his position as emperor. Again relief. This device, like that in the pic-

the head is realistic; it tells us exactly torial reliefs, indicates distance and re-

how this ruler looked. His oratorical minds one of the spatial effects in Ro-
pose, as though he were addressing his man architecture. In this case, the
troops, and his baton of command be- sculptor restricts himself to long quiet
speak his position. Virgil traces the an- rows of figures, with no landscape in the
cestry of the Julian line of emperors background to distract attention from
back through Aeneas to Venus, and the the procession, but nevertheless the Ara
cupid and dolphin beside Augustus al- Pacis Augustae looks forward to illu-

lude to this compliment. The statue sionism.

represents a great man, accustomed to The panels from the Arch of Titus
command, and idealizes his position. (fig. 79) in the Roman Forum illus-
n6 THE CHARACTER OF LATER CLASSIC SCULPTURE

trate that quality. The Roman legion- the second century. The incidents ar-
aries in a.d. 81 carry the spoils of Jeru- range themselves in sequence, but are
salem in triumph, and are about to pass not separated by means of a frame or
through an arch. Ignorance of perspec- any other device, though the action of
tive makes the illusion less convincing the figures, like those in Egyptian re-

than it might be otherwise, but the liefs or wall paintings, serves to describe
planes of high relief for the foreground each scene adequately. This band re-

figures, contrasted with low relief for cords the campaign: the soldiers build a
those in the background, and coupled bridge or a camp, attack the enemy or
with the landscape elements beyond are attacked; the emperor addresses his
them, betray a love of fact. The Ro- troops or offers sacrifices. A clearer pic-
mans did not trust the imagination; all ture of Roman military life and meth-
circumstance must be specific and as ods would be hard to imagine; indeed,
descriptive as possible. its fascination lies in what it depicts of
The motive in the Arch of Titus was the past rather than in the sculpture
a single isolated event, but at times the itself.

Romans wanted to tell a continuous Aside from the encaustic portraits, the
story in sculpture. A spiral band in re- largest single group of Roman paintings
lief winds around the shaft of the Col- are from Pompeii, though parallel work
umn of Trajan. In what is called the exists elsewhere. Archaeologists estab-
method of continuous narration, the lish the chronology of these murals in
sculptor recounts Trajan's campaign four groups. The Incrustation or Archi-
against the Dacians (fig. 80) early in tectonic Plastic style extends down to

79. Spoils of Jerusalem, Arch of Titus, Rome (a.d. 81) Marble, -j'io" high.
 ROMAN SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 11 7

80. Trajan s Campaign against the Dacians, Column of Trajan, Rome (a.d. 117) Marble,
band 3'
4
" high.

80 b.c. Panels of unbroken color or design, painted columns, arches, en-

diaper patterns divide the wall into hor- tablatures, and pediments appear to re-
izontal zones, as though in imitation of cede to enframe landscape and figure
marble slabs or other features of archi- compositions, and to obliterate the sur-
tectural decoration. The Architectural face of the wall. Nevertheless, the scenes
style occupies the next seventy years. around which this architectural setting
Perhaps under the influence of stage is disposed convey some idea of the
11 THE CHARACTER OF LATER CLASSIC SCULPTURE

achievements in painting during the

reign of Augustus. The Odyssey Land-
scapes once illustrated eight incidents,
of which six are preserved, of the wan-
dering of Ulysses as told in the tenth
and eleventh books of The Odyssey.
These panels, linked by painted red
pilasters or flattened columns, contain
small figures set within imaginary land-
scapes. The purpose of the artist seems
not to attempt to render specific scenes,
but to create a decorative setting. The
indication of atmosphere and of per-

spective, and the sense of depth given Si. Cupids as Wine Dealers, House of the
Vettii, Pompeii (c. a.d. 50-79) Painting, fig-
by contrasting color, echo the tendency ures c. 6" high.
in sculpture toward illusionism in its

depth and spatial sense. are playful in character, but not inap-
The Architectural style yielded about propriate as wall decorations. Many mu-
10 b.c. to the Ornate style. The sem- rals from Pompeii have been preserved,
blance of architectural construction but it is well to remember that that city
hitherto preserved tended to become was not a fashionable center and there-
subordinate to decoration and of minor fore its paintings are at best pallid re-

importance. The paintings within its flections of the quality of Roman paint-
borders gain in prominence as though ing.

imitating easel pictures. Decorative de- The estimation of late Greek and Ro-
vices, Egyptian in origin, recall the Ro- man art has changed radically through
man conquest of that country not long the centuries. During the Renaissance,
before the Ornate style began. Finally, when Greek art of the earlier periods

most Pompeian paintings date from the was as yet unknown, the kind of sculp-
Intricate style, which commenced about ture reviewed in this chapter was con-
a.d. 50 and came to an end with the sidered supreme, the acme of skill, and
burial of the city in a.d. 79 by the erup- the ultimate to which a sculpture might
tion of Mt. Vesuvius. The painted ar- hope to approach. Even Michelangelo
chitectural settings become fantastic, felt it to be the great source of inspira-

with reed-like colonnettes and ara- tion, however much he might differ

besques in abundance. Extensive panels from it when he conceived his own

of flat color, perhaps a vivid red or sculpture. But with the discovery of the
black, enclose diminutive scenes. Those earlier phases of Greek art in the late
from the House of the Vettii, such as eighteenth and early nineteenth centu-
the Cupids as Wine Dealers (fig. 81), ries, this judgment was reversed. The
 ROMAN PAINTING IIQ

new wave of enthusiasm rated the Hel- dent. Less imaginative— one might al-

lenic as supreme, almost above criticism, most say less creative— certainly less in-

and came to regard Roman art as de- tellectual and abstract than Greek art

generate Greek, to castigate its lack of of the time of Pericles, Roman sculp-

taste, its want of ideals, its arrogant and ture has a straightforward, matter-of-fact

vulgar realism. More recently, we have power, developed from later Greek work
modified that estimate in turn with a but in its essence peculiarly Roman. Its

saner realization that although Roman realism, its interest in illusionism, and
art owes much to Greek, it is the ex- its desire to tell a story in the method
pression of a different civilization, one of continuous narration are all fruits of

that is by no means inferior to the the practical Roman genius, the same
Greek in all matters. Generally, this mentality that made their architecture

later sculpture is weakest where most it the most grandly organized in space up
follows or tries to follow Hellenic prece- to their time, if not indeed of all time.
 IStSI^

VII Roman Architecture

The character of the Romans inevitably (Aeneid, Book VI, J.

W. Mackail transla-

led them to greater success in architec- tion, p. 126, Modern Library.)

ture than in sculpture or painting. The Roman architecture grew from Ro-
direct applicability of architecture to hu-
man needs. Its engineering accomplish-
man needs brought it into accord with
ments are stupendous; its sense of plan-
their factual spirit, that had called forth
ning hitherto not even approached. Its
those realistic portraits. One thinks of
weakness, as might be expected, lies on
the Romans as soldiers, not as imagina-
minor elements,
the decorative side;
tive poets; as ambitious and efficient
such as moldings, are carved as applied
administrators and statesmen, rather
decoration rather than developed as aes-
than as artists. Theirs was a world of
thetic growths; never do the Romans
affairs, not the abstract realm of the
approximate that sensitiveness and re-
mind and spirit. Virgil himself recog-
straint, that perfect sympathy of design
nized and admitted this characteriza-
and form in these details, which typifies
tion.
the Parthenon and Erechtheum. They
Others shall beat out the breathing confuse the ornate with the rich. Their
bronze to softer lines shall draw living
. .
aim is an imperial magnificence, capa-
lineaments from the marble ... be thv when
ble at its best of grandeur, but,
charge, O Roman, to rule the nations in
less inspired, of grandiosity or vulgarity.
thine empire; this shall be thine art, to or-
dain the law of peace, to be merciful to the To imagine that Roman architecture,
conquered and beat the haughty down. any more than Roman sculpture, is de-
120
 THE ROMAN ORDERS 121

generate Greek is to mistake its signifi- of detail, the Roman Doric has indi-

cance. Nevertheless, the admiration of vidual bases for each column. Nine di-

the Romans for things Greek made in- ameters are normal for the Roman
evitable a strong influence from Greek Ionic, and straight lines unite the vo-
forms, if not from the Hellenic spirit; lutes of the capital, instead of the
for example, the orders of Roman archi- graceful curves exemplified in the Erech-
tecture derive from those of the earlier theum. The Corinthian, the most popu-
civilization, although even here changes larof the orders in Rome, and the
are evident. In the first place, the three Composite order are ten diameters in
Greek orders increase to five in num- height. The latter, of still more elabo-
ber; secondly, the Romans modify even rate design than the Corinthian, derives

those most traceable to the Greek (fig. its name from its capital, where the
82). Though existing remains show that scrolls of the Ionic are superposed on

DORIC IONIC CORINTHIAN COMPOSITE

12. Roman Orders.

no rigid system of proportions prevailed, the acanthus leafage of the Corinthian

Vitruvius, a Roman architect of the order. While the Romans effect dozens
first century before Christ, codified rules of modifications in smaller matters in
of design for the several orders. He pre- each of these systems, in general they
scribed seven lower diameters for the prefer opulence and discard the restraint

column height of the simplest Roman of Hellenic detail.

order, called the Tuscan, a plainer ver- The Romans borrowed the form of
sion of the Doric. The Doric itself rises their buildings sometimes from the
to eight lower diameters, a Roman con- Greeks and sometimes from the Etrus-
tinuation of the Greek trend to reduce cans. The latter had already developed
its mass; in addition to other changes a civilization of their own, strongly in-
122 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
fluenced by Greece, while Rome was cially in the entablature with its carved
still a small city state. Their use of the modillions and scroll design in the
arch and vault may well have affected frieze. The plan of the Maison Carree
Roman architecture, while Etruscan is more Etruscan than Greek in deriva-
temples, many of them constructed of tion. The cella increases in width; there-

wood and terra cotta on a raised plat- fore, although the colonnade remains,
form, expanded the cella to the entire much of its length consists of engaged
width of the temple, and deepened the columns: that is, of columns attached
porch, restricted to the front, to the ex- to the wall rather than standing free in
tent of two or three intercolumniations. front of it. It is often said that the Ro-
The Roman rectangular temple, for ex- mans used the column less as a struc-

, 5
83. Maison Carree, Nimes (16 B.C.) 49'3" x ^>$ 4t "', 5 '9 " high-

ample the Maison Carree at Nimes (fig. tural member than for decoration, and
83) in the south of France, dating from it may be true that if these columns
the age of Augustus, is an amalgam of were removed, the walls and roof of
Greek and Etruscan influences. This the Maison Carree would still stand,
small building is beautifully propor- whereas no column of the typical Greek
tioned and sumptuous in detail, espe- temple could be taken away without
 RECTANGULAR TEMPLES 12 3

causing that part of the building to with the ground that the Greek temple
collapse. To that extent, the engaged maintains through its unbroken lines of

column is not a vital structural element. steps; instead, the Maison Carree seems
Nevertheless, it stiffens and thereby setup as a monument. The podium de-
strengthens any wall to which it is ap- mands a flight of steps as wide as the

plied, and thus makes it possible to front of the building, which leads to a
build a wall thinner than would be safe deep porch. Since access is possible at
without it. This additional strength can- one end only, the Maison Carree has
not be expressed quantitively in sim- a more explicit direction than the Greek
ple figures. The critic should recognize temple, whose ends are almost identical.
this, and not condemn the engaged col- The greatness of Roman architecture,
umn as though it were a form of moral however, is not due to its debt to the
turpitude. Greeks or to the Etruscans; it comes in
Whereas the Greek temple with its spite of it. The permanence of their
free-standing colonnade and continuous roads is proverbial; built for the ages,
porch may be approached on all sides, the foundations are in some instances
the cella of the Roman temple extends still in use today. Roman bridges and
the full width of the building and rests especially Roman aqueducts, such as
on a pedestal or podium, another indi- the Pont du Gard at Nimes (fig. 84),
cation of Etruscan influence. This ar- have a stark grandeur; when solving
rangement lacks that close connection problems like these, the Romans con-

84. Font du Gard, Nimes (c. a.d. 150) Total length 902'3", total height i6o'o/\
12 4 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

centrated on their purpose, not on ar- another that the building would seem
chitectural effect, and indeed the beauty coherent.
of the Pont du Gard lies in its direct- These interiors need uninterrupted
ness. The sturdy masonry of its plain spaces. To carry the roof of a large hall
arches, their austerity not mitigated by by the pier and lintel system of the
even a molding, and the sense of scale Greeks would mean that the supports
derived from the contrast of the large would interrupt that space; columns
arcades with the smaller arches at the could not be placed far apart, and the
top that carried the water channel to sense of interior volume would be lost
feed ancient Nimes, are powerful as in the forest of columns, as it is in the

Rome itself. hypostyle hall of the Egyptian temples

The cardinal achievement of the Ro- (fig. 12). Before the days of steel con-
mans in architecture, however, is their struction, such spaces could be obtained
planning of vast and complex edifices. only through vaulting. The Romans
To say that the Parthenon is not well early became proficient in building
planned would be absurd, but the arches, perhaps— but by no means cer-
Greek temple with its single chamber tainly— under Etruscan inspiration. In
is a simple problem. Greek life did not some instances, including most of the
call for complicated buildings, since it aqueducts, the arches are of stone, but
was lived largely out of doors. In the the concrete arch and vault are com-
Roman buildings, the architects had to moner in the best-known Roman build-

provide enormous spaces to shelter the ings. Vaulted architecture involves prob-
crowds of such vast cities as Rome, and lems unknown in the pier and lintel
so relate these interior volumes to one system. An arch (fig. 85) is composed

LATERAL THRUST
euTTRESSEO BY
SHEER WEIGHT

85. Structure of an Arch.

 VAULTED EDIFICES 12 5

of wedge-shaped blocks, called voussoirs. are to be erected, a single form of cen-

The blocks near the center, though tering may be constructed and moved
pulled downward by gravity, cannot fall from one arch to another as each is

unless they push their neighbors so far completed. Similarly, since a vault is

apart that the wider dimension of the composed of arched surfaces, a repeti-

block at the top can squeeze through tion of similar shapes in vaulting will

the narrower space at the bottom. perhaps effect great economy in center-
Therefore, the lateral pressure of the ing. Because the shape of the centering
contiguous blocks holds each voussoir determines the under surface of the
in position. This outward pressure of vault, a series of sunken panels or cof-

the central stones, called thrust or more fers could all be formed from a single
precisely lateral thrust, must be coun- piece of centering, and thus through
teracted, for clearly if it is not resisted using repetitive shapes in their buildings
or buttressed, the central blocks will the Romans economized on skilled

push aside their neighbors and fall. But- labor.

tressing may be effected in two basic
ways. Another arch of the same size
may be built beside the first, as in an
arcade; then, the thrust of one arch will

meet and balance the thrust of the next.

Secondly, a mass of material can be pro-
vided by a thick wall or otherwise so
heavy that the thrust of the arch or
vault cannot push it over or move it.

Moreover, the weight of a masonry

vault greater than that of a wooden roof
necessitates heavier supports, larger
walls, or bigger piers.

Finally, we must consider how an

arch can be built. Once the blocks are
in position and given sufficient but-
tressing, they will hold themselves there,
86. Pantheon, Rome a.d. 120-124) I n"
but as the stones are placed upon one
terior diameter, 142'.
another, although those at the sides
might be held in place by friction on The geometry of the Pantheon, dated
the blocks below them, those nearer the a.d. 120-24, one of the most famous of
center must have some temporary sup- Roman vaulted structures, is a sphere
port, or centering. This is usually of (fig. 86). A vast dome rests on, and its

timber, and calls for more or less com- lower part is contained within, a cylin-
plex carpentry. If a series of like arches der of masonry thick enough to support
126 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

and buttress its weight and thrust. At crete should be covered by some more
present, the thrust in the Pantheon is finished surface and therefore, origi-

probably small, since the concrete of nally, sheathed the exterior of the Pan-
the dome appears to be monolithic; if theon with marble, which has now van-
so, as in an inverted teacup, no thrust ished; but the austere cylinder of
exists. However, until the concrete had brick-faced concrete may even have
hardened, thrust would have been pres- gained in impressiveness thereby. Such
ent. Unlike the domes of the Renais- a mass is imposing through its size and
sance, the dome of the Pantheon is not through the simplicity of its shape. The
a dramatic culmination of the exterior. colonnaded portico, splendid though it

Only the upper half of its height is may be in itself, seems out of place by
visible as a low saucer-like form to contrast, like an excrescence on so colos-

crown the cylindrical mass of the walls sal a mass.

(fig. 87). The Romans felt that con- The dome of the Pantheon, one of

87. Pcuitheon, Rome (c. a.d. 120-124); portico (27 b.c.) Portico 108' wide.
 THE PANTHEON 12 7

m tnm
88. Colosseum, Rome (a.d. 70-82) 1 57'6
r/
high.

the largest in the world, creates an un- zontal row. More than a single form
paralleled sense of unity and space, with was certainly constructed, but such a
nothing whatever to interrupt its un- system might be built with a small
broken volume. Extensions of the in- group of centers, moved around the
terior space into the thickness of the dome as one part afteranother was
walls produce seven niches or chapel- completed. The floors and walls of the
like areas at intervals, but always as Pantheon were originally sheathed in
arms of the main spatial area rather thin slabs of marble; that surfacing did
than as separate volumes. The under not look structural, as did the solid

surface of the dome is marked off in marble blocks of Greek temples; it was
squares, or more exactly in trapezoids, treated frankly as a veneer, almost like
by horizontal rings crossed at regular wallpaper, to add the beauty of color
intervals by bands radiated from a sin- of the veined marble to the wall sur-
gle opening, 30 feet in diameter in the faces. To use marble thus seems legiti-

center of the dome, which lights the mate, so long as it does not suggest that
whole building. The coffers or sunk the surface is doing structural work. So
panels within these trapezoids are re- splendid a wall covering reflects im-
peated around the dome in every hori- perial Roman power, able to draw its
128 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

materials from the length and breadth complex arrangement of those stairs

of the empire and to concentrate limit- lead through the arcades on each level

less wealth and resources of labor. to the seats, and of course on the

The remarkable preservation of the ground floor possible ingress and egress

Pantheon, in contrast to the ruins of through all the arches simplified the

most Roman buildings, is the result of handling of such throngs.

its having been converted into a Chris- The Roman combination of arch and
tian church. The interior finish and a column, known as the Roman arch or-

section of the exterior of the Colosseum der, is nowhere better illustrated than
in the Colosseum. The structure rests
on the arches, but those are enframed
by an engaged column on each pier,

which supports an entablature; thus the

columns and entablature create a rec-

tangle around the arch. This use of the

orders, like the engaged columns of the
Maison Carree, if not wholly decorative,
is less structural than the Greek. It does,

however, hold in check the visual move-

ment created by the arches, and bal-
ances their dynamic appearance with
the repose of the pier and lintel system.
Colosseum, Rome (a.d. 70-82) 620'

5*3 In the three lower stories, these orders

are superposed. In such a design, the
(fig. 88) have disappeared. This huge sturdiest order is placed at the bottom,
bowl (fig. 89), designed in the first cen- the lightest at the top; thus the Tuscan
tury of the Christian era to accommo- serves on the ground floor, the Ionic on
date some 50,000 people, served the the second, and finally, the Corinthian
same purpose as our football stadium terminates the series. Each order sup-
does today: a setting for spectacles, ports above its entablature a parapet,
gladiatorial combats, and the like, to be that also acts as a pedestal or base for
attended by throngs of people. The the order above, and thus serves as a
three stories of arcades, to which a link between the stories.

fourth story was added later, by their Many Roman buildings exemplify
horizontal continuity echoed the ellip- this combination of arch and column,
tical plan and supported tiers of seats such as the triumphal arches intended
rising above the arena. To permit so to commemorate the victories of Ro-
large a crowd readily to find their places man emperors. Some earlier examples,
and as easily to leave them, multiple like the first-century Arch of Titus in
stairways and exits were needed. The the Roman Forum, have but a single
 COLOSSEUM - TRIUMPHAL ARCHES 12 9

90. Arch of Constantine, Rome (a.d. 312) 82' wide, 6~'~" high.

opening; but the more elaborate Arch to its scale and size, its bold propor-
of Constantine, rebuilt in the fourth tions, and its decorative richness both
century (fig. 90), near the Colosseum, of architectural features and of sculp-
is triple; a large passage in the center ture. He is dull indeed who does not
is flanked by smaller ones. Though the perceive in such a monument the pomp
columns in this case are free-standing, and circumstance of imperial Rome.
they perform the same purpose in de- The Roman feeling for space is no-
sign as if they were engaged. Here at where more evident than in the Basilica

last one really finds the decorative use of Constantine (fig. more accu-
91),
of the column; they support nothing rately known as the Basilica of Maxen-
but the statues, which in turn look as tius, since that emperor began the proj-

though they were added to give some ect between a.d. 306 and 312. What is

excuse for the columns. Since they do preserved, colossal though it be, repre-
not touch the mass, the columns can sents less than a third of the original
add nothing to its stability, which, in building (fig. 92). For more complex
any case, is patently sufficient. But to problems like this, the simpler vault
consider a triumphal arch as an exer- forms no longer suffice. A hemispheri-
cise in construction is absurd. The Arch cal dome suggests a circular building
of Constantine looks imposing, thanks like the Pantheon. A semi-cvlindrical
i
3
o ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

91. Basilica of Constantine, Rome (a.d. 310-313) Interior length 265'

barrel vault covers a rectangular area tunnel vault. The groined or cross
like the passages through a triumphal vault obviates these difficulties; if two
arch, but since it requires continuous equal barrel vaults intersect at right
support on each long side, as well as angles, their groins or lines of intersec-
continuous buttressing, it tends to be tion will form a diagonal cross in the
heavy and difficult to light, best adapted square covered by their intersection. If

to tunnels and hence often called a that square, then, be taken as a unit,
it need be supported and buttressed
only at the corners, and therefore may
be lighted from all four sides or any
combination of them, and for the same
reason it can be combined with other
groined vaults or barrel vaults. The
three groined vaults of the central aisle
Maxentius covered an
in the Basilica of

enormous volume, extended on each

side by barrel vaults. Since each of
these barrel-vaulted compartments con-
92. Basilica of Constantine, Rome (a.d. 3:
313) Interior 265' x 195'. tinued the transverse axis of one of the
 ROMAN PLANNING 1
3
1

major bays or sections of groined vault- called exedrae, to conclude the trans-
ing, the connection between them was verse axis, provided meeting places
unmistakable, and the impression of or- where the businessmen of Rome might
ganized space was inescapable. Though conduct their activities. Doubtless small
the Basilica of Maxentius, like most shops found room within the colon-
Roman ruins, has long since lost its sur- nade. The further side of the court was
face treatment, the pattern of octagonal blocked by the Basilica Ulpia, again a
coffers still enlivens the under surface common meeting place, whose axis once
of the vault; but most impressive is the more crossed the major axis at right
scale of this fragment, which commem- angles, and again was terminated by
orates the Roman engineering genius exedrae. Beyond that in turn was the
and the wealth and administrative column of Trajan, still on axis, and
power necessary to carry to completion finally, in the center of yet another axial
such a project. court, the Temple of the Divine Trajan
The Roman genius for planning completed the whole coherent scheme.
might be expected to display itself in Certainly the most remarkable in-

such civic centers as the forums. How- stances of Roman planning are found
ever, the most celebrated of them all, in the great imperial bathing or thermal

the Forum Romanum, grew slowly establishments. Bathing became a ritual

through the centuries. New buildings under the Roman Empire, and the
were added from time to time with lit- buildings provided not only for hot, me-
tle relation to the old. Magnificent dium, and cold baths, dressing rooms,
though it was, restorations of it leave and halls, but also for all sorts of con-
an impression of confusion. As a meet- veniences that might be associated with
ing place, the Roman Forum satisfied them; small shops around the perime-
the needs of the city while it was still ter, libraries where the more studious
small, but with its growth under the patrons could relax before or after bath-
Empire to a population estimated at ing, palaestra in which exercise might
well over a million, all available space prepare the visitor for his ablutions, gar-
was exhausted. Therefore, emperor after dens where he might stroll after they

emperor built his forum adjoining the had been completed, and so on. With
old center to accommodate the over- the bath as a primary excuse, all and
flow, and since these imperial forums more than all the functions of a mod-
were designed as units, one can look to ern country club were combined in one
them for examples of the Roman abil- vast composition.
ity in planning. In the Forum of The plan of the Baths of Caracalla
Trajan, dedicated in a.d. 113, a single (fig. 93), built early in the third cen-
principal axis gave unity and clarity to tury, shows a characteristic organiza-
the whole. First, a large court, flanked tion, developed on the basis of a com-
by colonnades and with curved shapes, plex pattern of crossed axes. The pnnci-
*3 2 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

crossed axes; it is more than a disposi-

tion of symmetrical shapes on paper.
Such a plan is fundamentally the or-

ganization of a succession of volumes; it

leaves its mark, almost subconsciously,

on the mind of the visitor. A sequence
of vistas results from the forethought
and imagination of the architect who
relates these multiple requirements to
one another. The layman is soon aware
of inconvenience in a building not ade-
quately planned, even though he fails

to recognize the reason; but the design

93. Baths of Caracalla, Rome (a.d. 211-217) of the Baths of Caracalla guides the
Central building, 750' x 380'.
visitor directly to the services he wants.

pal structure is placed within a rectangle

of subsidiary buildings, on axis with an
entrance and again with the stadium at
the rear. Each major axis is adequately
terminated. Consider the long axis of
the central hall; not only are the three
bays of the hall based upon it, but it is

prolonged at either end by a vestibule-

like chamber, only partly separated
from the hall by colonnades, but
enough so to prepare the visitor for
something different beyond. Each of
these vestibules leads to colonnaded
courts, still on the same axis. On the
further side of these courts within the
colonnades, niches, intended to enframe
statues, give termination to this axis.

Moreover, it is apparent that most of

the units placed upon this axis have
94. Baths of Caracalla, Rome (a.d. 211-217)
secondary axes, less developed but suffi-
Central hall, restored, 183' x 79', 108' high.
cient to bring coherence and clarity to
the complex of rooms and services de- The main hall of these baths (fig. 94)
manded by the bath. was roofed by three groined vaults like
The importance of this type of axial those that once covered the central aisle
planning does not lie in the pattern of of the Basilica of Maxentius. From the
 ROMAN PLANNING X
33

lunettes or semicircular windows, at the and the Eastern or Orthodox Church,

sides as well as from either end, light coupled with the centuries of domina-
streamed in to flood the space. The tion of the Greeks by the non-European
vaults appeared to rest on Corinthian Turks, removed Greece from the main
columns supporting blocks of entabla- stream of Western culture to whose ori-

ture, but these really served less to hold gins she had given so much. Such clas-

the weight of the vault, which was car- sic elements as may be discovered in

ried by the solid mass of masonry be- Western medieval art were Roman.
hind the columns, than to give visual When, in the fifteenth century, the

intimation of that support, a declara- new energy called the Renaissance

welled up in Italy, the Italians naturally
tion, so to speak, of the structural
sought guidance from imperial Rome,
forces. The scale and impressiveness of
and as that movement spread north of
this hall, its space and light, made it a
the Alps, it carried with it the enthusi-
source of inspiration to architects of
asm for Roman classic forms, which,
much later periods. The concourse of
though modified, remained the only
the Pennsylvania Station in New York
sources of inspiration until the end of
is inspired by it, and gains much of its
the eighteenth century. At that time,
impressiveness from the Roman system
Greek art was rediscovered by Western
of design.
Europe and, from then on, examples of
Roman architecture has exerted a
direct Greek influence occur, but even
greater direct influence than the Greek
then the restricted scope of Greek ar-
on later European and American devel-
chitecture could not replace the flexi-
opments. For one building that traces bility of the Roman principles of plan-
its ancestry to Greece today, there must ning and their applicability to later
be a hundred that descend from Rome. problems. The extent of this influence of
To some extent, this must be attributed Rome on later times is a matter of his-
to geography; aside from the vast extent toric fact. When varied problems of de-
of the Roman Empire, Italy lies nearer sign arose during the nineteenth cen-
the center of the European circle than tury, the academies of the European
Greece, and was consequently more countries turned to Rome, the one
familiar through subsequent history. previous civilization that had faced
Moreover, the differences of religion be- comparable problems of interior space

tween Western or Roman Catholicism design.

VIII The Arts of the Early Church

EARLY CHRISTIAN ART ruler, and to the steady decline in

The year 476, when the last of the

power of the central government and its

Roman emperors in the West was dis-

subservience to an unruly army. The lat-

placed by his German soldiers, is merely ter was recruited from among the bar-
the central point in a long economic barians who exerted pressure in the

and political decline. It used to be be- West at this time, because of unsettled

lieved that the barbarian Goths, Franks, conditions in Asia, where the Han Em-
Vandals, and other peoples, who poured pire in China was breaking up and
across the frontiers of the Empire dur- northwest India was being sacked by
ing the fifth century, were responsible Nomadic invaders.
for its shown
collapse. Further study has Late in the third century, Diocletian
that the barbarians did no more than divided the Empire for administrative
give the final push to an empire already convenience into halves, East and
riddled by the economic troubles of the West. The step resulted in almost in-
third and fourth centuries. It is doubt- dependent histories for the two. While
ful whether the disappearance of the the empire in the West disappeared,
last Roman emperor from Rome would the Eastern branch persisted for cen-
have seemed a violent change to the turies as the Byzantine Empire, and was
people of the time. They had been ac- not finally destroyed until the Turkish
customed for a century or more to the conquest in 1453. With the removal of
elevation and deposition of ruler after the last figurehead from the imperial

34
 EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD *35

throne in Rome, the Christian Church simpler in construction than the earlier
was left to assume the dominance ear- Roman monuments, so too were con-
lier exercised by the state. During its temporary pagan structures.
early years, Christianity had grown very The breakdown of the classic canons
slowly. At the beginning, it was merely of design, so evident in the early Chris-
one of many Oriental cults that led a tian buildings, is equally clear in late
precarious existence in Rome. Probably Roman monuments. The systems of
most scholars of the third century, if proportion followed by the designers of
told that one of these cults would be- the first and second centuries, and their
come the dominant religion of Europe, conception of the purpose and relation-
would have guessed it to be the cult ship of architectural elements gave way
of Mithras, the Persian sun-god and during the fourth century to greater lib-

helper of Ahura Mazda (p. 650). How- erty, especially in the combination of
ever, Christianity prevailed, its triumph arch and column. The classic columns
signalized by the conversion of the Em- are designed to carry an entablature,
peror Constantine and official toleration whose architrave rests its ends upon
of Christianity by the state early in the them. Therefore, if the architects of the
fourth century. The earlier rivalry with earlier Empire need to support an arch
Mithraism is reflected and symbolized on a column, they insert an entablature
beneath the church of San Clemente in between them. On the other hand, in
Rome, where the house of that Chris- one part of the Palace of Diocletian at
tian saint faces a Mithraic temple across Spalato, late in the third century, the
the narrow Roman pavement. whole entablature is bent into an arch;
To assume that the Christians of the elsewhere, arches rest directly on the
fourth and fifth centuries were hostile capitals, which are ill-adapted to sup-
to Roman civilization is ridiculous. port them. In other cases, the column
They were none the less Romans be- itself is treated as a decorative device;
cause they were Christians. Their art it stands free of the wall and, since it is

differs from that of imperial Rome, but supported on a bracket, obviously can
the changes may be traced to changed carry no important weight. The palace
economic circumstances and new prob- not only demonstrates the late pagan
lems. The imperial magnificence of Ro- freedom in handling the classic ele-

man baths, the Colosseum, triumphal ments of architecture; it also symbolizes

arches, and forums presupposes a the growing danger to the Empire.

wealthy central government, able to Planned on the lines of a Roman camp,
command vast resources of labor and the palace is a fortress and suggests a
materials, which Rome could no longer possible need for defense.
supply during the fourth and fifth cen- With the toleration of the Church,
turies. If the Christian buildings were, first granted by Galerius in 311, and its

in some respects, plainer in design and subsequent recognition by Constantine

i
36
THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH

in 313, the Christians could venture to

build churches of some size. In Rome

the type, already well established in the
fourth century, is known as the Early

Christian basilica. None of the many

types of Roman building would serve as
a church. Its origin is one of the most
debated matters in all the history of art.

Possibly some ideas were borrowed from

the Roman private house, where the
Christians often gathered for worship;
others may have come from the pagan
civil basilica. The solution called forth
by the Christian liturgy is simple. The
plan (fig. 95) includes first an atrium
or forecourt, open to the sky but sur-

rounded by covered walks. The walk

next to the church may be developed
more than the others, to serve as a

vestibule or narthex. Beyond the atrium

on the same axis is the basilica proper,
divided into three aisles, the wider cen-
tral one known as the nave. The nave
and aisles, designed to house the con-
gregation, lead to a cross member, at

right angles to the main axis, which

may project beyond the aisles to each
side as transepts. Finally, beyond the
transepts, and usually as wide as the
nave, is a semicircular exedra known as

the apse. In the apse and to a lesser

extent in the transepts, the clergy per-
formed the services of the ritual. Some
larger churches have five aisles; in some,
the transepts terminate with the walls
of the aisles, but in general these fea-
tures arc standardized and provide the

95. Early Christian Basilica, typical plan and

section.
 EARLY CHRISTIAN ROMAN BASILICA 37

fundamental elements in plan of almost come fixed; some churches placed the
all later church architecture. altar near the west end of the building,
The cross section (fig. 95) is equally so that the priest stood behind the altar

standard. A wooden roof supported by and faced east, and therefore the con-
thin walls covers the nave, that rises gregation faced west. During the fifth
above the roof of the aisles to produce a century, this custom changed, so that
clearstory. These walls may then be the congregation and the priest both
pierced with windows to light the nave. faced toward the east, and the priest at
Below the clearstory, a plain wall cor- the altar now had to turn his back on
responds to the height of the lean-to the people at significant points in the
over the aisles; this zone is in later ar- service. Thus the altar was so regularly
chitecture to be developed into the located at the east end and the entrance
triforium. A colonnade permits access at the west that these points of the
from nave to aisles, and supports beams compass can be used to indicate the cor-

in some of the early churches, or arches responding parts of churches through-

in the later examples. Finally, a half out the later course of the Middle Ages.
dome over the apse is the only vault in The church of San Clemente (fig.

these churches. 96), though not built in its present

At the beginning of Christian church form until the twelfth century, and
architecture, orientation had not be- though without transepts, illustrates the

riw

-:'
.

96. San Clemente, Rome (1084-1108) Nave and apse, length 129'; nave width 35'
 THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH
i
58

tvpe. Externally, the walls are as drab ever they could be found. The patterns

as any shed. It has been suggested that in the floor and the furniture are ar-

this unpretentious exterior recalls the ranged around disks of red, green, yel-

days of persecution of the Christians, low, or black marble, which probably

vyhen to advertise themselves was to were sliced from Roman columns, as

court suppression. Probably, the need ready sources of such costly substances.
for economy dictated this plainness. At Light though its construction is, the
San Clemente, the atrium is the only Early Christian basilica was admirably
one preserved in Early Christian basili- adapted to its purpose. If its roof should
cas. Within the church, drabness dis- be burned in the frequent fires of me-
appears. Floors patterned in marble, dieval towns, it could be replaced at
mosaic of colored stone or glass in the slight cost. The effectiveness of the
apse vault and sometimes on the walls, basilica is testified by its persistence in
and marble columns produce a magnifi- Rome from the time of Constantine in

cent polychromy. Files of columns, rows the fourth century almost to the Renais-
of clearstory windows, and the beams sance, a thousand years later. The
of the ceiling (here replaced), all lead changes in medieval architecture were
the attention to the altar as the focal to be rung elsewhere.
point. Above it, the half dome of the The fronts and more rarely the lids of
apse forces the eye downward to that Early Christian sarcophagi are carved
point again. Thus the architecture en- with small figures in high relief. In a
hances the concentration on the ritual sense, these are examples of late Roman
center. sculpture, but a decay in technical abil-
As a corollary to the poor economic ity as compared to earlier Roman stand-
conditions of the times, the temptation ards is evident throughout these works.
arose to use materials already at hand The clumsy heads retain little of the
whenever possible. The changed reli- topical realism of older Roman times.
gion and the falling population left For example, the Jonah sarcophagus
many Roman buildings deserted, and to (fig. 97) of the third century deals with
them the Christians turned for ma- a number of incidents: Jonah thrown
terials. Fragments of entirely different overboard by the sailors into the gaping
design are often combined in a hap- mouth of a sea monster, spewed up by
hazard manner; in the church of San his host on the shore, at rest under the
Clemente some columns are fluted, vine; Moses striking water from the
others plain; in the fifth-century church rock; the raising of Lazarus. As in the
of San Lorenzo, the beams over the col- Column of Trajan, several incidents
umns near the west end are carved, but find room in a single frame. These sub-
the designs on neighboring stones vary jects are scriptural and symbolic in inter-
from one another, making it evident pretation, but, except for their lack of
that blocks were borrowed from wher- realism, they also have some of the pic-
 EARLY CHRISTIAN SCULPTURE *39
:

~aHnHHBHK
'/
$

> Wv **a£ /\v r *

wc •« fs
97. Jonah and the Whale, sarcophagus (3rd cent.) Lateran Museum, Rome. 7' X 2'f X 2'2".

torial interest of the Farmer Driving Men. On the other hand, the fish itself

His Bull to Market (fig. 75). The pres- is often used as a cryptogram of Christ,
ence of such landscape features as the because the initial letters of the Greek
vine or the water, or ships and architec- words for Jesus Christ Son of God
ture, can be traced to this source. Saviour spell the Greek word for fish.

Pagan motives are retained but given These motives are also present in mo-
specifically Christian interpretation. saics. The fourth-century vault of Santa
During the hard times before the recog- Costanza in Rome shows the vine pat-
nition of Christianity, to select motives tern, amplified along the sides by small
that only the initiated would identify as scenes; laborers gather the harvest in
Christian was safer, and protected the carts and bring it to the press, where
mysteries of the church. The meaning men tread juice from the grapes (fig.

and derivation of some of these symbols 98). This vine theme had been com-
are obvious, but others are more in- mon for tavern floors, but since wine
volved. The Good Shepherd in the plays a part in the Eucharist, the Chris-
Lateran, from the middle of the third tians did not hesitate to identify the
century, one of the few large works of vine with the sacrament. The art of
Early Christian sculpture, comes from mosaic was common in Roman times.
the type of a man carrying a calf, sheep, At the outset, small cubes or tesserae
or ram on his shoulders, a motive that of colored marbles were set in patterns,
goes back to the beginning of Greek figures, or landscape. Though mosaic is

sculpture, but here is probably derived highly architectural, to create a realistic

from the bucolic genre figures similar representation in this medium is im-
to those in the pictorial reliefs. That possible; subtleties of linear expression
the Christians should identify such a cannot be achieved with tesserae. The
figure as Christ, the Shepherd of His color may be rich, though its scope is

flock, is easy to understand. So, too, the limited by the tones of available mar-
fisherman suggests Christ, the Fisher of bles. However, the 'palette' of the mo-
140 THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH

saic worker expanded in the fourth cen- late fourth century, Christ is enthroned
tury with the substitution of tesserae in the center, flanked by seated apostles.

of colored glass for marble. The possi- The cross above Christ marks the axis

bilities inherent in this substitution of a semicircle composed of the four

were not immediately exploited. Here in beasts emblematic of the evangelists,

Santa Costanza, even though the mo- which parallels the semicircle below.
saic is made of glass, the white back- This repetition of shapes adapts the

^«i;

Aisle Mosaic, Santa Costanza, Rome (4th cent.) 12' wide.

ground, gray-green vine pattern, and composition to the shape of the half-
dull yellow or ochre in the figures and dome; the motive inspired Raphael cen-
other parts, all repeat tones available turies later. The treatment of figures is

in stone. Obviously the designer, accus- still classic. In spite of the limitations
tomed to white marble backgrounds, of the medium, they are not conven-
did not avail himself of the wider color tional; on the contrary, modeling by
range. gradations of tone adds a classic sense
The climax of the mosaic scheme in of formand mass to the apostles; a pro-
the basilica is the half-dome of the apse. nounced individuality distinguishes the
At Santa Pudenziana (fig. 99) of the heads (restored in the nineteenth cen-
 EARLY CHRISTIAN MOSAICS 1
41

99. Apse Mosaic, Santa Pudenziana, Rome (4th cent.).

tury); and even the buildings, which the weary Romans. This mosaic does
doubtless symbolize the heavenly Jeru- not attempt the realism of the fourth-
salem in terms of the earthly city, dis- and fifth-century designs, but in decora-
play the Roman bent toward realism. tion by simplified and powerful color,

The more hieratic Byzantine style the apse of SS. Cosmo and Damiano
modified this classic spirit soon after grasps the real possibilities of the me-
the disappearance of the Roman Em- dium.
pire in the West. Even in Rome itself, Roman tradition persisted also in
the sixth-century apse of SS. Cosmo manuscript illumination. The Vatican
and Damiano adopted the linear pat- Virgil of the fourth century (fig. 100)
terns and forsook the indication of is classic; it contains illustrations of the
weight in the figures obtainable through Georgics and of the Aeneid, enframed
modeling. The color is equally formal: in bands of solid color, and extending
a path of reddish clouds, against which the full width of the page. The best of
Christ stands, splits the gorgeous dark these bucolic scenes retain something
blue background of heaven. A new of Roman illusionism in their depth and
vigor animates the faces, as though the naturalistic setting, in the classic style
barbarians had infused their vitality into and pose of the figures, and in their rich
142 THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH

mere fraction of its former population,

Byzantium retained and even increased
its power. Far from being overthrown,
the East Roman Empire survived for a
thousand years, until its conquest by
-IsSKi i>> WMXv. IKiXil?
the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The civili-

zation it produced had its religion in

common with the Christians of the
West, though interpreted differently in

the Greek Church than in the Roman.

On the other hand, the presence of the
emperor with a concentration of wealth
and power in the court resulted in an
imperial architecture, vaster in scale and
more sumptuous than the Early Chris-
tian Roman productions. This empire,
because of its geographical location, be-
100. The Vatican Virgil (4th cent.) Vatican, came a semi-Oriental despotism, East-
Rome. Illumination, 10" wide.
ern in its hieratic approach to life and
art, colorful to a degree seldom approxi-
but heavy color. By the sixth century, mated by the West, with a passion in
the classic traditions had faded. The art for surface patterns illustrated alike
purple pages and silver lettering of the in the use of marble, in crisp undercut
Vienna Genesis bespeak its East-Medi- carving, and in the mosaics. The Byzan-
terranean origin, as do details of cos- tine style first flowered during the reign
tume, though traces of classic tradition of Justinian in the sixth century, and
remain in the personification of natural
was spread far by his conquests, and
phenomena. In most of the miniatures, further by his prestige as successor to
the setting is eliminated to compel the Rome. His general, Belisarius, con-
crude but vivacious figures to tell their
quered Sicily, to impose over the clas-
story without any assistance from land- sical cultures of that island a layer of
scape.
Byzantine culture that was felt for cen-

turies. At Ravenna in the north of Italy,

BYZANTINE ART
the Byzantine style appeared in the
While the new social, economic, and churches of Sant' Apollinare in Classe,
religious conditions in Rome were de- and Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, both By-
stroying the imperial Roman style, Con- zantine versions of the basilica, and
stantinople or Byzantium presented a above all in San Vitale, with its influ-
different story. If Rome itself dwindled ential architecture and mosaics.
from a city of millions to one with a Although the Byzantines retain, in
 BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE M3
Ravenna and elsewhere, the unvaulted
design of the Early Christian basilica,
their more typical monuments are
vaulted. The increased sense of space,
the added monumentality, and the fire-

proof nature of vaulted buildings as

compared to the wooden-roofed basili-

cas dictated the adoption of that system

of construction. The greater difficulty of
vaulting and its higher cost could be
101. Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Mile-
overcome by the imperial wealth of tus, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (532-37)
Byzantium. The chief type of vault with Isometric, exterior length 308', exterior width
236'.
which the Byzantines experimented was
the dome; it was part of their Near their upper edges a circle upon which
Eastern heritage, used with great mag- the dome can be built. The pendentive,
nificence by the Sassanian Persians at like other Byzantine motives, existed in
this time. As a hemispherical shape, the Roman buildings, but experiments in
dome appears to require a circular wall, the fourth and fifth centuries led to the
or supports arranged in a circle; such a full development of the dome on pen-
plan, as represented in the Pantheon dentives in the sixth century. So ade-
(fig. 86), is satisfactory when the dome quate was this solution that the Byzan-
covers almost the whole interior space. tines retained it through their long
If, however, the dome is to cover only subsequent history, and even after the
part of the interior and is to be com- end of medieval architecture the build-
bined with other domes or with some ers of Western Europe found it useful.
different type of roof, the circular sup- The Byzantine architects of the sixth
port may be inconvenient. It was nec- century tried inmany ways to adapt the
essary to contrive some method by dome to the problems of church archi-
which the dome could be carried on tecture. The Church of the Holy Apos-
four piers placed at the corners of a tles in Constantinople, now destroyed,

square, and thus permit combination was laid out as a Greek cross with five

with other shapes. domes, one in the center and the other
The pendentive was developed to four over the equal arms of the cross.
solve this problem. In shape penden- In SS. Sergius and Bacchus in Constan-
tives are spherical triangles. Four of tinople, and in San Vitale in Ravenna,
them, one of which is visible in the a single dome covers most of the area,

drawing of Hagia Sophia (fig. 101), rest but is surrounded by an aisle, so that
their lower points on the main piers; in the one case the building is approxi-
their other angles touch the neighbor- mately square, in the other case octag-
ing pendentives, and so produce along onal. Such buildings are often described
i THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH
44

as the central type: that is, the compo- undesirable to allow any considerable
sition develops around a central vertical part of the congregation during a serv-

axis rising through the dome, rather ice to occupy space at the sides of the

than along a horizontal axis bisecting altar, or still worse behind it. There-
the church lengthwise. Architecturally, fore, the altar is usually removed from
this tvpe lends itself to concentration, the center to a small apse with a chan-
since it subordinates the whole building cel or sanctuary to the east. But this

to the dome. It permits the building separates the architectural and liturgical

to be symmetrical on all four sides, climaxes of the building. In the Early

which cannot be true of the Early Christian basilica, on the other hand,
Christian basilica. However, a small the long horizontal lines of the building
apse often projects from the eastern lead to the east end, where the altar
side of the structure without any at- is logically placed, the architecture quite

tempt to duplicate it on the other three properly stressing the purpose of the
sides. building.
One flaw is inherent in the form: the Perhaps this prompted the experi-
dominance of the dome creates an ar- ments that produced what is called the
chitectural focus under it. To place the domed basilica, whose greatest expres-
altar at that point is bad, for the Chris- sion is found in Hagia Sophia. The ear-

tian liturgy demands that the congre- lier church of Hagia Sophia was de-
gation shall be in front of the altar; it is stroyed during the Nika sedition of 532.

rt ; i J

»• + *•

102. Hagia Sophia, Constantinople

(532-37) 308' x 236'.
 HAGIA SOPHIA M5
Justinian immediately directed his ar- because of the way in which the units
chitects to rebuild along more magnifi- are laid, still that thrust pushes out in
cent lines. Except for the atrium, this all directions. On the east and west, the
great church was built with extraordi- half-domes of Hagia Sophia begin to
nary rapidity, and dedicated in 537; and transfer the thrusts from the main dome
although part of the structure collapsed outward and downward toward the
in 558 as the result of an earthquake, outer walls of the building. These
it was rebuilt on stronger buttressed half-domes are in turn buttressed by
supports by 563. Such an accomplish- domical niches and other vaulted forms.
ment postulates imperial backing. The To the north and south, sections of
plan (fig. 102), developed by Anthemius broad arches, bound the
barrel vault, or

of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, is main dome. Much later, in 1317, four
almost square. A single dome insures huge blocks of masonry were added, for
unity, but length is gained to the east further security, behind the piers that
and west by half-domes, lower than the uphold the four main pendentives.
main dome, but of the same diameter. As a result of this complex system the
Although a dome may have less out- exterior builds up to the central dome
ward thrust than other types of vault, like waves of masonry around the rim

103. Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (532-37)
Exterior height i&l'q".
146 THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH

of the culminating feature (fig. 103). tion of mosaic on the higher surfaces.

One mass after another prepares the The veined marble slabs themselves
way for the climax. Only part of the create rich patterns. A block of stone is

curve of the dome is visible externally, cut in half and opened out like the
since the lower part is concealed behind leaves of a book, so that the pattern
smaller buttresses between each of the of veins is repeated in reverse; these two
multiple windows that pierce its base. in turn may be divided in half to create
While the dome of Hagia Sophia is not the same pattern of veins in four neigh-
embedded in the mass of the building, boring slabs.

like that of the Pantheon, its effect is The carved architectural members
achieved more by the complex mass de- contribute to the richness of this design.
sign than bv a full revelation externally Extensive use of the drill, sharp under-
of the domical form. In this respect it cutting, and a reliance on surface pat-

is unlike the domes of the Italian Ren- terns relieved against deep shadows cre-

aissance, the Cathedral of Florence or ate a lacelike effect (fig. 105), contrary
St. Peter's in Rome, for example. How- to the plastic type of moldings devel-
ever effective Hagia Sophia may be in oped by the Greeks and Romans. Such
its mass, little or no decoration appears patterns are emphasized by the shad-
on the drab masses of the exterior. owed incisions, sometimes picked out by
The full splendor of Hagia Sophia is gold leaf on a ground of deep blue to
evident only in the interior (fig. 104). increase contrast— another indication of
The affirmation of spatial unitv is ap- the kinship between Byzantine art and
parent immediately on entrance. The Near Eastern. The same technique
combination of domes and half-domes, transforms the capitals of antiquity. The
illuminated by the ring of windows at modeled form of the Corinthian capital
the base of the dome, at once catches with its projecting leafage gives way to
the eye and creates an impression of designs, sometimes of foliate origin,
monumentally and, at the same time, sometimes of pure pattern, that adhere
The dome looks as though
of lightness. to the cushion-like mass. The decora-
itwere suspended from heaven, not sup- tive possibilities of such capitals are
ported from earth. The sense of scale, limitless, and if traces of the older types
the result of permitting the smaller vol- of capital sometimes remain, the By-
umes to lead insensibly to the larger, is zantine fertility in design opened the
further emphasized by the columns that way to variety. Moreover, the capitals of
separate nave from aisles, and by the the older orders were designed to sup-
smaller columns and arcades in the gal- port beams; now they must often carry
lery. Red and green porphyry shafts an arch. This new purpose requires a
contribute to a rich polychromy, ampli- larger bearing surface, and so compels
fied by polished marble slabs on the the inclusion above the capital of an
lower walls and a complete incrusta- impost block, whose function it is to
 HAGIA SOPHIA
M7

104. Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (532-37),
148 THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH

sade in 1204. During these centuries,

most churches follow a plan derived

from the lost church, the Nea, built by
Basil I before 886. This standard plan
(fig. 106) consists of a Greek cross in-
scribed within a square. A central dome
is buttressed by four other domes in

the angles of the square between the

arms of the cross, which themselves are
roofed with barrel vaults. This scheme
is compact and logical in abutment.
The barrel-vaulted arms of the cross

push out sidewise against the four angle

105. Capital and Impost Block, Hagia Sophia,

domes; to some extent their thrusts bal-
Constantinople ( 532-37) ance. These arms and the four subsidi-

ary domes abut the central dome on

gather the uneasy load of the arches
all sides. The smaller size of the
and concentrate them on the capital.
The spaciousness of Hagia Sophia
and its sumptuousness make it a mas-
terpiece of world architecture. Justinian
had cause to be proud, and to feel that

his church outshone the temple in Jeru-

salem. At the dedication of the new
church he exclaimed, 'Oh Solomon, I
have surpassed thee/ The reign of Jus-
tinian marks the first climax of the
Byzantine style in all the arts. This
period, called the First Golden Age,
ends with the Iconoclastic controversy
of the eighth century. With the rise of

the Macedonian dynasty under Basil I

in 867, a new epoch of Byzantine art

emerges. From this date, the Second
Golden Age * lasts down to the capture
of Constantinople by the Fourth Cru-

1
Although the term 'First Golden Age' to
describe Byzantine art before the Iconoclastic
controversy is generally accepted, no such agree- Golden
106. Typical Byzantine Plan, Second
ment exists for the terminology of later periods. Age.
 LATER BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 1
49

.:...'..*.,- ,

107. Little Metropolitan Church, Athens (c. 12th cent.) 38' x 25'.

churches at this period and especially ble from the exterior, but the central
the small size of the central dome mini- dome, raised on a drum or cylinder of
mize the liturgical loss of concentration masonry, is fully visible. The small size
on the altar inherent in this arrange- makes this revelation of the curve pos-
ment. sible without serious danger from thrust,
The exterior of the twelfth-century such as would exist in a larger building.
Little Metropolitan Church in Athens Though not in this case, arches often

(fig. 107) shows greater richness of echo the barrel-vaulted arms of the
moldings and flat decorative sculpture cross on the exterior. Much building of
than do churches of the First Golden this time occurred outside the capitol
Age. The angle domes are often invisi- of the Byzantine Empire, and even in
150 THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH

regions under Byzantine control.

not but their onion-shaped domes probably
The most famous Byzantine church of have their origins in Sassanian Persia.
the period to Western Europeans is The influence from Constantinople
St. Mark's, Venice, built c. 1063. This dominated all Russian art for centuries,
design accords with its period in the just as the Orthodox Church became
polychromatic and dynamic exterior the standard religion, and yet both were
(modified later), but in plan reverts to modified as the centuries passed.
the Church of the Holy Apostles in The Byzantine concern with the dec-
Constantinople. orative is already prominent in the
The Fourth Crusade overthrew the ivory-covered throne of Archbishop
Byzantine Empire in 1204, and set up Maximianus in Ravenna dating from
a short-lived Latin kingdom in its place.
the sixth century (fig. 108). Apparent
After that in turn had fallen in 1261,
in the vine pattern with peacocks and
a last epoch of the style arose, which
even animals in its scrolls, it also modi-
we may call the Byzantine Renaissance
fies the figures. If the latter are not yet
or the Late Byzantine. The metropolis
fully Byzantine, they have ceased to be
itself never fully recovered from the
shock, so that many churches were built
in the provinces, in Greece or in the
northern Balkans, for example. Mostly
small in size, they follow no one type
of plan. Sometimes they retain the five-
domed arrangement of the Second
Golden Age, sometimes they return to
the domed basilica, or even to the still

simpler form of the unvaulted basilica.

A tendency to emphasize height in
these buildings is evident in the small
domes raised on tower-like drums. These
centuries correspond to the Gothic pe-
riod in Western Europe, though it

might be difficult to trace any direct

connection in style between them. They
prove the longevity of the Byzantine
style, which is still later maintained in
the architecture of Russia. Even before
this, Russian architecture had been an
offshoot of Byzantine, modified by local
conditions and impulses. Manv of the
108. Throne of Maximianus, Cathedral, Ra-
Russian churches are Byzantine in plan
venna (546-56) Wood and ivory.
 BYZANTINE IVORIES AND MOSAICS 15 1

Roman. Though not purely linear, the

drapery verges on convention, and the
poses of the figures display a stylization
more pronounced in later times. On the
other hand, the beauty of execution and
the command of the material prove that
the sculpture of these panels had not
suffered the technical decline that
deadens most Early Christian sar-

cophagi.
The developed Byzantine style substi-

tutes almost abstract design and sym-

bolism for the classic point of view.
Christ Crowning the Emperor Roman
IV and Eudoxia (fig. 109) of the
eleventh century is rigidly axial. The
drapery of Christ has become linear,
while in the human figures the sumptu-
ous costumes have consumed so much
attention that any distinction between
the sexes has vanished. Reliance is

placed on the decorative value of the

contrasted patterns, the placement of 109. Christ Crowning the Emperor Roman IV
and Eudoxia (945-49) Cabinet des Medailles,
the figures within the space, and the
Paris. Ivory, 9V2" x 6".
adaptation of the design to the ma-
terial. (fig. 99). At Ravenna, Christ is seated
The Byzantines seem to have re- on a globe flanked by angels and by
garded sculpture as a minor art, though figures of San Vitale and Archbishop
only in the Iconoclastic controversy did Ecclesius, who carries in his hands a
they suppress the graven image, forbid- model of the church. Though some in-

den by the Mosaic code, and then only dication of ground remains, the back-
in religious art. Even then, the monas- ground has now become pure gold with
teries lightly, and
took that prohibition no suggestion of depth. The faces still

though such hostility was bound to re- retain some trace of individualism, but
act on all the arts, painting and mosaic the figures are elements in a pattern.
were not strictly graven images. The Both here and in the choir mosaics of
Byzantine apsidal mosaic of San Vitale Justinian and Theodora with their at-
(Plate 11, facing p. 269) of the sixth cen- tendants, the Roman factual sense has
tury contrasts with the fourth-century disappeared. While some of the heads
Early Christian one at Santa Pudenziana look like portraits, the artist is more
1 2 THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH
S

Pudcnziana mosaic and more effective

than it as decoration.

The mosaics of San Vitale turn from

illustration to decoration, but that ideal
becomes more deliberate in later Byzan-
tine mosaics, such as those in St. Mark's,
Venice. Here the figure of Chastity (fig.

no) has become a unit of design. The

drapery symbolizes rather than repre-
sents the body beneath it; concentric
dark lines surround oval or tear-drop
light areas to create patterns focused
over certain parts of the body. In many
cases, the proportions of the figures are

strikingly elongated, the attitudes sharp

and angular. The artist knew that his

symbol did not look like a human being,
but he was not trying to present a real

man; instead, his purpose was to ex-

press the superhuman nature of his sub-

ject and adapt it to its role as architec-

tural decoration. Consequently any set-

ting is symbolic, and often the picto-

graphic figure is simply relieved against
a pure gold field. The idea in St. Mark's
is identified by lettering, by scrolls held
in the hands of the characters, and by
no. Chastity, Mosaic, St. Mark's, Venice
well-known emblems, such as the lion
(nth cent.).
for fortitude. The more these figures are
concerned with decoration in formal reduced to formulas, the less open they
linear arrangements of drapery, one fold are to charges of transgressing the
repeated after another with only a trace Mosaic code. Though foreign to the
of interest in the body beneath and the concept of art as representation, held
merest touch of roundness in them. But through most Western history, one
what the artist sacrifices in realism, he must admit their success as decoration.
more than replaces by his color. Against Manuscript illuminations demonstrate
the glow of a gold background, passages that formalism inherent in Byzantine
of pure deep color create an impression art. The opulent color of mosaics min-
of semi-Oriental splendor, different gles with a strong influence from the
from the factual approach of the Santa classic tradition, to combine in turn
 MOSAICS AND MANUSCRIPTS *53

with the symbolic bent of the Eastern

Church, with sometimes one and then
another of these factors uppermost. The
classical strain predominates in the
Joshua Roll of the Vatican in the
breadth and free movement of its fig-

ures. This manuscript has been vari-

ously dated from the seventh to the

tenth centuries and may possibly have
been copied from a still earlier produc-
tion. However, the classic influence gives

way in the late-tenth-century Menology

of Basil II in the Vatican to rigid poses.
A monotonous series of figures with up-
raised hands stand within arcades or
between hills silhouetted against gold
backgrounds. Still later, in the twelfth
century, the Melissenda Psalter of the
British Museum exaggerates the conven-
111. Initial Page of the Gospel of St. Matthew,
tions of Byzantine art. The emaciated Book of Kells (8th cent.) Trinity College,
figures are clad in draperies whose folds Dublin. 10" x 7".
are reduced to linear patterns analogous
to the mosaic from St. Mark's, Venice. In the West, more has been preserved
The significance for Western art of in some minor arts. Celtic manuscript
the Byzantine style is immeasurable. illumination discarded representation,
Constantinople kept alive a civilization but in its place substituted a rich vo-

inherited from Rome, but changed the cabulary of decorative ornament. Such
classic modes of expression. The years figures as are introduced carry two-
from about 500 to 1000, called the Dark dimensional representation even farther
Ages, may have been less dark than is away from nature than does Byzantine
commonly supposed; the name may re- art. The initial page of the Gospel of
flect only our ignorance. Nevertheless, St. Matthew from the Book of Kells
these five centuries in the West pro- (fig. 111) of the eighth century runs
duced little in the major arts, whereas riot with spirals, rows of red dots, pat-
they were a time of artistic brilliance terns, interlaced ribbons, and lacertines.
in India, in the T'ang period in China, The last named are bird or animal
and in Japan, where Buddhism had just forms so elongated and intertwined that
been accepted and brought with it the they are hardly distinguishable from rib-

cultural impact of the older civiliza- bons. No other artistic tradition has ever
tions. produced such exquisite richness of
*54 THE ARTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH

linear patterns, which are related to the tant role in Carolingian manuscripts,
Scandinavian arts and to the animal though the latter are also influenced in

style in Asia. decoration by Celtic patterns in line.

When a new wave of creative energy The classic Roman sources likewise
swept over Western Europe, the emerg- played a part in this later revival of art,

ing peoples turned to the one Christian but the influence of Rome is less than
center that had maintained a high level the influence of the symbolic style of
of artistic creation. Therefore, when the Eastern Empire. Not only is Byzan-
Charlemagne in the eighth century tium important as a link between the
built a palace chapel at Aachen, his and the
classic civilization later culture

builders journeyed to Ravenna to study of Western Europe; it is a great in-

the Byzantine design of San Vitale; they dependent style, wherein the engineer-
did not understand it, but tried to re- ing achievements of Rome and its

produce it; and even later in the elev- spatial sense are crossed with a semi-
enth century, the Western churches Oriental love of color, a sense of deco-
met their need for decoration by sym- ration, and a perfect willingness to re-
bolic figures, partly inspired by Byzan- place realism by symbolism. No other
tine manuscripts and ivories. So, too, style has ever reached such splendor
does the Byzantine style play an impor- without loss of the architectonic flavor.
IX Romanesque Art

All cultures discussed up to this point a house in Britain might not have been
have been homogeneous. Though the identical with one in Italy, it would
styles they produced were at times influ- have been like enough to cause no great
enced by outside civilizations, as in the sense of change in passing from one to
case of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian another. One
language was spoken; one
influences on Greek art, and though would encounter the same customs, the
each style developed within itself, still same ideals, and the same manner of
the expression of the Greek, the Ro- living.

man, and the Byzantine cultures had Roman unity broke down after the
in each instance been unified. With the settlement of the barbarians in Western
Romanesque period that ceases to be Europe. These peoples, during the so-

true. In art, the term Romanesque re- called Dark Ages from about 500 to
fers to a group of eleventh- and twelfth- 1000, developed differences, reflected in
century styles in Western Europe that the gradual emergence of Italian,

have some characteristics in common French, or Spanish tongues as distinct

but many differences. Such variations from Latin, their common source. In art
reflect the breakdown of Roman unity we can distinguish the German Roman-
in Europe. In the second century, one esque style from the French or Italian,
might have journeyed from Italy through and we can also differentiate several
Spain, France, and England and found styles within a country. The art of the
in each town baths, aqueducts, and Lombard plain contrasts with that of
temples of much the same form; though Tuscany to its south, while other types

55
i
5
6 ROMANESQUE ART

characterize southern Italy and Sicily. Germany and Italy, and it was the

In Germany, the Rhenish buildings are power of the Church more than that of
not like those found elsewhere. In the Empire that was felt throughout
France, some scholars have distin- Western Christendom. Perhaps the
guished sixteen or seventeen styles of summit of ecclesiastical power was
Romanesque; others limit themselves to reached at Canossa in 1077, wnen t ne
seven. Certainly St. Trophime at Aries Emperor Henry IV was forced to do
in Provence is so different from the penance before Pope Gregory VII. That
domed churches, such as St. Front at submission, though superficially an
Perigueux in Aquitaine, that to group abasement of the secular power to the
them together would result in confu- ecclesiastical, in less obvious ways
sion; Cluny in Burgundy and St. Etienne strengthened the lay power; but the
at Caen in Normandv have some ele- Church seemed to have brought to its

ments in common, but more differ- knees her only secular rival.

ences. These local variations are partly The religious energy of the age found
the architectural consequence of feudal- a dramatic outlet in the Crusades.
ism. Although the great nobility in the- While the enthusiasm to free the Holy
ory might hold their lands from the Land from the Saracens may have been
king and owe tohim the same feudal reinforced by a spirit of adventure, one
duties that their vassals in turn owed to cannot doubt the primary importance
them, still the power wielded by the of the religious fervor behind the Cru-
Dukes of Normandy even before the sades. The first three, when that spirit
conquest of England, by the Dukes of was most prominent, all occurred before
Burgundy, or by the Counts of Tou- the end of the twelfth century. But, if

louse, enabled them to defy the royal the devotion of the people vented itself

power at will. Under these circum- in the Crusades, the Church served the
stances, the provinces were virtually in- ends of civilization with greater effect
dependent. Moreover, although pilgrim- through the monasteries. As centers of
age and travel were extensive during the learning, they stand out like beacons in
Romanesque period, poor roads tended the intellectual night. Their role might
to throw each region on its own re- later on be played by others, but during
sources. the Romanesque period they reached
The Romanesque is the great age of their greatest height. Though the monks
the Church. The papacy through the themselves did not build and decorate
Dark Ages to some extent took the place all their churches, nevertheless artistic
in the West occupied earlier by the Ro- energies centered in and on the artistic

man Empire. Although under Charle- problems of the Church.

magne the imperial idea was partly re- Succinct definition of the eleventh-
vived as the Holy Roman Empire, the and twelfth-century styles is nearly im-
emperors concerned themselves with possible. De Lasteyrie, following Qui-
 THE ROMANESQUE PERIOD 157

cherat, defines the Romanesque as 'that character of the movement and some
architecture which, retaining many ele- of its variety. The Tuscan Romanesque
ments of the classic, has ceased to be as we see it in the cathedral group at
classic, and which, anticipating many Pisa, begun in 1063, displays the reli-

elements of the Gothic, has not yet be- ance of that region upon tradition. Of
come Gothic/ This statement tends to the four structures within this group
relegate Romanesque architecture to a the cathedral, the leaning tower or cam-
mere link between two other styles. panile, the baptistry, and the Campo
Moreover, those styles that have any Santo— the first two and part of the
substantial heritage from antiquity do third were completed during the elev-

not foretell the Gothic, and vice versa. enth and twelfth centuries. The plan of
Nevertheless, this definition calls atten- the cathedral (fig. 112) looks like a

tion to the genealogy of some branches development from the Early Christian
of the style. To these relationships, one
should also add an occasional connec-
tion with the Byzantine, as in Aqui-
tame; with the Saracenic wherever the
Romanesque impinged on Moham-
medan culture; and of course, at the
beginning, with northern elements.
Some of the designers are traditional-
ists in the sense that they preserve in

their buildings architectural ideas that

had developed Thev may modify
earlier.

these ideas or arrange them in new com-

binations to meet new problems, but
they do not propose fundamental
changes in structure. They prefer to

concentrate their creative energies on

monumentality, grandeur, and finish.

Other designers are innovators who en-

vision new structural expedients that 112. Cathedral, Pisa (1063-92) 320' x 230'.
promise more effective solutions for

church building problems than wooden Roman basilica (fig. 95). Divided into
roofs, barrel vaults, or domes. Their nave and side aisles by colonnades, and
churches are rugged, vigorous, prophetic, lighted by a clearstory, it expands the
but often smaller and less finished. rudimentary transepts of its ancestor
To discuss all the divisions of the into great salient arms, and prolongs the
Romanesque is neither possible nor nec- nave of the church beyond the tran-
essary. A few examples illustrate the septs; it thus becomes a Latin cross in
i
58
ROMANESQUE ART

shows itself both in the use of marble

patterns in the spandrels or triangles be-
tween the arches of the nave arcade,
and in the alternate bands of light and
dark marble in the triforium, and to a
lesser extent in other parts of the build-

ing. The violent alternation of its stri-

dent pattern may not commend itself

to all modern eyes, but it suggests the

vigor of the eleventh century.
The basilican mass of the church is

visible on the exterior (fig. 114), al-

though the transepts and the dome

above the crossing, as the intersection

of transepts and nave is called, compli-

cate the mass. On the other hand, the

drabness of the basilica yields to deco-
rative arcading, some of it in the form
113. Cathedral, Pisa (1063-92' total
of shallow galleries behind small col-
length 320'.
umns and arches, but with a blind ar-
plan. The thin walls and slender sup- cade for the lowest tier, its columns and
ports indicate that, although small vaults arches engaged to the wall. Five stories
exist over the aisles, the nave is still of arcading reflect the divisions of the
covered by a plain timber roof, less interior: the blind arcade corresponds
heavy than a stone vault and without in height to the nave arcade within, the
its lateral thrust. lowest open arcade to the triforium, the
Though by no means imperial Ro- next to the roof of the triforium gal-

man, the Early Christian basilica repre- lery, the third to the clearstory, and the
sents late classic architecture, and, in so last to the pitched roof over the nave.
far as Pisa follows that lead, it retains The proportions of the several stories
a classic flavor. The interior (fig. 113), are almost simple ratios: the blind ar-
especially in the Corinthian colonnade, cade occupies a third of the height,
follows Roman precedent to an excep- while one sixth is devoted to each upper
tional extent. It
is doubtful whether the gallery. The love of color, so prominent
Middle Ages ever produced elsewhere on the interior, reappears on the facade
so classic a feature as this. On the other in restrained banding, and in lozenge-
hand, the arcaded triforium gallery with shaped panels enlivened with marble
its paired arches is probably inspired by patterns within the arches. The rich
contemporary work in Lombardy. The shadows, caught by the open arcades,
Tuscan love of color in architecture contribute to this sense of color, and,
 THE ROMANESQUE PERIOD *59

114. Cathedral, Pisa (1063-92) Facade 115' wide.

indeed, the marble itself has a luminous The passion for arcades carries over
beauty. from the cathedral to the campanile at
The Middle Ages did not attempt to Pisa, constructed a century later, where
construct buildings of the accuracy of eight stories of them are superposed.
the Parthenon. Hardly an arch in the The varied length of the arcades on the
arcade along the sides of Pisa Cathedral cathedral facade overcomes monotony,
rises to the same level; some of them but that difference cannot occur in the
almost touch the horizontal molding cylindrical mass of the tower. The latter

above, while others are noticeably lower. owes its fame to its deviation from the
Builders capable of so large an under- perpendicular, a discrepancy present in
taking as the cathedral were also capa- most Italian towers of the Middle Ages
ble of making arches within the same but rarely to the same degree. Details
series rise to a uniform height. There- of construction indicate that the tower
fore, they must have considered such settled into the ground unequally while
regularity as either undesirable, or, more it was being built. The angle of inclina-
probably, as a matter of indifference. tion is slightly greater near the bottom
Discrepancies like these in a formal than further up, as though the builders
Greek temple would destroy the effect, tried to overcome the settlement, or at
but they enhance the free and easy me- least to mitigate it, as the tower rose.

dieval design. That angle is startling, and its implica-

i6o ROMANESQUE ART

tion of insecurity can be very disturbing Spain. From Normandy, however, come
when one visits Pisa. Though said to be the twin towers that flank the facade of
structurally safe at present, the Leaning Monreale. For all their simplicity of

Tower must be called an architectural structure, few Romanesque buildings

aberration. display the exotic charm of the Sicilian.
Quite different from this Tuscan Ro- These wooden-roofed styles borrow
manesque is the style of Sicily. It also much from tradition; the barrel-vaulted

on tradition, but
relies its past is more styles of the period somewhat less. A
varied. Few regions so well demonstrate notable group of churches sprang up
the influence on architecture of layer along the routes to the shrine of St.

after layer of civilization. After the clas- James, Santiago de Compostela in

sic era, Sicily fell in turn under Byzan- northwestern Spain. The stream of pil-

tine, Saracenic, and during the Roman- grims along these roads stimulated the
esque period, Norman domination. The exchange of ideas, and created a demand
twelfth-century Cathedral of Monreale, for monumental churches at intervals

in the hills above Palermo, retains the along the way. One function of the
light construction and wooden roof of monasteries was to afford hospitality to
the basilica for both nave and aisles, but all; but while the pilgrims might accept
Byzantium contributed the capitals with food and lodging at no charge, it was
their impost blocks, and the mosaics. common to contribute something, and
An Oriental luxuriance of polychromy the pilgrim gifts helped in the creation
also appears on the exterior; for in- of such vast churches as Santiago itself,

stance, the golden stonework of the and St. Sernin at Toulouse in southern
blind arcades in the apse contrasts with France. The standard plan of these
the plaster surface of the wall within churches, which we see at Santiago (fig.

them. Those arcades interlace as though 115), begun during the eleventh cen-
one series of arches had been placed on tury, is repeated at least five times in
another, the supports of the second ar- large churches along the roads to Spain.
cade intermediate between those of the A nave of great length leads to the bold
first. This interlacing arcade character- transepts and to the choir to create a
izes Norman architecture. On the other cruciform plan. The rich ceremonial of
hand, in Sicily the arches are pointed medieval worship, its processions, and
after the Saracenic fashion rather than its ritual demand this large space. The
the round arches of the usual Roman- choir ends in an apse, around which the
esque styles. This use of the pointed aisle is bent in a semicircle, with a series
arch, inspired by the East, has no con- of chapels radiating from it. This aisle,

nection with the Gothic. Indeed, the called an ambulatory, made it possible
Romanesque styles adopt it wherever not only for processions but, even more
they come into contact with Moslem or important, for pilgrims to visit each of
Saracenic peoples, as, for example, in the chapels and pay their devotions.
 PILGRIMAGE CHURCHES l6l

that demanded structures on so magnifi-

cent a scale.
The interior of Santiago (fig. 116)
shows a nave roofed with a barrel vault
partly carried on transverse ribs or
arches below its surface. These ribs,

which divide the vault into bays, were

probably devised in part to reduce the
amount of centering needed during con-
struction. They dramatize the support
offered by the piers, and visibly con-
nect pier and vault. On every pier, a
colonnette or shaft apparently carries
to the ground the weight borne by the
rib. The nave arcade also rests on shafts
in the main pier, which becomes a com-
plex of several parts, each designed to
express some specific function. Those
parts produce lines in the pier to em-

115. Santiago de Compostela (1075-1128)

308' x 207'.

Each chapel had its own altar with some

relic of the saint to whom the chapel
was dedicated, the popularity of these
relics being dependent in part on their
miraculous power. Consequently, a
church with a number of such objects
of devotion was fortunate indeed, not
merely because they attracted crowds of
the devout, but also because of the gifts
they might bring to the church. It is

suggestive in this connection that the

Cathedral of Canterbury was rebuilt and
enlarged immediately after the burial
there of St. Thomas a Becket. To recog-
nize the financial value of relics is in

no way to underestimate their religious

significance; they were venerated with

116. Santiago de Compostela (1075-1128)
an unquestioning faith. It was this faith Nave 164' x 33', 69' high.
162 ROMANESQUE ART

phasize its vertical movement and to

state visibly its function as a support.

A barrel vault, by definition a half-

cylinder, creates thrust along its full

length. In so far as the ribs carry some

of the weight, more lateral thrust col-

lects on them than along the intermedi-

ate length; even so, such a vault requires
continuous abutment. Therefore, it be-

came necessary to cover the triforium

galleries with continuous half-barrel

vaults, which partly counteract the

thrust and partly carry it over the aisles
to the outer wall of the building, where
sheer weight of masonry might resist it.

Though logical, this system sacrifices the

117. St. Sernin, Toulouse (1080-96) Exterior
clearstory. Windows may be present at of apse, total height, 215'.

the end of the nave, or in the aisle walls,

but not enough light passes across the roofs; the apse protrudes above the am-
width of the and through the
aisles bulatory, where each chapel is a sepa-

arches of the nave arcade by modern rate bulge. The church is designed as
standards. This thick gloom, through a collection of its parts, each related to
which the sonority of the Gregorian the whole but not fused with it; every
chant reverberates, hangs like a pall part retains its discrete individuality.

overhead and half conceals the vaults, This combination of apse, ambulatory,
but also creates a sense of religious mys- chapels, and transepts builds up to the
tery. tower over the crossing, to make the
The heavy walls, large piers, and plain east end of St. Sernin one of the most
vault define the major volumes of the monumental of all Romanesque build-
church. If smaller volumes exist in the ings. In its expression of sheer power, it

aisles, they are stated rather as parallel surpasses the Italian buildings already
voids than as parts of the space con- discussed.
tained within the nave. That clear defi- Priority is not important among these
nition of space characterizes the Ro- styles that preserve at least some tradi-
manesque style, both inside and out. tional forms. Many of them appeared
In St. Sernin at Toulouse (fig. 117), simultaneously, and it is unnecessary to
built chiefly in the eleventh century, each assume any direct influence of one upon
unit of the complex mass is separately another. On the other hand, the design-
conceived. Its own roof distinguishes the ers of Lombardy claim precedence
nave from the aisles with their lower among the innovators. Though this is
 LOMBARD ARCHITECTURE 163

:
, *;

119. Sant' Ambrogio, Milan (1046-1196)

Transverse section, nave and aisles, 92' wide.

disputed, history points to an influence

of Lombardy on the Rhenish and Nor-
man churches. Four primary structural
innovations characterize Lombard work.
The first is the ribbed quadripartite
groined vault, present in Sant' Ambrogio
in Milan (fig. 118), begun in the elev-
enth century. The area of the nave is

divided into square bays, the sides of

the square and its diagonals marked by
ribs. Three pairs appear in each bay:
two transverse ribs cross the nave, two
wall ribs run along its sides, and two
diagonal ribs divide each bay into four
triangular compartments. Whether the
ribs in fact support these triangles of
masonry or simply effect economies in

centering, at least they articulate the

vault, dramatize the structural forces,
and seem to concentrate them on the
piers. Since all the Lombard ribs are
semicircular, the diagonal ribs, longer
118. Sant' Ambrogio, Milan (1046-1196) 390'
x 92'. than the wall and transverse ribs, must
164 ROMANESQUE ART

rise to a higher point. Consequently, as The piers of Sant' Ambrogio (fig.

one sees in the section (fig. 119), each 120) are not all the same size; large

vaulting bay is domical. piers alternate with smaller ones. To

But if the ribs carry any part of the see the reason for this, turn again to the

weight of the vault, as they appear to, plan (fig. 118). The nave is flanked by
we may expect distinct support for each side aisles, half its width. If the aisles
rib. To effect this, the membered pier are also to be vaulted in square com-
had to be developed. In its complete partments (and to vault an oblong rec-

form this includes a pilaster or colon- tangle in the Lombard system would be
nette to correspond to each rib, and very difficult), two bays in each aisle
since each pier supports five ribs of the must correspond to one in the nave.
nave vaults, one transverse, two wall, These bays need support at their cor-

and two diagonal ribs, five members ners. Therefore, smaller intermediate
must appear on the nave side of each piers are introduced, smaller because
pier. Moreover, the design of each colon- they carry only the aisle vaults, whereas
nette indicates the direction taken by the main piers carry both the aisle vaults
the rib it serves. The interior of Sant' and the larger nave vaults. If this inter-

Ambrogio shows that the shafts carrying mediate pier were destroyed, theoreti-
the diagonal ribs face diagonally across cally nothing would happen to the nave
the nave of the church. vaults; therefore, we do not find on the

120. Sant' Ambrogio, Milan (1046-1196) Nave.

 LOMBARD ARCHITECTURE 165

nave side of the intermediate piers the closed. On the other hand, the heavy
complex membering that characterizes masonry of the interior has an appear-
the principal piers. ance of permanence and power that the
The ribs of these vaults bring a con- Cathedral of Pisa lacks. Most important
siderable thrust to bear against the walls among its advantages is that of fire pro-
of the church, but only against those tection. Wooden roofs were liable to
points of the wall opposite the pier. If destruction by fire; while they might be
a solid masonry buttress were placed replaced without much trouble, the de-
behind the main piers of the nave to struction to the interior and its contents
resist that thrust, it would have blocked caused by the burning timbers could
the aisles. Practically, the buttress must not be so easily repaired. Important as
be located outside of the aisle, where it such protection is, it does not follow
appears as a mass thickening the wall that the presence of a vault dispenses
opposite each main pier of the interior with the necessity for a roof. The upper
(fig. 120). The aisle vaults also thrust surface of a vault cannot be exposed
outward, but just as the alternate pier to the weather; rainfall, penetrating the
is enough to support them, so a smaller joints between the stones, would soon
buttress is sufficient to care for this disintegrate any vault. Consequently, all

thrust. The same alternation we have vaults are covered by some form of
seen on the interior is also visible on the wooden The most serious defect
roof.

exterior, which thus reveals the struc- of the Lombard system is the lack of
tural system. These pier buttresses, to light. The galleries and the buttress sys-

be effective, must be connected with tem limit windows to the outer walls of
the nave vaults. The Lombards placed the aisles and to the end of the nave,
a gallery over the aisles; as we see in and as a result most of the Lombard
the section (fig. 119), arches in these churches are very dark.
galleries support a wall, which transmits The Lombard style has a robust vigor,

the thrust from the nave vaults over the but not the finish and sophistication of
aisles to the outside of the church. many traditional styles. The carving of
These four structural features of the the capitals is rugged, but on the whole
Lombard style, the ribbed vault, mem- little decoration enlivens the church.
bered pier, alternate system, and pier Its effectiveness lies in the structural
buttress are a milestone in architectural logic and the rhythm inherent in the
history. Though they raised many prob- alternate system, though some unity of
lems, both practical and aesthetic, they the interior is lost because of the domi-
broke the ground for later development. cal form of the vaults, which suggest
Such a system is more complex than separate units rather than continuity.
the scheme of the Cathedral of Pisa, Externally (fig. 121), Sant' Ambrogio is

and must have been more costly to con- monochromatic, in contrast to the Tus-
struct in proportion to the area en- can and Sicilian styles. Built in brick,
^66 ROMANESQUE ART

121. Sant' Amhrogio, Milan (1046-1196) Exterior, total length, 390'.

with stone reserved for the important already considered. The Lombard build-
architectural members, it makes free use ings are hardly comparable with them
of the arched corbel table, a range of in scale, in complexity of mass, or in
small arches supported on projecting delicacy of detail. On the other hand,
blocks or corbels, as decorative bands to such distinction must not be expected.
accent the principal divisions. Corbel The solution of the structural problems
tables in Sant' Ambrogio run along just absorbed so much creative energy that
under the eaves of the church, below the significance of Lombard buildings
the gallery level, and at each story of the is concentrated there.
tower beside the building. Slight as it is, The connection between Germany
this feature identifies the spread of the and Lombardy, two of the most impor-
Lombard influence in German Roman- tant regions within the Holy Roman
esque architecture, in southern Italy, in Empire, in part accounts for the spread
Normandy, and elsewhere. No single of the Lombard style northward. Dur-
church of the Lombard Romanesque is ing the Dark Ages, to judge from the
as distinguished in design as
any of the slight remains, a preference for multiple
examples of other Romanesque styles towers, double apses (one to the west
 GERMAN ARCHITECTURE 167

as well as one to the east), and double trained in Lombardy brought with them
transepts characterizes German build- to Normandy a knowledge of Italian
ings. The resulting silhouette was architecture. Thus Lanfranc, born in
complex, and the mass composition Pavia early in the eleventh century, en-
elaborate to the point of confusion. tered the monastery of Bee in Nor-
Something of this spirit remains in the mandy in 1042 and became prior a few
twelfth-century cathedrals of Mainz and years later. Subsequently he took charge
Worms. At Worms, for example, apses as abbot of the new Abbaye aux
occur to the east and to the west, each Hommes at Caen and, as archbishop of
flanked by paired towers, and a lantern Canterbury after the conquest of Eng-
rises near each end of the edifice. On land, began the building of a magnifi-
the other hand, the quadripartite ribbed cent cathedral. St. Anselm, from Aosta
vault, the membered pier, the alternate in north Italy, followed Lanfranc in
system, and the rudimentary buttresses each of his positions and doubtless also
derive from Lombardy. The German drew southern influence in his train.

churches are less logical than the Lom- So energetic a people as the Normans
bard, because they do not always adopt would hardly accept suggestions in
the complete system but are willing to architecture without trying to improve
omit one or more members of the vault them. The plan of St. Etienne at
or of the pier. A further indication of Caen (fig. 122), called the Abbaye aux
Lombard influence, the arched corbel Hommes, begun in 1064, though the
table, recurs even in the more tradi- vaults were added seventy-five years
tional buildings of the Rhineland and later, reveals the ribbed vault, the mem-
in other parts of Germany. But if the bered pier, the alternate system, and
German style yields to the Italian in the buttresses, but with some differ-

structural logic, it is ahead in monu- ences from the Lombard. The vault has
mentality. The organization of this ceased to be four-part, or quadripartite;
complexity in design, the combination an intermediate transverse rib bisects

of vertical and horizontal masses, and the square compartment, to halve the
the feeling for scale make this Roman- lateral triangles and so produce the six-

esque style the finest architectural part, or sexpartite, vault. Since this in-

achievement of Germany, an indigenous termediate transverse rib in St. Etienne

style that commands respect through its supports part of the nave vault, and
power and dignity. since it rests on the intermediate pier,

Normandy, on the English Channel, that pier now becomes vital for the sup-
also fell under Lombard influence. The port of the nave as well as the aisle.

Normans were eager to learn from Lom- However, it carries less of the nave vault
bardy, which enjoyed great intellectual than the main piers, as indicated by the
prestige throughout Western Europe single rib resting on it, and therefore it

during the eleventh century. Prelates follows that the intermediate pier may
i68 ROMANESQUE ART

onal ribs, but the intermediate pier

needs only one member for the inter-
mediate transverse rib. The walls in the
Norman Romanesque are so massive
that they absorb, as it were, the wall
rib, which is not visible in the vault or
reflected in the pier. These walls are
thick enough to be pierced with pas-
sages at several levels, for inspection of
the building, and to facilitate repairs.
The Norman church includes a clear-
story. This feature, so fundamental to
adequate lighting, had been sacrificed

to the buttress problem by the Lom-

bards. But in Normandy, the thick
walls probably suffice for abutment,
though buttresses are often placed
against the clearstory wall behind each
pier. In the contemporary church of
Ste. Trinite, the Abbaye aux Dames, a

half arch under the roof of the aisle

back of each support is designed to

transfer thrust over the aisles to the

outer wall, where pier buttresses resist
it. This expedient affords the germ of
the Gothic flying buttress. Moreover,
Norman vaults are not domical as are
Lombard and, occasionally, German
vaults. The transverse ribs remain semi-

circular, but the diagonal ribs are either

semi-elliptical or segmental, and thus

lower than a full half-circle; they reduce
the height of the diagonal arches to the
122. St. Etienne, Caen (1064-77) 3^°' x 73'- same level as that attained by the trans-

verse ribs. Therefore, the nave of the

remain smaller than the main piers and Norman church (fig. 123) does not
thus preserve the alternate system. The show the same interruptions that meet
main pier has members to support the the eye in Sant' Ambrogio. However,
main transverse rib and the two diag- this unity has its price. Over any given
 NORMAN ARCHITECTURE 169

but in its gaunt proportions. Its design

repeats the divisions of the interior, and
so becomes a prototype of the Gothic
facade. Shallow buttresses divide the
facade and correspond to the nave and
side aisles, while three tiers of openings

express the vertical stories of nave ar-

cade, triforium, and clearstory. The
western towers, whose spires were added
later, emphasize that part of the build-
ing where the principal entrances are
located. Also, they give dramatic inter-
est to the facade, as they rise above the
roof in stages— the lower ones plain in
design with few openings or none, and
the number of windows and the rich-

ness of their treatment increased in the

123. St. Etienne, Caen (1064-77), vaults
(c. 1135) Nave 32' wide, total length 360'.

span, the lower and flatter the arch, the

greater is its thrust; and consequently
the Norman scheme of flattened diag-
onal ribs results in a greater thrust than
that created by semicircular members
of the same size.

Austerity pervades the best of these

Norman buildings. The sturdy masonry
of local stone may be carved around
the arches, and in horizontal bands be-
tween the stories. These do not usually
attempt floral, figure, or animal de-
signs; instead, we find the zigzag, the
chevron, the billet mold like rows on a
checkerboard. In Normandy itself even
these are seldom employed, but they
abound in the churches put up by the
Normans in England after the Con-
quest.
The facade of St. Etienne (fig. 124) Caen Fagade
124. St. Etienne, (1064-77)
is severe, not only in its dearth of detail 295' high.
170 ROMANESQUE ART

upper stories. Otherwise, however, the columns and alternate membered piers.

Norman facade is bare, its portals and Though its vaulted nave is exceptional
windows small, its buttresses narrow among English Romanesque buildings,
strips, and the plastic character of the even here the Norman scheme is not
Gothic nowhere visible. complete; its diagonal arches above the
When the Normans invaded England intermediate piers do not continue to
in 1066 their architecture was grander the ground on any colonnette or pilas-

than that of the conquered Saxons. ter. However, Durham does not lack
During the next century, they built structural interest to the historian; cer-

cathedral after cathedral in their own tain features of its vaulting and its but-
style. In England they sought scale, pon- tress system are amazingly advanced
derous rhythms, and an overwhelming when one considers that the nave
result to impress their new subjects. vaults were completed by 1133; but its

The Anglo-Norman style wins its great- sonorous architecture does not rely for
est architectural triumph at the end of effect on structure. Few styles are more
the eleventh century in Durham Cathe- imposing than the Anglo-Norman in

dral (fig. 125). A clear Romanesque the expression of sheer power, and
definition of volumes in nave and aisles among the monuments of that style

results from the vast size of round none can equal Durham Cathedral,

1215. Cathedral, Durham (1096-1133) Nave 39' wide, 72' high, total length nave and choir, 469'.
 NORMAN ARCHITECTURE 1
71

'half house of God, half castle 'gainst their very nature, these arts tend to
the Scot/ represent or symbolize primarily by
outline. That linearism affects much
The same variations in style we have Romanesque sculpture, even when it is
reviewed in architecture occur in sculp- executed on a monumental scale. Few
ture, and for the same reasons, but it arts have ever attained so architectonic
does not follow that a region need be a flavor. To some degree, this results
prominent in both arts. In general, these from carving stones already set in place

styles form a design woven of classic, in the building, and of the same ma-
northern, and Byzantine threads. The terial as the architecture. Also the an-
last named was the one living source of gular forms and the distortion of the
inspiration, and even of information in figure for the sake of design bring the

the visual arts,to which the Western sculpture into dependence on the archi-
artists after the Dark Ages could turn. tecture.

Though Byzantium produced little In many regions, the sculpture con-

monumental sculpture, her manuscripts centrates around the doorway. In St.
and ivories were readily portable. By Trophime at Aries (fig. 126), the rich

126. Portal, St. Trophime, Aries (c. 1150) c. 40' wide, 46' high.
1
72
ROMANESQUE ART

ter, and separate the Blessed on the left,

and the Damned to the right. The ar-

chitecture needs a band in that posi-

tion; to provide this, individual figures

are elements of a pattern; each figure

duplicates its neighbors in pose. The
victims chained together on the right,

each with his hand on the shoulder of

the man in front, march off in lock step
with the patterned flames of hell lick-

ing their legs. The subject is clear, and

the artist free to turn to the artistic
needs of the design.
A different style centers around the
pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Com-
postela, though whether the French or
127. Apostles, portal, St. Trophime, Aries Spanish workshops take precedence re-
(c. 1150). mains uncertain. If St. Trophime is re-
lated to the classic Roman, the affinities
portal contrasts with the plain facade.
in St. Pierre at Moissac of the twelfth
Provence, a once-flourishing Roman
century lie with a school of manuscript
province, was littered with classic monu-
illumination, ivory carving, and metal
ments bound to affect later styles. Many
work that Western Europe
flourished in
details in this twelfth-century portal,
in the ninth and tenth centuries and
such as the fluted pilasters for door
which was remotely influenced by By-
jambs and the fret molding above, attest
zantium. The figure of St. Peter (fig.
this influence, as do also the senatorial
128) on the door jamb has as little
figures of apostles flanking the door.
correspondence to a human being as it
These squat figures (fig. 127), heavily
well can. The proportions are attenu-
robed and full-bearded, are not far re-
ated, the head thrown forward at an
moved from late Roman tradition. The angle with the body that is realistically
heads are large in proportion to the
impossible; the neck long; but above all
bodies. This massiveness is appropriate the figure has now become a frame for
to the location. The multiple folds of an arrangement of drapery. The pipe-
drapery are not cut so deeply into the like especially prominent in the
legs,
mass, in spite of the classic influence, as angels of the tympanum above (fig.
to create a plastic treatment.
129), afford an excuse to change the
A tendency to pattern, vague in the pattern, not to represent the leg. The
large figures, is more in evidence in the garments fall in flat pleats. Similar pat-
frieze, where the Apostles sit in the cen- terned drapery characterized the archaic
 SCULPTURE *73

k/f-

«*.,
>

128. St. Peter, St. Pierre, Moissac (early 12th cent.) 5' high.
*74 ROMANESQUE ART

129. Tympanum, St. Pierre, Moissac (12th cent.) i8'8" wide.

period of Greek art. This parallel is a the Christ of the Apocalypse, sur-

coincidence, but the relation to the art rounded by the symbols of the evan-
of the Dark Ages and to Constantinople gelists, angels, and elders (fig. 129). The
is not. Both the Byzantine ivories, and twenty-four elders, ranged in tiers, gain
the mosaic Chastity in St. Mark's (fig. animation from their crossed legs and
no) show the same angularity, attenu- varied postures as they look upward to
ation, and kind of design in drapery. the Saviour. They contrast in scale with
However, the dynamic spirit and nerv- the larger central group. Christ domi-
ous energy of northern and western nates by His size, by the larger treat-
Europe, manifest in the cross-legged ment of His robe, by His crossed halo,
figuresand the swirls of drapery, ani- and, of course, by His central position.
mate the sophisticated type and motives Still, though His figure has some mass,
from the East. the sculptor refuses to cut into it. In-
The composition culminates in the stead, he folds the garment against the
tympanum, that is, in the lunette within figure, and lets the edges end in a zig-

the arch of the doorway above the open- zag, so that the surfaces rather than the
ings into the church. There is carved mass create the effect.
 SCULPTURE *75

130. Tympanum, La Madeleine, Vezelay (c. 1130) Diameter of tympanum, c. 24'6".

Burgundy achieves still more of styli- Ghost upon the Apostles. This mystical
zation. The tympanum of the Church occurrence is given curiously literal

of the Madeleine at Vezelay (fig. 130), form; Christ in the pointed oval or
also from the twelfth century, presents mandorla shape in the center stretches
the Pentecost, the descent of the Holy out His hands; from His finger tips,
176 ROMANESQUE ART

symbolic rays descend on the head of styles. For one thing, the sculpture is

each of the Apostles. Naive as this may scattered around the church, not con-
seem, would be hard to find a more
it centrated at the doors and in the clois-

effective method of presenting this mys- ters. For another, the Italians carve in

tery. The body has become, even more marble, regardless of the material of
than at Moissac, a frame of bent pipe the building. Therefore, the sculpture is

to hold the drapery. In fact, because of less integrated with the architecture
the influence of illuminated manu- than in the best northern work. Lom-
scripts, the whole figure is flattened out; bardy in the twelfth century borrowed
that Christ had a body does not concern from Provence, as, for example, in the
these sculptors. Their design is magnifi- treatment of drapery in the Deposition,
cent and their meaning clear. To tell a a twelfth-century relief from the Cathe-
Romanesque sculptor that his statue did dral of Modena, possibly by Benedetto
not look like a figure would have meant of Parma. This formal design fits its

nothing to him. He might have replied rectangle, without such distortions of

that his figures were not intended to be the figure as those in Burgundy. South-
human; they portrayed spiritual charac- ern Italy, as one might expect, turned
ters whose actuality had no bearing on to the Byzantine or to the Roman clas-

their emotional religious significance. sic. The former, modified by the Italian
To consider them from our realistic love of vivacious narrative, bore fruit in
point of view is to miss what is impor- a series of bronze doors, illustrated at
tant: namely, their supreme effective- the Cathedral of Benevento. On the
ness as symbolic and didactic illustra- other hand, the sculptors of the court
tions of church dogma and as abstract of Frederick II at Capua in the early
design. thirteenth century evolved a plastic
A more extreme, tym-
second, and yet style so classic in appearance that some
panum from Burgundy is that of St. of its products, such as the bust of Pier
Lazare at Autun, designed by master della Vigna or the head of the personi-
Gislebertus. The characters of the Last fied Capua, might be confused with
Judgment more elongated, the fig-
are Roman art. This school has exceptional
ure of Christ flatter, and the whole importance as the source for the style
design more diagrammatic and two- of Nicola d'Apulia, the outstanding
dimensional than the sculpture at Tuscan sculptor of the mid-thirteenth
Moissac. The beguiling devils provide century.
an outlet for the exuberance of the Outside of Italy, the monumental
time, but the composition is more con- sculpture of the period is often re-

fused and less effective than that at stricted to doorways and cloisters. How-
Moissac or at Vezelay. ever, the sculptured capitals, though
The character of Italian sculpture, it- minor, illustrate the range of Roman-
self varied, is distinct from these French esque sculpture and are themselves a
 SCULPTURE I77

fascinating study. The vast majority are suggestions from nature into elements
plain, molded, or adorned with foliate of design, as he does in his figure sculp-
patterns, sometimes based on Roman ture. A smaller number of capitals deal
precedents, sometimes on Byzantine, with figure subjects. One from Autun
but in the aggregate showing a remark- (fig. 131) depicts the Temptation of
able fertility of invention. When the Christ; a devil, winged and with clawed
motive is foliate, the Romanesque feet, stands before Christ on top of the
carver pays little heed to any specific temple. The barbaric vigor of the north-
flower or leaf; instead, he reduces the ern imagination is allowed free rein in

131. Temptation of Christ, Capital, Autun (12th cent.)

i 78 ROMANESQUE ART

but churchmen could read. These nar-

ratives filled the place of printing in
modern life. For the twentieth-century
observer, in addition to a knowledge of
the Bible narrative some imagination is

often necessary to recognize these

scenes, but they may have been more
\
easily identified by those for whom they
were made. The same tendency to dis-
tortion that characterizes the monu-
mental sculpture is evident here. The
heads at Moutier St. Jean are one quar-
ter of the total height of the figure in
contrast to the one seventh of the Greek
132. Cain and Abel, Capital, Mouticr St. Jean Polyclitan ideal (fig. 63). Holes drilled
(12th cent.) Fogg Museum, Cambridge, Mass. to catch black shadows create the eyes,
26" high x 25" wide at top x 16" wide at
bottom. while at Autun Christ is twice as high
as the temple. One must further observe
the demon, who seems unlikely to in these capitals that the design in spite

tempt anyone with success, least of all of considerable modeling follows the
Christ. Frankly handled as a grotesque, surface of the capital. In this way the
his wrinkled face is deliberately dis- design accords with the structure of the
torted. Christ, whose head is encircled capital.
by a halo inscribed with a cross, exhibits

the same angularity and linearism as the As in architecture, so also in manu-

tympanum figures. From Moutier St. script illumination the Germans re-
Jean in the twelfth century comes a tained some of the complexity of Carol-
naive version of the story of Cain and ingian traditions. The Gospels of Em-
Abel (fig. 132). The older brother can peror Otto, at the end of the tenth
be recognized by his full beard as well century, display some Byzantine influ-

as by the sheaf of grain in his hand, ence in the figures, with a copious use
while Abel carries a lamb from his flock. of gold. On the other hand, Byzantine
The hand of God indicates His prefer- influence on the eleventh-century Grim-
ence for the live offering by pointing to bald Gospels is slight. Distorted, sym-
it through the cloud presented by wavy bolic, and linear though the figures are,
lines. Simple as is this arrangement, the they have a vivacity unknown to their
story is readable, a primary aim of the forerunners, but common to the Win-
sculptor in days when the lessons of the Chester school. That ap-
sprightliness is

Church might be taught through illus- parent in the Newminster Liber Vitae
tration, since books were rare and few (fig. 133) early in the eleventh century.
 SCULPTURE AND MANUSCRIPTS 1
79

from the devil, and an angel closing the

gates on the damned in hell. Some dis-

tortion remains, but this is insignificant

in comparison with the freedom of pose
and expression. Much the same feeling
for the grotesque vitalizes the devils
here that we have seen in the Roman-
esque capitals.

The Romanesque style used to be re-

garded as a crude preparation for the

1'f fAS n £^X Gothic; its sculpture was uncouth be-
cause of the ignorance of the epoch that

K^Ji^k*^
produced it. Even from this brief re-
view, it should be obvious that such an

J^§l#?i. d^ew attitude is unjustified. While some of

its styles are less refined than the
Gothic, in the expression of sheer
\j*.

strength it is greater. If some of its

m^T branches provide the structural experi-

mentation preparatory to the Gothic,
many Romanesque styles have no con-
133. Liber Vitae, Newminster (1020-30'
British Museum. nection with the later French style. The
Romanesque stands triumphant on its

The figures, here sketched in brown ink, own feet, an inevitable expression of the
depict St. Peter welcoming the elect to new vigor of Western Europe, of its

heaven and rescuing a soul by force faith, and of its feudal system.
X The Early Development of French Gothic Art

In the popular mind today and for cen- been barbaric; its most striking product
turies past, medieval art is Gothic art. was the style usually characterized by
Though this idea ignores Byzantine and the pointed arch; the Goths were the
Romanesque art, it has some justifica- best known of the barbarians; therefore,
tion: Gothic art is the most striking the style was Gothic, that is, barbaric.
manifestation of the whole age; its style Although for more than a century now
or group of styles has the most vivid the term has ceased to carry a stigma,
character, at least in architecture; and it was coined in the sixteenth century
in so far as any one style can represent as a term of contempt.
so long and varied a period, the Gothic In general, Gothic art is more homo-

does so best. The judgment of its suc- geneous than is Romanesque art. If the
cess has altered
through the years, as its style differs in France, England, Spain,
name, the Gothic, indicates. During the and Italy, and if a thorough study of
centuries when it was 'modern/ this the field uncovers local variations within
style was known as opus francigenum, each country, those differences are
French work, which suggested where its minor when compared with the con-
principal motive force lay. With the re- trasts in the architecture and sculpture
vival of enthusiasm for antiquity, the of neighboring regions during the Ro-
fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Italians manesque period. To some extent, the
maintained that the Middle Ages had greater uniformity of the Gothic may
180
 THE GOTHIC PERIOD 181

be attributed to bands of lay workmen patron saint of that guild. At Chartres,

who journeyed from town to town as the townsmen harnessed themselves to

opportunities for employment arose. carts to draw stone to the cathedral,

More important, however, were the new a contribution of personal service

circumstances of the late twelfth and prompted first by religious enthusiasm,

thirteenth centuries. At this time, the but not unmixed with civic pride. The
royal government in France was slowly rivalry between towns was intense. Paris
gaining power. Though the feudal sys- built its Notre Dame first, rearing its

tem had by no means disappeared, the vaults no feet in the clear; Amiens, a

royal vassals were not so independent as little later, raised its vault 139 feet

they had been in the eleventh century. above the pavement; then Beauvais out-
The rise of towns, fostered by the king- did them both with its cathedral 158
ship, altered the structure of society. feet high internally. In Beauvais, the
During the thirteenth century under zeal to outstrip its rivals was carried to
Philip Augustus, France attained a de- such lengths that parts of the building
gree of unity unknown before, and even collapsed and had to be replaced. Again,
though subsequently the English con- Siena, always jealous of Florence, built
quered large provinces of France, and its sumptuous cathedral first. When
in spite of the rival power of the Dukes Florence accepted the challenge, her
of Burgundy, the trend was toward cathedral was made much larger than
increased unity. Moreover, means of the Sienese. Not to be outdone, the
communication slowly improved and Sienese determined to convert their new
brought a fuller knowledge to any one church into merely the transepts of a
region of the activities in other areas. tremendous structure; they never com-
These changes fostered a French Gothic pleted more than the foundations, but
style rather than an individual Norman the intention remains clear.
style or Provencal style. This pride of the towns in the cathe-
The growth of towns in particular dis- drals and the active role taken by the
tinguished the Gothic era from the townsfolk in their construction has led
Romanesque, which had been so largely to a widespread supposition that there
the product of the monasteries. The were no architects. It is true that the
cathedral was the center of the town title of architect rarely appeared in the
life, many of whose activities took place medieval records; the man who per-
in it or in front of it; it partook of the formed that function was variously de-
character of a civic monument. Each scribed as master builder, master mason,
group in the town played a part in or clerk of the works. These craftsmen
building and adorning its great church. differed from modern architects in their
The several guilds might donate stained- relation to the process of building, since
glass windows, or undertake the respon- they combined the functions of archi-
sibility for a chapel, dedicated to the tect, contractor, and foreman. But the
l82 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

idea that such complicated designs spreads from France over Western
could be the product of a community Europe, beginning late in the twelfth
is absurd. There must have been some century and lasting until the Renais-
individual whose vision, whose sense of sance—that is, through the fourteenth
proportion, and whose knowledge of century in Italy and into the sixteenth
structure made him essentially the ar- century north of the Alps. C. H. Moore
chitect, in whose mind the conception defines Gothic architecture as 'a system
of the cathedral crystallized. That such of vaults, supports, and buttresses, the
a person might allow his subordinates supports strong enough to bear the
greater latitude than is possible today, crushing weight only, and the stability
or that the subordinates developed their maintained by a perfect equilibrium of
own ideas in caning the capitals or thrusts.' This definition is as valuable
other parts of the building, does not for what it omits as for what it con-
mean that there was no architect in tains. Most surprising is its lack of any
charge. Indeed, the names of many of reference to the pointed arch. Yet while
these master builders have been pre- that feature is prominent in the Gothic
served. What we do not have from the style, it is found in other styles, and
Middle Ages, in contrast to later periods, round arches occur in Gothic buildings.
is any information about the personali- Throughout the Romanesque period,
ties of these men. They remain merely wherever Saracenic influence exists, one
names to us. The conception of fame may encounter the pointed arch; Mon-
had not yet grown to the point where reale Cathedral uses it consistently,
an architect or artist might take steps though the building is Romanesque not
to ensure the preservation and dissemi- Gothic. The Spanish Romanesque, and
nation of his reputation. even that of Provence, use pointed
Even if we recognize the importance arches. On the other hand, in so Gothic
of the secular and civic backing of the a building as Chartres Cathedral, the
cathedrals, we must still admit the spir- nave clearstory windows, though not
behind them. That the town
itual force their smaller divisions, are round-arched,
should choose to make the cathedral its and so too are the diagonal ribs of Notre
biggest monument is in itself signifi- Dame in Paris. This shape is a less

cant. The soaring lines of the church, its certain touchstone of the Gothic than is

buttresses, pinnacles, and spires express popularly supposed.

a religious
enthusiasm and aspiration Moore's definition mentions no wall,
never reached before or since. No other but merely the three great structural
style has touched that summit of mysti- elements. In the developed French
cal exaltation the Gothic so perfectly Gothic the wall ceases to exist as a
expressed. structural member. The building be-
In architecture, the Gothic style is comes a cage of glass and stone, with
characterized by the pointed arch. It windows the full width from pier to
 ARCHITECTURE 183

pier. If some wall remains, for example to raise the crown of the transverse and
below the aisle windows, it plays no wall ribs to the same level as the crown
other role than to exclude the weather. of the diagonal ribs, they adopted
It is as though the Romanesque wall pointed arches. This step was taken
had been cut into sections, and each only in slow and tentative fashion. At
section turned outward at right angles Morienval, in the ambulatory of a very
to the mass of the building to become
a buttress. The early French Gothic is

composed of the ele-

a structural system
ments mentioned by Moore. Adequate
as is this definition in many respects, it

has one serious defect. It applies only

to early French Gothic; not to Gothic
architecture in other countries, or even
to later phases of the style in France.
The emphasis on structure implies
the desirability of examining the sev-
eral parts of the Gothic cathedral in-

dividually before we attempt to discuss

any one monument in its entirety. First
in importance is the vault. While logi- 134. Ambulatory Vault, Morienval (c. 1120).
cal, the vaulting of Sant' Ambrogio in
Milan (fig. 119) has several shortcom- small church, perhaps rebuilt about
ings. The vaults tend to be heavy; the 1120, the arches were pointed (fig. 134),
crown or apex of the vault, because of though in the earlier parts of the same
the use of the semicircle for all the building, they remained the simpler
ribs, remains domical. This produces round arches. The pointed arches
some outward pressure along the length brought the apex of the ribs around the
of the wall rib, and in addition tends to edges of each area to be covered by
break up the interior into separate the vault approximately to the level
units; but above all in Sant' Ambrogio, reached by the diagonal ribs. Elsewhere,
the lack of a clearstory results in a very the builders pointed the arches, but not
dark church. As we have seen, the Nor- enough to give the desired result; con-
mans in St. Etienne at Caen (fig. 123) sequently, they had to insert above the
reverted to the clearstory, and to a vault arch a small section of wall in order to
with level crowns, but at the expense gain the necessary height, as, for exam-
of heavy walls and of less than semi- ple, at Bury. In the fully developed
circular ribs. To meet these objections, Gothic, such makeshifts were unneces-
the Gothic builders made two funda- sary because of the bolder use of this
mental innovations in vaulting. First, device.
184 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

135. Romanesque and Gothic Vaults. Diagram.

The pointed arch could by itself pro- same point as the diagonal ribs, they in-

duce a vault with level crowns, that is, sert a colonnette to raise the springing
one where all of the ribs rise to the of the wall arches above that of the
same level. Especially in a vault over a others. Therefore, the under surface of
rectangular area, if the height is to be the vault assumes a warped form, called
achieved simply by pointing wall arches, the plowshare twist. A second result is

they must be very sharply pointed in- the greater window area in the clear-
deed. Moreover, the Gothic builders story level; a third, that the wall rib
tried to concentrate the thrusts of their does not need to be so sharply pointed
vaults along a single line opposite each to produce a vault with level crowns;
pieron the outside of the building. The and fourth, the area covered by the
diagram of Romanesque and Gothic vault on the outer wall of the church is

vaults 135) shows that the Roman-

(fig. restricted to a line instead of a triangle.
esque wall arches begin to curve at the This type of vault is illustrated in the
same point as do the transverse and nave of Amiens Cathedral (fig. 136).
diagonal ribs, and therefore cover a tri- In the matured Gothic of the thir-
angle of the outer wall surface. Logically teenth century — for example, at Amiens
the buttress should cover that triangle, and Chartres— the designers reverted to
and thus become broader than the the quadripartite system of Lombard
Gothic builders desired. In addition, the origin and abandoned the sexpartite ar-
Romanesque scheme reduces the wall rangement. This was not true while the
area in the clearstory,
which the more style was developing; on the contrary,
open Gothic arrangement converts to many twelfth-century Gothic buildings
window. The Gothic designers stilt converted the sexpartite system to
their wall ribs; that instead of allow- Gothic nave of
is, structure, as in the
ing the wall ribs to begin to curve at the Notre Dame at Paris, or the Cathedral
 VAULTS AND PIERS

Next to the vault, the second element

in the definition of Gothic is the sup-
port, which includes the piers of the
nave arcade and the shafts above them
in the triforium and clearstory levels
designed to carry the vault. Since the
Gothic structure grows out of the Ro-
manesque, one would expect to find a
colonnette corresponding to each rib,

and so one does, above the level of the

capitals in the nave arcade. As the pro-
portions of the building turn toward
lightness, these shafts become more at-

tenuated than in the Romanesque, and

therefore emphasize verticality. In the
piers, however, the story is different.

The membered Romanesque pier, how-

ever logical, tends to large bulk; it de-
finesand separates the space in the nave
from the volumes in the aisles. Though
136. Cathedral, Amiens (1220-79) Interior, one may pass readily from one to the
vaults 139' high; nave width 48'; total interior
other, the several parts are conceived
length 438'.
as visual units. The first step taken by
of Laon. But one advantage of the the Gothic seems retrogressive. The
Gothic vault is its adaptability to any membered pier is replaced by the round
area. Realizing this after the style had column, whose somewhat smaller mass
been perfected, the builders returned to frees the floor area and allows the space
the uniform quadripartite system and to flow from nave to aisles, as though
abandoned the alternate arrangement of the two were parts of the same volume.
sexpartite vaults. The domical character However, to use plain columns here
of Lombard vaults, prominent in a means that the apparent support for the
square plan, would become absurdly vault ribs must stop at the level of the
emphasized if the plan of the vault were capitals, which, though not structurally
oblong. The longer the rectangle, the objectionable, is weak in appearance.
greater the discrepancy between the The strong verticality of the colonnettes
crowns of round diagonal and wall ribs, seems contradicted or at least inter-

if they spring from the same level. With rupted by the absence of a similar verti-

the flexible Gothic, by pointing and cal emphasis in the piers. Therefore, the

stilting, any height may be reached even architects placed a single colonnette in
over a limited span. front of the sixth nave pier of Notre
i86 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

137. Notre Dame,

\u#
Paris
"EMU
(1163-1235) Interior, vaults 110' high, nave 46' wide.
 PIER AND BUTTRESS 87

Dame in Paris (fig. 137), west of the

crossing. Although this one member
seems to support three colonnettes, it

serves to continue the movement from

the vaults to the pavement, or vice
versa. This pier is lopsided; in the sev-
enth pier at Paris, similar shafts were
applied to the column to support the
aisle vaults and under the arches of the
nave arcade, as well as on the face of the
pier. This symmetrical result proves ef-

fective both structurally and visually.

The sturdy piers of Chartres (fig. 142)

grow into the elegant shafts of Amiens
(fig. 136), which suggest not only the
engineering knowledge accumulated
through trial and error, but also the zeal
for height, which reaches its culmina-
tion in the Cathedral of Beauvais. The

139. Ste. Chapelle, Paris (1245-48) Interior

length 98', width 35'.

increased technical skill of the later

builders in the fourteenth and fifteenth

centuries permitted a partial return to
the elaborately membered pier, but with
its parts so small and delicate that it

remained light.

The buttress is the third and last of

the principal structural elements. A Ro-
manesque pier buttress has a massive-
ness characteristic of the style. The
problem lies in connecting the thrusts
of the nave vaults with the buttress; if

placed against the clearstory, its lower

portion will block the aisle. The Lom-
bards sacrificed the clearstory to gal-

leries; the latter contain arches that

138. Cathedral, Amiens (1220-79) Section,
vaults 139' high. transfer the thrust of the nave vaults
 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

over the aisles to the pier buttresses on ing. A series of offsets on its outer edge
the outer wall of the church. The thick makes the buttress heavier at the bot-

walls in Norman churches appear to be tom than at the top. This device is

heavy enough to care for the problem, effective both as structure and in ap-
but the Gothic walls are thin or non- pearance, since it slopes the buttress
existent. The matured Gothic buttress inward against the outward pressure of
(fig. 138) has two parts. The first, the the vault.
pier buttress, derived from the Roman- The second part, the flying buttress,

esque, is built as a solid mass at right is peculiar to Gothic, though its germ
angles to the axis of the church, against exists in Ste. Trinite at Caen, where
the wall of the aisle, and in perfected the Normans experimented with a half-
examples rises high above it. This part arch under the aisle roof, as they did
through its sheer weight counteracts the also in Durham Cathedral. Although
outward pressure of the vaults. In too low at Caen to meet the thrusts of
such a single-aisled church as the Ste. the nave effectively, this engineering ex-
Chapelle in Paris (fig. 139), this but- pedient was pushed above the aisle roof

tress is set against the body of the build- as the Gothic style grew, and so was

140. Cathedral, Rheims (1211-90) Flanlc, towers 267' high; interior length 453'.
 BUTTRESS 189

f
l 4 -

-ps:q,.

ill I
1

<
1

141. Notre Dame, Paris (1163-1235) Facade 135' wide; towers 207' high.

brought up to the point where it carries a diagonal course of stone, rests

touched the lower parts of the nave its lower end on the pier buttress and
vault. This exposed half-arch, which its upper against the clearstory of the
190 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

nave. The flying buttress functions as a

prop to transfer the thrusts outward

over the aisle roof. This half-arch has
very little inward thrust; alone it would
be almost valueless to resist the power-
ful outward pressure of the nave vaults,

but as a connective its value is enor-

mous. Without it French Gothic could

never have attained its height and open-
ness. Flying buttresses appear on the
flank of Rheims Cathedral (fig. 140),
where their soaring lines express both
the vertical mass and the skeletal char-
acter of Gothic structure. At first in the

evolution of the flying buttress, a single

half-arch sufficed, but in time the
Gothic builders realized that there were
two points to be resisted, the vault
proper and the pressure upon the walls 142. Cathedral, Chartres (1194-1260) In-
terior,vaults 121' high; nave width 54'; total
just above the vault produced by wind
length 427'.
on the huge roof. Consequently, the fly-

ing buttress was doubled, one half-arch come inordinately heavy. Therefore, ver-
above another. tical stone members, called mullions,
In addition to these structural com- break the whole window area into
ponents, the Gothic has many elements smaller units, and support openwork or
less fundamental, but prominent in ap- traceried arches.
pearance. To a greater extent than any As these changes in structure arise, a
other style, the Gothic avoids applied similar metamorphosis alters the facade.

decoration; its richer details tend to be The west front of the Gothic cathedral,
interwoven with the structure, which derived from such Norman facades as
itself is made decorative. The large win- St. Etienne at Caen (fig. 124), reflects
dows, for example, are patterned with the interior. The buttresses of its flank-
tracery, bars of stone interlocked like ing towers mark the separation of nave
arches. The wind pressure sustained by and side aisles, and the successive stories

these windows is more than could be echo the nave arcade, triforium, and
borne by stained glass, composed of clearstory. It remained to give this divi-
small pieces held in place by pliable sion more vivid expression. The early
lead Although iron rods divide
bars. facade of Notre Dame in Paris (fig.

these windows at intervals, additional 141), retains these divisions, with the
support is necessary lest the rods be- middle section reduced to a row of
 WINDOWS 1
91

143. Cathedral Chartres (1194-1260) Facade 157' wide; south spire 344' high; north spire
192 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

sculptured figures. The doors are now the lowest stage of the spire, making so
larger, and the opening itself expanded subtle a transition from one to the
by a splayed surface, that is, by a diag- other that one hardly realizes it has
onal plane to either side of the doors, been made. Moldings rise above the
which emphasizes them and affords a center of each dormer and on the angles
field for sculpture. The windows, too, of the spire to prolong the vertical
are splayed and larger than in the Ro- movement.
manesque. In later examples, such as Many have observed the asymmetry
the facades of Amiens and Rheims of Gothic buildings, and undoubtedly
cathedrals, the corner buttresses of the that is important. However, in most
towers project boldly from the plane of cathedrals the obvious asymmetrical
the facades. The doors become porches features were constructed at different
as deep as the projection of the but- dates. Neither the Gothic nor the Ro-
tresses. In these welcoming portals, the manesque builders were hostile to sym-
sculpture of the cathedral reaches its metry; they simply did not make a
culmination. fetish of it,and were willing to depart
The Gothic builders preferred to ter- from it whenever circumstances af-
minate the towers with spires, though forded some reason to do so. The
in most instances local history pre- Gothic castle is usually unsymmetrical
vented their completion. The towers of and picturesque, because the builders
Notre Dame in Paris were intended to took advantage of the possibilities of
support spires. The powerful verticals of the site. If the ground is level and the
the buttresses demand some continua- fortress built at one time, as at Aigues
tion. At Chartres Cathedral (fig. 143), Mortes, erected by St. Louis in the
the magnificent south spire to the right thirteenth century, tower balances
is approximately contemporary with the tower, gate echoes gate, and only the
twelfth-century facade, but the north keep remains as an asymmetrical ele-

spire was not constructed until early in ment. The readiness with which the
the sixteenth century and is conse- Gothic builders gave up symmetry al-

quently different in style. During the lows few Gothic buildings to be abso-
early Gothic the French felt that a spire lutely uniform around an axis. Although
should grow imperceptibly from the the facade of the Cathedral of Paris is

tower. Therefore, in the south spire at symmetrical in its larger elements, more
Chartres, two transitions were effected: than twenty discrepancies can be found
that from the vertical plane of the tower between the right and left halves of the
walls to the sloping surfaces of the spire, design.
and that from the square plan of the Important as are the elements that
tower to the octagonal plan of the spire. compose the Gothic cathedral, the
The soaring dormer windows compose whole is still more significant. Each
at once the top story of the tower and cathedral has its personality, none more
 GOTHIC DESIGN *93

church in color whose beautiful tones

are too dark for adequate lighting. In
the detail of the Annunciation (Plate n,
facing p. 269) from one of the west
windows of Chartres, the figures are set
on a red ground but the tone is not of
uniform intensity. Blue, varying from
pale to dark, dominates the costumes,
with accents of golden yellow, lavender,
and white. The features and details of
costume are stylized; the purpose is dec-
orative and symbolic, not realistic.

For the thirteenth century, the beauty

of color compensated for the decreased

quantity of illumination. As one enters

Chartres Cathedral on a sunny day,
shafts of kaleidoscopic color reveal the
structural system. The form of the piers
with four colonnettes attached to the
central core is made more subtle by a
slight alternation in design. Where one
pier composed
is of an octagonal core
144. Cathedral, Chartres (1194-1260) Total
length 427'.
with four round shafts engaged on it,

its neighbors reverse the scheme, having

than Chartres (figs. 142, 143), dating a circular core with four octagonal
chiefly from 1194 to 1260. The plan shafts. Most visitors to Chartres are
(fig. 144) is different from that of all never aware of this alternation, yet it

other styles. Because of the elimination impresses itself imperceptibly by the

of the wall, the plan comprises only a slight rhythm in design. These angular
series of points, connected by lines that and curved forms add visual interest,

indicate the ribs in the vault. This lace- since each catches contrasted patterns
like pattern discloses the openness of of shade, the change from a smooth
design, as it points to the vast window transition of light to shade in the
area. To credit this openness wholly to rounded surfaces to the sharper breaks
a desire for light is not justifiable. The afforded by the octagons.
stained-glass windows of Chartres form Each pier supports five shafts, to re-
a decorative expression of the religious flect the five ribs of the quadripartite
exaltation of the Gothic age; but vaults. Those shafts too change from
stained glass excludes a large propor- the smallest ones, which support the
tion of the available light, bathing the wall ribs, to the largest, which respond
194 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

to the transverse ribs. Since the tri- through the crowning pinnacles, stone
forium occupies the vertical space cut merges with sky. At the west end,
off bv the sloping roof over the aisles, towers crowned with spires accent the
no windows pierce that level; instead, principal entrance and provide a bril-

in each bav a group of four arches opens liant climax for the building. Not only
on a passage. The clearstory windows through its vertically does the Gothic
spread from pier to pier, and utilize to cathedral differ from the Romanesque;
the full the advantages for stained glass its whole relation to space has altered.
offered bv the Gothic system. These buttresses and spires, unlike the
Through the piers and their shafts, wall in a Romanesque church, do not
the builders create a dramatic expres- seem to enclose a volume; instead they
sion of height, great in itself but even link the building to the surrounding at-

more accented in design. It might be mosphere. The interior space flows read-

hard to show a necessity for this vast ily from nave to aisles, transepts, and
space, but spiritually its worth is incal- ambulatory, with none of the divisions
culable. As a result, the polyphony of conceived as discrete volumes, but as
the medieval chant reverberates from ramifications of the same volume. In
the vaults above, to fill the church with the same way, the large window area
music and produce an atmosphere that invites that inner space to join with the
can be gained in no other way. In the outer air. The thin sheet of glass hardly
last analysis, though, this height is an interrupts this union. As the buttresses
expression of civic prestige and of the project from the wall plane, they break
devotion of the Middle Ages. As one up any sense of enclosure that plane
advances through the church, a succes- might otherwise establish, and seem to
sion of vistas meets the eve. One sees soften the union with the out-of-doors.
through the nave arcades to the aisles, Their pinnacles and pointed spires melt
through them to the transepts; but the into the sky.
culmination of the cathedral is the radi- This relation of the building to space
ant east end, where the aisle winds both and out contradicts the
inside
around the apse and gives access to a method of the Greek temple, as the
series of chapels. The curved plan here mystical Christianity of the Gothic age
results in great richness of effect, so reverses the rational religion of the
that new beauties meet the eye at every Greeks. The Greek temple clings to
step, perspectives change, and the pat- earth, the Gothic church springs heaven-
terns of light and shadow flow from one ward. The Parthenon defines its mass;
part of the church to another. Chartres is less clear and less self-

The same dramatic vertically governs contained. It is the difference between

the exterior. Soaring buttresses march the static and dynamic, the intellectual
along the flank of the church; each and the emotional. As a whole and in
draws the attention upward until, its parts, the Parthenon seems governed
 GOTHIC DESIGN *95

"by the mind of man, and as reasonable correct; it might also be heretical. A
as a proposition in Euclid; whereas the stalk with a few leaves signifies a tree

Gothic, like medieval speculation, ex- and indicates that the scene takes place

presses the intangible, and transcends on earth. A tower with door implies a
the human in its hopeful quest for town; if, however, an angel stands on
something above and beyond. the tower, it establishes the location as
the heavenly Jerusalem. The nimbus, or

The same devotional spirit molds the halo, indicates sanctity; when a cross is

sculpture, without which the French inscribed within it, the figure is divine.
cathedral more incomplete than the
is Through such a pictographic script, the
Greek temple. Like the Romanesque, identification of the figures and the
Gothic sculpture is predominantly eccle- scene is made clear.

siastical, and, to be understood, it must But the subject itself is only part of
be approached with some knowledge of its significance. The place occupied by
medieval interpretation. It is didactic any figure, with relation to the center
in purpose, calculated to illustrate and of the design where Christ usually ap-
emphasize the teachings of the Church. pears, has its meaning. The higher the
Christ is glorified in all the world, and, position in the design, the greater is the
therefore, all is worthy of representation honor; the place on Christ's right hand
in His temple. In his encyclopedia, Vin- is more distinguished than that on His
cent of Beauvais groups the knowledge left. It must always be borne in mind

of his day under four divisions, the that, since Christ faces the observer,
mirrors of nature, instruction, morals, His right hand is on the left as one
and history. Thus the sculptor may in- looks at the composition. The Elect are
clude plants or animals; he may present always placed on the right hand of
symbolic figures of music, astronomy, Christ in the Last Judgment, with the
geometry, and philosophy; or the seven Damned to the left. Some of the clear-
virtues and seven vices; or he may deal story windows in Chartres depict proph-

with that part of history worthy of re- ets who carry the Evangelists on their
membrance, namely, sacred history. shoulders. Medieval dogma teaches that
To understand Gothic sculpture, one although the Evangelists rest on the
must realize that any figure or object prophets, yet, because they have a direct
may be open to a threefold interpre- knowledge of the Saviour, they possess
tation. Art is a script, a calculus, and a a higher spiritual vantage ground and
symbolic code. Iconography dictates the a wider outlook than their forebears.
way an artist shall present any given Certain numbers have precise symbol-
figure. Thus God, the angels, and the ism. Because of its association with the
apostles are carved with bare feet; other Trinity, three connotes things spiritual.
characters will be shod. To represent Four, the number of the elements that
them otherwise might not be merely in- compose the world according to the
196 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

Middle Ages (which in this theory fol- is it certain that these meanings were
lowed antiquity), pertains to the earth. evident to laymen, even in the thir-

The sum of these two numbers pro- teenth century; doubtless the clergy un-
duces seven, the number of humanity derstood these matters, and explained
and an indication of the dual nature of them to their flocks to illustrate some
man, partly spiritual, partly of the earth. point in a sermon, but such esoteric

Twelve, the product of three and four, meanings were probably hidden from
explains the selection of twelve apos- the throng.
tles, the twelve lesser prophets, and The sculpture of the Gothic period
so on. differs from that of the Romanesque,
Finally, the Middle Ages believed even though it grows from it. Like its

that profound meanings are hidden in predecessor, Gothic sculpture is poly-

the Scriptures, allusions yielding their chromatic. The colors, until the later
significance only through analogies. Gothic, are conventional; they do not
Thus, types or forerunners of Christ imitate tones in nature, but instead are
appear frequently in the Old Testa- conceived as decoration. On the other
ment: the brazen serpent, lifted up by hand, where Romanesque sculpture
Moses in the wilderness to free the seems to have been carved after the
Israelites from a plague of serpents, stones were placed in the building, the
suggests Christ raised on the cross to Gothic statues were in most instances
expiate the sins of the world. Melchize- carved on the ground, and set in place
dek, as priest and king, prefigures when they were finished. Moreover, the
Christ, and his bread and wine given sculptor's technique advanced. He no
to Abraham foretells the Holy Eucha- longer turns to ivories and manuscripts
rist. The parable of the Wise and Fool- for his inspiration; he thinks more in
ish Virgins recalls the account in the terms of stone, and consequently de-
Gospels, and also typifies the Elect and velops a greater roundness in his figures.
the Lost. The lion serves as the em- The folds of drapery are not indicated
blem of the Resurrection; in medieval by line with little change of surface,
belief the lion's cubs were as though but become more deeply modeled. The
dead for three days after birth, at the features approximate their normal hu-
expiration ofwhich period the lion re- man proportions and projections, and
turns and breathes on them and brings catch a richer pattern of light and shade.
them back to life. These three days of Rigidity of pose relaxes to allow the
apparent death parallel Christ's descent statues to stand easily. With the full
into between
hell Good Friday and development of Gothic sculpture, ideal-
Easter Sunday. ism dominates. The figures, like human
Because these interpretations are pos- beings but without individual traits, are
sible, it does not follow that all of them
generalized and perfected; conceived as
are applicable in every instance. Nor types, they have a certain universality
 ICONOGRAPHY 1
97

*" «

145. West Portals, Cathedral, Chartres (1145-70) c. 50' wide.

of expression. As a result, the Gothic the kings and queens of Judah listed in
figures acquire a monumentality adapted the first chapter of the Gospel accord-
to the new style. ing to St. Matthew.
These new qualities did not appear The most conservative part is the
suddenly. The west portals of Chartres tympanum over the central door, where
Cathedral (fig. 145), completed in the the symbols of the Evangelists surround
middle of the twelfth century, are tran- Christ in hieratic order. His head is

sitional between the two styles, but by backed by a halo inscribed with a cross,
common agreement they are classed as though such a symbol here is unneces-
Gothic. Frequently the west front con- sary for identification. His drapery is

tains a series of royal figures; although folded in linear patterns which hardly
these are often identified as the kings indent the mass. Indeed in some parts,
and queens of France, the Middle Ages such as the raised right arm, the folds
would hardly have considered secular swirl so as to bear only a remote resem-
characters worthy of representation in blance to the body beneath, but a close
so important a place; thus they must one to the pattern-like character of
be interpreted as the ancestors of Christ, Romanesque art. The Christ has a
 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

146. Royal Ancestors of Christ, Kings and Queens of Judah, West Portal, Cathedral, Chartres
(1145-70) 2o'6" high.
 SCULPTURE 1
99

greater roundness of form, more feeling create an insistence on Gothic move-

for the mass of the figure. The head is ment. Such willingness to subordinate
more natural than the diagrammatic sculpture to architecture and to distort
heads in the Romanesque, with more the dimensions of the figure continues
highly modeled features, and perhaps Romanesque principles. However, where
less use of the drill. the Romanesque sculpture might be ap-
However, the kings and queens who plied to door jambs to enrich the archi-
line the portal (fig. 146) are remarkably tecture, but with little reference to con-
elongated. They grow from the columns struction, the new Gothic interest in

they rest on, and emphasize their sub- structure compels a corresponding em-
ordination to the verticality of the ar- phasis on it in sculpture. Also, the heads
chitecture; not only are the proportions change in the degree of realism. At
tall and slender, but the patterns of the Chartres, these have considerable indi-
clothing reinforce the direction. The viduality, a flesh of naturalism, contra-

long flowing sleeves of the queen, her dicted by the bodies, but otherwise
braided hair, and the folds of her dress analogous to the realism of Greek sculp-

147. Coronation of the Virgin, Dormition of the Virgin, Prophets and Kings, North Tympanum,
Facade, Notre Dame, Paris (1163-1235) 23'3" high.
200 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

ture about the time of Myron. These

heads represent an attitude opposed to
the stylized, expressive heads of the
Romanesque.
The west portals of Chartres Cathe-
dral, dating from the middle of the
twelfth century, are at most transi-

tional to the Gothic. Representative of

that style in the early thirteenth cen-
tury in sculpture is the north tympanum
on the west front of Notre Dame in

Paris (fig. 147). The architectural

change between the west fronts of
Chartres and Paris produces here a
more pointed arch, with a consequent
enlargement of the tympanum area.
Therefore, instead of treating the tym-
panum as a single composition, the
sculptor breaks it up into three bands.
The lowest zone contains three proph-
ets on our left, three kings on our right

These we may interpret as the spiritual

and physical ancestors of Christ, with
the spiritual side given the place of
honor on the right hand of Christ,
whose figure appears above. The middle
range depicts the Resurrection of the
Virgin. When the last earthly hours of
the Madonna arrived, the apostles gath-
ered in her presence from the four cor-
ners of the world. Christ reappeared to
receive the soul of His Mother and
translate it to heaven. The apostles sit

or stand around the bier, in meditation

148. Beau Dieu, Cathedral, Amiens (c. 1225)
on the miracle before them, with St. c. 10' high.

Peter, the chief apostle in the Western

church, significantly at the left, and thus His right, and offers her the scepter in
to the right of Christ. Finally, in the token of his intention to share His
top range appears the Coronation of the power in heaven with her.
Virgin. Christ has placed the Virgin on These figures project boldly from the
 SCULPTURE 201

background, and if the proportion of is now highly idealized, its features ren-
the heads is still a little large for the dered in broad planes, and all marks of
bodies, the discrepancy is not so great individuality and all physical defects
as previously. The draperv too has eliminated. In fact, we encounter the
changed, even compared with the
as same careful selection of details to cre-
caning at Chartres. Large, simple, ma- ate idealism and impersonality that we
jestic folds replace the rippling pattern, have observed in fifth-centurv Greek
and lend to the whole concept a monu- sculpture. Indeed, the courses pursued
mentality and breadth with a touch of by Greek and by medieval sculpture are
idealism about it. A certain ease in curiously parallel; each started with a
pose and freedom of movement animate substitution of convention and svmbol-
these figures. The artist conveys his ism for objective treatment, but later
message less through symbolism and turned to an ideal conception, onlv to
more through human characters. abandon that in the end in favor of a

The full development of Gothic literal realism.

sculpture, however, is accomplished in The Beau Dieu invites comparison
Amiens and Rheims cathedrals. The with the sculpture of the Parthenon.
Beau Dieu at Amiens (fig. 148), from Each represents the complete incarna-
the first half of the thirteenth century, tion of the artistic ideals of its epoch.
central in the scheme of the west front, In quality, there is not much to choose
adorns the post, or trumeau, that di- between them. Different as they are,
vides the two halves of the middle door. each fulfills its purpose on the building.
He is, therefore, isolated from the saints The Gothic figure is clothed, whereas
who line the portal where stood the many of the Greek statues are nude.
kings and queens at Chartres. While The body had become identified with
svmbolism is still important, it is now evil during the earlier Middle Ages; at
subordinate. This is Christ triumphant; the very least, it was insignificant com-
He stands on two grotesque animals, pared with the soul; the less seen of it

and just below two more appear in re- the better. Any humiliation of the flesh
lief on the pedestal. These four animals might be a gain to the spirit. Fasting,

are the adder and the basilisk, the lion flagellation, or use of the hair shirt,

and the dragon. Since the lion is a sym- common during these centuries, were
bol of antichrist, the dragon of the devil, directed to that end. The artists avoided
the basilisk of death, and the adder of the nude wherever possible. When it

sin, this figure commemorates Christ does appear in medieval art, in scenes
risen from the tomb and triumphant of the creation of the world, of Adam
over the powers of darkness. But these and Eve, or of the Resurrection and
symbols are no more needed to convey Last Judgment, the figures were ren-
the message than is the crossed halo to dered on a small scale, hardly bigger
identify the figure of Christ. This statue than puppets. Hence, in absolute con-
202 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

trast with antiquity, all the larger fig- ture; their figures are bulkier, their fea-

ures of medieval art are clothed. tures particularized, though not beyond
The amount of sculpture on a me- the limits of idealization. In the head
dieval cathedral is too great to have of Elizabeth, a few lines in the face
been executed by a single man. Differ- and even more the general treatment
ences of hand are inevitable, but the of the head sympathetically suggest old
similarity of expression, not the differ- age. A maze of small folds complicates
ence, is remarkable. However, the An- the drapery. Instead of reverting to the
nunciation and Visitation groups at drapery type of Chartres, these folds
Rheims Cathedral (fig. 149), in the sec- point the way to later developments;
ond half of the thirteenth century, vary they do not create a pattern, but sug-
widely in treatment. The Annunciation gest softer stuff with a view to repre-

figures to the left are youthful in face sentation. By comparison with the Beau
and figure. Their costumes fall in broad Dieu, these characters in the Visitation
folds, analogous to the treatment of the are more animated. Their gestures are
Beau Dieu. Mary and Elizabeth in the not so restrained, nor do they stand so
Visitation, on the other hand, are ma- quietly as the figures from Amiens Cathe-

149. Annunciation and Visitation, Cathedral, Rheims (c. 1280) 10V high.
 SCULPTURE 203

dral. Though it is not pronounced, these settings are reduced to a minimum; a

figures foretell the trend toward realism, stalk with a few leaves on it, or the
with a partial loss of the union with tendrils of a vine identify the scene.
architecture so clear in earlier medieval And yet even in these tiny figures, the

sculpture. feeling for roundness is evident. If not

The larger figures by no means ex- masterpieces, such compositions fulfill

haust the sculpture of the cathedral. their decorative function, and widen our
Its encyclopedic character is even more knowledge of the Middle Ages.
evident in the reliefs and the stained Finally, the exuberant spirits of
glass. A single example, chosen from the Gothic times find an outlet in the gro-

two rows of quatrefoils below the prin- tesques. Some serve as gargoyles, or
cipal figures on the west front of Amiens water spouts, with the figures, especially

Cathedral (fig. 150), shows in the upper the legs, contorted to adapt them to
tier the signs of the zodiac and in the this purpose. But most of them balance

150. Signs of the Zodiac and Activities of the Months, West Facade, Cathedral, Amiens
1225) 2 6"
f
(c. size of single quatrefoil.

lower the activities of the months. In on the buttresses, peer over the parapet,

this particular group the Ram, corre- or crouch on the cornices; an exception
sponding roughly to the month of to the rule in Gothic, they serve no
March, is paired with a farmer spading structural or liturgical purpose. If a few
the soil; the Bull, for April, matches a of them are human, the majority are
hunter with a falcon on his wrist; and pure figments of the mind, hybrids of
the Twins, for May, parallel a man real and imaginary animals. Doubtless
seated out-of-doors, basking in the spring God could have made such creatures,

sun. These reliefs exhibit the same se- but certainly God thought better of it.

lection of detail as the larger figures; Carved in the same broad planes as the
204 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH GOTHIC ART

sober sculpture, these monsters animate ble, as well as to the architectural de-

the cathedral to its top. Such carvings, sign, to bear separation. When studied
and in fact all Gothic sculpture, bereft in their setting and combined with the
of their settings, are meaningless. They cathedral, they contribute to the most
are too closely related in interpretation complete expression of spiritual exalta-

and in design to the sculptural ensem- tion yet produced by Christianity.

XI The Diffusion and Later History of Gothic Art

Little doubt can exist that the focus of roof, or at least a roof of gentle slope,
Gothic art lies in France. The very produces a fundamentally different ex-
name, opus francigenum, by which it terior. Since a triforium is caused by the
was known in the Middle Ages proves sloping roof over the aisle, a flat roof
that. But the influence of the French there results in a contraction or even a
style spread in all directions, and as suppression of that internal division.

each country accepted the new fashion, The brilliant southern sun makes it de-
it modified French Gothic art to meet sirable to curtail the window area char-
its own local needs. Buildings with in- acteristic of French Gothic buildings.
digenous variations, moreover, are almost Thus in Spanish Gothic architecture,
as early as those that adhere to the broad wall surfaces, pierced only here
French manner. Leon Cathedral in and there by windows, supplant the
Spain follows the style of the thirteenth- glazed areas of French Gothic. Such
century cathedrals of northern France, small openings protect the building
in plan, structure, and elevation. The from excessive heat in summer, but
vast Cathedral of Seville, on the other leave a gloomy interior. A Spanish in-

hand, has many points that contrast terior is apt to be interrupted by a high
with French work, some of them trace- coro, or choir screen, which separates
able to climatic differences. The flat that part of the church from the rest.
206 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

With these and many other differences

in detail, Spanish Gothic architecture is

no mere copy of French.

In Italy, a series of monasteries, in-
cluding San Galgano near Siena, im-
ported a French style. It, however, was
the Gothic of Burgundy, more austere
than the better-known architecture of
northern France. Climate and the Ital-

ian love for the horizontal soon exerted

their influence so that the cathedrals of

Siena and Orvieto, in spite of a decora-

tive scheme of pointed arches, tracery,
and pinnacles, rejected the northern
version of the Gothic style. The nearly
flat roofs, the polychromy inherited
from Tuscan Romanesque architecture,
the indifference to Gothic structure, the
small windows and broad wall surfaces,
all betray an Italian feeling for the hori-
zontal in contrast to the vertically of
the northern style.
Cologne Cathedral in Germany, be-
gun in 1248, though differentmany in
details, is modeled on Amiens. More
original are the Hallenkirchen or hall
churches.Though a similar type may
be found in southwestern France, the
Germans developed their own form and
151. Cathedral, Salisbury (1220-58) 473' x
showed great distinction in handling it. 230'.
Such churches as St. Elizabeth at Mar-
burg exemplify the system. The aisles The main steps in the history of the
are built as high, or almost as high, as Gothic style in France are duplicated in
the nave itself, and are covered by the other countries. Thus, in the late twelfth
same roof. The interior system of nave and early thirteenth centuries, much of
arcade, triforium, and clearstory is elimi- the Romanesque spirit was retained;
nated. The piers soar upward to support then the local style, under French in-
the vaults directly; this arrangement fluence or otherwise, formed itself, and
permits the windows in the aisles suffi- as proficiency in building increased the
cient height to light the nave. expression was further modified during
 ITALIAN, GERMAN, AND ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE 207

later years. These divergent styles are customary in France. The facade pro-
too numerous to be discussed here; we jects beyond the sides of the church and
must be content with one or two exam- is treated as a screen, without emphasis
ples chosen arbitrarily to demonstrate on the portals; indeed an English cathe-
national contrast in architecture and the dral is normally entered through a
general course taken by Gothic architec- porch on the side of the nave, or some-
ture in its later years. times through a transept portal. A clois-

The Amiens and Salis-

cathedrals of ter fits into the corner between nave
bury were both begun in 1220, but the and transepts.
latter shows the English solution of the The interior (fig. 152) retains more
problem. The plan (fig. 151) in the of a Romanesque flavor than does the
shape of an archiepiscopal cross has two French cathedral. The quadripartite
pairs of transepts, a large one approxi- vaults recall those across the Channel,
mately in the center of the building but the support is not visually con-
from end to end, and a smaller one tinued to the floor and does not cor-
further to the east. Instead of the com- respond to each of the ribs; instead, at

plex polygonal apse and ambulatory of Salisbury clusters of shafts rest on brack-
Amiens, the English substitute a square ets in the triforium level. The unbroken
east end. The nave is long in propor- horizontal lines of the lower edge of
tion, with ten bays instead of the seven the triforium emphasize the length of
the church, not its height. The vaults,
too, are relatively low. Where the French
vaults rise to well over 100 feet, the
English are rarely more than 80 feet
high. One reason is that the ribs of the
French vault do not begin to curve
until well up in the clearstory; at Salis-

bury, the ribs spring from the upper

level of the triforium, and in many Eng-
lish cathedrals from an even lower
point. A thick wall, pierced with larger
windows than those of the Romanesque
period, helps to support and buttress
the vaults. Therefore, the buttress sys-

tem, as we see on the153), exterior (fig.

does not need to be so fully developed

as in France. Some English cathedrals
have flying buttresses, but they are less

prominent than in France. Usually the

152. Cathedral, Salisbury (1220-58) Interior,
nave 40' wide; vaults 81' high.
English cathedral is beautifully set in
208 FUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

-•",,
^

§Sf.

II: IJIIJP'

153. Cathedral, Salisbury (1220-58) North Flank, total length 473'; height of spire 404'.

lawns and foliage, with sufficient open by Benedictines, and even those cathe-
space around it to make it possible to drals governed at first by a college of
see the building as a whole. Since the secular canons followed many of the
structure can be perceived in its en- practices typical of monastic buildings.
tirety from many points of view, the The English cathedrals are often re-

principal tower, with or without a spire, ferred to as minsters (monasteries).

is made to rise from the crossing of the Patently the cloister comes from this
main transept and the nave. If western source. So too does the open setting, a

towers appear, as they generally do- reminder of the monastery grounds.

Salisbury is exceptional in this— they are Then the English orders accepted liter-

apt to be dominated by the central ac- ally the need of orientation. In the
cent which culminates the whole design. French system of radiating chapels, if

The English cathedral is of a type the altar be placed in its proper archi-
quite distinct from the French. Many tectural position on the axis of the
of its points of divergence can be cred- chapel, it cannot face east unless the
ited to its monastic origin. More than chapel also faces east. But only one of
half of the English cathedrals were built the chapels around the chevet can be
 ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE 209

so directed. This consideration appar- must be considered separately; to meas-

ently prompted the English to abandon ure the English by a French yardstick
the apse in favor of the square east end, is absurd. The French has a superb en-
so that all the altars might be oriented. ergy and an inspiring result, like some
Processions played a large part in mo- triumphant anthem. The English is reti-

nastic ritual. The procession started in cent, almost private by comparison,

the choir, passed around the east end to calm and restrained. Each in its own
visit the altars located there, through way is supreme.
the transepts where still more altars Gothic architects through the early
were found in each bay, out through the thirteenth century, especially in France
cloister, and sometimes even through but to some extent in the rest of Eu-
the churchyard. The need for such cere- rope as well, were absorbed in structural
monial goes far to explain the particular problems. Little creative energy re-

forms of the English church. mained to devote to an elaboration of

Many have compared the French and design. Even the decoration became a
English cathedrals, and have concluded revelation of and an emphasis on struc-
that one is a greater and better architec- ture. But after the structural difficulties
ture than the other. Such a judgment is were solved, the designers refined the
neither necessary nor desirable. The two forms and imagined richer variations of
styles express different qualities, which solutions already discovered. Piers and

(1351-1412) 147' long, 12' wide, i8'6" high.

154. Cloister, Cathedral, Gloucester
210 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

tracery were made thinner as experi- serve to strengthen the vault much as
mentation showed it possible to con- an engaged column stiffens a wall. An
tract their mass. Decorative carving emphasis on the vertical line at this

spread over more of the moldings than time and for the following century and
before. Extra ribs were added to the a half in England, particularly in the
vaults. In England, the way to this tracery, prompts the term Perpendicular
elaboration was easier because of cer- style for this phase of Gothic architec-
tain peculiarities in laying the stones ture, in which, also, various kinds of
of the vault. The English method of pointed arches gain popularity.
construction suggested a multiplication Though by no means identical, the

of ribs, especially the addition of a ridge late Gothic style in France, called the

rib running down the length of the Flamboyant, probably borrowed a good
church at the apex of the vault. deal from England, especially from the

About the middle of the thirteenth Decorated style. The region where the

century, the first phase of English Flamboyant flourished is also the region

Gothic architecture, represented in

in closest contact with England. The
Salisbury Cathedral and called the Early-
course of development in France had

English or Lancet style, gave way to

been interrupted by the Hundred Years'

the second phase, the Decorated style.

The widely spaced piers of Exeter

Cathedral permit a fusion of the vol-

umes of nave and aisles like that of

Amiens. Intermediate ribs subdivide the
four triangles of quadripartite vaults.

The larger windows require complex

patterns of tracery whose reversed curves
in the early fourteenth century were to
influence later French Gothic.
The English vaulting technique led
ultimately to what amounted to a new
system of construction, which produced
the fan vault. The cloister at Gloucester
(fig. 154), begun in 1351, where the
fan vault is first demonstrated on any
scale, shows ribs radiating from the pier
like the ribs of a fan. The ribs look like
tracery applied to the under surface of
the vault, though in reality cut in the
155. St. Maclou, Rouen (1432-1511) Facade
thickness of the vaulting stones; they
75' wide.
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 211

MMiwwimw I ft

-.-

156. Cloth Hall, Ypres (1200-1304) 440' long.

War, fought on French soil. This ca- ance without the spiritual exaltation of
lamity impoverished the country and the thirteenth century.
helped to end the earlier Gothic era. To most people, Gothic architecture
It opened the way for the Flamboyant is identified with the church, and un-
style, whose name is derived from the doubtedly the major expression of the
flame-like curves characteristic of its period does lie in the cathedral. How-
tracery. In St. Maclou at Rouen (fig. ever, to imagine that the church alone
155), begun in 1432, the facade is no represents the age is wrong. In reality,

longer planned in simple parallel planes. the style is a vernacular applicable to

Instead, it bows outward, the central all sorts of problems. Where cities rose

bay normal to the axis of the church, to virtual independence, as in Flanders,

those to the right and left bent back the town and guild halls are almost as
at a slight angle, and finally the two great civic monuments as the cathedral

side bays at a greater angle. An open- itself. The power of the Flemish guilds
work gable, whose curved lines of is evidenced by the size of the Cloth
tracery sweep across one another in Hall at Ypres (fig. 156), its character
interlacing patterns, crowns each of its established by a great central tower
five bays. The old structural emphasis wherein hung the bells to summon the
has vanished in favor of a dexterous citizens. The architectural vocabulary is

openness of design, that betrays exuber- that of the thirteenth centurv, when
212 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

the structure was largely completed. Its teenth century, is typical and quite
distinction depends on the simple maj- complete, at least externally. A moat
esty of its proportions. Similar in pur- provides the first line of defense. The
pose, the municipal buildings of Italy, solid stone walls, punctuated by towers
such as the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena, at the corners and around the entrance
the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, and and crowned with battlements to pro-

the Ducal Palace in Venice, follow the tect archers defending the castle, have
styles of their respective localities. So, as few openings as possible, and those
too, does the Knochenhauerampthaus, only of small size.

the butchers' guild hall, at Hildesheim. Since the castle is planned (fig. 158)
In the earlier Middle Ages, domestic around an open court, the living quar-

architecture reflected the unsettled con- ters are more ample and better lighted
ditions that compelled as much fortifica- than might be supposed from the ex-

tion as the owner could afford. While terior. Across the court from the main
the peasantry lived in cottages of wattle entrance is the hall, flanked by the
and daub, and green twigs matted with kitchen on one side, with its pantries
clay, or more rarely of permanent ma- and services, and on the other by the
terials, the home characteristic of the solar and bower, the private chambers
nobility all over Europe was the castle, of the master and mistress of Bodiam.
picturesque but forbidding, cold and In a very real sense, the hall is the
uncomfortable by modern standards— center of life, where, under the paternal-
though as time went on it developed a istic system of feudalism, the owner
few conveniences. Bodiam Castle (fig. meets and mingles with his retainers.

157) in Sussex, built late in the four- Here are served the meals to the entire

.
..
: :

157. Bodiam Castle, Sussex (1386) 175' wide; towers 6C/4" high.
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 21

sufficient light at the expense of free ac-

cess to wintry winds, or, by closed shut-
ters, few drafts and little or no natural
light. Since the sanitary facilities drained
into the moat, that feature can hardly
have been as attractive when the castle
was in use as it is today. Moreover,
while an open fire is cheerful, it does
not provide either the amount or the
diffusion of heat to which we are accus-
tomed.
Public safety and peaceful living con-
ditions improved with time. The late

fifteenth-century town house of Jacques

Cceur at Bourges (fig. 159) in France,
though built around a court, is without
158. Bodiam Castle, Sussex (1386) 175' x provision for defense, since cities were
178'.
walled and fortifications of separate
buildings them unnecessary.
within
household, and here most of the com- Consequently, windows of considerable
munal activities of life are carried on. size appear in the outer wall. This house
In earlier times, the hall had been used is a splendid example of the Flamboyant
as sleeping quarters for the retainers, stvle in domestic architecture. A Gothic
though that custom had generally dis- directness of solution is evident through-
appeared by the fourteenth century. out. The house is faithful to the princi-
Bodiam reveals a remarkable progress in ples of symmetry only where no reason
convenience over earlier castles. Much can be found to abandon them. The
more living space is enclosed; larger central tower has its large window on
windows on the court are adequate for axis, filled with Flamboyant tracery, the
the rooms they serve; sanitation im- reversed curves forming a flew de lis

proves; and more hearths or fireplaces at the top. On the other hand, a stair-

help to take away the chill. Nonethe- way in the single turret on one side of
less, however picturesque Bodiam may the tower gives access to the upper
be, and however much one may admire stories of the tower. The entrance to
the intimacy between owner and de- the court provides for both equestrian
pendents, few of us today would care and pedestrian traffic; it may be desirable
to live there. Glass, though not un- at times to admit one kind but not the
known, was still very valuable; probably other. Two doors of different sizes pierce
few, if windows were glazed.
any, of the the wall unsymmetrically below the
Therefore, one had a difficult option; tower. A traceried parapet emphasizes
21, THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

59. Jacques Coeur House, Bourges (1443) Fagade c. 150' long.

the junction of the steep roof and the with nothing borrowed from the Italian
walls. The windows vary in size in pro- Renaissance. Though Compton Wyn-
portion to the room they are intended yates is a country residence unlike the
to light. They are composed of multi- Jacques Cceur House, the settled condi-
ples of simple units: the openings in a tions of Tudor England made it possi-

single window are separated from one ble to dispense with fortifications even
another by stone mullions and transoms, in the country. A moat once surrounded
which form a very plain kind of tracery. the building, but that was a heritage
All the architectural elements are char- from less peaceful days, and was in-

acteristic of the time, and most may be tended less for defense against military
found at similar dates in church archi- operations than to hinder marauders.
tecture. Picturesque in its irregularity, the house
The medieval spirit persisted in the seems to throw out gables and bay win-
north long after it had disappeared in dows wherever the interior demands
Italy. As late as the early sixteenth cen- them. The warm color of brick walls,
tury in England, such a house as Comp- with a little stone around the doors
ton Wynyates (fig. 160) is still Gothic, and windows, contrasts with the blue
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 21

160. Compton Wynyates, Warwickshire (c. 1520) Facade c. 120' long.

roof and with the brown half-timbered house lacks 'modern improvements/ it

gables. The court is retained, as is the is not wholly foreign to current con-
traditional arrangement of the suite of ceptions of a home. Though we can
rooms around the hall. However, the hardly imagine ourselves living in com-
latter has shrunk in size and impor- fort at Bodiam, and still less so in the
tance; by this time, the family's com- earlier castles, Compton Wynyates
radeship with their retainers at meals meets quite closely our ideas of domes-
and on other occasions was fast disap- tic architecture.

pearing; a new recognition of the con- By modern standards at least, houses

veniences of privacy was growing. Com- during the Middle Ages were under-
fort of the occupants increased tenfold. furnished, though the quantityand va-
More ample sleeping accommodations had increased by
riety of the furniture

have been provided for the dependents the time of Compton Wynyates. Tables,
as well as for the family. Every impor- in our sense of the term, were rare.

tant room is now warmed by a fireplace, The old phrase, 'to set the board/ meant
as the grouped chimney pots attest. precisely that: the table top of planks
Glass for the windows has become gen- was set on trestles when a meal was in
eral, so that light and warmth are possi- prospect, and removed after the meal
ble at the same time. The result of these was completed. Family and guests alike
advances is a sense of domesticity, in- sat on stools or benches, though throne-
formality, and charm that has attracted like chairs might be available for the
the admiration of later days. While the master and mistress. Paintings of the
2l6 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

bench and at times even as a bed, as

well as for storage purposes, and from
it the late Middle Ages developed the
cupboard. The few preserved examples
of Gothic furniture show the same frank
solution of its structural problems, the
same respect for its materials, and the
same decorative tracery that are to be
found in late Gothic architecture and
sculpture. These examples, built in oak,
look and are sturdy.

While architecture and furniture un-

derwent these changes, sculpture did not
stand still. Just as the house developed
its plan and its equipment to meet hu-
man needs, so that same concern with
a more human quality modified the
idealization of mature Gothic statues.

Even in the late thirteenth century, the

new spirit began to be apparent; the

Vierge Doree at Amiens (fig. 161) be-
trays a maternal interest tinged with
sentiment. Her hip, thrown out to sup-
port the child's weight, gives to the
figuremore movement than had the
Beau Dieu (fig. 148). The drapery be-
comes complicated and more realistic,
though the latter development is only
suggested.
The bare hint of realism in the
Vierge Doree leads at the outset of the
fifteenth century to such statues as the
Moses adorning the well head at Champ-
161. Vierge Doree, South Transept Portal, mol near Dijon, by Claus Sluter (fig.
Cathedral, Amiens (c. 1280) Figure c. 10'
high. 162). This figure of the patriarch in its

voluminous folds of drapery, with its

time testify to the existence of massive flowing beard and the noble realism of
beds, but the principal object of furni- its face, conveys the clearest statement
ture was the chest, which served as a of the dignity of man. Sculpturesque in
 FRENCH SCULPTURE 21'

162. Claus Sluter (active 1375-1405) Moses, Well of Moses, Champmol (1395-1403) 5'8"
high.
2l8 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

mass, the plastic art dominates the ar-

chitecture, which serves as a setting for

the figure; whereas in Chartres, the fig-

ures enrich a larger architectural compo-

sition. This Burgundian work, however,
is restrained in its realism when com-
pared with German sculpture of the
fifteenth century. Such artists as Veit
Stoss, Adam Krafft, and, at times, Til-

man Riemenschneider display the full-

est possibilities of realism in stone,

bronze, or wood. Consummate in tech-

nique, their work turns to pictorial ef-

fects that undermine the sculptural

massiveness of Claus Sluter.
Such realism provoked a revolt in the

movement known as the detente, which

centered in the Loire valley in the late
fifteenth century, and was characterized
by a relaxation of extreme realism. Es-
pecially the head of the Female Saint
(fig. 163) from this epoch is idealized,
less spiritual than the distant creations
of thirteenth-century art, and not de-
void of sentiment, but far from the
complete realism of late German Gothic
sculpture. The poses are quiet and re-

strained, the draperies simple, and the

heads ennobled from middle- or lower-
class French types, without individual
peculiarities. Nevertheless, the sculptors

of the detente cannot forget their back-

ground. Many details of costume reflect
the elaborate fashions of the day, and
the accessories show that these artists
could have transferred this interest in 163. Female Saint (i5th-i6th cent.) Museum
of Historic Art, Princeton University. 3' 10"
minutiae to the head had they so desired. high.
This later development of medieval
sculpture curiously parallels the story of Phidias. An increased sentiment, cou-
classic art after the generation of pled with an interest in more human
 FRENCH AND ITALIAN SCULPTURE 219

form, characterizes alike the fourth cen- regardless of the stone used for the
tury before Christ and the late thir- building, changes the character from the
teenth and fourteenth centuries. Then, freestone cathedral statues of the north.
in each case, the artists turn toward Also, in Italy the individual sculptors
realism, which after becoming extreme build reputations remembered through
gives way at times to a partial return the centuries more than do any of the
to idealism. Although one should not northern sculptors.
force cyclical patterns upon history, Nicola d'Apulia, usually called Nicola
such similarities do appear to mark cer- Pisano, came to Pisa from the south of
tain stages in the history of human Italy, where, it will be remembered, a
culture. singularly classic school of sculpture
Italy presents a different story. Even flourished under the Emperor Frederick
in architecture, the Italians resist the II and at his court in Capua in the
Gothic fashion as foreign to their cul- early thirteenth century. If, as seems
ture. They divorce the French marriage probable, Nicola was trained in this

of sculpture and architecture, and con- milieu, it explains the Roman quality
tinue to regard sculpture as an in- in the relief of the Nativity (fig. 164)

dependent art. The Italian preference from the pulpit in the Baptistry at Pisa,

for marble as a medium for sculpture, where his known career centered in

64. Nicola Pisano (c. 1206-80) Nativity, Detail, Pulpit, Baptistry, Pisa (1260)
220 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

165. Nicola Pisano (c. 1206- and Giovanni Pisano (c. 1250-1320) Nativity, Detail, Pulpit,
Cathedral, Siena (1266).

the late thirteenth century. Although dane. They have monumentality but do
classed as Gothic, little trace of that not equal in technique the best contem-
style is discernible in his work, except porary French sculpture.
in some architectural details of the pul- In his later work, Nicola collaborated
pit. The Madonna, half reclining on a with his son, Giovanni Pisano. The
couch, Roman fashion, is envisaged as younger man, who lacked the south
a Roman matron, swathed in large folds Italian background of his father, had
of drapery and wearing a tiara. Her fea- absorbed the Gothic feeling which
tures are demonstrably classic. The flooded down from the north like a
heavy proportions, especially of the wave and, for the moment, extinguished
heads, of the other figures in this re- the classic character of Nicola's sculp-
lief, the undercut curly beards of the ture. The Nativity (fig. 165) on the
men, and a plastic approach further pulpit at Siena exhibits a remarkable
betray a similarity to certain phases of increase of later Gothic qualities. The
Roman sculpture. With no Gothic spir- composition of the panel is more pic-
ituality about them, Nicola d' Apulia's torial than in the Pisan pulpit. Lighter
figures are stolid, massive, and mun- proportions, a smaller scale, greater
 ITALIAN SCULPTURE 221

166. Andrea Pisano (c. 1270-1349) South Doors, Baptistry, Florence (1330-39) Bronze, i8'6'
high.
222 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

movement, and an increased naturalism

characterize all these figures, perhaps
most obviously the Madonna herself,
who has now become a winsome young
woman, with none of the dignity of
Nicola's independent conception. These
differences may imply the influence of
the younger man. In the Visitation
group, just to the left of the Madonna,
the face of St. Elizabeth is old and
haggard, and the whole composition has
become looser and more pictorial, like

the later stages of Gothic development

in the north. These qualities were yet
more pronounced when Giovanni
Pisano worked independently of his
167. Andrea Pisano (c. 1270-1349) Feast of
father, as in the pulpit of Sant' Andrea Herod, Detail, South Doors, Baptistry, Flor-
at Pistoia. ence (1330-39) Bronze Quatrefoil 15".

Early in the fourteenth century,

Andrea Pisano, who, in spite of his the architectural quality of these doors.
name, was unrelated to the two previous Just enough indication of background,
sculptors, modeled the first set of bronze either through landscape elements or
doors for the Baptistry of Florence (fig. by very plain architecture, is included
166), the south doors. Twenty-eight to explain the story, but is not devel-
square panels enclose quatrefoils to dec- oped in depth to an extent destructive
orate the doors, the small size of the of sculptural values.
panels being in accord with the archi-
tectural scale of the building. The shape Just as she did in architecture, France
of these quatrefoils is Gothic, like the early in the thirteenth century assumed
similar motives on the Cathedral of the lead in manuscript illumination.
Amiens (fig. 150). The upper twenty At the same time, important changes
panels deal with incidents from the life modify the output of the illuminators,
of St. John the Baptist, to whom the who begin to become professional and
building is dedicated. The Feast of known at least by name. The books are
Herod (fig. 167) shows that Andrea written in finer script and in a smaller
Pisano was influenced by the paintings format than before, perhaps for the
of Giotto, in whose circle he belonged. benefit of itinerant friars. Architectural
The story is told with directness and enframements of the miniatures, and ar-

simplicity. A Giottesque economy of chitectural settings when they appear

figures and of setting helps to achieve at all, follow such current details of
 MANUSCRIPTS 22

the exuberant fancy of the artists finds

an outlet in imaginative figures and ani-
mals, in this case a mermaid and a
These borders be-
rabbit playing a harp.
come more elaborate in the fifteenth
still

century and combine with greater nat-

uralism of the miniatures. Painting in
northern Europe becomes more inde-
pendent of books, whereas in Persia, at
this time and for the next few cen-
turies, the miniature continues to be a
quain tnmtmlte eft locus rftr
major art.

\ut xt iioit eft litr altuU mft tpinus^

During the early fourteenth century,
rt4 ~H;~i~~ *-«-—
~
*^h^ri'Ai~r # ~'
"'. t ;

painting in Italy, as distinct from manu-

W TiFflTm' aft pJftOiSis Sis script illumination and from mosaics,
film jit ctalrfloHd pJi.ac|itmt».A\ began to gain importance. While some
« painting was produced throughout the

.*Sr & earlier Middle Ages in Italy, the stream

trickled thin, and the artists almost
without exception remained anonymous.
168.Mete Pontifical (1302-16) Fitzvvilliam
Museum, Cambridge.
When the new painting began, the
artists turned for guidance to the By-
Gothic buildings as pointed arches, zantine mosaics of Sicily. The Death
tracery, and pinnacles. A close approxi- of the Virgin (fig. 169), in the church
mation to normal human proportions of La Martorana in Palermo, is as By-
replaces the Byzantine and Romanesque zantine in style as the mosaics of St.

conventions. As the century progresses, Mark's in Venice. The formal design

and still more in the early fourteenth has an architectural balance. The hori-
century, diapered patterns in gold, bright zontal movement created by the Ma-
reds, and blues serve as a background donna on her bier is stopped at either
for the figures. A page from the Metz end by groups of apostles. Christ stands
Pontifical (fig. 168) illustrates this and in the center behind the couch with the
other characteristics of later Gothic illu- doll-like soul of the Madonna in His
mination. The figures tend to sway in arms, while from the sky symmetrical
pose as did the Vierge Doree. Initial figures of angels sweep down to receive
letters begin to sprout pendants that it. The artist substitutes a gold back-
border and enframe the script. Conven- ground for any indication of deep space;
tional or naturalistic foliage grows from he has no interest in, and no knowledge
these borders at irregular intervals, while of perspective; and, since his figures are
22 4 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

169. Death of the Virgin, La Martorana, Palermo (1143) Mosai

 MOSAICS 225

religious characters, not ordinary human segna, the founder of the school, seems
beings, he is content to indicate them to have worked largely in tempera, one
in an unreal manner. Figures and dra- of the two common media of Italian
pery alike are defined by flowing lines, painting for the next two centuries, and
the hands reduced to the simplest of the one preferred by the Sienese, al-

linear patterns, the Madonna's head to though they adopted fresco for mural
a circle, while the narrow eyes and long decorations.
aristocratic noses have an other-worldly The Italian altarpiece is painted on
tinge about them. With their sumptu- a poplar panel, covered with plaster
ous color, these mosaics complete their worked to a smooth hard surface. On
purpose: they indicate the story with this, after making his design, the artist
perfect clarity through the diagram- laid sheets of gold leaf wherever that
matic rendering, and as decoration they material must appear in the finished
are unsurpassed. picture. Then he sketched the figures
The mosaics of La Martorana are with terra yerde, a greenish pigment
Byzantine, even to the inscriptions in that added body to the final colors. An
Greek letters. Soon the Italians adapt apprentice prepared the pigments in

the lessons of this style to painting, small pots, three for each color, and
Generally these native works are inferior mixed them with egg to bind them to
to the Byzantine productions in tech- the panel. Since the strongest color in
nique. The dignity of Byzantine art, each group is lightened by mixture with
with its unreality, was undermined by white, it follows that any change of tone
the influence of St. Francis of Assisi. intended to suggest roundness in the
His emphasis on the humanity of figure or in the folds of drapery will
Christ, and his love of nature, called change from red, for instance, in the
forth a premature attempt to picture shadow to white in the lights. To the
this new emotionalism; premature in eye, the most intense red appears in the

that the painters' means were not ade- though not in the high lights,
lights,

quate to such an expression, and the and from there the color becomes less
results lost the noble Byzantine formal- intense as well as deeper in value as
ity without compensating success. shadow increases. The early Italian

From these mosaics and the styles method reverses this optical effect, but,

they inspire spring the two principal so long as it is consistent, the results are

schools of Italian fourteenth-century satisfactory. The lower value limits in

painting. The more conservative is the this medium are restricted, so that tem-

school of Siena. While it retains much pera tends to produce panels of bright
of the Byzantine, it modifies the east- clear color, light in value, and decora-
ern austerity by a less hieratic attitude, tive, but usually on a small scale,

more human figures, and a taste for However, the Rucellai Madonna, in

sprightly narrative. Duccio di Buonin- Santa Maria Novella in Florence, proves

226 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

that tempera can convey considerable Majesty, made between 1308 and 1311
scale. This seven-foot panel was ascribed for the high altar of the Cathedral of
bv Vasari to Cimabue, the founder of The principal panel depicts
Siena. the
Florentine painting, but today all crit- Madonna as the Queen of Heaven sur-

ics agree the painting is Sienese, while rounded by her court of saints and
manv believe it a work of Duccio, dated angels (fig. 170). Mary is a regal figure,

about 1285. This more than life-size but compared with Byzantine concepts,

.,;
^
:

^
|>
-
*

Mhk

170. Duccio di Buoninsegna (c. 1255-1319) Majestas (1308-11) Opera del Duomo, Siena.
Tempera, 6'n" x 13' 10".

Madonna sits on a paneled throne, her less cold and more human,
distant,
feet on a footstool. The mass of her more appealing, a person at whose feet
dark blue robe strikes the main accent, mankind may come to lay its troubles
visible from a distance against the gold and receive an understanding sympathy.
background, while to each side in ad- The design is clear, as it has to be in
oration kneel three angels, whose forms order to carry from a distance in the
extend the central mass laterally. This confusing cross lights of the building.
design creates a clear two dimensional The Madonna forms a large vertical
pattern; neither the Madonna nor her mass of strong blue; she is bigger in
throne has great depth; and the flanking scale than the figures beside her, partly
angels in the same vertical plane kneel for emphasis and partly for design. To
above one another's heads with no vis- the right and left range the saints, each
ible support. head ringed by its halo, to create hori-
The one surely dated painting by zontal bands supporting the central ver-
Duccio is the Majestas, or Madonna in tical. One can perceive the order of the
 DUCCIO 227

.••:"?.
,v ;r

5 ^ MESH
171. Duccio di Buoninsegna (c. 1255-1319) Corruption of Judas, Detail, Majestas (1308-11)
Opera del Duomo, Siena. Tempera.

painting from a distance, long before the aristocratic distinction the Sienese
one can distinguish the details. felt they must have had. The rich
Closer inspection shows much of the quality is further enhanced by sumptu-
Byzantine tradition to be still preserved. ous blues of powdered lapis lazuli, reds,

Little attempt is made to render nat- bronze greens, the solid gold back-
ural figures; on the contrary, they are ground, and the profusion of gold de-
predominantly linear, silhouette playing tails.

a major role both in the whole and in The back of the Majestas is lined
the parts. Some shading does occur, but with small panels that depict incidents
it is minor in effect. Conventions define from the life of Christ. The Italian feel-
the figure: a circle outlines the head, a ing for telling a story comes out here.
linear pattern indicates the hands with In the Corruption of Judas (fig. 171),
their long slender fingers, and an undu- Duccio masses his crowd of characters,
lating line the hem of the drapery. A whose rolling eyes betray their con-
slender nose, narrow slanting eyes, and sciousness of wrongdoing as they whis-
a small mouth, together with delicate per to one another. But the group also
hands give to these sacred characters forms a rectangle similar in proportions
228 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

to the panel and to the shape of the on mountain and showed him all the
a

architectural setting. The loggia set kingdoms of the world. Christ refused
against a gold sky describes the general to worship Satan, who went away, and
location of the incident rather than at- angels came and ministered to Him.
tempting to create much depth in the The high mountain has become in Duc-
design. These figures, painted more as cio's hands an outcropping of rock, and
silhouettes than as solid human beings, the kingdoms of the world walled cities

need no great depth. Their meaning is in toy boxes. What if Christ is taller

clear without it, and a realistic illusion than the mountain? It is not his size but
would neither improve the composition his spiritual importance that concerned
nor enhance the narrative force of the Duccio, and that is immeasurable. Nor
painting. is Duccio interested in space; the gold

Duccio's composition and narrative leaf of the sky forms a solid ground to
power is further illustrated in the silhouette the figures and to enrich the
Temptation of Christ (Frontispiece). sumptuous blue and cinnabar red of
The Bible says the devil took Christ up Christ's robes. These colors, the strong-

172. Simone Martini (c. 1283-1344) Sant' Ansano Annunciation Uffizi, Florence. Tem-
(1333)
pera, total dimensions 9' 10" x S'f; central panel $'4" x 4'.
 SIMONE MARTINI 22 9

173. Simone Martini (c. 1283-1344) Guidoriccio da Fogliano, Detail (1328) Palazzo Pubblico,
Siena. Fresco, figure life-size.

est in the panel, draw attention to craftsman, who knows what effect he
Christ. wants to achieve and how to achieve it.
Duccio established the traditions and The scanty records give no indication
general manner of early Sienese paint- of travel by Duccio. His pupil Simone
ing. Though often grouped with the Martini 1283-1344) was anything
(c.

Italian primitives, his paintings belong but a stay-at-home. His journeys from
there only in their historical position in Siena to Naples in southern Italy and
Italian painting. True, the Majestas is to Avignon in the south of France gave
not realistic; it is not drawn in scientific him an opportunity to scatter the meth-
perspective, nor does it suggest depth; ods of Sienese painting far and wide.
but those are neither the aims of the Especially important was his sojourn,
artist nor implied in the true meaning late in his life, at the papal court in
of primitive. Duccio's art stems from Avignon, since he must have come into
the age-long traditions of Byzantine contact there with artists from all over
painting. He marks not the beginning Western Europe. In most respects, Si-
of a new development but the culmina- mone seems not quite the artistic equal
tion of an old. His is a highly sophisti- of Duccio; his much damaged Majestas,
cated art, produced by a consummate a fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico in
23 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

Siena, complicates the arrangement of

Duccio's Majestas, and thus loses its

clarity; but as a draftsman he is su-

preme. The Sant' Ansano Annunciation

(fig. 172), named for that patron saint

of Siena in the left panel, carries mas-

tery of line to the point of virtuosity.
In his use of line Simone suggests the
suavity of the angel whose suspended
motion is conveyed by the flowing cape,
while the angular lines of the Madonna
bespeak her agitation. Nowhere is there
a better example of line serving all three

sides of the artistic triangle: decoration,

representation, and expression. More-

over, the color accentuates the decora-

tive side through the solid gold back-

ground, the customary blues and reds
of the Madonna's robes, and the parti-
colored wings of the angel. The same
decorative quality was no doubt para-
mount in the original frame (now re-

placed), which was so integral a part

of the picture that it was as much a
responsibility of the artist as the paint- 174. Giovanni Cimabue (c. 1240-1301) Ma-
donna Enthroned (1270-85) Uffizi, Florence.
ing itself. The same linear expressive- Tempera, j'q" x i2'6".
ness dominates his portrait in fresco of
Guidoriccio da Fogliano (fig. 173). tantly. Meanwhile, the second impor-
To this linear style the Lorenzetti tant school of Italian painting arose in
brothers, Pietro and Ambrogio, brought Florence. Here were laid the founda-
the human emotions of ordinary men tions on which European painting of
and women, less consciously regal than the next five centuries was to build.
their predecessors. Their vivid narra- Especially in Florence, the new energy,
tives gain clarity through careful organ- the desire for progress, the love of reality
ization of space both for interior set- in contrast to the mysticism of Siena,
tings and for landscape. Through the fertilized a soil where new develop-
fourteenth century and well into the ments flourished. In Giovanni Cimabue
fifteenth, this style lingered on in con- of the late thirteenth century, however,
servative Siena, where the new spirit the old forms persist at least in exter-
of the Renaissance was accepted reluc- nals. His Madonna Enthroned (fig.
 GIOTTO 2 3*

174) displays the Byzantinesque con- are more restricted in both color and
ventions, the slender fingers, circular value than are oils. Furthermore, the
heads, and pointed eyes, but with an difficulty of change demands a rapid di-

undercurrent of fresh vitality. This new rect procedure. From its very limita-

energy ill accords with the old forms tions, however, stems the mural char-
and can be felt as a contrast to them, acter of fresco. Its directness forces

which made inevitable the development broad conceptions, an emphasis on the

of painting adequate to convey this larger elements, and a partial suppres-

zest for reality. sion of detail. Also, the restrained pal-

This original and basically realistic ette accords with the function of such

goal is outstanding in the painting of painting as architectural decoration.

Giotto di Bondone (1266-1336), much Giotto probably painted three great
of whose work is in the medium of cycles of frescoes, the first in the church
fresco. The small windows of Italian of San Francesco at Assisi, the second
Gothic architecture left large wall areas in the Arena Chapel at Padua, and the
that invited the color loving Italians to last in several small chapels in Santa
mural painting. This could hardly have Croce in Florence. His mature style is

developed in the north, where stained best studied at Padua. This building,
glass provided both color and pictorial
lighted from the end wall and from
expression. Fresco is the application of
small windows along one side, is lined
pigment to wet plaster. After the design
with Giotto's designs. There are three
is made, it must be transferred to the
tiers of paintings, separated by decora-
dry plaster of the wall. Over that, the
tive patterns, and with a monochrome
artist spreads enough fresh plaster for a
band at the bottom in imitation of mar-
single day's work. This obliterates part
ble, punctuated by figures of the Vir-
of the drawing, which must then be
tues and Vices. The subjects of the pic-
remade. The pigments, mixed with
tures are the lives of Christ and of the
water, when applied to the wall be-
Virgin. The most important innova-
come an integral part of the lime plas-
tion of Giotto is his expression of mass.
ter. Therefore, no changes or correc-
In the Return of Joachim to the Shep-
tions are possible without the arduous
process of scraping off the plaster and herds (fig. 175), the figures have ceased

starting afresh. Although the artist may to be two-dimensional as in Sienese

paint on the wall after it is dry, such and Byzantine art. Instead, they appear

additions often flake away. Certain lim- to have weight, volume, and conse-

itations are inherent in this medium. quently depth. Through shading, slight
The chemical reactions of the lime in though it is, Giotto portrays the round-
the drying plaster limit the artist to ness of a shoulder, or the mass of a

earth pigments, which have not the bril- head, and insists on this expression of

liance of color possible in tempera and weight as the most important single
232 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

175. Giotto di Bondone c. 1266-1336) Return of Joachim to the Shepherds 1303-6) Arena
'"
Chapel, Padua. Fresco, 7 * -'9".

factor in his painting. It is an enhanced and, in this respect, he is properly called

emphasis on mass as a fundamental real- a primitive.
ity, which appeals through our eyes to In so far as expression of mass is con-
our sense of touch. This step taken by cerned, Giotto reaches his goal, but
Giotto is the first in Western painting such three-dimensional figures call for
toward an accurate rendering of the a convincing indication of space. While
phenomena of vision, and yet he is not the flat figures of Duccio rest comfort-
a complete realist. He simplifies his fig- ably on flat thrones, the solid Giot-
ures to eliminate whatever might hin- tesque characters must exist in front of
der his emphasis on weight, and to re- or behind others. Consequently, Giotto
duce figure and design alike to funda- creates a limited space, a shallow box or
mentals. As a great innovator, Giotto stage where his characters can act. Their
could hardly develop all the implications movement from side to side, rather
of his great discovery. He had to feel than from front to back, parallels the
his way toward the ideal he had in mind plane of the wall and expresses its sur-
 GIOTTO 2 33

face. However, Giotto never invites the ting recalls the limited properties and
spectator to enter his designs. His set- scenery in the original productions of
ting, whether architectural or landscape, Elizabethan drama. That is all that
is of the simplest, a statement of the Giotto feels is needed— and he is right.

locale, not a realistic background. The His primary concern is with the figures
sky, a uniform plane of strong blue that and their reactions; to this everything
accords with the simple colors of figures else is secondary.
and architecture, serves as a foil for the Giotto's warm human sympathy
other parts. A
few leaves, twigs, and a grasps the essentials of character. The
stem, some formalized rocks, are
or Synagogue had rejected Joachim's of-

enough to show that the scene takes fering on the ground that, since he and
place out-of-doors. The spectator must his wife Anna had no children, he was
supply the rest. Such economy of set- not favored by the Lord and his offer-

176. Giotto di Bondone (c. 1266-1336) The Bewailing of Christ (1303-6) Arena Chapel,
Padua. Fresco, j'-j" x 7*9".
234 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

177. Giotto di Bondone (c. 1266-1336) Death of St. Francis (after 1317) Bardi Chapel, Santa
Croce, Florence. Fresco.

ing would be unwelcome. Joachim must tensely, but expresses it, as in the Joa-

have been depressed, and, to recover chim, with restraint. The specific sub-

from the shock, he wandered off to his ject in the Bewailing, a lamentation over
shepherds in the fields. Giotto imagines the body of Christ, permits a display
him as strolling along, lost in contem- of more extreme emotion than is cus-

plation, perhaps in self-examination. tomary with Giotto, but even here his

Joachim's sorrow is revealed not only in painting is restrained in comparison

himself but in the conduct of his shep- with the face-clawing women of his

herds and his dog. The shepherds know successors.

that something is amiss, yet hesitate to Giotto's late work in Santa Croce in

break his revery, and merely look at one Florence has been restored, but even
another in doubt. The dog, with that the cycle of six frescoes of the life of
strange sympathy of animals, pushes its St. Francis in the Bardi Chapel shows
muzzle up toward its master's hand, how far ahead of his contemporaries
but its tail droops sorrowfully. and immediate followers Giotto is. Al-
The Bewailing of Christ (fig. 176) is though the sense of form is less effective
often cited as an illustration of Giotto's in the Death of St. Francis (fig. 177)
ability to render emotion. But the vio- than at Padua, that is due to restora-
lence of that painting is not charac- tion. The possibilities of line are not
teristic of Giotto. He feels emotion in- abandoned but, even in the silhouette,
 GIOTTO 2 35

line is subordinated to other things. Killing the Dragon (fig. 178) by Bernat
Giotto focuses his design on the head Martorel is Spanish, but its style could
of the dying saint. Each of his kneeling be matched in Italian, French, Flemish,
figures begins a spiral movement that or German art. There is an episodic nat-
coils around the halo of St. Francis and uralism of details but no concern with
so leads our eye to that point. As at reality. The dragon's ferocity we per-

Padua, the action takes place within a ceive less in the monster himself, in
shallow box, with distance limited by spite of his rows of horrid glistening
the wall in the background. teeth, than in the spare ribs, skulls, and
After Giotto's death the Florentine tibiae of his victims strewn around so
school could not maintain his innova- liberally. These recognizable objects
tions. Its later members in the four- provide circumstantial corroborative de-
teenth century reverted toward the tra- tail for an otherwise bald and uncon-
ditional Sienese style, as the influence vincing narrative. The painting really
of Giotto waned and the feeling for tells a fairy story. The kneeling princess
mass faded. Some of his successors real- wears an ornate crown, St. George's
ized their inability. Taddeo Gaddi, in white charger is the very steed for a hero
the next generation, said that Florentine of romance, and his armor reflects the
painting had been declining steadily light from each polished surface. A
since the death of Giotto and was still Gothic city in the background is equally
doing so in his day. Though a few art- rich and incredible. The story can have
ists, like Orcagna, partly stemmed the but one end— St. George must kill the
tide, no one was found to wear Giotto's dragon. If St. George should miss his

mantle until the appearance of Masac- stroke, so polite a dragon would give
cio, early in the fifteenth century. him a second chance. Such paintings as

Toward the end of the fourteenth, this cannot be taken seriously, but who
and lasting on into the following cen- can resist their ingenuous charm?
tury, all schools of painting in Europe
had so many qualities in common that The International style obtains in

the result has been called the Interna- some of the illuminated manuscripts
tional style. This linear style, formulated of the time in northern Europe. For ex-
partly by the school of Siena because ample, the Chantilly Book of the
of Simone's trip to Avignon, and partly Hours, a pictorial religious calendar
by the calligraphic line of Gothic man- painted by Pol de Limbourg and his
uscripts, is enriched with charming if brothers for the Due de Berry, depicts
sometimes unreal color. The exuberance the Temptation and Expulsion of Adam
of the late Middle Ages and its chiv- and Eve from the Garden of Eden with
alry, reflected in the romances, call forth fairy-tale unreality. However, of the
a fanciful, fastidious, and fairy-like illustrations for each month, that for
painting, without seriousness. St. George February (fig. 179) displays a genuine
236 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

178. Bernat Martorel, St. George Killing the Dragon (c. 1430) Art Institute, Chicago.
4'8" x 3' 2 ".
 FLEMISH PAINTING 2 37

a principal origin, and hence a tend-

ency to paint on a monumental scale,

the source of Flemish painting in manu-

script illumination bequeaths to the
artists a small detailed manner. Prob-
ably these details reflect an extensive
merchant patronage in the Flemish cit-

ies. The good burghers asked for paint-

ings they could examine closely, as they
might inspect a piece of cloth to detect
flaws in the weave. They wanted their
pictures to record light and shade cast
from definite light sources, often within
the picture itself. The must prove
types
their reality by their wrinkles and other
physical defects, or by the selection of
ill-favored individuals. Bric-a-brac fur-

nishes the rooms, or, if the scene is out-

of-doors, towns, rivers, trees, and flowers
in microscopic detail lend interest to the

landscape. The breadth of fresco could

have no charm for Flemish artists or
179. Pol de Limbourg (active c. 1400-55) their patrons, nor did the medium of
February, Chantilly Hours (early 15th cent.)
tempera satisfy them for panel painting.
Musee Conde, Chantilly. 11V2" x 8".
Therefore, the Flemish evolved an oil

interest in nature, though even here the technique that made possible panels of
artist thinks more of the details of enamel-like smoothness. These panels
nature than of her larger aspects. He re- are usually of oak; the pigment, mixed
moves the side of the house in this with oil, is applied in layers, with some-
snowy landscape to let us peep at two thing of the same technique one finds
women and a man warming themselves in Italy of building up the design
before an open fire. He records how a through underpainting. A wider range
flock of birds in the foreground feeds and value
of color is available in the oil
on grain dropped when the animals medium. Though brilliant in color, a
were being foddered. Snow clings to the painting in tempera is opaque and does
twigs of a thicket hard by, where a man not glisten, since the light and color are
gathers faggots. reflected to one's eye as from the sur-

It is from such manuscripts that face. In the Flemish method, the light
northern, especially Flemish, painting seems to penetrate into the paint be-
grows. Whereas in Italy mosaics provide fore it is reflected, which gives great
2 38 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

luminosity and polish to panels in this

technique.
Though not its inventors, the Van
Eyck brothers in the early fifteenth cen-
tury did much to popularize the oil

medium. As the founders of the Flem-

ish school, their work on the Ghent

altarpiece is basic. This polyptych, or

painting of many panels, was begun by
Hubert, the older brother, and com-
pleted after his death by Jan. The prob-
lem of what parts were done by one
brother and what by the other remains
unsettled. The principal subject, the
apocalyptic Adoration of the Lamb, fills

the central panel in the lower half and

also the four lower panels on the wings,
hinged so as to close over the center.

Christ, wearing the triple crown of

heaven, is enthroned in the middle of
the upper tier. His heavy black beard
violates our usual conception of the Sav-

iour, based on Italian paintings. But re-

flection shows this version to be as legit-

imate as the Italian and equally ex-

pressive of the power, justice,and mercy

of the Son of God. The red-haired
Flemish Virgin, in the panel next on
the left, is balanced by the panel of
St. John the Baptist, while beyond them
are groups of musical angels and finally
panels with coarsely realistic representa-
tions of Adam and Eve. Portraits of the
180. Hubert van Eyck (c. 1366-1426) and
donors and other subjects in mono- Jan van Eyck (c. 1385-1441) Singing Angels,

chrome adorn the outside Panel, Ghent Altarpiece (1432) St. Bavon,
of the wings.
Ghent. Oil on panel, f^" x 2'3".
To select a single example, the group
of the Singing Angels (fig. 180) shows the music stand to illumine its traceried
the Flemish realism. These figures are panels as well as the carving of St. Mi-
modeled in light and shade, their bro- chael slaying the dragon in its base.
cades deeply folded. Light plays over The patterns of the floor tiles vary.
 VAN EYCK '39

181. Jan van Eyck (c. 1385-1441) Madonna of the Canon van der Paele (1436) Town Gal-
lery,Bruges. Oil on panel, 4' x $'2".

Their recession in converging lines ap- left, the armor of St. George on the
proximates perspective. Even in the in- right are all presented by the artist to

dividuals, the Van Eycks exploit their the observer at close range. One needs
observations of nature: those angels who a magnifying glass to discover all the
sing notes high in the register of their detail. Moreover, though the laws of
voices contract their brows, a reflex perspective are not yet formulated, the
everybody has experienced. artist approximates them with sufficient
This realism becomes even more ap- closeness not to contradict the realism
parent in the Madonna of the Canon of detail. Finally, many tones adopted
van der Paele 181) by Jan van Eyck
(fig. by the artist fall into the lower value
(c. 1385-1441). The donor kneels to range; as a whole, the painting appears
the right, a great hulking man whose darker than Italian work in tempera.
face is scored with wrinkles. Nothing As court painters, the Van Eycks had
like the Italian sense of physical beauty few direct pupils, and therefore less per-

idealizes this figure, whose strength de- sonal influence on the Flemish school
pends on veracity. The patterned car- than had Rogier van der Weyden. Him-
pet, the brocades of the bishop on the self at times inspired by the Van
24O THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

Eycks, Van der Weyden does much to ration of the Shepherds, ranges the fig-

spread the Flemish style. In his Deposi- ures in a circle around the kneeling
tion (fig. 182), he selects an emotional Madonna and Child with consequent
theme, and handles it with a poignancy depth in the design. Flemish realism is

that the Van Eycks rarely attempt. The everywhere in evidence; the shepherds
weeping and swooning women convey crowding in to the right come straight
the tragedy and its bitterness. These fig- from the fields; their long jaws, un-
ures are placed within a box-like setting shaven chins, and tousled hair testify to

reminiscent of the elaborate Flemish the artist's objectivity by an exaggerated

and German late-Gothic wood carv- homeliness. Or again, in the sheaf of
ings, which are also suggested by the wheat and the jar of flowers we see
solidity of the figures. closely observed passages of still life.

The scale of most of these Flemish Tommaso Portinari, an Italian busi-

paintings is small. To this generality, the nessman who commissioned it, sent his
Portinari Altarpiece (fig. 183) by Hugo painting back to his native Florence.
van der Goes (c. 1435-82) is a notable The scale of the work forced it on every-
exception. The central panel, the Ado- one's attention; its realism coincided

182. Roger van der Weyden (c. 1399-1464) Deposition (c. Prado, Madrid. Oil on
1435)
panel, j'2" x 9/2"'.
 VAN DER GOES 241

183. Hugo van der Goes (c. 1435-82) Adoration of the Shepherds, Portinari Altarpiece (c.

1475) Uffizi, Florence. Oil on panel, 8V x 10'.

with Italian taste in the late fifteenth ings. A favorite commission was a dip-
century and surpassed anything the Ital- tych, one leaf of which represented the
ians had yet accomplished. Soon after, Madonna and Child, or a patron saint,
several Italian paintings plagiarized the and the other a portrait of the donor.

shepherds and the jar of flowers. Not So in Hans Memling's (c. 1430-94)

every painting from Flanders would portrait of Martin van Nieuwenhoven

have aroused such enthusiasm; the scale (fig. 184), the subject on the right,

and monumentality of the Portinari Al- with his hands clasped in prayer, looks
tarpiece proved that these qualities across at the Madonna. Some realism is

could co-exist with minuteness of detail. necessary in portraiture to facilitate

The Flemish school was bound to recognition, and there is every reason to
turn to portraiture, not only as parts of believe that Memling has rendered ac-

religious compositions, such as the Ma- curately this none- too-clever young man.
donna of the Canon van der Paele, but Still, that realism affects only detail not
as wholly or semi-independent paint- the whole scene. The man looks stiff
242 THE DIFFUSION AND LATER HISTORY OF GOTHIC ART

184. Hans Memling (c. 1430-94) Martin van Nieuwenhoven (1487) St. John's Hospital,
Bruges. Oil on panel, 17" x 13".
 MEMLING 2 42

and hard. We see every knot on his Indeed, the turn to nature is more evi-
costume and each detail of the room, dent in the fifteenth century in the
such as the stained-glass window where north than in Italy itself, not only in
the young man's patron, St. Martin, di- painting but in late Gothic sculpture
vides his cloak with a beggar— with a and in manuscript illumination. Reli-
clarity impossible even if this scene gious enthusiasm in Flanders declines
were reconstructed before us. Paradox- from the earlier Gothic centuries and
ically, the Flemish record everything, secular interests grow. The new concern
but fail to reach the effect of reality. with portraiture implies a growth of
This contradiction results from their individualism absent from the thir-

reluctance to understate some facts in teenth century. Nevertheless, this school

order to emphasize others; therefore, in remains more Gothic than Renaissance.
the absence of any visual focus, the eye Not only does it issue from Gothic
roams over the panel from one detail manuscript tradition, but it is innocent
to another. Also, though the distant of the enthusiastic classicism that her-
landscape is often bluish in color, its alds the new spirit in Italy, an innova-
minutiae stand out sharply, unscreened tion not to affect the north until the six-
and unenveloped in atmosphere. teenth century, and then only as a fash-
This school of the Van Eycks and ionable importation. Though the issue
their followers is contemporary not with is merely one of classification, Flemish
the painting of Duccio and Giotto, but painting of the fifteenth century has
with the early Renaissance painting of not the same character as contemporary
the fifteenth century. It has many of the Italian painting, and its similarity

characteristics of the Renaissance: for proves only that some elements are
example, the love of nature and the de- common to the century but not basic
sire to represent it with more observed in the new spirit known as the Renais-

detail than in the early Middle Ages. sance.

XII The Early Renaissance in Italy

The Renaissance, or rebirth, is a move- sively nor exactly a revival of learning.

ment so widespread and complex that The Gothic age was not one of bar-
no succinct definition is possible. Vari- barism, though men of the fifteenth
ous phrases have been used to describe century thought it such. An age that
it, and many of them suggest certain of produced a Roger Bacon, the vast
its features. The Renaissance is called knowledge of Vincent of Beauvais, or
the Revival of Learning. A ne w energy the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas was
is evident in the fifteenth centurv; it neither ignorant nor barbaric. The dif-
dominates all fields pertaining to the ference is that the mind, ideals, and
intellect and to the arts and sciences. energy of the Renaissance were directed
The great thirteenth-century wave of elsewhere. Late in the fourteenth cen-
energy that had produced Gothic art tury and early in the fifteenth, Italy re-
was spent by the end of that period, and discovered her past. The Roman re-

in the fourteenth century a new surge mains were at her door, and had always
was gathering momentum to break only exerted some influence on Italian
in the fifteenth century. Or, to change thought and art. Witness the classicism
the metaphor, during the fourteenth of the Corinthian columns in Pisa Ca-
century, Europe was catching its breath thedral, or in the sculpture of Nicola
after its Gothic paean and before deliv- d' Apulia. But the previous contributions
ering its Renaissance oration. from Rome had been accepted by in-
But the Renaissance is neither exclu- stinct; now there was to be a conscious

244
 CHARACTER OF THE RENAISSANCE 2 45

revival of the past, a deliberate return of the Renaissance, hardly abated a ]ot

to Rome as the source of civilization. in their adherence to the Church.

This first manifested itself in the study Humanism was the goal of the Ren-
of classic literature and in the avidity aissance, but the motive power was in-

with which scholars vied to rediscover dividualism. During the Middle Ages
ancient manuscripts. On these, they man had looked at life on earth as it

formed their own rhetorically pure Latin bore on the life eternal. In the Renais-
styles, very different from the dog Latin sance man became concerned with the
of the Middle Ages. One group, the world as it bears on the life temporal.
Ciceronians, carried their desire for pu- The individual man gains importance,

rity and correctness in Latin diction so where earlier his individuality had been
far that they would accept no word not submerged. Now arises a desire for

used by Cicero in his known writings, fame, a will to be known to one's fel-

even if other Latin authors, such as low man while alive and to be remem-

Horace, Virgil, or Quintilian, had em- bered after death. The urge to individ-

ployed it. The Roman Academy re-

ualism produced two manifestations.

vived even the supposed manners and

Portraits appeared, where they had been
all but absent in the early Middle Ages,
morals of Rome— unfortunately those
and moreover portraits of life-like ac-
of the Empire rather than those of the
curacy. Hardly any important figure
Roman Republic.
crossed the stage of Florentine life
The effect of this conscious revival on
whose features do not look down at us
the arts, especially on architecture and
from some sculptured bust or paint-
sculpture, was profound. Even in phi-
ing. Biographies and autobiographies
losophy, an attempt was made by the
emerged. A few had been written dur-
Neo-Platonists to reconcile classic phi-
ing the Middle Ages, but most of them
losophy to Christianity. With this new
dealt with the lives of saints. Now Cel-
spirit abroad, to expect some revival of
lini wrote his autobiography, and Va-
paganism is logical, but that one field,
sari compiled his Lives of the Most
religion, remained unaffected or nearly Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Ar-
so. The tendency of the humanists, as chitects. Nor are these accounts neces-
the classic scholars were called from sarily edifying, however informative
their studies of the humanities, was to they may be. Vasari gossips about his
avoid the issue, or, in north Italy, to subjects, and throws a flood of light on
champion Christianity wherever it came their personalities, even when his facts
into conflict with paganism. However, are not accurate; while Cellini, with a
the fervor of Christianity was not so in- good conceit of himself, magnifies his
tense as in the Gothic period. Still, the own prowess in art, love, and war.
fifteenth century and even the six- The best phrase to characterize the

teenth, which marked the culmination Renaissance is the Age of Discovery. On

246 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

the one hand, it was the age of dis- human body. Long before him, the art-

covery of the classic past— humanism; ists had begun to observe the exterior

on the other, of the dignity of man- of the body. They studied human anat-
individualism. This was when the world omy and zoology, botany and geology,
was discovered as it affected man's life as those subjects had never been stud-
on earth, both in the larger and in the ied before. The Gothic age had turned
smaller sense. The explorers of the fif- to nature, but more as a manifestation

teenth and sixteenth centuries, Colum- of God than as a field for scientific ob-

bus, Magellan, Vasco da Gama, en- servation.

larged the physical horizon. Similarly, The return to nature cannot affect
men looked at the world with a scien- architecture, but humanism does. When
tific attitude, a desire to prove for Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) lost

themselves rather than to accept state- the competition for the bronze doors of
ments on the basis of authority. Much the Baptistry in Florence, he went to
that was believed then was incorrect, Rome with Donatello, who was to be-
but Leonardo da Vinci conducted dis- come the dominant sculptor of the early
sections to discover the structure of the Renaissance, and the two young men

Cathedral, Florence (1296-1462) Total length 508'; height of dome 367'.

 BRUNELLESCHI 2 47

spent their time drawing the fragments esque Baptistry of Florence than to the
of classic architecture and sculpture in Roman Pantheon. Like the Baptistry,
the Forum and elsewhere, until the Brunelleschi's dome is pointed in sec-

Roman populace thought them mad. tion, not hemispherical; based on an

Characteristic too was Brunelleschi's octagonal plan, its ribs project at each
resolve to be first in one art, if not in angle on the exterior. Its minor ribs

the other. The stories Vasari tells of him divide each side of the octagon into
present a vigorous personality with a thirds. Unlike the architects of the Ro-
will to be famed for his achievements. man dome and of the Baptistry, Bru-
The dome of the Cathedral of Flor- nelleschi expected his vault to be im-
ence had not been built. Therefore posing from the exterior as well as in
Brunelleschi studied Roman construc- the interior. The full curve is visible,

tion, especially the dome of the Pan- while in the Pantheon (fig. 87) most
theon, as well as Roman design. When of the curve is hidden within the mass
the committee for the cathedral had of the building. Thus, though the dome
considered many expedients, some of has about it little that is specifically

them ridiculous in their unsuitabilitv, classic except the lantern, built some
they entrusted to Brunelleschi the task years later, its spirit and the story of its

of building the dome, but one may building typify the new energy and be-

imagine his chagrin to find himself speak the architect's courage and imag-
yoked with Ghiberti as co-architect, the ination.

very man who fifteen years before had

beaten him in the competition for the
Baptistry doors. He could not accept
that as final. Vasari tells us how Brunel-
leschi, though he appeared to accept
the situation at first, publicized Ghi-
berti's architectural incompetence until

the latter was discharged and Brunel-

leschi left in sole charge; to him, and
to him alone, remains the fame of de-

signing and constructing the dome. In

reality, the forms of the dome contain
little of the Renaissance (fig. 185). Its

scale suggests a new desire for monu-

186. Pazzi Chapel. Florence In-
mentality. And yet that size, almost the
terior 59/9" x 35'8".
same as the dome of the Pantheon, is

established by a plan that dates from Brunelleschi first displayed the forms

the Gothic centuries. In structure the of the Renaissance in the facade of the
dome is closer to the Tuscan Roman- Foundlings Hospital in Florence, dated
248 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

187. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) Pazzi Chapel, Florence (c. 1429) Height, main cornice,
40'.

1419, but that design is less distin- Thus, the effect of the interior is cool
guished than his Pazzi Chapel, begun and restrained, and the basis of the de-
ten years later, beside Santa Croce in sign has been changed from an expres-
Florence. This little gem abandons the sion of apparently revealed structure
Gothic style save possibly in the vault. to a reliance on proportion, scale, and
The square central area (fig. 186) is composition.
covered by a ribbed vault that looks like On the exterior (fig. 187), the pin-
two Gothic apses set face to face and nacles and tracery, the buttresses and
carried on pendentives, but at the sides soaring lines of Gothic architecture have
barrel vaults rest on broad arches. These been discarded. In their place, a por-
in turn spring from a continuous en- tico of Corinthian columns carries an
tablature supported by Corinthian pilas- entablature. Above it paired pilasters
ters whose projection hardly interrupts divide the wall into panels. The poly-
the wall plane. Except for the gray stone chromy of the Tuscan Gothic style
of these architectural members and of yields to monochrome. Brunelleschi,
the frames of round arched panels be- for all his study and energy, had not
tween them, the walls are plastered. mastered the Roman style. His design
 BRUNELLESCHI 2 49

may be compared to the first exercises through most of the fifteenth century.
of a student of a new language; he has Cosimo de Medici, called pater patriae,
learned a few words but his accent and devoted his talents and his wealth from
grammar are imperfect. His Corinthian 1434 to his death in 1464 to the govern-
capitals are stiff and wooden in their ment of Florence, as did his son Piero
foliage, not plastic as in the best Roman to 1469, and his grandson, Lorenzo the
examples. In general the design is del- Magnificent, until 1492. Although the
icate but flat, as though conceived in de facto rulers of the city, these genera-
lines on a sheet of paper, not in the tions of the family remained techni-
plastic forms of the past. Brunelleschi's cally private citizens, and the forms of
thin walls, light columns, and surface Florentine liberty were preserved. Each
panels have created a new style, despite of them patronized the arts.

the derivation of some of its details Brunelleschi's plan for San Lorenzo
from antiquity. turns to the Early Christian Roman
The Pazzi Chapel is small; San Lo- basilica; he abandons the vault over the
renzo in Florence, designed for the nave, and reverts to the wooden roof,
Medici, is on a larger scale. This re- thin clearstory walls, light nave arcade,
markable family dominated Florence and the general arrangement of the

J;

188. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) San Lorenzo, Florence (1425) Nave 250' long x 95'
wide x 69/6" high.
250 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

early church type. However, Brunel- lights them and focuses life around itself

leschi's design (fig. 188) does not look to suggest that the street was neither
like a basilica. It lacks the color of those attractive nor safe.

buildings, and its colonnade, like that in Externally (fig. 190) it is austere.
the Pazzi Chapel, is inexpert in detail Though the Riccardi Palace now has
when measured by classic standards.
That free-hand nonchalance of the ba-
silica is admitted nowhere. Light in

construction, delicate in detail, and

monochromatic, San Lorenzo charms
through its simplicity, which came to
Florence as a change from the colored
and confused Gothic churches of the
region. Thus, Brunelleschi's position in
the Renaissance is that of originator it
and pioneer.
Michelozzo, on the other hand, was
almost a private architect to the Medici
family. His plan (fig. 189) for the

190. Michelozzo (1396-1472) Riccardi Pal-

ace, Florence (1444-59) 22 5' l° n § x %°' high.

pedimented windows in the ground

floor, those are later than the rest of the
building. This composition translates
the medieval palace into a Renaissance
vocabulary. The design of the second-
floor windows, a double arch supported
by a colonnette and framed within a
189. Riccardi Palace, Florence (1444-59)
225' x 190'. larger arch, is inherited from the
Gothic, save that the arches have ceased
Medici, or Riccardi, Palace in Florence to be pointed. The massive rugged
retains the disposition around a rec- stonework, too, derives from tradition.
tangular court typical of Florentine And yet an emphasis upon the hori-
medieval palaces. This court serves as zontal, created by bands of classic mold-
communication between the rooms; it ings under the windows of the second
 MICHELOZZO - ALBERTI 2 5*

and third floors, and especially the mag-

nificent cornice that terminates the de-
sign, shows its Renaissance character.
Sensitive too are the proportions, the
sequence in height of the floors from
the tallest in the ground story to the
lowest in the top, and the wall treat-
ment, which varies from smooth blocks
in the third floor to rustication in the

ground floor.

If Brunelleschi founded the architec-

tural Renaissance and Michelozzo ap-
plied it to the palace, Leon Battista Al-
berti brought the scholarship of the
century to bear on building problems.
Himself a humanist, Alberti wrote ex-
; .

tensively on architecture— basing his

191. Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72) Rucel-
books on those of Vitruvius, the Roman laiPalace, Florence (1451-55) 69' high.
architect— and through them influenced
a line of Renaissance theorists. This
where Rome forms the almost exclusive
source of inspiration. All in all, the Ru-
scholarship dictates his design of the
cellai Palace exhibits its classicism not
Rucellai Palace in Florence, 1451-5
only in the orders and in the windows,
(fig. 191), which differs from the Ric-
but in a certain articulation of design,
cardi Palace in the application of super-
each part stated as a unit rather than
posed orders in pilaster form. A full en-
submerging its individuality in the
tablature instead of a string course sep-
whole. Even here the linear appearance
arates the stories. The cornice at the top
of the composition is Renaissance, not
of the building must be proportioned
Roman.
to the uppermost order, and thus less
In his remodeling of the exterior of
effectively terminates the whole build- San Francesco at Rimini, in 1447,
ing than the cornice of the Riccardi.
though it was never completed, Al-
The window forms too have changed; berti advanced further on the road to
Alberti introduces a lintel on the colon- Rome. The facade (fig. 192) adapts the
nette below the arch, which tends to composition of the Roman Arch of Au-
create the effect of a rectangular win- gustus in Rimini, an arch order repeated
dow. Details of the Rucellai, such as three times with engaged columns in-
the door jambs and a few moldings, be- stead of pilasters. This gives the design
tray a knowledge of Greek architecture a plastic character not hitherto found
unique in the Italian Renaissance, in Renaissance work, as do the deep
252 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

192. Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72) San Francesco, Rimini (1447-55) Facade 97' wide.

arches along the sides of the building. more complete, but the rhetoric is

The whole begins to mold itself in closely followed.

light and shade. Alberti's design of The seriousness of the Renaissance
1470 for Sant' Andrea at Mantua com- during the fifteenth century is confined
bines the temple front, that is, pilasters to Florence, its birthplace. What at-

to support the entablature and pedi- tracted the north of Italy were not
ment, with a triumphal arch. In the in- Roman orders and arches, volumes and
terior, which was decorated in the six- mass, but the decorative detail the
teenth century, the Roman barrel vault, Romans had used and which the north
with apparently solid supports and wide Italians now created in quantity. The
arches opening into the nave, grasps facade of the Certosa near Pavia (fig.

the Roman spatial sense. Alberti's style 193), from the end of the fifteenth cen-
is what one would expect of a
just tury, is appalling in its richness and con-
scholar who built on the foundations fusion. Its designers considered it a field
Brunelleschi had laid, but who carried for exuberant detail, and plastered that
further an understanding of Roman detail, exquisite in itself, over every sur-
principles of design. In him, not only face. The colonnettes within the ground
is the Roman architectural vocabularv floor windows undergo all sorts of ad-
 NORTH ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE 2 53

193. Certosa, Pavia (late 15th cent.) Facade c. 125' wide x 100' high in center.

ventures between the base and the cap- The abundant Roman ruins account
ital, with floral designs, grotesque heads, for the influence of antiquity on Floren-
and medallions applied to their sur- tine architecture. In sculpture, also, a
faces. Bands of delicate arabesques large corpus of Roman art was extant.
frame the windows, with colored mar- The change in sculpture from Gothic
ble panels, sculptured heads or figures, to Renaissance was not so sudden as
or anything else that a bubbling fancy in architecture. For the jambs of the
could suggest. No Florentine sense of doors of San Petronio at Bologna, Ja-
restraint hindered these designers, Ama- copo della Quercia (1374-1438) mod-
deo and others, from drowning their eled panels of the stories in the Book
design in a sea of detail. If this work of Genesis. The Temptation (fig. 194)
did not promote the development of retains traces of the Gothic style; the
the Renaissance movement in Italy, its lounging pose of the Eve is reminiscent
historical importance is immeasurable, of late Gothic figures. Also the tree, in-

since it was this style that the French, dicated by a stem with a few leaves on
coming down over the Alps, first saw it,and the serpent with a woman's head
and admired, and which afforded the derive from the medieval background.
root of the early French experiments in On the other hand, the bold modeling
the Renaissance manner. of the figures is Renaissance; so too is
2 54 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

their strength and energy. The languid and jerks his head around to speak to

Gothic pose is transformed into the Eve over his shoulder. That torsion of

vigorous portrayal of Adam remonstrat- the body's axis, coupled with a reliance
ing with his wife, as he twists his body on the figure for expression, anticipates

,;

%.

194. Jacopo della Ouercia (c. 1374-1438) temptation, Detail, Portal, San Petronio, Bologna
(1425-38).
 gUERCIA - GHIBERTI 255

Gothic drapery. Indeed, Quercia's mod-

eling approaches the generalized state-
ment of classic statues. One of the
world's great masterpieces of sculpture,
the Tomb of Ilaria del Caretto in Lucca
Cathedral, whether his or not, has an
exquisite idealism of features and cos-
tume, while the children with garlands
of fruit along the sides is a classic mo-
tive.

The competition for the north doors

of the Florence Baptistry, whose loss

turned Brunelleschi from sculpture to

architecture, was won by Lorenzo Ghi-
berti (1378-1455). In view of its date,

1401, it is only natural that the compe-

tition required the shape of the panels,
a Gothic quatrefoil, to be identical with
those of the earlier south doors ("fig.

166). In a general view, the duplication

of their larger design makes it difficult

to distinguish the two. The curved fig-

195. Jacopo della Quercia (c. 1374-1438)
Wisdom, Fonte Gaia (1414-19) Cathedral ures in the panels retain much of Gothic
Museum, Siena. $'j" high. tradition but exhibit a few pictorial ele-
ments, a trace of the new naturalism,
Michelangelo, who while still young was and a touch of the antique, especially
destined to work on this very portal a in the borders to the panels and around
century later. The monumentality gained the jambs of the doors.
by Quercia in these small panels is ex- The east doors, awarded to Ghiberti
traordinary; it derives from the fine in 1425 without competition, show more
sense of selection and amplification, and of the Renaissance point of view. Rec-
from the treatment of the parts as large tangular panels supplant the quatrefoils.
units of design. The number of panels is reduced from
That monumentality is even more twenty-eight to ten and their size in-
evident in the allegorical Wisdom from creased (fig. 196). These changes affect
the Fonte Gaia at Siena (fig. 195), the relation of the doors to the building,
damaged though it is. The voluminous and in this respect one must admit that
masses of drapery fall in rounded folds, the earlier sets are more architectural
deeply modeled and distinct from the and in better scale with the Baptistry.
finicky linearism of fourteenth-century The larger size of the panels and their
2 56 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

196. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) East Doors, Baptistry, Florence (1425-52) Bronze, i8'6'
high.
 GHIBERTI 2 57

smaller number made it possible and

necessary to introduce more than a sin-

gle incident in many of them in order
4&r
to satisfy the demand for narrative. In
the story of Abraham (fig. 197), his tent
is at the side, he welcomes the angels

197. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) Story of

Abraham, Detail, East Doors, Baptistry, Flor-
ence. Bronze, 2'$".

in the center, and the sacrifice of Isaac

takes place at the top. To separate these

incidents from one another calls for
technical dexterity. Unlike most relief

sculpture, where the background lies in

a single vertical plane, that of Ghiberti

slopes back in proportion to the dis-

tance at which the incidents are sup-

posed to occur. The depth of relief

changes from the foreground figures,

partly in the round, to those in the sac-

198. Donatello (1386-1466) David (1411
rifice, where the relief is extremely low. Bargello, Florence. Bronze, 5'6" high.

Thus an indication of depth results that

impinges on the pictorial. Ghiberti re- places the landscape setting, since the
sorts to rocks, bushes, and trees which buildings are shown in correct perspec-

add to the pictorial impression, as does tive. The criticism that these doors are
the architecture that occasionally re- paintings in bronze has much justifica-

j
258 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

tion. The panels are conceived as three-

dimensional pictures. And yet Ghiberti's

handling is so subtle, his craftsmanship

so exquisite, that no less a sculptor than
Michelangelo could describe these doors
as worthy to be the Gates of Paradise.
The subsidiary sculpture in bands beside
the panels and in the border on the
door jambs illustrates the Renaissance
scientific naturalism. The floral border,
composed of a garland of the blossoms

of Tuscany interspersed with squirrels,

birds, and other fauna, parallels the

enthusiasm for nature felt by such con-
temporary painters as Pisanello.
But the sculptor whose leadership
really corresponded to that of his friend
Brunelleschi in architecture was Dona-
tello (c. 1386-1466). Hardly a field de-

veloped by the later men of the century

was not surveyed by him. In him, both
the classicism and realism of the Renais-
sance bear fruit. His bronze David (fig.

198) is the first important free-standing

nude in European art since Roman days.
The Middle Ages had clothed the body,
but under the influence of his classic

studies Donatello saw no reason to con-

tinue this practice. He could not fail to
notice the frequency with which male
figures were carved or cast in the nude
by the Greeks and Romans. His study
of the figure of David is quite deliber- Lo Zuccone
199. Donatello (1386-1466)
ate, and must represent his ideal; noth- (1423-26) Campanile, Cathedral, Florence.
Marble, c. 6'8" high.
ing in the story of David calls for such
a rendering; on the contrary, every in- projects over the lad's face and shades
dication points the other way. The body it, drives our attention from the head
is further emphasized by the subordina- to the figure. Donatello conceives a boy-
tion of the head; the hat, whose brim ish form whose anatomy might have
 DONATELLO 259

been observed from nature, possibly breadth are reminiscent of Hellenistic

from the youths of Florence bathing in developments.
the Arno. However, in this statue the Donatello can, however, be brutally
sculptor holds realism in check. The de- realistic as, in the statue on the Cam-
tails of the figure are selected to em- Lo Zuccone
panile of Florence called
phasize the youthful nature of the (fig. means The Pumpkin
199), which
subject, and simplified for clarity of Head. The insistence on the baldness
expression. The smooth surfaces and the that earned the figure its nickname, the
sense of volumes in the figure are well modeling of the skull, the bony hands,

adapted to the bronze medium. The and muscular arms are not beautiful in
lithe proportions, plastic modeling, and themselves but are powerful and indi-

200. Donatello (1386-1466) Gattamelata (1443-46) Padua. Bronze, io'6" high.

2(5o THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

201. Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525) Annunciation (1490-1500) Ospedale degli Innocenti,.
Florence. Glazed terra cotta,
5 '6" x 9 '4".

vidual. Even the drapery, whose ampli- on the head. However, the small scale
tude creates a sense of volume sufficient of the features makes it difficult to ap-

to contain the figure completely, has preciate them from the ground. In one
caught the new spirit. respect, Donatello's adherence to truth
These two major strains in Donatello's has betrayed him. The mass of the ani-
work, his humanism and his realism, mal, large in comparison to the man, is

combine in the portrait of Gattamelata so prominent that it detracts attention

(fig. 200), the first free-standing eques- from his master, who has not quite the
trian monument since Roman days. dominance that he should have. But
Donatello conceives his figure in terms such a criticism is carping when applied
of a Roman Imperator, the extant to so obvious a masterpiece.
equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, All these monuments are in the
and gives him the Roman baton of com- round, but Donatello is no less original
mand and the Roman short-skirted in relief sculpture. He probably invented
The
armor. horse resembles the famous and certainly popularized the mode
horses of St. Mark's in Venice, whose called rilievo schiacciato, crushed relief,
origin is unquestionably classic. The sci- where objects melt into one another and
entific anatomy of this charger matches barely rise from the background. A good
the realism of the eyebrows and wrinkles example is the Assumption of the Virgin
 DONATELLO 26l

in Sant' Angelo a Nilo in Naples, in realism. The Della Robbia family, in

which the subtle projection of the fig- their chosen medium of polychromed
ures suggests not pictorial depth but glazed terra cotta, turned a craft into
spiritual importance. Though pictorial- sculpture through the creative effort

ism is possible in this technique, Dona- they applied to each product. A typical
tello's instinct is too plastic to admit it. example by Andrea della Robbia is the
This plastic quality helps to adapt his Annunciation (fig. 201) on the Found-
compositions to the buildings in which lings Hospital in Florence. Both the fig-

they are placed. The figures in high re- ures and floral border are freely mod-
lief of the Annunciation in Santa Croce eled, with realism in the latter, and in
in Florence are framed in an architec- the former the plastic effect of simpli-
ture so rich that more of it would over- fied forms. If the medium has not the
whelm the eye; as it is, these decorated inherent monumentality of stone or
moldings make an opulent accent in the bronze, it invites a simple color scheme
church. that avoids the full polychromy of na-
Sometimes Donatello's vitality so ani- ture. The figures themselves are white,

mates his scenes as to open to question relieved against a vivid blue ground,
their dignity as ecclesiastical fittings. A
band of romping children streams across
the breadth of the Singing Gallery he
designed for Florence Cathedral. It is

now shown to the public, with its sober

companion piece by Luca della Robbia,
in the Opera del Duomo in Florence.

Which one prefers may be a matter of

temperament. Donatello feels that the
joyous dance of these children will not
be unwelcome to God. Luca illustrates

the verses of the One hundred and

fiftieth Psalm. His figures are not inert
but they are less energetic, and their ar-
chitectural setting is plainer than Dona-
tello's.

The shadow of Donatello fell on the

other sculptors of the fifteenth century,
as though they merely exploited his at-

tainments. Some of these men are con-

servatives, or perhaps more justly are
described as following the middle of the
202. Desiderio da Settignano (1428-64) Ma-
road; others seem absorbed in scientific donna and Child. Museum, Turin. Marble.
262 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

with a few other colors in the border. Madonna and Child (fig. 202). The fig-

Later members of the family sought ures seem sketched in marble with ex-

greater realism of color, and lost the ef- quisite subtlety, reinforced, however, by
fectiveness of the works by the first two real firmness of structure. Realism, to

important members of the family, Luca him, might be subordinated to a gentle

and Andrea. Such products as these, emotion conveyed through elegant

cheap because of their medium, win forms and detail. Such sculpture is capa-
ble of great charm; but unless the artist
popularity through their prettiness and
has a grasp of structure it can degen-
their exploitation of refined sentiment.
erate into routine productions, meretri-
Desiderio da Settignano, probably a
pupil of Donatello, borrowed his mas-
cious in appeal, like much of the popu-
lar work of Mino da Fiesole.
ter's technique, rilievo schicciato, for his
A magnificent example of the early
Renaissance tomb is that of Leonardo
Bruni, the Florentine humanist (fig.

203), by Bernardo Rossellino. The

scholar's effigy rests on his bier above
his sarcophagus, within a niche termi-

nated in a round arch supporting figures

and heraldry above. Inside the arch, the

lunette contains a Madonna and Child
in low relief. Three red porphyry panels
in the back wall of the niche accent the
figure by contrast. This conception of a
tomb is dignified, through its design
and its architectural and sculptural dec-
oration.
Among the ardent realists, Antonio
Pollaiuolo confesses his absorption with
anatomy in movement in both the
sculptured (fig. 204) and the painted
versions of his Hercules and Antaeus.
The subject, drawn from classic mythol-
ogy, recalls the humanism of the cen-
tury, but Pollaiuolo makes this particu-

lar selection because of the opportunity

to represent powerful figures, their mus-
cles strained to the utmost. The desper-
203. Bernardo Rossellino (1409-64) Tomb of ate effort of Antaeus to free himself
Leonardo Bruni (1444) Santa Croce, Florence.
Marble. from the python arms of Hercules in-
 VERROCCHIO 263

in every detail, with saddle and harness

elaborated like goldsmith's work. The
horse, with one foot lifted clear of the

pedestal, is a more literal study than

even the horse of Donatello. In the
rider, individualism in portraiture gains
jrfLr salience. This deeply scored face gives
evidence of likeness to the famous cap-
tain it represents. Its detail is larger
in scale, and easier to perceive from the
ground, than in the case of Gattamelata.
Except in so far as realism is character-
istic of Roman portraits, nothing of the
classic remains. The fifteenth century
drew from the past only what was al-

ready part of itself; the age demanded

realism, but rationalized that urge as a

204. Antonio Pollaiuolo (1432-98) Hercules

revival of Roman civilization. The fame
and Antaeus (c. 1460) Bargello, Florence. of the work does not rest wholly on its
Bronze, 18" high.
realism. We perceive the individual, but
were that all, our interest in the statue
volves every tense muscle and sinew. would be aroused in proportion to our
Hercules' legs betray the fact that they knowledge of Bartolommeo Colleoni.
support the weight of two bodies; this Instead, Verrocchio creates a human
reveals a close observation by the artist type, the man of action, transcending
of the appearance of nature. For such time and space. The commanding pose
realism, bronze is the obvious material, expresses leadership and is recognizable
well-fitted to convey his love of energy as such in our own dav and in countries

and violent movement. far removed from Italy. This grasp of

At the end of the fifteenth century something basic in humanity gives the
was modeled the second great eques- Colleoni its position in the history of
trian monument of the early Renais- art.

sance, the Colleoni (fig. 205) by Andrea

del Verrocchio (1435-88), whose very Sculpture and architecture feel the in-

name, 'true eye,' suggests his observa- fluence of antiquity more strongly than
tional powers. Verrocchio was familiar painting owing to the preservation of
with the Gattamelata, but he rejected classic work in those two fields. Almost
its classic features and stressed its real- nothing of ancient painting was known
istic traits. The Colleoni wears the to the Renaissance, so that the influence
armor of the fifteenth century, explicit of humanism must be traced in other
264 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

205. Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-88) Colleoni. Venice. Broi

 PAINTING 265

ways. The painters borrow their archi- ing on a balcony of his palace when
tectural backgrounds from the classic Piero della Francesca painted him.
past, or from the styles of contemporary Every feature is peculiar to this man; the
architects themselves so affected by an- strong chin, firm mouth, and especially
tiquity. The orders, the round arch, and the nose broken in a duel many years
other marks of Rome replace the Gothic before. His brilliant red hat and robe
arches and frames that enrich the paint- contrast with the blue sky, which be-
ings, for example, of Simone Martini. comes paler as it nears the horizon. The
Certain classic buildings seem to have river, fields, and hills, detailed where
been especially popular; the Arch of they first appear, a long distance be-
Constantine in Rome (fig. 90) recurs hind the figure, fade away toward the
constantly with variations, as does the horizon. Such a landscape adds its dec-
Colosseum (fig. 88). Fragments of ar- orative value to the painting without
chitectural carving, such as arabesques distracting attention from the portrait.

and molded cornices, add their decora- Later in the century such figures would
tive value to the paintings. Some figures be set indoors or against a plain back-

may be clad as Roman legionaries. ground.

Noted examples of classic sculpture in- During the last quarter of the cen-
spire the artist; the Venus de Medici tury, the profile in portraiture yielded in

forms the basis for Botticelli's Birth of popularity to the three-quarter-front

Venus (fig. 216). As in sculpture, an view, wherein the subject looks out at
interest in the nude reveals the new an angle of 45 degrees to the picture
spirit. Finally, the painters draw on the plane. In the so-called Condottiere (fig.
past for subjects. Classic mythology, the 206), Antonello da Messina displays
labors of Hercules, or descriptions in this new attitude, possibly imported
classic poets may afford inspiration. from Flanders together with the oil

However, these themes are metamor- technique that Antonello helped to in-

phosed when seen through the eyes of troduce in Italy. This young man is

the fifteenth century. A Botticelli may rendered with Flemish realism, illus-

turn to Horace or Lucretius for his sub- trated in his scarred lip and in the care

ject, but what he paints has little in devoted to each strand of hair. Strong
common with them. contrasts of light and dark replace
The new interest in man prompts the Piero's vivid color. Sometimes a window
development of portraiture. Through in one corner of such a portrait pro-
most of the century the painters select duces a composition similar to that of
the point of view that most clearly pre- the Memling portrait (fig. 184). The
sents the individuality of their sitters, realism and focused attention in the
namely, the profile. Federigo da Monte- later examples involve some loss of dec-

feltro, the Duke of Urbino (Plate 111, orative quality. Portraits also appear in
facing p. 300), might have been stand- religious paintings, sometimes as spec-
266 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

oil technique, either entirely or mingled

with tempera. This northern influence
finds its way into the peninsula by de-
vious routes.The economic connection
between Venice and Germany brought
a knowledge of German art, which em-
ployed an oil medium inspired bv Flan-
ders. Though this in itself bore little

fruit, it prepared the way for the Vene-

tian acceptance of the technique when
Antonello da Messina arrived in the city

about 1475. Whether this Sicilian artist

visited Flanders or not, his method is

northern and its possibilities of realistic

detail were welcomed by the Italians. In

Umbria at about the same time, Justus

206. Antonello da Messina (1430-79) II Con-
van Ghent, a Flemish artist, was active
dottiere(1475) Louvre, Paris. Oil on canvas,
14" x 11". at the intellectual and artistic center of
Urbino. And finally, some Flemish
tators, sometimes even as models for paintings found their way into Italy; the
the principal figures. Portinari Altarpiece (fig. 183) by Hugo
In spite of the corpus of examples van der Goes, aroused tremendous ex-

illustrating individualism or humanism, citement on its public exhibition in

the vast majority of fifteenth-century Florence about 1476. Its influence can
paintings remain religious in subject. be traced in several Florentine paintings
Almost all commissions are given either shortly thereafter. However, this north-
by or for the church, to decorate its ern technique is only a minor variation,
buildings or as public or private altar- late in the century, on the established
pieces. The devotion expressed in them media of Italian painting.
weakens as the century progresses. At its The diversity of distinguished painters
outset, Fra Angelico revealed as serene makes the fifteenth-century history of
a faith as any painter of the preceding painting particularly difficult to organ-
epoch, but later the religious spirit was ize. The simplest plan is to group the
modified by other interests. artists in two categories: the experimen-
The techniques of fresco and tempera and those who are comparatively
talists,

continue from the Gothic age unabated conservative, though no labels are satis-
in popularity and, in the early fifteenth factory because the grouping itself is

century, unmodified in any important artificial. By the former term, we refer

respect. Some panels from the second to those artists whose major concern is

half of the century adopt the Flemish with the technical problems of painting.
 ANTONELLO - MASACCIO 267

It includes those who experiment in

their paintings with perspective, the
anatomy of men and animals, the ren-
dering of mass in their figures, and so
on. To these artists, the subject matter
of their paintings is an opportunity to
expound any problem that interests

them. On the other hand, those paint-

ers, whom we reluctantly call conserva-
tives, express the character of the sub-
ject in preference to the technical sides

of their craft. Some of these men are

conservatives in the full meaning of the
term, but many are alive to any contri-
butions made by their contemporaries;
they seize upon each step toward real-

ism taken by the experimentalists and

use it for their own ends. It is important
also to bear in mind that a painter in
one of these categories may have some
characteristics that belong in the other.

The painter who played the same role

in his art as Donatello in sculpture and
Brunelleschi in architecture, and who
was an intimate friend of both, was
Masaccio (1401-28). His frescoes in

the Brancacci Chapel in Florence re-

established the ideal of mass or solidity

as a primary goal of painting, returning
in that respect to the road laid out by
Giotto. In the Expulsion from the Gar-
den (fig. 207), he modeled two human
beings to express their weight. Masaccio 207. Masaccio (1401-28) Expulsion from the
did not always attain his goal, but the Garden (c. 1426) Brancacci Chapel, Santa
Maria del Carmine, Florence. Fresco, 6'o/' x
substantial figure of Adam looks like a
man of flesh and bone. Although the
form is simplified, Masaccio observed endowed his characters with emotions:
the external masses of the body in more he underscored the tragedy of the Fall
detail than his contemporaries. Also, he of Man by a wailing Eve and by an
268 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

208. Masaccio (1401-28) Tribute Money, Detail (c. 1426) Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del
Carmine, Florence. Fresco, 19/8" x 8'4".

Adam whose hands are pressed over his Masaccio to experiment with light and
eyes inshame and despair. shade. The shadows are cast for the
Masaccio's monumentality is nowhere sake of the form they create, not to pro-
better revealed than in the Tribute duce an effect of light.
Money (central group, fig. 208). The So far, Masaccio attempted what
apostles grouped around Christ are con- Giotto had done before him, and carried
ceived as patriarchs, not pretty but with it only a little further in anatomy. But
an epic grandeur in them; in the tax- he also introduced aerial perspective in

gatherer, with his back toward the spec- his background. He noticed in the hills

tator, you feel that you could touch his around Florence that not only do ob-
calf and find it round and solid. By jects appear to become smaller as they
modulating his shade, Masaccio creates recede from the eye, but that also they
an image that appeals to our sense of become indistinct in outline, and lighter
touch, as though designed to convince in value. The range of hills behind the
us that these shapes rendered on a flat apostles is clear near them but vaguer
surface are three-dimensional volumes. in the distance. The architectural value
This impression, though to a large ex- of the painting is not neglected either.
tent gained by shadow, did not lead The group of apostles fills a rectangle
 MASACCIO 269

whose proportions are similar to those successors made expert use of delinea-
of the whole painting, and so brings it tion as well as shading to indicate the
into accord with the wall area at Masac- form. The science of linear perspective,
cio's disposal. In one respect, Masaccio a tool essential to any artist whose pur-
is immature. To tell the whole parable pose is optical realism, absorbed Paolo
of the Tribute Money, he has squeezed Uccello (1397-1475) throughout his
three incidents into a single frame, just life; he exploited its laws and became
as Ghiberti did in the east doors of the so enamored of it that he even wrote
Baptistry. In the center, the tax-gatherer sonnets to his beloved perspective. One
demands his money from Christ, on can hardly expect that his paintings will
whose right hand stands St. Peter. At fail to display this passion. In the Battle
the extreme left, St. Peter takes the of San Romano (fig. 209), the horse-
money from the fish's mouth. At the men ride at an angle to the picture
right he appears a third time to give the plane in order to introduce complex
coin to the tax collector. Incidentally, problems in perspective. A casualty ob-
Masaccio paints his own features for the trudes his feet toward the observer.
apostle at the right of the central group. Spears and shields bearing intricate de-
Masaccio's rediscovery of mass for vices, each of which affords another out-
Florentine painting did not prevent his let for his study, litter the battlefield.
fellow artists from availing themselves In the background, the lines of partly
of the possibilities of line. In his own harvested grain roll over the horizon.
work it plays a subordinate role, but his Such use of linear perspective enabled

209. Paolo Uccello (1397-1475) Battle of San Romano (1432) National Gallery, London.
Tempera, 6' x io'5".
270 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

210. Piero delta Francesca (1416-92) Resurrection (c. 1463) Palazzo Communale, Sansepul-
chro. Fresco, 9 '6" x 8'4".

the painter to indicate depth and space use of perspective, Uccello realized a
with great success. Therein lies Uccello's splendid decorative value. The constant
historicimportance; but as an artist, interruption of the surface by his little

whether because of or in spite of his problems creates a pattern in cool

 PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA
71

211. Luca Signorelli (1441-1523) The Damned, San Brixio Chapel, Cathedral, Orvieto. Fresco.

brownish tones to which the steps to- tomb to provide the culmination of the
ward illusionism are subordinate. design up to which the soldiers lead.
Uccello's enthusiasm was quicklv ac- Piero did not concern himself with
cepted by his contemporaries and suc- movement, even though the postures of
cessors in Florence and elsewhere. In some of his figures imply motion. The
his Resurrection (fig. 210) Piero della design itself is static, and gains impres-
Francesca (1416-92), an Umbrian siveness through the immobility of his
painter under Florentine influence, figures, as though they were a sculp-
places a group of soldiers asleep in the tured group.
foreground, some of them in profile but Piero's most famous pupil, Luca Si-

others propped against the tomb with gnorelli (1441-1523), frescoed the Ca-
their bodies and legs coming forward pella di San Brixio in the Cathedral of
to the observer. Given the standpoint Orvieto at the close of the century. His
from which the perspective is drawn, conception of the Damned (fig. 211)
the recession of these forms carries con- betrays his enthusiasm for the body in
viction. Piero's design is thought out in vigorous movement. These naked souls
stark monumentality. Like the figures who suffer the tortures of hell or are be-

in the Brancacci Chapel, his gaunt ing hurled into it assume violent and
Christ with the banner of the Resurrec- contorted positions. Signorelli selects

tion in hand rises as a solid from the these attitudes not merely to portray the
272 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

pains of hell, but to display his knowl- place his saints, and his Madonna and
edge of muscular structure. Individually, Child, raised on a pedestal in the cen-
the figures seem to have been flayed; ter. Swags of fruit, each pineapple and
they look as though the outer layer of grape rendered with the maximum so-

flesh had been removed, the better to liditv, festoon the architecture.
reveal the muscles beneath. Each sinew
is strained to the utmost, as one woman
has her toes twisted by an energetic
devil; a man nearly breaks his back as
his satanic bearer hurls him down from
the sky. The mass of figures interlace
in a struggling knot. The Resurrection,
another of the series, depicts humanity
as it answers the trumpets of doom. As
the dead arise from their graves and
push themselves out of the ground,
some skeletons in movement have not
yet clothed themselves in flesh. Signo-
relli knew the body not only from in-

spection but also in its structure. If his

overactive figures are too hard in sur-
face and too angular to be convincing,
his concentration on anatomy helped to
lay the groundwork for Michelangelo.
212. Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506) St. James
All these men either belong to the
Led to Execution ( 1448-52) Eremitani, Padua
school of Florence or are closely influ- (now destroyed). Fresco.
enced by it. The same inquiring spirit
characterizes the north Italian painter The persons in his St. James Led to
Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506). His Execution (fig. 212), one of a series of
master, Francesco Squarcione, stressed frescoes in the Eremitani in Padua
the drawing of mass; his pupils demon- (now destroyed), are painted with a
strate it in their garlands of fruit and grasp of mass that Mantegna stresses by
flowers and fragments of classic decora- his knowledge of perspective. The paint-
tive sculpture and architecture. The ing was placed in the chapel so that its

classic columns and entablature that lower edge was just above the eye level,

frame the large San Zeno altarpiece in Mantegna therefore conceived his char-
Verona, finished in 1459, form the acters as actors on a stage. The soldier

front of a pergola, whose other sides in the foreground projects his heel in
Mantegna paints in perspective to es- front of the stage; the sole of the foot
tablish a rectangular space wherein to is visible. As the actors move up stage,
 MANTEGNA 2 73

first their feet, then their ankles, and several examples of secular art by Man-
finally their lower legs disappear as tegna. On one wall, the Duke and
though blocked from view by the front Duchess are seated in the midst of their
of the stage. Thus perspective creates an family and court. This group appears
illusion of distance. Within the space, to exist in an extension of the room it-

the setting is Roman. Mantegna pushes self. The ceiling of the Camera degli
his love of the classic to the verge of Sposi (fig. 213) takes a long step to-
archaeology, to such an extent that ward illusionism. Mantegna imagines
Berenson says the humanist in him is the room to have a circular opening in

always killing the artist. A Roman tri- the ceiling surmounted by a roof gar-
umphal arch, rich with low reliefs, den. A parapet becomes essential for
stands in the background. The soldiers safety, but people on the roof may peep
wear the short Roman armor, carry down into the room below. This para-
Roman shields and weapons. Of course pet is drawn in perspective as though
St. James lived during the Roman Em- seen from the floor; cupids stand inside
pire, but the humanism of the Renais- it on the cornice; a tub of flowers rests
sance must explain this panoply of partly on a bar that crosses the void; and
classicism. men and women crane their heads over
The Gonzaga Palace in Mantua has the parapet to look within. Their faces
looking down are in shade, but the sides
of their heads are lighted from the sky.
Thus Mantegna does everything to per-
suade the spectator that the room of
fmT
his imagination is the room of actuality.
W*^wRl
And much about the painting is con-
vincing. Still, a certain fifteenth-century
hardness of rendering, coupled with the
limitations inherent in the fresco me-
dium, interfered with any achievement
of an illusion as convincing as later
painting of the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries. Perhaps this is fortu-

nate. One may wonder whether it is

desirable to contradict the existence of

the surface on which one is working.
Mantegna does not do this, but there
seems little doubt that he tried to do
so, and moreover, that his day ap-
213. Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506) Ceiling, plauded the attempt.
Camera 1470) Gonzaga Palace,
degli Sposi (c.
Mantua. Fresco. Mantegna and Signorelli lived in the
2 74 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

second half of the fifteenth century and that Masaccio expounded ten years be-
into the sixteenth. To consider the so- fore. The saints in the wing panels are
called conservative painters, one must more solid than the Madonna, to be
return to the beginning of the fifteenth sure, but the lesson of the Brancacci
century. Fra Angelico (1387-1455) is Chapel has not been learned. Within
often described as an attractive but the frame of this painting, Angelico sets
backward artist. His panel paintings, es- those musical angels that today are so
peciallv those executed early in his often reproduced on Florentine cards.
career, support this view of the Domini- None can deny their sweetness, the
can monk of Florence. His Coronation grace of their almost Gothic drapery,
of the Virgin (Plate in, facing p. 300) or the charm of the clear blue, pink, and
sparkles with the blues and reds of tem- violet robes flecked with gold. But how-
pera on a gold background. The figures ever delightful these may be, they
are still linear, and there is in this should not form the basis for an esti-

heavenly scene no reality of setting. mate of Angelico's place in art. No great

Even the mature Madonna dei Linaiuoli master has ever been judged by his pic-

of 1433, though by no means flat, only ture frames.

partly realizes that statement of form His larger frescoes in San Marco in

214. Fra Angelico (1387-1455) Annunciation (c. 1438-45) San Marco, Floi Fresco,
7'6" x ic/5".
 ANGELICO 2 75

215. Fra Filippo Lippi (1406-69) Madonna and Child (1452) Pitti Palace, Florence. Tempera,
4' 5" diameter.

Florence prove Angelico to have been faith, which was of an intensitv unique
abreast of his time, and indeed a leader in the Renaissance. His Gabriel kneels
in painting. His Annunciation (fig. in reverence before the Madonna. The
214), at the head of the stairs in the Virgin, humble handmaid of the
a
upper corridor of San Marco, is in- Lord, bends forward in submission. But
scribed in Latin, 'When you come into this beatified monk is aware of the new
the presence of a spotless Virgin, be- spirit abroad in Florence, and is in sym-
ware lest by negligence your Aves be pathy within it. His scene is enacted in
silent/ It might have been Angelico's a cloister drawn from the up-to-date ar-

motto. To him, painting was an act of own San Marco, which

chitecture of his
worship, a vehicle for his unquestioning Michelozzo had just completed. The
276 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

columns and arches recede in perspec- as the study of anatomy did that of
tive. The figures have roundness, not so Pollaiuolo and Signorelli. These matters
powerful as that of Masaccio or Piero he subordinated to the expression of de-
della Francesca, but no mere repetitions votion, and the character of his subject.

of the traditional shapes of late medi- Active around the middle of the cen-
eval painting. Angelico's development tury, Fra Filippo Lippi (c. 1406-69),
shows that while medieval at the outset though also a monk, had none of the
—since he had begun to paint before devotional spirit of Angelico. He was
Donatello, the Brancacci Chapel, and more excited by the visible world than
the dome of Florence had started the by the invisible. His misfortune was his
Renaissance movement— his style grew entry into religious orders when hardly
with his time. Like his contemporaries, more than a child, since his spirit was
Fra Angelico had a great interest in anything but monastic. To mention the
nature. The cloister garden of the An- lurid details of his career is unnecessary.
nunciation is spangled with blossoms; His tondo, that is, circular painting, of

many are identifiable with the flora of the Madonna and Child (fig. 215) is

Tuscany. He was one of the first to admirable. Its fine adjustment within
paint specific towns and landscapes in this difficult shape is achieved by the
his backgrounds. Important as these architecture in the background, a typi-
contributions were, they did not absorb cal upper-class Florentine bedroom. In
Fra Angelico's attention as completely view of its date, it is at least as con-

216. Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510) Birth of Venus (1486-87) Uffizi, Florence. Tempera, 5*7'
x 9'.
 BOTTICELLI 2 77

servative as Angelico. There is better Venus de Medici, a famous example of

knowledge of perspective and the sense Hellenistic sculpture. And yet, though
of form is surer. On the other hand, all Botticelli may have believed that he was
religious spirit is missing; his figures are being Roman, no Roman would have
types from the streets of Florence. thought so. This etherealized vision, an
Filippo loved these ordinary men and image Botticelli conjured up in his own
women; his long-necked Madonnas have mind, has little to do with the past. It

the features of his mistress, Lucrezia is, in fact, the purest Botticelli. A mas-
Buti, formerly a nun in the convent to ter of line unsurpassed in the Western
which Filippo was chaplain. The por- world, he disregards the Florentine in-
trait groups to either side in his frescoes terest in mass except as it is asserted
at Prato link the monumentality of in delineation; not that he could not
Masaccio with that of Ghirlandaio. accomplish it, but that he would not.
The style of Filippo Lippi is trans- For him, the flowing curves of the sil-

formed to exquisite subtlety in the houette, the v-shaped convention for

hands of his pupil, Sandro Botticelli the waves, and the swirls of drapery

(1444-1510). This rare spirit admits his combine to produce a subtle linear pat-
enthusiasm for antiquity in his Birth of tern that better meets his expressive
Venus (fig. 216). Not only is the sub- needs. With line Botticelli weaves the
ject borrowed from mythology, but the fabric of his designs.

pose of the Venus is inspired by the His Primavera (fig. 217), an allegory

217. Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510) Primavera (c. 1478) Uffizi, Florence. Tempera, 6'8" x 0/9"
278 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

218. Perugino (1446-1523) Crucifixion (c.

495 Santa Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi, Florence.
Fresco.

of spring, he draws from Latin authors. of it, to be caught up in the lilting

Horace describes how the three Graces, curves of the Graces and only stopped
in loose transparent dresses, danced be- by the masculine Mercury at the left.

fore Mercury, and Lucretius tells of By means of such line, evanescent wisps
Spring's arrival, preceded by the god- of drapery or the solid structure of the
dess of flowers, who strews her path male figure can be defined. The land-
with blossoms as the west wind blows scape is unreal, like the figures, and yet
her forward. A pregnant Venus, symbol it shows that Botticelli is not indifferent
of nature's fruitfulness in the spring, to nature but makes it subservient to his
stands in the center. But the Graces of purposes. The foreground is lush with
Horace are not the nostalgic maidens daisies, and other botanically accu-
iris,

painted by Botticelli. The Roman spirit rate blossoms, and they trickle from the
was more vigorous than this scene, with mouth of Spring to indicate her flowery
its undercurrent of melancholy. How- breath. Not everyone will enjoy the
ever, the artist's virtuosity in line is highly personal art of Botticelli. It has
nowhere better revealed; through it the not, with rare exceptions like the de-
movement, energetic in the west wind, monic St. Augustine in the Ognissanti
changes to easy rhythms in the Spring in Florence, the vigor and masculinity
and to a sharp staccato vibrancy in the on the other
of the experimentalists, but
Flora. The quiet figure of Venus almost hand they have not his refinement, his
concludes this garland of action, but her consummate mastery of delineation, or
outstretched hand just throws out a hint the nostalgia for a half-seen vision that
 BOTTICELLI - BELLINI 2 79

gives a peculiar charm to Botticelli's distance. This serenity created by the

painting. landscape pervades the figures and en-
His contemporary, Domenico Ghir- hances their devotional spirit. Although
landaio (1449-94), nas none °f this the figures stand or kneel on the grass,
lyricism. The frescoes by this industri- the landscape is conceived as back-
ous man, in the choir of Santa Maria ground; the figures seem to be in relief
Novella in Florence, are monumental against it, not placed in it, because of
but prosaic. Groups of Florentine so- the absence of foreground details. Strong
cialites witness the stories or pay calls and clear in color, the Crucifixion is one
on St. Anne, who is recovering from the of Perugino's most satisfying paintings.
birth of the Virgin, and look down at In the city of Venice, Giovanni Bel-
the visitors to the paintings, anxious to lini (c. 1430-1516), though influenced
be observed. But if all the interest in by his brother-in-law Mantegna, and
the spiritual has vanished, these worldly later by Antonello da Messina, to mod-
men and women in typical Florentine ify tempera by a partial introduction of
interiors are rendered with a grasp of an oil technique, provides a transition
form and an understanding of fresco to the High Renaissance. This mundane
painting which played its part in city rarely produced religious painters,
Michelangelo's training. but Giovanni Bellini is the exception.
The fresh spirit of the closing fifteenth His Frari Madonna (fig. 219), framed
century may be symbolized by the with pilasters, arches, and arabesques,
spring-like landscape developed by proves that the city of the lagoons is

Perugino (1446-1523). His Crucifixion aware of the Roman past. Bellini de-
(fig. 218), in Santa Maria Maddalena Mantegna
signed three panels, but like
dei Pazzi in Florence, is limited to a before him in the San Zeno Madonna,
pair of figures against an idyllic back- he imagined the space within them as
ground in each panel. The point of view one, as though the frame is but a screen,
toward landscape has altered radically prolonged into the background of the
since the days of Giotto. Perugino is painting itself. It might be the transepts
not content to create an emblematic and apse of a church that Bellini had
setting. He has behind him the studies in mind, with the Madonna enthroned
of a century in natural forms, the land- in the center of the apse under its gold
scape and flower experiments of An- half-dome and with musical angels be-
gelico, Baldovinetti, and Botticelli, to low, while in the transepts stand pairs
mention only three. Perugino grew up of saints who look toward the Madonna.
in the hills of Umbria with their quiet The form of these saints and the Ma-
valleys. His trees are saplings with the donna has a monumentality of expression
pale green foliage of spring. The grass is conveyed in rich color, the Venetian
clean, and hardly a breath of air dis- heritage and glory. That grandeur is fur-

turbs the fields that roll out into the thered by the pyramid of the central
280 THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

219. Giovanni Bellini (c. 1430-1516) Madonna (1488) Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice.
f
Tempera, center panel 6'i" x 2 j"; side panels 3'ic/' x i'-j".

group, the very motive with which its zeal for discovery and self-improve-
Leonardo da Vinci was experimenting ment, it occasionally overemphasizes
during these years. the very qualities it brings to light. The
The complexity of the fifteenth cen- organization of its pictures may be sac-

tury makes generalization about it haz- rificed to detail; its realism at times de-
ardous. Its most engaging quality is its feats a sculptural expression. In his
eagerness, that enthusiasm for the new, eagerness to prove himself classic, Bru-
which may be the old as well; its exuber- nelleschi is sometimes mastered by his
ant plunge into the classic past, which own Roman details. But if the century
it glorifies to its own satisfaction; and is not always balanced, the youthful
its joy in the world. Sometimes the spirit of the Renaissance has its naive
century is misled by its enthusiasm. In charm.
XIII The Sixteenth Century in Italy

The Renaissance in art began in Flor- tion, each had his own personal mode
ence and received its greatest impetus of expression.
when the Medici controlled that city. The attitude toward humanism
When members of that family rose to changed too. Less superficial, perhaps
high ecclesiastical posts in Rome, first less obvious, the High Renaissance
as cardinals and later as popes, the ar- turned more to the principles than to
tistic center of the Renaissance moved the externals of antiquity. The figures

to Rome. Though other factors played were idealized, the forms more monu-
a part in this shift of activity, the coin- mental than they had been. The girlish

cidence is The High Renais-

singular. fifteenth-century Madonna grew to
sance, as the movement is called at the womanhood with its ample proportions.
beginning of the sixteenth centurv, car- If these figures lost their youth, they
ried the tendencies of the early Renais- gained in grandeur. The type was ide-
ance to their logical conclusion. Individ- ated by the artist, selected and dictated
ualism crystallized the great personal- by his mind, not his feelings. It does
ities of Leonardo, Raphael, and Michel- not follow that the High Renaissance
angelo. If each contained in his style failed to convey emotion; on the con-
much that was common to his genera- trary, it did so by means and through
282 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

forms evolved in the brain for such ex-

pression. This intellectuality was evi-

dent in the geometrical basis of the

compositions. The informal arrange-
ments of the early Renaissance were
swept away in favor of the pyramid or
other geometrical schemes woven of
interlocking forms, related to each other
in height, width, and depth. The greater
plasticity or three-dimensionality de-

manded a visibly organized space.

The experiments of the fifteenth cen-
tury in perspective, anatomy, and stud-
ies of natural objects also bore fruit.

The artist of the early sixteenth century

took them for granted. He used them as
his tools with no feeling that they were
exciting discoveries. His energies could
be directed elsewhere. Occasional vistas 220. Bramante (1444-1514) Tempietto (1502)
in perspective were introduced, but their San Pietro in Montorio, Rome. Diameter of
colonade 29'; total height 46'.
purpose was less to display mastery of
perspective than to serve the composi-
studied classic buildings and revolu-
tion or to create space.
tionized his style. The Tempietto in San
The discoveries of Brunelleschi, Al-
Pietro in Montorio in Rome (fig. 220)
berti, and other fifteenth-century archi-
of 1502 shows his mature academic
tects prepared the ground for the clas-
manner. Backed by a thorough knowl-
sical High Renaissance style, which cen-
edge of the Roman orders, and by an
tered in Rome. The key figure of the
acquaintance with such Roman round
Roman school in architecture was Bra-
temples as that of Vesta at Tivoli, Bra-
mante. Though born in Urbino, his
mante gave the Tempietto none of the
early career centered in north Italy. His
freedom of the fifteenth century. Each
remodeling of Santa Maria delle Grazie
part of the Roman Doric order occu-
in Milan, 1492-9, especially in the east
pies its appointed place and fulfills the
end, is marked by Lombard detail, and rules of disposition and proportion that
by its small scale, though neither qual- apply to it, like a well-studied academic
ity is so extreme as in the Certosa at exercise, correct in every detail. Never-
Pa via (fig. 193) . When Milan fell to the theless, this is no copy of a Roman
French at the end of the century, Bra- building. Circular in plan and sur-
mante drifted down to Rome, where he rounded by a ring of columns, the core
 BRAMANTE 283

221. Antonio da San Gallo, the Elder (1455-1534) San Biagio, Montepuleiano (c. 1518-37)
Interiorc. 120' x 120'.

of the building supports a dome whose

full curve, unlike the dome of the Pan-
theon, rises visibly to climax the mass.
The austerity and grandeur of propor-
tion give to the Tempietto a monumen-
tally unexpected in view of its small
size. The concentration of the central
type, symmetrical around a vertical axis
rising through the dome, is significant.

Though examples of this scheme occur

in the fifteenth century, its inherent
monumentality brought it into favor in
the High Renaissance. The outstanding
example is St. Peter's itself, where Bra-
mante and his sixteenth-century succes-

sors were to work variations on the

theme. Since most parts of this build-
222. San Biagio, Montepuleiano (c. 1518-37)
ing were modified and executed in the c.120' x 120'.
 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

223. Cancelleria Palace, Rome 1495-1505) Facade 295' x 80'.

second half of the century, we shall dis-

cuss it later.

The church of San Biagio at Monte-

pulciano (fig. 221), by Antonio da San
Gallo the Elder, is another illustration
of the central type, built between 1518
and 1537, this time a Greek cross plan
(fig. 222). The four arms of the cross
support barrel vaults on broad arches
that help to buttress the dome, or, more
precisely, the pendentives on which the
dome rests. Although the High Renais-
sance borrowed much from imperial
Rome, it Roman
did not forget the late
or Byzantine dome on pendentives. An
engaged Roman Doric order breaks for-
ward from the wall to carry the arches.

Where the fifteenth century employed

pilasters, the sixteenth turned to the en-
224. Farnese Palace Rome
235'. gaged column. Consequently, a plastic
 SAN GALLO - CANCELLERIA 285

expression in the High Renaissance re- still in the service of the Dukes of
placed linearism and went hand in hand Milan, it seems closer in style to Al-
with an increased spatial sense and a berti's Rucellai Palace (fig. 191). The
feeling for mass. These results are the rustication and the superposed pilas-

architectural analogues of the plastic ters recall that building, but several
solidity and monumentality of six- changes are introduced. Instead of rest-

teenth-century compositions in painting ing the pilasters of the upper orders on

and sculpture. the entablature below, the architect of
The new spirit was not attained over- the Cancelleria inserts a pedestal be-
night. The palace, exemplified in the tween them that serves as a conclusion
Cancelleria in Rome (fig. 223), retains of the lower story and as a base for the

much from the fifteenth century. upper.The origin of this transition

Though ascribed to Bramante, in spite member is the Colosseum (fig. 88).
of the fact that it was built at the end Thus the palace illustrates the archaeo-

of the fifteenth century while he was logical spirit developed to maturity in

225. Antonio da San Gallo, the Younger (1485-1546) Farnese Palace, Rome (1534) Fagade
185' x 96'6".
286 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

the sixteenth century. The pilasters are The Cancelleria is not typical of the
no longer eyenly spaced, as they had Roman school, but the Farnese Palace
been in the Rucellai Palace. Those is. Designed by Antonio da San Gallo
flanking the windows are set further the Younger, about 1534, its plan (fig.
apart than those between which no win- 224) surrounds an open court, entered
dow occurs. Such an alternation gives through a colonnaded passageway. The
rhythm. The fenestration shows se- rooms are ranged along the front and
quence, from the round arched win- side of the building with little effort to

dows of the ground floor, through the provide communication to them save
arched windows enframed in rectangu- by passing from one room to another.
lar panels with horizontal cornices on The cliff-like facade (fig. 225), almost
top, to the rectangular windows of the 100 feet high, has one principal accent
top floor. Finally, the facade is not de- and only one, its door, colossal in scale,
signed in a single plane; the corners of and emphasized by rustication. Similar

the building project a foot or two as accented blocks of stone recur at the
pavilions, to terminate the design. Such angles of the facade to express the
a use of accented corners is common in strength needed on the corners of stone
France, but most unusual in Italy. buildings. Though the orders on a large

226. Antonio da San Gallo, the Younger (1485-1546) and Michelangelo (1475-1564) Farnese
Palace, Rome (1534) Court 81' square.
 SAN GALLO - LEONARDO 287

scale are abandoned, the windows prove sign; in the sixteenth century, cush-
that they have not been forgotten. Col- ioned seats testify to an appreciation of
umns flank each window and support comfort. Ornate carved tables cannot,
entablatures with alternate triangular as in the Middle Ages, be dismantled
and segmental pediments. No frivolous after each meal. Though large, beds are
detail, nothing playful, is allowed to lighter in design. The sideboard, as dis-
disturb the sobriety of this design or to tinct from the cabinet, and the chest of
mitigate its scale. drawers put in their appearance.
The court (fig. 226) of the Farnese The High Renaissance manner, ex-

Palace illustrates the new plastic feel- emplified in architecture by the Farnese
ing. Light columns support the court Palace, is difficult to date precisely.

walls in early Renaissance palaces, but Though it culminates early in the six-

they are replaced by the Roman arch teenth century, one of the men who
order with engaged columns on rectan- did much to establish it spent most of
gular piers. Such piers make possible a his active life in the fifteenth century.

greater mass at the corners, visibly to Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is the

express strength without loss of con- most amazing illustration in history of
tinuity. The rich shadows caught by the the universally talented man, a phenom-
arcade and by the projecting orders con- enon common to a lesser degree in the
vey the plastic character of High Ren- Renaissance, when men felt that they
aissance buildings. This power could might turn their minds in many direc-

hardly have been reached without the tions. We think of Leonardo as a

experiments of the fifteenth century, but painter, but he runs the gamut of the
its severe monumentality opposes the arts, including architecture, city plan-
delicate linear compositions of Brunel- ning, sculpture, literature, and music.
leschi, Michelozzo, and even Alberti. Leonardo himself and his own age re-

Such palaces as the Farnese, and even garded him as an engineer and a scien-

fifteenth-century homes such as the Ric- tist. In hydraulics, aerodynamics, and

cardi Palace in Florence, reflect the so- military engineering, in geometry, bot-
phistication of the Renaissance in the any, zoology, anatomy, physics, math-
quantity and variety of their furniture, ematics, and astronomy, he led his age

as compared to medieval houses. The and plotted lines of development that

chest, or as the Italians call it the cas- sometimes waited centuries for recogni-

sone, still leads in importance, but its tion. His is the modern point of view:

shape is less structural, its surfaces en- to reach truth by objective experiment.
riched with arabesques or swags of Volumes have been written about
fruits and flowers, or its sides painted. Leonardo; it requires volumes to do
The greatest artists of the Renaissance him justice.

produced panels for these dower chests. One effect of this versatility is the
Chairs are plentiful and lighter in de- paucity of his paintings; another is that
288 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

227. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Madonna of the Rocks (1483) Louvre, Paris. 6'5" x 4'.
 LEONARDO 289

many of them were never completed. of their parts. To that end, also, the
Perhaps Leonardo's interest in any task poses are selected and drawn with mas-
was sustained just so long as a problem terful foreshortening, as in the Ma-
remained unsolved; when he saw the donna's hand extended toward us, the
wav to that solution, rather than incur light visible only on the finger tips.

the drudgery of completion, his mind These gestures serve to tie the figures

sought other fields. He knew himself together, to knit them into a related
competent in the media of his day; as group. Leonardo uses his light natural-
a voung man he proved himself in istically. Where a lighted form is vis-

them; why, then, spend his time doing ualized against a dark ground, or vice
what others could do? Leonardo's atti- versa, its outline is sharp. If, on the
tude is understandable, but of doubtful other hand, the figure be in shadow
wisdom. He lacked the mental disci- against a shaded background, the sil-

pline needed to finish his works. Pope houette disappears as it would in na-
Leo X said of him in despair, This ture. Thus the lighted features and
man thinks of completing a painting be- breast of the Christ Child are prominent
fore he begins it.' against the Madonna's dark robe, but
Leonardo twice defined the aims of the outline of His back is barely per-
painting, but very differently. In one ceptible. This full chiaroscuro, or study
place he says that the object of paint- of light and shade, in the Madonna of
ing is to create an illusion of the third the Rocks fulfills Leonardo's first defi-

dimension, where none exists. This defi- nition of the aims of painting. It creates
nition states a cardinal aim of the fif- forms on a flat surface which the eye
teenth and sixteenth centuries. The Ma- interprets as three-dimensional. This ef-
donna of the Rocks (fig. 227), painted fect is reached by drawing in masses,
in 1483, summarizes the accomplish- not in line, and in value instead of
ments of the early Renaissance. The color. Indeed color is subordinate to the
four figures are set in a landscape whose primary purpose. In the Madonna of
details betray the naturalism of the fif- the Rocks Leonardo employs his fa-

teenth century and the scientific obser- mous Madonna type. Her smooth mod-
vation of Leonardo. In the foreground eled features, soft cheeks, and small
the rocks are stratified, and flowers and chin have a subtle reticence, a modesty
low shrubs are meticulous. And yet it is stressed by the downcast eyes and the
doubtful whether the setting should be half-smile on her lips.

described as natural. Its effect is unu- But if this masterpiece is the culmi-
sual, with a dramatic emphasis on a dark nation of fifteenth-century art, it lacks
background against which the figures the monumentally and intellectuality
may be relieved in light. The strong il- of the High Renaissance. Those qual-
lumination is designed to model the ities are obvious in the Last Supper
figures, and to enhance the projection (fig. 228) in the refectory of Santa
290 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

228. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Last Supper (1495-98) Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan.
i4'5" x 2 8'3".

Maria delle Grazie in Milan. Dissatis- where the Last Supper took place is an
fied with fresco because its necessary extension of the space of the refectory
boldness of execution prevented the itself. The plane of the side walls within
long study Leonardo intended to give the painting prolongs the planes of the
to each detail, and with tempera because walls in the room. In the composition,
it was unfitted to the scale at which he everything accents Christ. First, through
wanted to work, Leonardo experimented perspective, the receding beams of the
here with oil paints on a prepared sur- ceiling, the tops of the tapestries along
face of pitch and mastic plaster. The the walls, and the floor pattern, con-
result was not successful, and the paint- verge on a vanishing point within the
ing is in poor condition. It must be ad- area occupied by Christ's head. Next,
mitted, however, that to cut a door- the architecture concentrates on the
way, blocked up later, through the lower same purpose. Three windows in the
part of the painting, and to store hay back wall are rhythmically designed;
in the same room, is not the proper the smaller ones are plain but the larg-
treatment for a masterpiece. est in the center enframes Christ, and
As a result of its condition, one sees through and richer design draws
its size
little more than the composition and the eye to Him. The segmental pedi-
the artist's general approach to his prob- ment above it curves from a center
lem. The painting covers the upper wall within the figure of Christ.
at one end of the refectory. Leonardo In the third place, the subsidiary
gives the illusion that the upper room characters focus attention on Christ. All
 LEONARDO 29 1

twelve apostles as well as Christ sit on nardo has characterized each individual
the further side of the table. Many ear- as much by his action as by his face. To
lier versions of the story had placed facilitate this, he chooses the dramatic
Judas alone on the nearer side of the moment at the Last Supper, the instant

table, as though to emphasize his isola- after Christ said, 'One of you shall be-

tion among the apostles and to bring tray me!' To Christ, this truth was sad,
him into that physical proximity to but no occasion for surprise. Its effect

Christ demanded by the Scriptures. To on the apostles, however, was startling;

do this is to make Judas, not Christ, so sudden an announcement of a traitor

the most prominent character. In Leo- in their loyal group was perfectly cal-

nardo's painting, the apostles are ar- culated to expose their several natures.
ranged in two groups of three charac- To the right of Christ, St. James Major
ters each on either side of Christ. By draws back with outstretched arms to
their poses and gestures the apostles deprecate the possibility of such das-
provide transitions from one triad to an- tardy. Next to him, St. Philip leans for-
other without confusing the identity of ward, his hands pressed to his bosom to
any group. Thus St. Peter, his head sec- assure Christ of his devotion. Behind
ond to the left from Christ, starts for- them both, starting forward from the
ward and carries the eye with him from outer group but by his action brought
the outer part toward the inner. At each nearer the center than St. James, is St.

side the action is subdued, but under- Thomas. He has been called 'doubting
goes a crescendo toward the center. Fi- Thomas'; his instinct would be to ques-
nally, at that point Leonardo contrasts tion Christ's accuracy, to ask for proof
the quiet form of Christ with the agi- as though to argue the point, against
tation elsewhere, and isolates Him vis- the Master Himself if need be.
ually from the figures of the apostles To the left of Christ, St. John, the
overlapping one another. This equilat- beloved disciple, thinks only of the
eral triangle of Christ focuses attention tragedy and slumps away from Christ
on itself, and particularly on its apex, as though about to swoon. The action
the head of Christ; His light face sur- of St. John and St. James, by isolating
rounded by dark hair is itself contrasted Christ, symbolizes that within a few
to the light background. hours His closest followers will desert
Furthermore, the Last Supper illus- Him. Then St. Peter starts forward to-
trates Leonardo's second definition of ward Christ, his head appearing next to
the purpose of painting: namely, that St. John's. A man of action, St. Peter
the greatest painting is that which is angered at this disclosure; with never
through the motions of the body re- a thought that it might be himself, he
veals the feelings of the soul. He advises proposes to discover the villain and to
painters to study deaf-mutes to learn the avert the disaster by direct action. One
expressive possibilities of gesture. Leo- alone, besides Christ, knows the mean-
292 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

ing. Judas, having a guilty conscience, lamb, the figures create a pyramid. The
feels himself exposed. His figure is tense; outlines of this geometric shape are
aware of danger, his emotions find their constantly repeated. The outstretched
way through his fingers to strangle the arms of the Madonna and of Christ, the
money bag in his hand. Symbolically, lamb's body, and the line of St. Anne's
too, Judas draws away from Christ, his shoulders and her glance, parallel one
elbow upsets the salt, and, as he turns side of the pyramid; they are balanced

away from the light, his face alone of by the lamb's feet, the torso of the Ma-
all the apostles is in shadow. Finally, donna and of Christ, and the legs of St.
the other apostles, less vivid in the Gos- Anne. Carried through with the com-
pels, are grouped toward the ends of the pleteness and intellectuality of a math-
table; their gestures reveal agitation, ematical proposition, this type of com-
doubt of Christ's meaning, or whether position reappears in many Raphael
they have heard Him aright. Its dra- Madonnas, and the reliance on geom-
matic intensity and its pictorial unity etry remains constant through the first

explain why this painting has been from generation of the sixteenth century.
the moment of its execution the most The most celebrated example of Leo-
famous version of the Last Supper. It nardo's type is the Mona Lisa, a por-

has become the measure by which we trait of the Neapolitan wife of Fran-
gauge the success of other treatments, cesco del Giocondo. She had been sad-
the last word on this theme. dened by the loss of children, and it is

A third pillar of Leonardo's fame is said that Leonardo employed musicians

the Madonna and St. Anne (fig. 229), to charm a wan smile to her lips. Many
probably executed early in the sixteenth have praised the beauty and mystery of
century. If the Madonna of the Rocks Mona Lisa; others have found her repel-

be a summary of the fifteenth century, lent; but one proof of her power lies in

the St. Anne is a prediction of the High the strength of people's reactions to
Renaissance. Indeed, the St. Anne is her. No common portrait could provoke
the High Renaissance. The figures aban- so much comment. Whether one likes

don the slenderness Leonardo had pre- Mona Lisa as a person is unimportant.
ferred earlier in favor of mass and mon- In this painting, Leonardo demonstrates
umentally. St. Anne's feet point to the his power of draftsmanship, his ability
left, her hips are frontal; but her head to create form, his analytical grasp of
faces to the right; the axis of the body character, his accuracy in natural ob-
has turned through 90 degrees. That jects, and his fertility in composition.
torsion of the body, called contrapposto, These matters establish his position in
produces tension within the figure and the history of art.

gives to it balanced movement. Since If Michelangelo's range of interests

the Madonna sits in her mother's lap hardly compared with Leonardo's versa-
and reaches downward to Christ and the tility, his output in sculpture, painting,
 LEONARDO 2 93

229. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Madonna and St. Anne (1506) Louvre. Paris. $'7" x 4'"$".
294 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

230. Michelangelo (1475-1564) Pieta (1498-1500) St. Peter's, Rome. Marble, 5'c/' high.
 MICHELANGELO 2 95

architecture, and literature was greater. pyramid forms the basis of the composi-
During his long life (1475-1564), he tion and compels compactness in the
accomplished colossal tasks in each of group. Michelangelo alters normal pro-
the major arts. A giant in spirit, Michel- portions to suit his needs; through his
angelo Buonarroti was physically small,
and his misfortunes darkened his al-

ready somber disposition. In him a deep

Christianity worked in opposition to his
pagan love of beauty in the body. He
saw his beloved Italy become a battle-

ground of nations barbarous to him, and

his native Florence, nominally a repub-
lic in his youth, converted into a duchy.
Moreover, he had to work for the very

men who subverted Florentine liberty,

the later Medici, and for ecclesiastics
who were to blame for the religious
lethargy of the Church in the early six-

teenth century. His personal misfor-

tunes must be added to these— the un-
worthiness of his brothers and sisters

and their children, to whom Michelan-

gelo was, nevertheless, generous; and his
inability to complete his project for the

Tomb of Julius II, which proved a thorn

in his side for decades.
Though he learned to paint under
Ghirlandaio, Michelangelo studied an-
tique sculpture in the Medici collections
and considered himself primarily a
sculptor. The subject of the Pieta in St.
Peter's (fig. 230) is tragic; nowhere have
the lassitude of death and its pathos
found more sympathy than in this re-

strained group. The Madonna's sorrow

is idealized in her face, and echoed in

the sobriety of the broad folds of her

costume. These polished surfaces retain
something of the fifteenth-century spirit,
231. Michelangelo (1475-1564) David (1501-
but the High Renaissance mass of the 4) Academy, Florence. Marble, i^'$" high.
296 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

whole career, he is the master of the hide for expression. In this case, Christ,

figure, which in his hands becomes a ve- though an adult male, is made smaller
in mass than the Madonna on whose
lap He lies, in order not to appear to
crush her, or to destroy the pyramid of
the group.
His colossal David (fig. 231) was
carved a few years later from a block
of stone that had been abandoned by
earlier sculptors. Michelangelo again
shows his preference for marble; his glyp-

tic instinct contrasts with the plastic

quality of most fifteenth-century work.
His love of sheer size opposes the
smaller scale of the early Renaissance.
The body attests Michelangelo's thor-
ough knowledge of anatomy. Its power-
ful structure, its features, and the veins
and sinews of arms and hands are real-

istic in detail only. These forms are se-

lected and, under the influence of the
antique, given breadth so that they may
be infused with his titanic personal en-

ergy. Michelangelo does not copy a hu-

man body; the head and the right hand
are enlarged for expression. The pose,

particularly that of the right arm, is

similar to that carved by Donatello on

Lo Zuccone (fig. 199). Like the Renais-
sance itself, Michelangelo's David has
grown to maturity; he is presented as
older than the best-known fifteenth-cen-
tury versions of the hero by Donatello
(fig. 198) and Verrocchio. Where they
had imagined David triumphant after

the fight, Michelangelo presents him

grim with determination before the bat-
tle, as though such intensity were in-
232. Michelangelo (1475-1564) Bound Slave
herent in the sculptor himself.
(1513) Louvre, Paris. Marble, y$" high.
 MICHELANGELO 2 97

233. Michelangelo (1475-1564) Tomb of Giuliano de' Medici (1521-34) New Sacristy, San
Lorenzo, Florence. Marble, Giuliano 5'8" high.

These examples belong to the begin- curtailment of that project, the so-

ning of Michelangelo's career. The fig- called Bound Slave (fig. 232), which with
ures designed for the Tomb of Julius II its unfinished companion pieces sym-
come from his maturity. Because of the bolized the realm of nature as conceived
298 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

in Neoplatonic philosophy, was disso- unmeasured will, Michelangelesque

ciated from the final design. Here power and anger, called terribilta.
Michelangelo applies contrapposto to The Medici Tombs, for which Mi-
sculpture; this powerful figure struggles chelangelo designed the new sacristy of
not against an outward adversary but San Lorenzo in Florence, commemorate
within himself, muscle against muscle, Giuliano, the Duke of Nemours, and
the torture of a spirit. The completed Lorenzo, the Duke of Urbino. Each
tomb in San Pietro in Vincoli is the contains three figures, a seated man in

merest fragment of Michelangelo's con- a niche above, and a pair of nudes re-

ception. The Moses, its most important clining on the sarcophagus below. The
statue, is terrific; possibly he had just seated figures may be portraits, but if so
returned with the tables of the law un- they are generalized; they symbolize in
der his arm to find that the Israelites the Tomb of Giuliano (fig. 233) the
had forsaken Jehovah; he rose, and in active life, and in the Tomb of Lorenzo,
anger threw down and broke the tablets. the contemplative life. The nudes be-
Michelangelo's figure has the full Old low, perhaps suggested by a hymn of
Testament energy, that expression of St. Ambrose to St. Lawrence, represent

234. Michelangelo (1475-1564) Night, Tomb of Giuliano de' Medici (1521-34) New Sacristy,
San Lorenzo, Florence. Marble, 6'q" long.
 MICHELANGELO 2 99

235. Michelangelo (1475-1564) Creation of Man, Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome (1508-12)
Fresco, c. 8' x 17'.

four times of day: in the Tomb of Lo- bereft of liberty. Nevertheless, sculptural
renzo, Dawn and Twilight, and in that compactness persists. The original pris-
of Giuliano, Night (fig. 234) and Day. matic shape of the block is recalled by
This epic conception is matched by the one arm thrown across the figure and
design and execution. The architectural by the crossed legs; these force the eye
setting is arranged to afford a pattern to travel from front to back or from
of light and shade rather than to follow bottom to top. Parts of these figures are
any laws of architecture. Michelangelo unfinished, the chisel marks still visible

makes up his own laws and thus be- in the stone. The pressure of other com-
comes the founder of the Baroque missions compelled Michelangelo to
style. abandon the project before it was com-
In the Night, Michelangelo releases pleted. In the early Pieta all the sur-
his energy and sense of movement in faces are finished, and in the Night also,

sculpture. This tortured body, writhing which suggests that had he had time
in her dream, reflects Michelangelo's he would have provided the same polish
dismay and disgust at the condition of on all the other figures.
the world, and particularly of Florence, His most famous production in paint-
30c THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

ing is the barrel vault of the Sistine Maker reluctantly, as though he real-

Chapel in the Vatican, executed under izes that life involves tribulation. Two
protest between 1508 and 1512. Thanks centuries before Giotto had established
to his training with Ghirlandaio, Mi- the ideal of form as the goal of the Flor-
chelangelo was proficient in the tech- entine school. Michelangelo reaches
niques of painting, especially in fresco, that goal. His figures are massive; they
but he affected to despise the art as fit speak to the mind through the sense of
only for women. He believed that his touch; their weight might be estimated
enemies had forced this commission on accurately. And yet Jehovah can drift
him to discredit him. The project was through the sky without seeming im-
colossal, and needed a gigantic imagina- possible. The superb Adam demon-
tion to solve it. The nine main panels, strates Michelangelo's ideal of the body.
four large ones alternating with five He turns easily, his muscles rippling,
smaller scenes, recount the story of the with each mass selected and amplified
Creation and Fall of Man down to the to enhance the effect. The artist is so

Flood and the Drunkenness of Noah. familiar with anatomy that the body
They are framed in painted architec- becomes a language to him; he does
ture. Twelve immense figures, five sibyls not copy figures, he creates them.
and seven prophets, flank the five The Jeremiah (fig. 236) illustrates

smaller scenes or find space at either Michelangelo's love of power. Such a

end of the vault. In the remaining areas, patriarch seems worthy of a great re-

Michelangelo painted other Bible char- ligion. It has been well said that these
acters, and unified the whole with deco- prophets must be immense because of
rative nudes, perched on the painted the weight of thought they carry. The
architecture to soften its lines and to tragic character of Jeremiah must have
afford transitions. been congenial to this artist; into it he
Michelangelo adopts a lighter color has poured his own distress at the con-
scheme in the center to call attention dition of the world, and his own lamen-
to the principal panels, since the eye tation over the state of the Church.
seeks an area in higher values. A charac- The decorative nudes (fig. 237) bind
teristic scene, the Creation of Man (fig. these larger elements together. Many at-

235), displays Michelangelo's complete tempts have been made to discover

reliance on the figure. Landscape is re- some allegory in these figures. These
duced to a minimum; Adam lies on the athletic youths are powerful. Michelan-
earth, which is important only as a sup- gelo thinks instinctively in terms of the
port and background for the man. Je- male figure. Even when the subject de-
hovah with his angels floats through the mands the female form, as in the sibyls,
heavens, to inspire life in the new- or in the sculpture on the Medici
formed man by the bare approach of his Tombs, he tends to endow it with the
finger. Adam looks back toward his physique we associate with manhood.
 MICHELANGELO 3
01

The variety of these nudes is amazing. ten thousand figures and had never re-

Michelangelo boasted that in sculpture, peated himself. One can believe it, since
painting, and drawing he had created the figure is limitless in its possibilities

236. Michelangelo (1475-1564) Jeremiah, Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome (1508-12) Fresco,
c. 9'high.
^02 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

and can be used to express the epic na- turned to the Sistine Chapel to paint
ture of his imagination. the Last Judgment on the end wall.
Thirty years later, Michelangelo re- This Mannerist (p. 322) composition,

237. Michelangelo (1475-1564) Decorative Figure, Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome (1508-12)
Fresco, c. 5'6".
 MICHELANGELO - RAPHAEL 3°3

Christ enclosed in a parenthesis of fig- aroused a taste for similar figures, but
ures, is confusing. Massive as the char- the secret of Michelangelo's greatness
acters are, they are small in comparison does not reside in his heavily muscled
to the total area. Even though com- men and women. Such externals might
bined in groups, so large a design can- be copied, but these forms become ef-

not succeed with only small elements. fective only when they are imbued with
By that time, Michelangelo had become a titanic spirit, and with the epic poetry
embittered at his, and Italy's, misfor- of Michelangelo's nature— something
tunes. He has lost none of his power, that could not be imitated. A Bandi-
but the exaggerated might of these fig- nelli in sculpture becomes ludicrous in

ures defeats itself, and the result loses his ineptitude. The bombast of the Mi-
the grandeur of the ceiling. His vision chelangelesque painters is tiresome, but
of the end of the world is hardly Chris- the inadequacy of his successors high-
tian. Michelangelo conceives the Sav- lights the genius of Michelangelo.
iour as He returns on the day of wrath A
more complete contrast of tempera-
to hurl humanity to perdition, urged on ment than that between Michelangelo
by naked saints around him. Sober as and Raphael would be hard to imag-
is the ceiling, its view of man retains a ine. Raphael (1483-1520) was the soul
youthful hope of redemption, but the and definition of geniality. His urbanity
Last Judgment is hopeless, sinister, was bound to make him popular among
vengeful. The power of the ceiling has his contemporaries. Where Michelan-
turned to vehemence, the movement to gelo was venerated, Raphael was loved.
strain, the sorrow to bitterness. The If Leonardo foretold the modern spirit,

Last Judgment has not the clarity or the and if Michelangelo's fervent Christi-
universality of the ceiling. anity recalled the Middle Ages, Raphael
The times had changed too. No pro- was wholly of his own day. He borrowed
test was raised in 1512 against the from many, from Perugino, Pinturric-

nudes on the ceiling of this papal chio, Leonardo, and Fra Bartolommeo;
chapel, but in 1541 Michelangelo was but he so fused their contributions with
absurdly accused of immorality in so his own manner that they became his

representing the sacred characters, and own, sublimated, personalized, and per-

was asked to clothe these figures. Mi- fected to his purposes. The only artist

chelangelo refused. His follower, Dan- from whom Raphael could not borrow
iele da Volterra, was engaged to drape with impunity was Michelangelo. Their
Michelangelo's characters, and was spirits were too divergent; the power
promptly nicknamed the 'breeches' and tragedy of Michelangelo were im-

maker.' possible for the sunny nature of Raph-

Michelangelo's influence could not ael to absorb, and his worst failures
but be immense. So titanic a figure was were caused by his attempts to imitate
bound to start a fashion. His power Michelangelo's power.

i
3°4 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

n
,38. Raphael (1483-1520) Madonna del Cardellino (1505-6) Uffizi. Florence. $'6 x z'6".
 RAPHAEL 305

Born in Urbino, his early work shows the pyramidal arrangement, borrowed
the influence of Perugino in the quiet from Leonardo's Madonna and St.

figures, as well as in the idyllic landscape Anne (fig. 229), but the Raphael is less

of Umbria. Had Raphael died in 1504, elaborate and less intellectual as a study
he would have been an attractive minor in design; here is the same contrapposto,
master. In that year, he moved to Flor- but not so insistent. Raphael subordi-
ence, where he met the progressive at- nates scientific interests, movement,
mosphere of the metropolis. This gave and power to admit more fully his sweet
him a feeling for structure and a mon- but never cloying spirit.

umentality absent from his earlier man- Later, after he moved to Rome,
ner, but Raphael welded them to his Raphael painted the Sistine Madonna.
own modesty of expression. During the The intimacy of this painting is con-
next four years a series of Madonnas sequent on the motive, which allows
.

came from his brush that have made the Madonna to approach the spec-
his name remembered. The Madonna tator down a path of clouds com-
del Cardellino (fig. 238) is named from posed of the heads of cherubim. The
the finch brought to Christ by St. John. composition is again geometrical, a
The color is strong, fresh, and clear; the rhomboid with the head of the Ma-
dark blue and red of the Madonna's donna at its apex, the figures of St. Six-
costume contrast with the light blue tus, from whom the painting is named,
sky and green grass. The landscape re- and St. Barbara at its sides, and two
tains the peace of Umbria; young trees cherubs resting on their arms at its base.
break into leaf under a fair sky; accurate The open-eyed Madonna has not the
in its details, the scene has the serenity modesty of his best Florentine exam-
of a morning in spring. Some trace of ples, and its intimacy involves theat-
Perugino lingers in both landscape and ricality, as though this tableau had been
figures. But the type is Raphael's own, posed before the curtains were drawn.
lovable and human. The figure is more Generally, when we imagine the Ma-
ample, the face a perfect oval with a donna, we do so in terms of Raphael.
broad forehead, widely and a set eyes, He establishes the standard. Raphael's
Cupid's bow mouth. These Raphael portraits of Pope Julius II and of Pope
Madonnas are noble idealizations of Leo X with his nephews betray his

womanhood. Under the influence of power of characterization. In the latter,

the Florentine concern with reality, he Raphael introduced the chased bell, the
paints no figures that might not be of magnifying glass, and the illuminated
the earth, none of the winged cherubs manuscript to reveal the cultivated
that occur in his production both be- tastes of this member of the Medici
fore and after this period. Neverthe- family. The fleshy cheeks imply that
less, these paintings reveal their devo- Leo loved the pleasures of a not too
tion. They gain monumentality through frugal table, but do not conceal his in-
306 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

Stanze, four rooms of moderate size.

The first to be executed is the Stanza

della Segnatura, whose paintings are al-
most entirely from Raphael's own hand.
Next come in order the Stanza d'Elio-

doro, the Stanza del Incendio del Borgo,

and finally the Sala di Costantino.
These show more and more of his
pupils' work, until in the last the execu-
tion at least is wholly by his students.
Raphael conceives the Stanza or Cam-
era della Segnatura as a chamber of the
faculties, with subjects that reflect the-

ology, philosophy, poetry, and jurispru-

dence on the four walls. A rich ceiling
includes allegorical figures corresponding
to the paintings below. The School of
Athens (fig. 240) is a symposium of
classic philosophy. In the center stand
239. Raphael (1483-1520) Baldassare Cas- the figures of Plato, carrying the
tiglione (1516) Louvre, Paris. 2'S" x i'i". Timaeus, and Aristotle with his Ethics,
as the fountainheads of ancient thought.
tellectual power. Simpler is the portrait To the left of Plato, Socrates argues
of Baldassare Castiglione (fig. 239), au- some proposition with a group of fol-
thor of the Book of the Courtier, 2. book lowers. Diogenes sprawls on the steps,
of etiquette of his day. Castiglione was while among the characters in the fore-
a gentleman and a friend of the artist, ground can be identified Pythagoras
and never did Raphael compose a more with his mathematical table, Euclid
sympathetic portrait. The color scheme drawing a geometric figure, Ptolemy and
in black and gray contradicts the bril- Zoroaster as astronomers. Not only does
liant color of many fifteenth-century the inclusion of these figures testify to
portraits. Male fashions sobered down an extensive knowledge of the past, but
at this time; the costume is rich with- the way that they are conceived has the
out ostentation— 'Costly thy habit as breadth and idealism of classic times.
thy purse may buy, but not expressed in These patriarchal characters, clad in
fancy, rich not gaudy/ Castiglione, like large draperies and massive in form,
Polonius, might have said. That quiet achieve monumentality. The spirit of hu-
restraint suited Raphael. manism more than its externals flows
The greatest of Raphael's undertak- through this conception, even in its

ings are the decorations of the Vatican architecture, which reflects Bramante's
 RAPHAEL 307

warn
240. Raphael (1483-1520' School of Athens (150! 13) Camera della Segnatura, Vatican,
Rome. Fresco, 18' x 26'.

scheme for St. Peter's, itself strongly appointed place. This clarity, complete-
classic. ness, and assurance are the essence of
In this composition Raphael reaches the High Renaissance in Rome.
his clearest expression of space as an ele- While Leonardo, Michelangelo, and
ment in design. With perfect assurance Raphael fulfilled the destiny of the
he organizes his arrangement in three High Renaissance in Florence and
dimensions: the figures create a ring or Rome, an analogous but modified de-
horseshoe, open in the foreground, to velopment took place in Venice. This
guide the eye around the group. The city, wealthy through its trade with the
architecture defines the space so that East, had acquired a semi-Oriental
it becomes almost tangible. In spite of richness, an exotic flavor unique in Italv.

the movement within this volume, the Although its painting during the fif-

symmetry of the whole design estab- teenth century, like Florentine, had
lishes a feeling of repose. Individual fig- been predominantly religious, the Vene-
ures have possibilities of action, but the tian attitude toward the subject in the

design is quiet, its monumental equilib- sixteenth century became more secular.

rium created by each part located in its In spite of some masterpieces of reli-

1
308 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

241. Giorgione (c. 1478-1510) The Tempest Palazzo Giovanelli, x 24

gious painting, such as Titian's Assump- ture, to luxuriant physical types, and
tion of the Virgin, it is hard to imagine above all to color.
a Fra Angelico or a Raphael in Venice. They adopt the Flemish oil medium,
The Venetians were attracted to splen- but modify it in the direction of mod-
dor of costume, to elaborate architec- ern practices, and thus develop a tech-
 GIORGIONE 309

nique appropriate to their painterly ap- as such becomes of less importance be-
proach. While they still underpaint cause the mood.
painting deals with
their canvases, building them up layer The and the woman nursing her
soldier
by layer with semi-transparent glazes, child have no obvious connection. They
they think in terms of the brush. The do not even look at one another; their
Florentines never understood this point appearance suggests day-dreaming in a
of view. The Tuscan artists design their moment of idleness.
paintings in terms of drawing in black The landscape, too, and its relation
and white; during the fifteenth and to the figures have changed. Through-
earlier centuries in terms of delineation; out the fifteenth century, painters ex-

and later in terms of form drawing in perimented with landscape as a back-

light and shade; but color is subordinate ground. The figures had been dominant,
in a composition worked out with the and were painted at a large scale in the

pencil. With such a history, the looser foreground, where they were prominent
Venetian drawing with a brush is bound in the composition. Here they occupy
to seem to the Florentines an indica- but a fraction of the painting. They are
tion of incompetence, whereas in real- not in the foreground; the landscape
ity it is a different method and one surrounds them, and a bush sends up
much closer to later painting. Venetian its shoots in front of the nursing
paintings rely on their color, which mother. Where previous artists had
bears the same basic relation to the placed their figures on the landscape,
school of Venice that form does to the Giorgione puts his in the landscape.
Florentine school. The scene itself has altered. In place
The painter who introduced the later of the quiet, sunny, and panoramic
style is Giorgione da Castelfranco (c. landscapes of a Perugino, the Venetian
1478-1510). His short career produced prefers a thunderstorm with its dark
only a small number of canvases. The clouds ripped by lightning. He intro-

basis for a discussion of Giorgione's duces ruins not for their archaeological
paintings is the Tempest (fig. 241 ) . The interest, but for their pictorial qualities.

painting has also been named the Sol- His trees grow in the foreground as well
dier and the Gypsy, and Adrastus and as in the background, and therefore

Hypsiphile. All these titles are modern. only the trunks of some of them find

Some definite subject always existed for space within the frame. In short, this
earlier paintings; an incident from the landscape paints a mood appropriate to

life of some minor saint may not be the figures. All these considerations in-
recognized, but it is clearly a specific in- dicate that the point of view toward

cident that the artist had in mind. In painting has changed; a visual and emo-
the Tempest, the illustrative purpose of tional approach has replaced the intel-

the painting is minimized. The subject lectualism of the Florentine tradition.

3
io THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

This alternate emphasis is neither better 242) is significant as the first example
nor worse than the Florentine; it is dif- of the reclining nude female figure in

ferent, and calls for a new type of appre- Western painting, a motive exploited
ciation. since then by almost every important
The Madonna of Castelfranco, the painter. The landscape, as in the Tem-
principal altarpiece in the principal pest, creeps out to the picture plane to
church of Giorgione's native village, is enclose the figure. The leaves, sod, and
called by Ruskin the most beautiful rocks are clear, but are not scientific or
painting in existence. Though the com- microscopic. The painter sweeps them
position is symmetrical, like the fif- in boldly; his brush leaves a band where
teenth-century designs, the Madonna one color merges with another. The out-
and Child, elevated on a pedestal, form lines of the figure in the landscape show
the apex of a triangle completed by the this penumbra. The idealized Venus is

full-length figures of Saints Liberale sensuous but not sensual; the surfaces
and Francis. As in the Tempest, these of her body melt into one another un-
figures are introspective, a peculiarity of til the form looks as though it had been
Giorgione's. St. Francis gazes at the poured out on the landscape. This con-
ground, and if St. Liberale looks out of ception marks the acme of lyrical visions
the picture, his eyes seem to see noth- of the human figure, asleep in an idyllic

ing. setting.
Historically, Giorgione's Venus (fig. Giorgione and Titian were fellow

242. Giorgione (c. 1478-1510) Sleeping Venus (c. 1508-10) Museum. Dresden. 3*7" x 59
 GIORGIONE - TITIAN 3
11

pupils of Giovanni Bellini, but Titian

(1477-1576), although a year older

than Giorgione, was influenced by him.
During almost a century of production,
this grand old man of Venetian paint-
ing passed through several modifica-
tions of style. With an eye to his per-
sonal comfort, but with a miserly eager-
ness, Titian begged for sinecures and
pensions from the state and from
princes who patronized him. These posi-
tions freed him of financial worries,
though no painter of his ability in the
sixteenth century would have gone un-
recognized. Few artists have ever sub-
jected their own work to more strin-
gent criticism. On completing a canvas,
Titian might set it aside till the first

ardor of creation had faded, and later

re-examine it as though it had been
painted by his worst enemy. Any de-
fects might then be remedied, and pos-
sibly the criticism and revision might
be repeated several times. Such rework-
ing commonly blurs the freshness of the
243. Titian (1477-1576) Assumption of the
original, but Titian avoided this too. Virgin (1516-18) Santa Maria Gloriosa dei
As a result, his greatest canvases con- Frari, Venice. 22'6" x n'9".

tain a balance and serenity, classic in

the broadest sense of the term. tion of the Virgin (fig. 243), Titian had
Giovanni Bellini had popularized outgrown the influence of Giovanni
half-length Madonnas seated behind a Bellini, and had so digested his borrow-
parapet against a curtain. Titian ampli- ings from Giorgione that they no longer
fied this type in his early Madonna of betrayed their source. Thus, at the age
the Cherries (Plate iv, facing p. 301). of forty-one, Titian reached his early
The sumptuous contrast of the Ma- maturity. The painting glows with the
donna's orange and blue costume golden tonality associated with Vene-
against the red brocaded curtain and tian art. The local colors are strong, but
blue sky show the Venetian colorist tra- a superposed translucent yellowish glaze
dition at its best. draws them together, as would a golden
By 1518, the date of the Assump- haze. Like the High Renaissance paint-

,
3
12 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

ings of Florence and Rome, the compo- the temperamental difference between
sition has a geometric basis, a circle sup- Giorgione and Titian. To Titian, the
ported on a horizontal base. The head Assumption is the moment of the Ma-
of the Madonna marks the center of a donna's triumph; naturally her friends
circle composed of the frame and the are exuberant. Had Giorgione attempted
flight of child angels. The Madonna's this problem, he might have supposed
followers look upward or raise their that the followers of the Madonna
arms; by glance and gesture they visually would feel some pangs at their personal
join with the upper part, while their loss. Such a possibility could never oc-

compact mass serves as a pedestal for cur to Titian. It would be involved; it

the circle. could not but confuse the main theme,

This dramatic conception reveals and should not be considered. Like the

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244. Titian ( 1477-1576) Bacchus and Ariadne (1523) National Gallery, London. 5*9" x 6'-$".
 TITIAN 3*3

245. Titian (1477-1576) Young Englishman (1540-45) Pitti, Florence. 3'8" x 3'.

Raphael Madonnas, Titian's Assump- teenth-century painters of mythology

tion has become the standard for that could. His interpretation is vigorous,
subject. and the figures robust and physical.
Titian imagines Bacchus and Ariadne They need no archaeological attributes,
(fig. 244) as none of the various fif- because their lusty spirit is that of
3M THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

Mount Olympus. Titian catches the shapes for harmony; thus, though the
fundamental quality of classic myths, a unity of the composition is evident at a
sensuous ideal of physical perfection. glance, the means of its accomplish-
Therefore, he discards his predecessor's ment are not.

display of humanism. The composition In addition to his mastery of mytho-

abandons symmetry; if Bacchus is nearly logical and religious paintings, Titian is

on the axis of the design, the lonely fig- one of the great portraitists of all time.

ure of Ariadne on the left is enough to The Young Englishman (fig. 245),
balance the boisterous Bacchic band sometimes identified as the Duke of
who stumble out of the woods to the Norfolk, is dressed in sober black, re-

right. Such a design giyes a deceptiye lieved only by the golden chain around
appearance of the accidental. Through- his neck. The design is reduced to three
out the canvas Titian repeats forms and spots of light against a dark background,

246. Titian (1477-1576) Rape of Europe (1559) Fenway Court, Boston. 5'io" x 6'o/'.
 TITIAN 3*5

the head and the two hands. Through

an adjustment of size, shape, and em-
phasis, these accents establish equilib-
rium. So economical a composition
eliminates every nonessential, and con-
centrates all on the man. Moreover,
Titian so discusses the character of his
sitter that one feels him to be an indi-
vidual. Titian draws on his canvas not
only a face but also a personality.
These paintings are High Renaissance
in spirit; though contemporary, the
Pesaro Madonna foretells a change in

the point of view. The plane of the

columns recedes into the design, as do
the planes of the figures. Serenity and
repose give way to the dynamic and in-

complete, a foretaste of the future; but

its promises were not to be fulfilled for

some decades. 247. Correggio (1489-1534) Madonna of St.

By about 1545, another change modi- Jerome (1527-8) Gallery, Parma. 6'8" x 4'y".

fied Titian's style. He was then sixty-

later works of Michelangelo. Titian's
eight, an age when most men have
conception of color has changed radi-
either died or retired. The Rape of Eu-
cally. He deserts color for tone; in place
ropa (fig. 246) is looser in handling
of the sonorous blues, reds, yellows, and
than Titian's earlier work; it testifies to
greens of his early maturity, Titian's
a decline of interest in detail coupled
late palette is subdued, with silvery gray,
with an increased concern with the
blue, and old rose predominant.
whole. Details are suggested rather than
Titian's place in painting is like that
defined. The pigment is spread broadly
of Beethoven in music. His art is con-
over the canvas. The design is now trolled and organized, with a grandeur
wholly dynamic; Europa riding on the of spirit, classic in its balanced perfec-
bull duplicates in ideation a cupid tion. He combines visual structure with
sprawled over a dolphin; the movement vigorous emotion. His works are not ex-
of these figures slashes diagonally, with ercises in organization, though they are
smaller diagonals in the flying cupids of complete in that respect; nor are they
the upper left corner. As in the Pesaro spasms in paint, though they give a
Madonna, these tendencies anticipate stimulus to mood. They fuse the best of
Baroque painting, as do some of the the intellectual and the emotional, plac-
 i6 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY
3

ing Titian on the mountain top of pic-

torial achievement.
Having reached such a pinnacle,
Venetian painting might have contin-
ued on that path, even if not at the
same level. But art no more than life
ever stands still. It is constantly chang-
ing, and a change from even a Titian is

not necessarily deterioration. Any alter-

ation of standards, or any adjustment

of values in life, calls for a new inter-

pretation. The geometric repose and the

intellectual assurance of the High Ren-
aissance began to crumble as soon as
they were attained. Even in the hands
of its most characteristic figures, we see
premonitions, at times, of the impend-
ing change.
More than any other man, the painter
who underlined this change, long before
Titian's death, was Antonio Allegri

(1489-1534), a north Italian artist,

called II Correggio from his native vil-

lage. Active chiefly in Parma, Correggio

must have been influenced by Leonardo,
who had devoted followers in Milan not
far away. In the Madonna of St. Jerome
(fig. 247), the disappearance of shaded
contours against a dark background,
which Leonardo had demonstrated in
his Madonna of the Rocks (fig. 227), is 248. Correggio (1489-1534) lo (c. 1530)
Museum, Vienna. 5'4" x 2' 5",
carried further. The forms melt into
one another, while the sweet types cloy
the taste of the present day. Sentiment Madonna, the Child, the angel, and St.

abounds, but whether this is objection- Catherine are dangerous in their loveli-

able depends on the observer. One ness; the gaunt St. Jerome on the left

thing is certain: in spite of its subject, seems out of place.

this painting is not primarily religious With this secular love of feminine
in spirit. Correggio exulted in the beauty beauty, Correggio should be at his best
of flesh, particularly feminine flesh. The where the subject and his instinct work
 CORREGGIO - TINTORETTO 3*7

in harmony: for example, in mythology. died almost half a century before Titian.
Fortunately, Correggio was commis- Venice itself shows the changing
sioned to paint the amours of Jupiter. times and the trend toward Mannerism
One of these is the Io (fig. 248), whom (p. 322), partly in Titian's later paint-
the god visited enveloped in a cloud. ings, and partly in the younger men, all

This voluptuous canvas is the very ec- of whom are influenced by him. Jacopo
stasy of love. The cloud, within whose Robusti, known by his nickname, II Tin-
mist the features of the god are barely toretto (1518-94), chose the motto, 'the
visible, serves as a foil for the luscious color of Titian and the drawing of
pearly bodv of the nymph, a glorifica- Michelangelo.' He achieved neither,
tion of the feminine figure, appealing though influenced bv both. In spirit

to the senses. These are passionate more violent than Titian, he has not the
Olympians, classic in spirit. Such a titanic character or the terribilta of
vision is worlds removed from the young Michelangelo. His Presentation of the
athletes Michelangelo spread over the Virgin (fig. 249) is rich in golden
Sistine ceiling. browns; the palette has not the color of
That same sensuous physical exuber- the earlv Titian, or the subtle tonality of
ance pervades the Assumption of the his last manner; it is Tintoretto's own
Virgin, frescoed on the dome of Parma vigorous combination. Light, too, has
Cathedral. Correggio imagines the hemi- become prominent to enhance drama.
sphere of the dome as a void where a The line of beggars on the steps of the

rush of angels on beating wings trans- temple is half concealed in shadow,

port the Virgin to heaven, while in the while other rich passages of shade play
center Christ Himself descends tumul- over the pattern. The figures swing
tously to greet her. Around the sides, from shadow into light with greater

within the painted balustrade, stand agitation than before. These muscular
the apostles, and behind them a crowd characters, influenced by Michelangelo,
of nude boys, like classic genii, hurry to are often distorted, with small heads on
and fro. These figures are all conceived elongated bodies. Depth plays a promi-
as though they existed in space and nent part in the composition. The little

were seen from the floor of the cathe- Virgin stands well back in the design
dral.While Mantegna on the ceiling of at the top of the temple steps. An ir-

the Camera degli Sposi had tried to cre- regular ring of figures, including the

ate an illusion of space, Correggio car- beggars and several Venetian mothers
ries the idea further than ever before. with their children, reaches a climax in
The turbulence of the apostles, and the the Virgin and the High Priest silhou-

optical approach make Correggio the etted against the sky. The simple lines

prophet of Baroque decorations a cen- of a pyramid in front of the Virgin help

tury later. And yet Correggio was only to lead the eye to her. Both light and
a few years younger than Raphael, and perspective are means of dramatizing
 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

249. Tintoretto (1518-94) Presentation of the Virgin (1551-6) Santa Maria dell' Orto, Venice.
14V x 15V'.

this point of interest, placed well back naked Christian slave lies bound in the

from the foreground; in Titian's paint- foreground, saved from execution by his
ings the center of interest is at the front patron saint. An eager crowd surges
or near it. around him; its members jostle each
The figures in Tintoretto's foreground other, or climb on columns to see better,
bear the same relation to the subject but nothing impedes a clear view of the
that we do; they are spectators over slave. Therefore, Tintoretto expected
whose shoulders, or between whom, we that the observers of his painting would
glimpse the incident. Thus the specta- imagine themselves as continuing the
tor is brought into intimacy with the circle of curious spectators. The color
subject. The scene is not presented to in this canvas has greater range than in
him; he becomes a part of it. This is the Presentation of the Virgin, and to
true too in the Miracle of St. Mark. A that extent is closer to Titian. Also the
 TINTORETTO 3*9

foreshortening of St. Mark, poised in one hardly realizes it, so apparently

the air above his follower, suggests the casual is the disposition. The glances
inspiration of Michelangelo. That in- and gestures of the characters who form
fluence is further illustrated by the fig- a ring of figures on the ground, a ladder

ures from the Medici Tombs, on either lying near by but unused for the mo-
side of the pediment in the garden wall ment, the cross of one of the thieves,
behind. which is just being raised into position
In these paintings Tintoretto retains with ropes, and many other details, es-

the geometrical basis of earlier compo- tablish lines that fan outward from the
sitions, but enriches it. The decorations head of Christ. The effect of the scene

in the Scuola di San Rocco display his is one of reality. Tintoretto makes no
ability to handle complex schemes, no- attempt to treat his subject with archae-
tably in the Crucifixion. Everything ological precision, but he imagines a
focuses on the head of Christ, though heterogeneous crowd, including a small

250. Tintoretto (1518-94) Marriage of Bacchus and Ariadne (1578) Sala del Anticollegio,
Ducal Palace, Venice. 4'a/' x $'2".
 20 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY
3

group of loyal disciples, executioners superb decorations— there are three

engaged in their tasks, members of the others by Tintoretto in the same room
Synagogue come to gloat over their suc- —the artist abandoned drama in favor
cess in suppressing this man, and the of a Titianesque serenity. Different as

idly curious, pausing to view a public they are, to love Titian does not pre-
execution. In other words, Tintoretto vent enjoyment of Tintoretto. One may
conceives the Crucifixion as history, not relish the drama of the latter, finely or-

as a symbol of Christianity. ganized though less perfected and

His Marriage of Bacchus and Ariadne serene in form, just as one may savour
(fig. 250), in the Sala del Anticollegio the exuberance of Tschaikovskv with-
in the Ducal Palace in Venice, is ar- out losing one's taste for Beethoven or
ranged like the spokes and rim of a Bach.
wheel. The curved arms of the three Finally, the fourth of the leading
figures converge on the wedding ring painters of sixteenth-century Venice is

proffered bv Bacchus. The three bodies Paolo Veronese (1528-88). The Mar-
form similar curves; each starts inside riage at Cana (fig. 251) is religious in

one adjacent curve and ends outside subject only. To Veronese, the magnifi-
the other. The elegant forms are ideal- cence of Venice sufficed; the scriptural
ized. They have a full-blooded healthi- subject becomes an excuse to record the

ness and vigor that make it easv to im- pomp of Venetian life. This scriptural
agine them as denizens of Olympus. feast looks like a state banquet. The
Notable in the Venus is the influence guests are decked out in brocades of
of Michelangelo. Tintoretto made fashion; the setting is elaborate archi-
models and suspended them from wires tecture, rich in light and shade, with
to assist him in learning to draw human the gorgeousness of such Venetian
beings in any position, including those buildings as the Library by Sansovino
which could not be held by a model. (fig. 252); waiters and pets circulate
He displays a mastery of the human through the crowd, and a private or-
figure second only to that of Michel- chestra provides incidental music. The
angelo himself. plavers are portraits of artists; Titian
In his paintings for the Ducal Palace, with the double bass, Tintoretto play-
Tintoretto draws upon Venetian cere- ing the cello, Jacopo Bassano blowing
monies for inspiration. The Marriage of the flute, and Veronese himself at the

Bacchus and Ariadne by analogy sym- viola. The last, as his name suggests, is

bolizes the marriage of Venice and the a native of Verona; his silvery tonality,

Adriatic. Annually, the Doge and his like that of the north Italian schools,
corps on the state barge Bucentaur were modified the golden tonality of Venice.
drawn into the sea, on which the pros- The architecture is designed either

perity of Venice depended, and there parallel or at right angles to the picture

deposited a gold wedding ring. In these plane, to give the stateliness that so
 TINTORETTO - VERONESE 3
21

251. Veronese ( 152! Marriage at Cana (1562-63) Louvre, Paris. 2i'io" x 32'6".

formal a composition demands. When sition, and external splendor. His are
seen in perspective, that architecture magnificent paintings, nothing more;
focuses attention on Christ, seated in but perhaps it is enough.
the center of the table at the principal These Venetian artists play a pivotal
vanishing point. This composition is role in European painting. Their paint-
magnificent as decoration; on the other erly point of view links the earlier Ital-

hand, one may look in vain for any ian schools to later European art. For
deeper meaning in it; Veronese is un- centuries to come, almost all the major
interested in other matters. He displays artists of Europe turned to Venice for
the social glories of his adopted city as inspiration. El Greco was trained here.
enthusiastically as any society journalist, Rubens and Van Dyck studied the work
but his characters have neither intel- of these Venetians. The whole English
lectual nor spiritual depth. The women portrait school was affected by them,
in particular are stolid. A St. Catherine and painter after painter of the nine-
in another of his pictures has been de- teenth century owes some debt to these
scribed as having 'a heavy placable non- masters. In view of their accomplish-
chalance, like a performing cow/ Every- ment in composition, color, and decora-
thing is present that can be achieved by tive quality, there could have been no
technique, perspective, color, compo- better school.
3
22 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

After the death of Raphael, Leo- Rome regained some of her power, she
nardo, and Giorgione, and even before could not recapture the carefree exuber-
that of Titian, Michelangelo, Tintor- ance of her halcyon days; insecurity,
retto, and Veronese, the development restlessness, and change were inevitable.
known as Mannerism showed itself in The successors of the High Renais-
Rome, Florence, and elsewhere. The sance artists in the second third of the
traditions of the High Renaissance mas- sixteenth century are influenced by
ters could not continue unaltered, partly them, but their pictorial aim is not
because the ideals of that generation identical. Giulio Romano does not
could no longer be maintained under paint like his master, Raphael, nor do
the new conditions. The outbreak of the Daniele da Volterra and Pontormo pre-
Protestant Reformation in the north serve the earlier Michelangelesque point
undermined the assurance of the High of view. Some of these men are powerful
Renaissance, and though its impact on draftsmen of amazing, restless energy.
Italy at first was distant, it brought with This is obvious in Angelo Bronzino's
it in 1527 the sack of Rome by German painting of Venus, Cupid, Folly, and
mercenary troops. After that org}- of Time (fig. 253). Figures fill the fore-
rape, loot, and desecration, though ground of this composition to choke the

252. Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570) Library, Venice (1536) 275' long x 58' high.
 MANNERISM 23
3

253. Angelo Bronzino (1502-72) Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time (c. 1546) National Gallery,
London. 4'g" x $'()".
3
24 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

whole rectangle and eliminate the depth turn in spirals as though searching ele-
and the three-dimensional sense of Leo- gance in pose, even at the price of affec-

nardo's and Raphael's pyramids. These tation. So pronounced is this attenu-

figures seem too large for the space and ation that a painting by Parmigianino
interlock in complex patterns. Though is called the Madonna of the Long
cleverly tied together, the composition Neck. Such mannered proportions and
sacrifices the clarity of an earlier genera- poses appear in some of the men al-

tion. The figures themselves are con- ready considered. Certain late paintings
ceived decoratively, with a sensuous feel- of Titian, and many of the works of
ing for the nude; their mincing grace has Tintoretto— for example, the mother
neither the spiritual import of the standing halfway up the temple steps
Michelangelo nudes, nor the Olympian in the Presentation of the Virgin (fig.

robustness of Titian's mythologies. Per- 249)— testify to this development. But

haps the impulse to decoration is one the late Titian and much of the work of
reason for the elongated mannered pro- Tintoretto is contemporary with Man-
portions. Preternaturally tall, the figures nerism and characteristic of it. In color,
sway to and fro, bend over backward, or also, the Mannerists tend to forgo the

254. Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) Ceiling Detail, Gallery, Farnese Palace, Rome (1595)
Gallery 30' 10" long x i5'io" wide.
 MANNERISM - CARRACCI 3
2
5

sonorous primary chords of the High chrome suggest sculpture, dark medal-
Renaissance, and turn instead to off lions like bronze reliefs contrast with
shades, like lemon yellows, lavenders, the simulated marble, while pictures
steely blues, metallic colors, in place of are introduced in molded frames. The
the more straightforward tones. illusion carries added conviction, since
Opposed to Mannerism in theory sculptured figures overlap the painted
were the eclectic painters of the Bolo- moldings of the frame or cast painted
gnese Academy, founded in 1583 by the shadows around them. The mantle of
Carracci brothers, who thought to out- Michelangelo falls on the muscled fig-

do their predecessors by borrowing ures as well as on the conception of the

from each painter those qualities in ceiling. But the Sistine ceiling is illusion-

which he had excelled: the strength of istic only to a mild degree, while the
Michelangelo, the color of Titian, the Farnese gallery partakes of the character
repose and balance of Raphael, and the of a trick, and so forms a halfway stage
sweetness of Correggio. It was a laud- leading to the fullest development of
able ideal, but the difficulty lay in com- illusionism and to the complete denial
bining these divergent traits. Raphael

and Correggio exerted the strongest in-

fluence, save in murals, where the Sis-

tine Chapel inspired emulation. The

Carracci altarpieces continue the types
and color of the men they admire, but
modify these contributions; the effects

are strained, the sentiment obvious and

cloying, and the composition too in-

volved for clarity.

Their most prophetic work lies in the

field of decoration. Annibale Carracci
and his assistants fuse the effects of
architecture, sculpture, and painting in

the gallery of the Farnese Palace in

Rome (fig. 254). Since the artist takes
account of light sources within the
room itself, and since his technical
ability in perspective and modeling is

supreme, one is often at a loss to know

what is real and what painted. In fact,

the whole ceiling above the cornice is

painted, but the corners seem to open

255. Caravaggio (1569-1609) Death of the
to the sky beyond, colossi in mono- Virgin (1607) Louvre, Paris. 12V x 8'.
326 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

streets, and others drawn from the tav-

ern, the brothel, and the gutter. No

longer are the apostles richly clad, and
the Madonna conceived as the Queen
of Heaven. Their clothing is poor, their
features old, wrinkled, and grimy. Such
types do not belong in a palace; they
are at home in a cellar, with a shaft of
light streaming down from some open
areaway and falling in stark brilliance
on forms set against an inky back-
ground. The dramatic shadows of this
Tenebroso style almost reduce the scene
to two planes, one of light and one of
shadow.
Though Caravaggio and his followers
are called the Realists,we may take ex-
ception to the term. Cellar lighting is

just as artificial as the diffused lighting

of the High Renaissance masters. Also,

there is room for doubt as to whether
types from low life, though more ac-
curate in the narrow historical sense,

are artistically preferable to noble types

that indicate the importance of the
scriptural characters as the founders of
Christianity. Powerful as these paint-
ings are, they lose something. Bald state-

Bacchus,
ments supplant the serenity of earlier
256. Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570^
Bargello, Florence. works, and, while helping to destroy the
older conceptions, this substitute does

of the surface in the later Baroque of not satisfy everyone. Still, the influence

the seventeenth century. of Caravaggio is extensive. His lighting

In protest against eclecticism the opens the way to the Baroque in that
Realists led by Caravaggio (1573-1610) field,and ultimately to the personal
arose. He rejected the ideal types in- treatment of light by Rembrandt, while
herited from Raphael. In their place, several of the Spanish masters, notably

Caravaggio peoples his Death of the Ribera, are affected by it.

Virgin 255) with characters drawn

(fig. Sculpture also displays the new spirit.

from the slums, plain folk from the Jacopo Sansovino in Florence, in the
 CARAVAGGIO - SCULPTURE 2
3 7
first half of the sixteenth century, carves
his classic Bacchus (fig. 256). The
rounded forms of the figure and the
generalized treatment produce as fin-

ished an academic expression in sculp-

ture as Bramante's Tempietto is in
architecture. One of the few sculptors
not influenced by Michelangelo, San-
sovino stands almost alone. He settled
in Venice while still young, became in-

timate with Titian, and is the sculptor

who best expresses the classic ideals of
that generation.
The voluble Benvenuto Cellini, on
the other hand, is Mannerist to the
core. His Nymph of Fontainebleau ex-
hibits the elongated proportions and
the affected grace of contemporary
painting. Often brilliant in detail,

thanks to his goldsmith training, most

of Cellini's sculpture lacks largeness of
conception. His Perseus, of whose cast-
ing we read so exciting an account in
his Autobiography, acquires a scale that
the filigree ornament of the base and
the complicated gore dripping from
Medusa's neck cannot quite destroy.
However, the artificial pose and model-
257. Giovanni da Bologna (c. 1524-1608)
ing hardly justify Cellini's encomium Flying Mercury (before 1574) Bargello, Flor-
on his own work. ence. Bronze, 5'o/' high.

The principal Mannerist sculptor,

Giovanni da Bologna (c. 1524-1608), fingers, but firmer in the masculine
also displays slender proportions in his flesh. The problem itself is complex, as
bronze Mercury (fig. 257), an incarna- these three figures of different sexes and
tion of movement and a proof of techni- ages spiral upward. Where sculpture
cal skill. His academic Rape of the hitherto had been designed to be seen
Sabines (fig. 258) shows sensuous natu- primarily from a single point of view,
ralism in the modeling. The stone has this group is interesting from all sides.

become flesh, soft and yielding in the The forms draw the eye from the front,
woman to the pressure of the man's around the sides, to the back; thev de-
328 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

Venetian love of richness already had

abandoned in 1536 the austerity of the
Bramantesque manner. This well-pro-
portioned two-story building has en-
riched the archand column by model-
and shade.
ing these elements in light
The open gallery of the ground floor
has a severe Doric arch order. On the
other hand, the second floor, with its

deep window reveals and its combina-

tion of arches and Ionic columns, is

exuberant. Carving almost buries the

architecture with statues on the sky-
line, garlands in the frieze, medallions
within the spandrels, and yet this fagade
is controlled as the fifteenth-century de-
signs, such as the Certosa at Pavia, are
not.
The Library in Venice has much in
common with the High Renaissance, as
does the earlier painting of Titian. How-
ever, the latter half of the sixteenth
century prepares the way for the Ba-
roque architecture of the seventeenth
century, as Mannerism prepares the
way in painting and sculpture. The man
who fathered the Baroque style was
Michelangelo. Thinking in terms of
sculpture even when working in archi-

tecture, Michelangelo saw no reason to

258. Giovanni da Bologna (c. 1524-1608)

adhere to the rules of classic design. He
Rape of the Sabines, Loggia dei Lanzi, Flor- said he intended to 'free architecture
from the bonds and chains which she
mand a peripatetic spectator; one must had laid upon herself/ He developed
see this group from all angles to realize his forms with an eye to creating pat-
the purpose of the sculptor. terns of light and shade, regardless of
their previous use. If a column em-
Architecture, too, gradually modifies bedded in an embrasure of a wall seemed
its design. The Library in Venice (fig. to him effective, however illogical it

252) by Sansovino the sculptor, with its might be, he did not hesitate to use it,
 ST. PETER S, ROME 3
29

259. Bramante's Plan (left — 1506) and Michelangelo's Plan (right — 1547) St. Peter's, Rome.

as in the stairway to the Laurentian great dome, almost the same in diameter
Library in Florence. Appointed chief as the dome of the Pantheon. The
architect of St. Peter's in 1547, he an- whole was to be inscribed in a square.
nounced his intention of returning to Bramante retained enough smaller fea-
the ideas of Bramante, though in prac- tures in his design to convey its scale.

tice he altered his predecessor's concep- These elements, whose size could be
tion. measured against man's stature, were
The idea of rebuilding the venerable juxtaposed against the major portions,
Early Christian basilica of St. Peter's too large in themselves to permit such
had occurred as early as the fifteenth measurement. His dome modified the
century, but not until the pontificate of Roman type, more prominent than that
Julius II (1503-13) was any serious of the Pantheon, but still buttressed on
work done. He appointed Bramante in all sides by rings of masonry around its

1506 to begin construction of the new base, and by a continuous colonnade.

edifice. In the spirit of his day, with re- Bramante did not live to see much of
spect to classicism and scale, Bramante his project executed; the foundations
dreamed of piling the Pantheon on the had been laid, and the building had be-
Basilica of Constantine, choosing two gun to rise when he died in 1514. After
of the largest Roman monuments to his death, a succession of architects were
produce an even grander scheme. He appointed, each of whom drew his own
planned a building of the central type plans, many of the central type that
(fig. 259), a Greek cross whose equal modified without rejecting the original
arms joined in the space covered by the project. Others, supported by cogent
33° THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

260. Michelangelo (1475-1564) St. Peter's, Rome. West End (begun 1546) Total height 470'.

arguments, attempted to convert the of this building, particularly in the in-

scheme into a Latin cross form. terior. Michelangelo's love of the co-
When Michelangelo became chief lossal had betrayed itself.

architect, he admired the monumen- One may still perceive Michelangelo's

tality of the central type. His concep- conception of St. Peter's around the
tion of the dome required more con- apse or west end (fig. 260). An attic

centrated supports than had Bramante's. story crowns a colossal order of pilasters,
Therefore, Michelangelo's plan (fig. almost 100 feet high, as tall as many
259) made the solids more solid, the eight-story buildings. Windows and
voids more open. The four central piers, niches give scale to the exterior. The
like magnets, drew to themselves the dome rises from a drum whose perimeter
smaller supports that Bramante had left is punctuated by paired columns en-
isolated. That change destroyed the gaged to solid masses of masonry. Each
sense of scale and made it impossible mass seems to buttress one of the visible
to appreciate at a glance the immensity ribs of the dome, whose full curve rises
 ST. PETER S, ROME 33 1

in soaring lines. To achieve this effect, on the relative emphasis placed on de-
so expressive of the unity and power of sign and on structure; but few will deny
the Catholic Church in the Counter the visual power of this culminating
Reformation, Michelangelo thinks as a feature on the largest church in Chris-
sculptor, searching for visual effective- tendom.
ness with a disdain for structure. Early in the seventeenth century,
To him, the engineering side of archi- Carlo Maderna was commissioned to
tecture is the handmaid of design, to complete the church proper by the addi-
execute what his eye demands. The tion of the nave, which found no place
pairs of columns below are illogical and
in the plans of Michelangelo or Bra-
inadequate to buttress the vast dome:
mante. There were several reasons for
illogical, because a dome, in spite of
this change. The Latin cross form adapts
the ribbed system, has a continuous
itself to the needs of Christian ritual
thrust that calls for continuous but-
better than does the Greek cross. The
tressing; and inadequate, because their
congregation cannot take part in the
mass is too small to resist any consider-
service from behind the altar, or even
able thrust. The stability of this dome
from the sides. The altar must be placed
depends on chains embedded in the
at the architectural focus under the
masonry, and even then there has been
center of the dome, lest it seem pushed
trouble. Giacomo della Porta con-
into a corner. Three quarters of the
structed the dome in 1585-8, twenty
years after Michelangelo's death. He area in a Greek cross plan are behind or

altered the silhouette by raising the to the side of this point. Moreover, im-

apex of the dome about 20 feet, mense as St. Peter's was to be, the early

while retaining the same diameter. This designs did not occupy all the ground

change produces an impressive effect covered by the nave of the Early Chris-
that Michelangelo's model does not at- tian basilica. Centuries of use had hal-

tain. Whether the dome is great archi- lowed that ground, and many were re-

tecture may be debatable; it depends luctant to see any part of it deconse-

iuraffiinininjK
P

261. Carlo Maderna (1556-1639) St. Peter's, Rome (1606-26) Facade 390' wide x 167' high.
33 2
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

crated. In any case, the papacy, not the cover the vaults of the nave, whose
architect, decided on a nave. height was determined by Michelan-
The architectural effect of this addi- gelo's building. Nevertheless, the facade

tion is unfortunate. The facade (fig. conceals the drum and even some of the

261) is no higher than is necessary to dome, except from a distance, and ap-

262. Carlo Madema (1556-1639) St. Peter's, Rome (1606-26) Nave, total interior length, 710'.
 ST. PETER S, ROME 333

pears to tip the dome over backward. The interior of St. Peter's (fig. 262)
Therefore, from the front the dome can- is vast, but like much of the exterior,
not accomplish the purpose it fulfills lacks scale. A barrel vault continues in
for the west end of pulling the lower dimensions and design the vaults with
masses of the design together. Maderna which Michelangelo surrounded his
could not but follow Michelangelo's dome. Pairs of pilasters carry an entab-
executed work. The latter had planned a lature to support the vault. This order,
porch of colossal columns, but to have almost as large as that of the exterior,
retained that with the new length would has little to convey its size. Though
have accentuated the ill-effects on the added later, the child angels supporting
dome. The height of the order and of the stoups of water are giants and con-
the attic story was already determined. sequently deceptive. This lack of scale
Maderna substituted pilasters for col- can hardly be charged to Maderna, who
umns, and his detail is less personal merely continued the earlier design.
than that of Michelangelo, but the un- From the entrance the long nave pre-
successful result of the fagade is the con- vents the immediate perception of the
sequence of the work of Michelangelo space within and around the great dome
modified by the demands of the papacy. that Bramante and Michelangelo had

263. Andrea Palladio (1518-80) Villa Rotonda, Vicenza (1552-53) wide on each side;

porticoes 32'6" high; dome 70' high.

334 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

as much through their writings as by

their architecture. Andrea Palladio in
his Four Books of Architecture, pub-
lished in 1570, lays down his rules for
the proportions of the orders. These
books became architectural gospels to
England and thence to America. His
style, as seen in the Villa Rotonda at
Vicenza (fig. 263), 1552, depends for
its effect first on proportions, and sec-

ond on restraint and formality. The

VillaRotonda is of the central type,
square in plan (fig. 264), with a portico

264. Villa Rotonda, Vicenza (1552) 80'

square.

in mind, but this again was impossible

to avoid. Any nave would have had the
same Maderna followed the
result.

scheme Michelangelo had already built

in large part. He had to introduce win-

dows in the vault, and he was able to

lighten both vault and piers, since they
did not need to support the dome. St.

Peter's took a little over a century to

build. Begun by Bramante in 1506, it

was changed and carried further by

Michelangelo, and the church itself was
completed early in the seventeenth cen-

tury by Maderna, though its approaches

and some of its fittings had still to be

added in the High Baroque style. St.

Peter's is the central monument of its

time in Italian architecture.

Michelangelo was far in advance of
his own day. Not until well on in the

seventeenth century did architecture

catch up with him. Two architects of
the latter half of the sixteenth century,
265. II Gesii, Rome (1568-84) Interior 225'
however, exerted great influence later, X 11^'-
 PALLADIO - VIGNOLA 335

on each face and a domed chamber in The second of the late-sixteenth-cen-

the center. All sides of the building are tury architects, Giacomo Barozzi da
identical and gain monumentality from Vignola, is more advanced. He, too,
the flights of steps that approach their wrote of architecture, but his volumes,
porticoes. Designed as a country resi- Rules of the Five Orders of Architec-
dence, the regularity of its plan is not ture, 1562, had their chief influence in
adapted to the asymmetrical require- France, and through their use by the
ments of a house. On the other hand, its Ecole des Beaux Arts, on those Amer-
stateliness is admirable as a background icans who received their architectural
for a formal life, which explains Palla- education in Paris. Though his books
dio's popularity in Georgian England are not much less conservative than
and America. The adherence to rule and Palladio's his executed work shows more
the emphasis on correctness, which pro- freedom. Vignola's church of the Gesu
duce the academic flavor, are more Ren- in Rome (1568-84) establishes a mile-
aissance than Baroque, though in some stone in the history of Baroque archi-
of Palladio's buildings a hint of the tecture. The plan (fig. 265) is more
later style can be detected. compact than the three-aisled type.

266. Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1507-73) II Gesii, Rome (1568-84) Interior 225' long x
115' greatest width.
336 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

Short transepts hardly project beyond rich ceremonial preparatory to and con-
the rectangle of the church, and are nected with the Mass. That service was
broader than they are deep. The nave is so familiar that it made little difference
wider in proportion than had been whether all within the church could
usual. Chapels replace side aisles and hear distinctly, or whether they could
open into the nave through large arches all see the altar. Ease of hearing and,

so that the space of the chapels seems to a lesser extent, of sight are funda-

rather an extension of the space of the mental to preaching. Since the sermon
nave than a separate volume. plays a large part in the teaching of the
Such a design suggests a different Jesuits, their churches have to be so ar-

type of religion from that for which the ranged that the whole congregation can
medieval churches were built. It argues have an unobstructed view of the pul-
a growth in the importance of preach- pit. This functional requirement works
ing. There had been great preachers in toward the same result as the Baroque
the previous centuries, some of them so feeling for unity of space. The barrel
popular that they had to address their vault springs from an entablature car-
throngs out-of-doors. However, the ried on paired pilasters (fig. 266). A
medieval church was designed for the half-dome crowns the apse, while over

267. Giacomo della Porta (1537-1604) II Gesu, Rome (1568-84) Facade c. 115' wide x 114'
high.
 VIGNOLA 337

the crossing a full dome is raised on a the church to support the barrel vault.
drum to light the eastern part of the Those are expressed on the facade in

church. These unbroken volumes inau- scrolls at the sides of the second stage,
gurated a new conception of space that and soften the transition between the
played a central role in the seventeenth stories. Such a facade, while some of its

century. elements reflect the building behind it,

The facade of the Gesu (fig. 267) is a screen and can be treated as a prob-

was redesigned and erected after Vi- lem independent of the building. One
gnola's death by Giacomo della Porta. could hardly guess the existence of a
Vignola displayed some Baroque free- barrel vault behind the upper story, and
dom in his scheme, but Della Porta the freedom of design reflects a break-
goes further. This two-storied front is down of architectural properties un-
of a type that became standard for Ital- known in the High Renaissance and be-
ian church facades at this time and loved by Bramante.
later. The lower story must be as wide The detail has not the correctness of
as the nave and the lateral chapels, but a Palladio, but begins to exhibit the
the upper story screens only the vault florid quality of the Baroque. A single

over the nave, and is narrower. But- feature suffices to illustrate the indiffer-
tress-like masses rise along the sides of ence to logic. Over the central door,

268. Fountain of the Organ, Villa d'Este, Tivoli (begun 1550

338 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY

Delia Porta has set a triangular pediment shaded with trees and cooled by foun-
inside a segmental pediment. This is tains. The balustrades, urns, stairs, and
preposterous. If the function of the ped- fountains are coarse in detail. Who
iment is to discharge rainfall to the would want the refinement of a drawing
sides of an opening, then one or the room in features destined to be covered
other pediment is useless. These archi- with moss and lichens? Playfulness and
tects do not pretend to logic; they are even broad humor find a place here.
designing in light and shade, and if the Jets of water once drenched any visitor
pattern consequent on such a use of who unwarily stepped on certain stones
classic features interests the eye, their in the path, or on certain steps, though
use is But the Gesu has little
justified. these boobv traps no longer operate in

of the plasticity of the Baroque. Only a our fastidious da vs. But fountains are
few inches separate the planes of its the glory of the villas. One never escapes
facade, and no strong projections inter- the sound of splashing water as it

rupt it; its flat members cast thin lines spouts from a thousand jets, dribbles
of shadow without the boldness of sev- from one basin to another, or rushes
enteenth-century designs. down a cascade or over some constructed
One of the most successful creations waterfall. In the Villa d'Este the cul-
of Italy at this time is the villa. Its va- mination is the Fountain of the Organ
riety is infinite. The Villa d'Este at Ti- (fig. 268), where great jets, like the
voli has many characteristic features. pipes of an organ, contrast with the
Placed on the side of a hill to drain the plunging mass of water in the center.
utmost value from a stream that is di- Such villas are pleasant indeed on sum-
verted to feed the fountains, its paths mer afternoons, and are among the most
lead the visitor down from level to lasting contributions of the Italians to
level through ramps, alleys, and steps the history of art.
XIV The Renaissance in the North

The Gothic style was indigenous to the The Renaissance style in France,
north; the Renaissance was not. By the therefore, grafts Italian elements on the
sixteenth century the Gothic energy had native stock. The builders had been ac-
worn itself out so that the ground was customed for centuries to work in the
ripe for something new. In the Renais- Gothic tradition. When their patrons
sance Italy gave birth to a civilization of called upon them for something differ-

greater sophistication, with a consequent ent, they were bound, at first, to take
emphasis on the amenities of life. The the superficial details of Italian art to
northerners slowly became aware of this adorn their works, while retaining much
refinement, though until the end of the of the earlier tradition. To assist in the
fifteenth century its effects were hardly importation of the new fashion, Francis
perceptible. Then the series of Italian I invited to France such Italian artists
wars started with the raid of Charles as could be induced to come. Leonardo
VIII of France into Italy in 1494, fol- da Vinci, to whom Francis I gave the
lowed shortly by those of Louis XII and Chateau of Cloux near Amboise, where
Francis I. Since many of the French the great Florentine spent his declining
aristocracy accompanied these excur- years, is the most famous, though his
sions, the upper class was thrown into productive days were already over when
contact with the new style and culture he went to France. Cellini, also, came to
at the source, and wanted to adopt it Paris and Fontainebleau for a brief

immediately in their own homes. time, but such men as II Rosso, Prima-

339
340 THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH

269. Francis I Wing, Chateau, Blois (1515-19) c. 150' long.

ticcio, and Serlio, who made Fontaine- Gothic buttresses, the mullioned and
bleau the training ground for the dis- transomed windows, and the dormers in

semination of new ideas, exerted the the roof. From the latter stem the trans-
formative influence. lation of the buttress-like forms into
The wing added by Francis I, in 1515 classic pilasters, misunderstood in pur-
to 1519, to the Chateau at Blois (fig. pose but recognizable in design; the sub-
269) illustrates the peculiar combina- stitution of the round for the pointed
tion of traditional French and imported arch; the decorative motives, like ara-
Italian styles. It is, so to speak, the off- besques, carved wherever possible; and
spring of a marriage between the Jacques the rich cornice that replaced the para-
Cceur House at Bourges (fig. 159) pet. There was in France the same mis-
and the Certosa at Pavia (fig. 193), one understanding of a new architectural
of the first buildings in the new man- language which had hampered Italy at
ner that the French saw on their Italian the beginning of the fifteenth century,
journeys. The former contributes the but with this difference: the Italians at
visible roof, the vertical continuity of first mistranslated classic architecture to
 FRENCH ARCHITECTURE 34 :

270. Chateau, Chambord (1526-50) c. 525' long.

create the Renaissance; the French mis- regularity bespeaks the Renaissance in-
translated Italian architecture and were fluence. Thus the plan (fig. 271) is rem-
therefore one step further removed from iniscent of bygone military needs, but
the classic. Their detail is coarser but the absence of fortifications and the
no less profuse than the exquisite carv-
ing on the Certosa. However lawless,

this French style has an exuberant joy in

life that parallels the richness and en-
ergy of Rabelais in contemporary litera-
ture.

As time went on, the French became

fe
m
more at home in the new fashion, and
the foreign details were naturalized. The
271. Chateau, Chambord (1526-50) 525' x
Chateau of Chambord (fig. 270), eight 370'.
years later than Blois, is strictly symmet-
rical, though it preserves the courtyard many windows attest a new security.

of the medieval castle, and the keep at Each unit in the plan, each tower, and
one point in its walls. Tower balances each building mass connecting them re-

tower, themselves French although their tains its independent roof as though the
34 2 THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH

edifice were composed of associated ele- modern palace to receive his distin-

ments—a peculiarity of French archi- guished guest embarrassed the French

tecture at least until the middle of the king. He therefore commissioned Pierre
seventeenth century. The effect is less Lescot to design a building to replace
vertical than in the earlier design at the medieval Chateau of the Louvre in
Blois; double bands above and below Paris. Though only a few parts of the
the windows in each story cross the existing Louvre date back to Lescot in
structure, towers and connecting masses 1546, those parts (fig. 272) demonstrate
alike, and thus unite the whole. The his evolution of a co-ordinated style

detail has more of the Renaissance than from the charming but lawless vagaries
has previously occurred— for example, and richness of the chateaux. This style
the numerous but flat pilasters. The is still French, with its visible roofs, its

plan of Chambord and its broken sil- conception in terms of accented vertical
houette thus distinguish it from any pavilions alternating with less empha-
Italian design, while on the other hand sized horizontal blocks, and its peculiar
its regularity and its detail separate it French feeling for elegance.

from the Middle Ages. The vocabulary of this style is now

When 1539 Charles
in paid a visitV coherent and Renaissance. The orders
of state to Francis I, the lack of any are prominent both as engaged columns

i I *

272. Pierre Lescot (c. 1510-78) Lescot Wing (on left, 1541-48) Louvre, Paris, c. 175' long x
95' high.
 SPANISH AND ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE 343

and as pilasters. A Composite order on parades the classicism of the High Ren-
the principal floor is superposed on the aissance with greater austerity than the
Corinthian order of the ground floor, contemporary work of Lescot in France.
each with a full and correct entablature. In Germany, also, the same course is

Every fourth bay makes a pavilion with pursued, with first the influence of the
bold membering, engaged columns in- north Italian style being felt, then of
stead of pilasters with an entablature the Bramantesque manner, and finally
broken forward above them, deep win- of the developing Baroque. The pre-
dow reveals, rich ornament, and a cise steps, however, are confused, and
dormer roof at the top rising higher elements from more than one phase may
than the neighboring bays. No one of exist in a single building. In general, the

these factors would call attention to detail in Germany is apt to be treated

itself, but collectively they distinguish in a heavy-handed and uglv manner.
these bays from the others, and so estab- Owing to local conditions, the story

lish a rhythm in design. For the rest, in England is a little different. Early in

round arched niches on the ground floor the reign of Henry VIII there occurred
contain Renaissance windows, while the same importation of Italian crafts-
pediments and pilasters enframe those men that had helped to established the
above. The detail is rich but elegant, French style, but England, further re-

much of it carved by Jean Goujon and moved from Italy and with less to offer,

his assistants, and yet it takes a subor- could attract only third-rate artists,

dinate place in the design instead of whereas the French could at least get

running riot over the facade. The hu- second-rate men to serve them. The
manism of the Renaissance, at this time parts of Hampton Court built under
better understood in architecture, also Cardinal Wolsey in the first half of the

prompted the mythology of the Goujon sixteenth century show an application

decorations. In short, by the middle of of Renaissance details to a Gothic
the sixteenth century, France had ab- building similar to what one sees in the
sorbed the Renaissance but extracted earliest French examples. Doubtless the
her native version from it. English would have moved along lines

The diffusion of the Renaissance in parallel to the French had it not been
other countries follows the same pat- for the marital troubles of Henry VIII.
tern. In Spain, the Plateresque, or sil- Because of his divorce of Catherine of
versmiths', style toward the end of the Aragon, a break with the Roman
fifteenth century shows the same exu- Church, though at first merely in

berant energy in half-understood Ital- church government, became inevitable.

ian forms as the earlier chateaux. Here, Since the papacy was virtually an Italian
some trace of the Moorish gives its local institution, the colonies of Italian crafts-

flavor to the style. By mid-century, the men in London and Winchester dwin-
Griego Romano, as its name suggests, dled and disappeared, and thus deprived
3 A4 THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH

the English of their source of Ren-

aissance inspiration. The subsequent reli- -us-;- r
gious troubles under Edward VI and
Mary engrossed the attention of the
English too completely to permit much lK
to be accomplished in the way of archi-
tecture. During the reign of Elizabeth \v ,

I the art revived, but turned for inspira- Ra-

tion to other countries affected
Reformation— to Germany and the Low
by the
^ N
JN|?
Countries. These countries were by V t

then aware of the developing Baroque X

style, which they interpreted in a heavy-

handed manner that became typical of

Elizabethan palaces such as Burghley
House in the second half of the six-

teenth century. Much of the Perpendic- ^ J*.

'

^
ular Gothic tradition is retained, for ex- vS^
ample the large multiple windows, but -^ *3, •

is coupled with such absurdities as *

\^>»^^ifCi v\
Doric columns used for chimney pots. StKt'
This fashion was better mastered in the I T
Jacobean style under James I, early in %j
the seventeenth century, though it was l a
still apt to be heavy in detail. * > .fl^-

The gradual assimilation of the Ren-

K

iw*,.. \ St»

aissance in the Gothic north is just as

apparent in sculpture. A relief of St.

George Slaying the Dragon by Michel \ ^
Colombe, very early in the sixteenth ^
century, treats the subject in much the
same episodic manner as the Interna-

tional style in painting, discussed before

^
(p. 235). Remnants of its victims sur- ! \

round the dragon, itself a wondrous fig- ip

ment of the imagination. Like a playful \ ^-l&
puppy, it worries St. George's lance. The %
princess at the left prays for her cham-
pion; her type, her simplified drapery, _ ^ nN _
tl
Vi
. ,
Nymph
T

and \ A ,. ..
A her partial idealization-
r 1 ,
link her
273. Jean
(1547-49)
Gou on
Paris.
1510-68)
6V' x 2V'.
(c.
 COLOMBE - GOUJON PILON 345

with the Detente. And yet Italian artists

frame this late Gothic panel with Ren-
aissance pilasters and an entablature em-
bellished with north Italian detail, pro-
ducing the same mixture of styles char-

acteristic of the Francis I wing at Blois.

The influence of Italian Mannerism
molds the Nymphs from the Fountain
of the Innocents in Paris(fig. 273), by

Jean Goujon, a contemporary of Lescot,

who couples it with a distinctly French
quality. These slender figures in low re-

lief create appropriate decoration. The

drapery clings to and reveals the bodies,
as they turn languidly in studied poses;

the proportions are reminiscent of such

mannered figures as Cellini's Nymph of
Fontainebleau, with which Goujon must
have been familiar. Here the head is one
ninth of the total height of the figure; she
therefore appears to be a courtly lady, tall

and slender. On the other hand, the

linear design is more delicate, the con-

ception exhibits a French elegance, and

the type of face and figure is quite dis-
tinct from the Italian. Through such
works as these Goujon shows his sub-

tletyand refinement.
Germain Pilon (1535-90) in his

Christ of the Resurrection (fig. 274) is

self-conscious in his attack on the prob-

lems of realism. His zest in detail con-
veys his desire for a literal summary of
the form, and for precise anatomy to ex-
274. Germain Pilon (1535-90) Christ of the
press suffering. The statue has power,
Resurrection (c. 1583) Church of St. Paul-
though its design, delicacy, and charm St. Louis, Paris. 5*7" high.

seem unequal to Goujon's fountain. In

the other countries in Europe, the same ifications of the Gothic to more com-
sequence of style may be traced as in plete acceptance of the Renaissance and
architecture, running from slight mod- Italian point of view.
34 6 THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH

Much the most important develop- most a transitional figure. Little of the

ment of painting outside of Italy dur- Renaissance affected his earlier work,
ing the sixteenth century took place in and yet in his career as a whole some-
Germany. The technique practiced in thing of the Renaissance can be de-
the north derives from the oil painting tected. His love of microscopic detail
of the medieval Flemish school, not is purely northern. On the other hand,
from Italian tempera or fresco methods. his concern with perspective, the zest
It offers the same opportunity for with which he seizes any opportunity to
minute detail on a lacquer-like surface sketch exotic animals with fidelity, and
that existed for the Van Eycks and their occasionally the weight of his figures

followers. The earliest and greatest of and his compositions imply that he was
these northern painters, Albrecht Diirer familiar with Italian Renaissmce ideals

(1471-1528), is still a medieval or at —no doubt through the constant com-

275. Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528) Adoration of the Magi (1504) Uffizi, Florence. 3'f x $'%".
 DURER
347

276. Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528) Four Saints (1526) Museum, Munich. Each panel 6'8"
x 2' 5 ".
34§ THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH

munication of the two countries at this of form is increased. A genuine monu-

time— even before his own trips across mentality inspires these figures, clad in
the Alps into Italy. ample draperies whose very plainness
The commanding position occupied adds to the grandeur of the types. Nat-
in Diirer's output by religious subject uralistic in detail though the heads are,

matter betrays his medieval origin. The some of them even prosaic, the avoid-

Adoration of the Magi (fig. 275) is ance of enrichment in the massive folds
characteristic. The Flemish oil tech- of the costumes lends a noble simplicity

nique, but slightly modified, makes pos- to this design. Durer gives us here a
sible the polished surface and the clarity microcosm of mankind, since the four
of detail. What joy he takes in the but- saints symbolize the four tempera-
terfly and beetle on the steps, the iris ments or complexions— sanguine, chol-
growing from a joint between the stones, eric, phlegmatic, and melancholic— into
the jeweled brocades of the costumes which current belief divided humanity.
of his Magi, and the anthropological For such a purpose, the elemental gran-
painting of the Negro! The Virgin, as deur of these figures is vital.

always, adheres to the local physical Although Durer never deserted the
type— in this case to the blonde com- Catholic Church, he was not unaffected
plexion, light hair, and tendency to by the religious ferment that, during his
fleshiness that, rightly or wrongly, we lifetime, gave birth to the Lutheran Ref-
associate with German womanhood. ormation. Criticism of the Church in
There is little of the Renaissance here. Germany was widespread, and was ex-
To be sure, the ruins in the background pressed not only by the spoken and
show round arches, but they are too printed word, but in some respects with
elementary to be called classic or even greater effect by graphic illustration.

Italian. The naturalistic detail, though Diirer's master, Michael Wolgemut, for

typical of the early Renaissance, is example, made an engraving of the

equally pronounced in the northern late- Church as the Whore of Babylon. The
Gothic painting of the fifteenth cen- age called for serious thought on reli-

tury, and in itself can hardly be accepted gious problems, though it is only the ex-
as evidence of the Renaissance. The ceptional woodblock or print that is anti-

form of the Madonna and the largeness clerical. Durer was even more important
of conception, however, do suggest the in the graphic arts than in painting.
existence of a new spirit creeping in to Two series, the Large and the Small
the northern schools. Passion, reveal Diirer's medieval inten-
The painting of the Four Saints, sity of belief in the tragic incidents of
John, Peter, Mark, and Paul (fig. 276), Christ's trial and death. In the Four
being later, is more affected by Italian Horsemen of the Apocalypse, a woodcut,
sources, though it does not lose its Ger- he shows the figures riding roughshod
manic character. In this case, the sense over the burghers of his native Nurem-
 DURER - CRANACH 349

berg, artisan, merchant, and housewife of Paris, are laughable in their naivete.
alike. The engraving of Knight, Death, These slender blonde-haired German
and the Devil shows a knight-errant in girls, who seem coy and a little embar-
sixteenth-century armor accompanied on rassed by their nakedness, parody Olym-
his way by a skeleton armed with scythe pian characters. Such conceptions are
and hourglass, and followed by a devil worlds removed from the sensuous ideal-
whose horn and piggish snout seem un- ization given to similar themes by Gior-
likely to tempt anyone. These works gione and Titian.
prove how sober was Diirer's view of Cranach's best paintings are straight-
life. They also reveal him to be a great forward half-length portraits. In some,
master in the graphic arts, with a power the costume of the sitters is amazing for

in black and white rarely equaled and its wealth of elaboration rendered with
never surpassed. microscopic precision, but in many of
The same sobriety raised to the acme the finest paintings the sitters are
of religious mysticism dominates the plainly dressed. The Dr. Scheuring in
celebrated Isenheim altarpiece by Mat- the Brussels Museum, clad in a fur-
thias Griinewald (c. 1485-c. 1530). It trimmed robe, is typical of these fig-

builds up to its startling effect in all pos- ures in the artist's unpretentious pres-
sible ways. The enamel-like surface en- entation of his subject. Though not de-
ables the literal detail to be observed void of modeling, Cranach's portraits
with unnatural clarity. The figures are rely more on delineation, on a clean-

posed with outlandish angularity. The cut silhouette against a background of

dark sky throws them into prominence a single tone of clear color— light tan,
as they point toward the Crucifixion. pale green, or most often, a robin's egg
But above all, the unearthly greenish blue. The decorative value of this sim-
tonality makes this painting look, as it ple combination of color and line is un-
was intended to look, like a scene from deniable.
another world, gaunt, powerful, and Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-
tragic. 1543), almost a generation later than
Very different was Lucas Cranach the Diirer and Griinewald, shows a quite
Elder (1472-1553), who lived in Sax- different attitude toward religion. Born
ony, the birthplace of the Reformation. and trained in Swiss Basel, he belonged
Religious subject matter accounted for to the same cosmopolitan group as Eras-

a smaller proportion of his work than of mus and Melanchthon. He became a

his predecessors', and what there was painter for the merchant class, and
was somewhat affected by Protestant- therefore religious subjects played an in-
ism. On the other hand, he was eager to cidental role in his career. They were
keep abreast of the classic spirit of the not wholly neglected, however, as the
Renaissance. His paintings of mythol- engraved series of the Dance of Death
ogy, such as Venus and the Judgment can testify. His most important paint-
35° THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH

277. Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543) Georg Gisze (1532) Museum, Berlin. 3V x z'q".

ing, theMadonna of the Burgomaster of Basel and his wives and family. One
Meyer, seems to prove that Holbein is cannot help wondering whether Meyer's
indifferent to the religious characters. living wife relished the prominence
What interests the artist are the kneel- given to his deceased and shrouded
ing portraits of that substantial citizen wife. Even the Madonna looks middle
 HOLBEIN 35 1

class. This secular attitude is more

Renaissance than Diirer's had been.
Further, where Diirer adopts a sub-
jective attitude, and comments on his
theme, Holbein is objective, dispassion-
ate. No one more keenly analyzes the
characters of his sitters than Holbein,
but his purpose is to show exactly what
they are like, rather than what they
might be. Georg Gisze (fig. 277) is

a shrewd merchant of the German

Steelyard in London, the establish-

ment of the Hanseatic businessmen.

In his office Gisze is surrounded by
the materials of his trade, a box of
coins open on the table before him,
ink, receipted bills, other business doc-

uments on the wall beside him, and

a curiously wrought container for a ball
278. Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543)
of string over his head. The texture of
Jane Seymour (1536) Museum, Vienna, z'z"
each of these details Holbein treats with x i' 7 ".

objective realism, and their presence as-

(fig. 278) is simpler. While hardly less
sists in the characterization of the in-
literal in effect, a linear style is adopted
dividual. One understands Gisze better
with little shadow or modeling of the
than if he were present in the flesh be-
form. The result is an exquisitely fin-
fore us, because the portrait is not only
ished, enamel-like panel. Each detail of
a speaking likeness, but one where the
costume or feature is precise from a
personality of the man has been under-
graphic point of view. The plain back-
scored visually to bring out those traits
attention on the
ground concentrates all
of character which Holbein, the analyist, Such an analysis
features of the sitter.
discovered in him. Without allowing appears to be based on a careful draw-
his own personality to appear, Holbein ing in line, executed at a single sitting;
concentrates on this objective presenta- this might then be translated into the
tion. finished portrait at the artist's leisure in
The Gisze was painted shortly after his shop. Such details as those of the

Holbein's arrival in England, partly to costume could be taken from whatever

demonstrate his ability. It is therefore dress the subject chose to select and

more elaborate in its setting than most have sent to Holbein's studio, but the
of his portraits. The Jane Seymour personality must have been established
35 : THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH

that fact. Holbein, to be sure, also

painted members of the court of Henry
VIII of England, but always with un-
sparing honesty. Clouet is less analytical

and less frank. His portraits do not con-

vey the same impression of a human
personality dissected before us; rather
his figures present themselves less as
they are than as they would like to be.
Perhaps Elizabeth of Austria was as
handsome as she is rendered, but Clou-
et's portrait of her does not inspire the
same feeling of authenticity as do Hol-
bein's portraits, or of power. Neverthe-

less, Clouet's portraits are exquisite in

drawing, and have an egg-shell fragility
in them fraught with infinite charm.
The same elegance that characterizes
Goujon's sculpture recurs here, and
279. Francois Clouet (c. 1505-72) Elizabeth
of Austria, Louvre, Paris. 14" x 10' helps to give them their peculiarly

French flavor. These portraits, like Hol-

through a short period of observation,
bein's, were based on quick sketches,
and especially through the artist's intel-
but many such drawings were never in-
lectual analysis of his subject.
tended to be used for paintings; they
The technique of Holbein, like that
were collected as we collect photographs
of Diirer, still continues the Flemish oil
of our friends. Francis I and his succes-
medium. The method proved equally
sors loved to thumb through albums of
applicable to the religious sobriety of
these drawings, and sometimes to write
Diirer, the merchant portraiture of Hol-
remarks upon them concerning the sit-
bein, and the court portraiture of the
Clouets France.
ters, compliments or frank and even
in Francois Clouet,
painter to Francis I and later to Henry ribald comments on the beauty, per-

II, in his Elizabeth of Austria (fig.

sonality, or conduct of the subjects.
279)
is quite similar to Holbein in technique Meanwhile, the imported Italian art-

and in his two-dimensional pattern-like ists were enriching the gallery of Francis
approach. He differs from Holbein as I at Fontainebleau, or the Chateau of

one would expect a court portraitist to Ancy-le-Franc, with Mannerist paint-

differ from an artist many of whose pa- ings and schemes of decoration. In the
trons belonged to the merchant class former, effects of architecture, sculpture,
and whose point of view was colored by and painting are mingled. Decorative
 CLOUET - BRUEGEL 353

nudes, echoes of the Sistine ceiling, Flemish painting in the early sixteenth
combine with elongated figures in man- century in his epoch-making canvases.
nered poses and with cartouches bear- Like many of his predecessors he trav-
ing the royal monogram. In his panel, eled to Italy in 1553, but unlike them he
Geometry, at Ancy-le-Franc, Francesco made no attempt to borrow Italianmo-
Primaticcio (1504-70) accepted the tives. When he painted the Fall of
muscular male figures of Michelangelo Icarus, he relegated that incident to the
together with the complex compositions background despite the inclusion of all

of the Mannerist painters. the details of the story mentioned in

As in Germany, so in Flanders the Ovid's Metamorphoses. In the fore-

medieval school gradually became aware ground, he substituted a Flemish peas-

of the Renaissance. One man after an- ant plowing a field. The influence of
other, such as Jan Gossaert, called Ma- Bosch on Bruegel is prominent in the

buse (c. 1478-1533), made the pilgri- kaleidoscopic wealth of detail in such
mage to Italy, to return with more or paintings as the Flemish Proverbs, or
less Italianism in his baggage. Others, the Children's Games, compositions
less affected by the prevailing wave of that show Bruegel's encyclopedic inter-
southern influence, showed the spirit of est in the life of his time.
the times in different ways. The extraor- The canvases commonly called Hunts-

dinary fantasies of Jerome Bosch (c. men in the Snow, The Harvesters, The
1450-1516) provided a precedent for Return of the Herds, and others show
the Surrealist painters of the twentieth Bruegel's grasp of the possibilities of

century. Save for his sacred characters, he landscape painting at varying seasons of
reveled in grotesque types; but even the year. The many small Flemish fig-

more fantastic are such details as a pair ures, engaged in activities appropriate to

of enormous human ears pierced by an the month, give some genre quality to
arrow and separated by a knife, or a these paintings, but that is so subordi-

body whose legs are gnarled trees and nated to the larger conception of the
whose egg-shell torso is broken to admit landscape as a whole that Bruegel may be
a glimpse of human figures within it. called the first great landscape painter
The inexhaustible wealth of his imagi- in the European tradition.

nation nowhere found a fuller oppor- Even more important was Bruegel's
tunity than in the Temptation of St. preoccupation with the vitality of Flem-
Anthony and The Garden of Earthly ish life. To him, the common man of-

Delights; such paintings cannot be de- fered all the opportunity he needed for
scribed; they must be examined in de- his study of humanity; it was a passion
tail. that dominated his work whether the
Pieter Bruegel, the Elder (c. 1525- subject was mythology, a religious inci-

69) wove together the diverse threads of dent such as The Carrying of the Cross,
354 THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH

280. Pieter Bruegel the Elder (c. 1525-69) Peasant Dance (c. 1567) Museum, Vienna, ^'g"
x 5' 5 ".

landscape, or genre. The Parable of the ing, but amazingly energetic withal! The
Blind Men was to him a file of beggars lust for life was strong in the sixteenth
tumbling into a ditch, while the Hire- century.
ling Shepherd was a Flemish shepherd. The composition both in the Peasant
His innate Flemish realism, with a spir- Dance and in the Peasant Wedding
ited emphasis on the awkward peasant (Plate v, facing p. 332) is informal, as
types, found full play in the Peasant befits their subjects. In the former,
Dance (fig. 280) A century before, Van
. certain shapes repeat themselves in
der Goes had introduced Flemish peas- the gables of the houses and the
ants into his Portinari Altarpiece (fig. heads and shoulders of the figures.

183) as participants in a devotional The table in the Peasant Wedding

scene. By BruegeFs time, the secularism creates strong diagonals that serve to
of the Renaissance had left not a trace define the figures in space. Accurate
of religious motive in this genre subject, as these figures are in essentials, the old
based on daily life. How these clodhop- microscopic detail has disappeared. In-
pers and their wivespound through the stead, the forms are enough simplified
vigorous movements of the dance, to yield a pattern of shapes and colors.
clumsy in person and uncouth in cloth- Great patches of red and blue, large
 BRUEGEL 355

shapes and masses, create a stirring ara- has been suggested, a Harvest Festival,
besque of fine visual consequence. So Surely Bruegel, both as a painter and as
effective are the forms, space, and color an observer of the lusty vitality of life,

that it makes little difference whether still is not accorded a sufficiently high
the subject is a Peasant Wedding or, as niche in the history of art.
 &x

r^y)£^^-^
XV The Italian Baroque

To a considerable extent, the Baroque Council of Trent (1545-63), while the

style, though it reaches its full develop- Jesuit Order, founded in 1540 by St.
ment only in the seventeenth century, Ignatius Loyola on military lines, proved
is the fruit of the Catholic Counter to be a powerful weapon in the hands
Reformation of the sixteenth century. of the Church in its fight against the

Although that style made itself felt spread of heresy. One product of the
even in non-Catholic countries, such as purification of the Church and its con-
England and Holland, the style orig- sequent strength was a renewed and al-

inated in Italy and found its fullest ex- most arrogant affirmation of the author-
pression in Italy, Spain, and Catholic ity of the Church and its unity. The
Flanders. The sad condition of the scale and size of St. Peter's in Rome sug-
Church, that provoked the Reformation gest that.
in the north, did not pass unnoticed in Another result was an emphasis on
Italy itself. Therefore, a small group of the sufficiency of faith and its emotional
devout men, during the pontificate of nature. The religious experience of such
the worldly Leo X, formed the Oratory a typical Counter Reformation saint as
of Divine Love work for the purifica-
to St. Theresa of Avila was physical in its

tion of the Church from within. The emotionalism and violence. Moreover,
reform movement grew with such land- the renewed faith made its appeal to
marks as the establishment of the Do- the emotions through the senses more
minican Inquisition, the Index, and the than through the mind. Hence one finds
356
 CHARACTER OF THE BAROQUE 357

a growth in the dramatic conception of beyond and ever beyond, instead of be-
art which often produces a desire to ing contained and complete and final in
astonish the observer by effects that itself.

seem unbelievable, or by a theatrical Coupled with this depth, and at times

presentation in sculpture and painting an instrument to attain it, is a fresh
of both miraculous and common events. concern with light and shade and an
Naturally, this leads to violent move- extensive exploration of its possibil-

ment. Individual figures throw them- ities. The Renaissance had confined its

selves around in excited gesticulation, interest in light and shade largely to the
enhanced by wind-tossed flights of modeling of the figures. Indeed, in

drapery. Turbulence may at times help many cases, though light molds the ob-
the intensity of expression; at other jects, it casts little shadow. The Ba-
times, it becomes mere restlessness. This roque, however, ranges from the personal
tendency is not found in the figures treatment of light by Rembrandt,
alone but in the composition as well. through the theatricality of Rubens' De-
The geometric schemes of the Renais- scent from the Cross (fig. 296), to the
sance, the triangle, the circle, and the naturalistic light of Velasquez (fig.

symmetrical shapes, which are, so to 294). The same interest in light pro-

speak, complete in themselves, give way vokes the sculptors to undercut the
in the Baroque to asymmetrical designs drapery, and so to play with the sur-

that often emphasize the diagonal line, faces as to induce a variegated design in
a motive in itself incomplete and dy- shade over them. Similarly, the archi-
namic. tects develop plastic arrangements, an
Such a diagonal may cross the picture opulence that creates a sense of move-
plane, or it may consist of movement ment through bold patterns of light

leading the eye into the composition, and shade. In painting, this study intro-

accenting the depth of space the artist duces a painterly approach with an ap-
has at his disposal. The three-dimen- preciable degree of optical realism. It

sional designs of the Renaissance— the does not follow that the results will be
ring of figures in Raphael's School of naturalistic, though they sometimes ap-

Athens (fig. 240) and the pyramid in proach that, but simply that the appeal
Leonardo's Madonna and St. Anne is visual. Hence we find illusionism in

(fig. 229)— exist in space and have more some mural paintings, and a tendency to
or less distant backgrounds. But the make other canvases credible in appear-
spatial depth of the Baroque is more ance, even when they deal with the

dramatic and important to the design; miraculous or with the supernatural.

the movement in depth predominates Such purposes call for a high de-

over both lateral and vertical motion. gree of technical skill, which becomes
The design opens up as though to im- an end in itself— that is, virtuosity.

ply the existence of still greater areas Whether in architecture, sculpture, or

3;8 THE ITALIAN BAROQUE

painting, one is amazed at the dexterity 261 ) . The detail is conservative, though

of the performance of the Baroque art- the proportions of the Doric columns

ist. This may or may not be desirable; are more slender than usual. Each col-
such facility may contribute to legit- umn of the inner row is bound to be
imate ends in the arts, or, if allowed to seen against parts of the columns be-
dominate, it may destroy the feeling for hind it, a fact that tends optically to

the material by playing tricks with it. widen the diameter of the shafts; no
These yarious characteristics are not doubt this suggests the lighter propor-

combined in every example of the Ba- tions of the columns to prevent an ef-

roque, still less in all the works of the fect of too great heaviness.

seyenteenth century. Some of them are On the whole, the design is austere.
present in sixteenth-century artists, as Those who consider that the Baroque
for example the cellar lighting of Cara- is by definition florid and ornate must

vaggio, or the turbulence of Corrcggio's modify their opinion when faced with

frescoes. The late sixteenth century, in- thismonument, where decoration is re-
deed, leads into and merges with the duced to a minimum. The Baroque
Baroque. Also, local conditions modify character of the design is unmistakable.
the completeness with which the Ba- Cher each column of the inner row rises

roque is adopted. At its purest in Cath- a statue to interrupt the skyline and to
olic Italy, Spain, and Flanders, some produce the broken silhouette so com-
elements of the style affect the con- mon in Baroque designs, though the mo-
temporary art of France, Holland, and tive can also be found in the work of
England in varying proportions and in Palladio and Michelangelo. But above
different ways, according to the spirit all, the plan establishes the Baroque
of those countries and the background quality. The trapezoidal shape, foretold
of the artists. Even in a single country, in Michelangelo's group of buildings on
wide latitude is possible. the Capitoline Hill in Rome, lacks the
regularity and geometric simplicity of
Although Michelangelo's rejection of the Renaissance. The oval of the front
the laws of architecture reached its cul- piazza is an unstable form; a dependent
mination in the High Baroque, not all shape, it demands something else for its

monuments of that style are radical. completion, in this case the trapezoidal
When in 1656 Bernini was commis- area and the facade of St. Peter's itself.

sioned to create a setting for St. Peter's, Not only do these forms dramatize the
he divided the space in front of the great space, but they bring movement
church into two parts. The portion into the design, and, like claws, pull the
nearer the facade he treats as a trape- spectator forward.
zoidal piazza, which is, in turn, entered Perhaps because of the quantity of
from an elliptical area outlined on either Bernini's commissions, or perhaps be-
side by colonnades four rows deep (fig. cause he is primarily a sculptor, he
 BORROMINI 359

does not stop with a simple shape, ex-

cept in the dome, whose inner surface
is paneled with crosses and irregular
hexagons instead of the usual square or
octagonal coffers. The oval plan is not
obvious at first glance, because of semi-
circular protrusions at the ends and semi-
elliptical extensions at the sides. The
entablature winds in and out of these
shapes.
The serpentine facade of San Carlo
(fig. 282) of later date recalls this un-
dulating movement. It is composed of
three bays: the central one on the
ground floor is convex in plan, and the
lateral ones concave; but in the second
story all three are concave with an ellip-

tical sentry box in the center to provide

a transition. Thus the whole facade is

thrown into movement. At the top,
flame-like curves replace the usual pedi-
ment. Engaged columns are preferred
281. San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome
to pilasters, with a resultant enrichment
(1638-67).
of the light and shade patterns. The
shows little interest in architectural de- columns give an impression of vertically
tail and is content to follow precedent peculiar to much of Borromini's work;
in this respect. Not so with Francesco this impression is due partly to their
Borromini; his interest is architectural, exceptional height but more to the close
and few are the elements of that art spacing he prefers. Moreover, even the
with which his mind does not ex-
fertile capitals are designed anew. Borromini
periment. The Church of San Carlo alle is not content to repeat the time-honored
Quattro Fontane, begun 1638-40, often members of the Corinthian order; he
called San Carlino from its diminutive must turn the corner scrolls inward
size, is built on a tinv and irregular plot. upon themselves instead of outward as

Borromini displays the greatest ingenu- usual. Or, as in his remodeling of the
ity in his solution. Like Bernini in the nave of San Giovanni in Laterano, he
colonnades of St. Peter's, Borromini alternates wide and narrow flutes in his

bases his design upon an oval (fig. 281), pilasters. To the conservatives such ex-
but makes the long rather than the periments are perverse license, calling
short axis dominant. Unlike Bernini, he forth the strictures of such critics as
360 THE ITALIAN BAROQUE

- A

282. Francesco Borromini (1599-1667) San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome (1638-67)
Facade.
 BERNINI 3
6.

Ruskin or Warren; but unless one as- the gardens of the Villa Borghese, and
sumes a sacrosanct immutability of the worked for that family. One of his corn-
orders, they provide novel and exciting missions from them is the Apollo and
variants on the norm, despite the fact Daphne (fig. 283). This prestidigitator
that not all of these experiments are of the seventeenth century would con-
successful, vince us that we do not look here at
stone, but at many other substances.
In spite of his originality, Borromini The texture of male and female flesh is

was overshadowed by the tremendous subtly distinguished and contrasted

popularity of Bernini, so that his oppor- with the textures of cloth, bark, and
tunities were few and frequently on a leaves. Each surface is so handled that
small scale. The same was true of the it almost deceives the eye, and appeals
sculptors. As the favorite of Urban to the physical senses.
VIII and of Alexander VII, Gian Lo- Even more startling is the arrange-
renzo Bernini (1598-1680) could choose ment. The dynamic figures throw their
his own projects and skim the cream of arms about in actions that lead the eye

the commissions flowing from the pa- on a diagonal out of the group rather
pacy and elsewhere. His high fortune than into it. Sculptural compactness is

was foretold by Urban VIII, who, on not an aim here, nor is there the slight-
his election to the chair of St. Peter est indication of the original limits of

said, It is well for you that I, Maffeo the block of stone. Michelangelo had
Barberini, am become pope, but we are said that sculpture should look as if it

even more fortunate that the Cavaliere could be rolled down hill without in-

Bernini should live to decorate our jury, and his work, however capable of
pontificate/ Even when Bernini's star movement within the block, retains that
passed under a cloud during the pon- sense of compactness. The Baroque de-
tificate of Innocent X, which separates sire for visualized movement induced
the other two, he won his way back into Bernini to select the dramatic climax.
partial favor before the end of that the very instant Daphne is being meta-
reign. His fame brought from Louis morphosed into the laurel to escape
XIV an invitation to Paris and Ver- capture by Apollo. Everything must be
sailles to consult on the design for the momentary and in transition.
Louvre; on his journey thither in 1665, But that same movement occurs in
he was received with honors generally portrait busts, where no story exists to

reserved for royalty. The cities through explain it. Francesco d'Este (fig. 284)
which he traveled turned out to do him turns his head to his right, but this

honor, and built temporary triumphal movement is answered by the drapery

arches over his route. Few artists have fluttering off his left shoulder. Why
ever enjoyed such esteem. drapery over armor! Why, indeed, save
As a young man, Bernini studied in that the metallic surfaces of armor seem
3
6, THE ITALIAN BAROQUE

283. Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) Apollo and Daphne (1622-24) Villa
Borghese, Rome. Marble, life-size.
 BERNINI 363

at the sides support concave bits of en-

tablature, which then break back to

permit a convex plan for the center of
the entablature and pediment. This
convex portion gives Bernini the oppor-
tunity to conceal a small window, whose
light runs down gilded rays to the figures
like the spotlight of a theater. Even the
side walls of the chapel play their part
in the scheme; portrait groups in high
relief of members of the Cornaro family
attend the performance in boxes, some
looking toward the stage, and others
glancing around at the rest of the audi-
ence. This operatic setting belongs to
the same century and country that gave
284. Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)
birth to opera as a musical form.
Francesco d'Este (1650-51) Museo Estense,
Modena. Marble, over life-size. Such a setting calls for the dramatic
group of St. Theresa and the angel, an
to Bernini to need a contrasting tex- interpretation in white marble of the
ture, a pattern of light and shade that ecstasy of the saint. She tells how in

deep folds of drapery could supply, a her dreams an angel appeared to her
suggestion of movement that would and transfixed her body with an arrow.
convey a counter action to the head. At that moment, she felt a combination
The finely characterized face breaks into of exquisite pleasure and of such agony
undulations of surface to induce a dy- as to cause her to swoon. Bernini trans-
namic play of light impossible to at- lates this vision literally into stone.
tain in simpler forms. The undercut Momentary as the scene is, the story is

curls of the wig complete the effect in told as though it were re-enacted for us
texture, movement, and shadow. in living characters. Every texture of
These qualities remain paramount in flesh, cloth, and metal is suggested. The
sculpture designed for the Church. The sensuous figures evoke physical responses
religious spirit of the Counter Reforma- in the spectator. A spiritual orgasm is

tion receives full expression in the altar- given expression in physical shape. The
piece of St. Theresa of Avila (fig. 285), sweetness of the angel and the ecstatic
in the Cornaro Chapel of Santa Maria suffering of the saint, fainting on a bank
della Vittoria in Rome. The whole of clouds, tax our credulity. The Ba-
chapel is arranged as a theater. A pro- roque dramatic sense is thus coupled
scenium bent forward like the front of with the Baroque wish to astonish the
a stage frames the altar. Paired columns spectator.
3
64 THE ITALIAN BAROQUE

285. Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) Vision of St. Theresa of Avila (1645-52) Cornaro
Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome. Marble.
 BERNINI

286. Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) Tomb of Alexander VII (1671-78) St. Peter's, Rome.
Marble and gilt bronze, 24V high x 19' 4" wide.

Equally dynamic and typical of the (fig. 286) Four allegorical figures, whose
.

Baroque point of view is such a tomb gestures bear little relation to their
as that of Alexander VII in St. Peter's meaning, begin the scheme, two in the
3
66 THE ITALIAN BAROQUE

foreground and two behind. A grim came from the beams of the Pantheon
skeleton pushes aside the billows of roof, the wits of the day coined the
fringed drapery carved in colored mar- quip, 'Quod non fecit barbari, fecerunt

ble, and struggles upward to reach the Barberini'— 'What the barbarians did
kneeling pope at the top. Thus does not do, the Barberini have done/
the Baroque represent even death as a
melodrama. The Renaissance feeling of
No painter arose in Italy to challenge
the position occupied in sculpture by
repose has given way to movement, re-
Bernini, though the art of painting was
straint to abandon. This type of tomb
hardly less flourishing. Guercino's Burial
remains the vogue until the end of the
of St. Petronilla (fig. 287) is character-
eighteenth centurv.
Tomb istic. Here is the same Baroque dexterity,
The St. Theresa group and the
the control over perspective, the figure,
of Alexander VII combine sculpture
and architecture. One hardly knows and the sense of depth. The design be-

whether to describe the Baldacchino of

St. Peter's (fig. 262) as one or the other.
This vast canopy has to accent the high
altar of the church, itself a small feature,

and yet must not block the vista down

the nave to Bernini's own composition
enclosing the Chair of St. Peter at the
end of the church; it has to challenge
the scale of the church without confu-
sion with the architecture. Dark bronze
serves this purpose well; its color con-
trasts with the lighter travertine stone-
work of the building, and yet its strength
allows the four twisted columns to rise
as high as an eight-story building. These
vine-covered shafts that enframe the
altar spiral upward in answering curves,
the direction of turning reversed in each
pair. From their architraves hang bronze
draperies, embroidered and tasseled.
The columns support angels and scrolls

that join in the center to hold the ball

and cross. Over all these architectural
members crawl thousands of bees, the
heraldic emblem of the Barberini fam- 287. Guercino (1591-66) Burial of St. Petro-
nilla (1621) Capitoline Museum, Rome.
ily. Since the bronze for this monument 2^'j" x 13'ic)".
 BERNINI - PAINT ING 367

288. Fra Andrea Pozzo f 1642-1 709) Ceiling of Nave, Sant' Ignazio, Rome (1691-4)

comes open by contrast with the closed Similarly, in the ceiling of Sant'
designs of the Renaissance. Our eye Ignazio (fig. 288), one of the huge Ba-
runs from the men who place the body roque decorative schemes, Fra Andrea
of the saint in its grave at the bottom, Pozzo gives us a glimpse of the Apothe-
through curving masses that sweep to osis of St. Ignatius Loyola. Here is illu-

one side and back to the other, alwavs sionism carried to its conclusion. The
striving upward and inward. A succes- vault of the church is imagined away.
sion of dynamic diagonals carries the An elaborate ensemble of columns and
observer through the painting; thev do arches, bits of entablature and so on,
not permit his attention to rest at any rises above the walls and in their plane
point. The scene itself has the same the center of the vault is open to the

sensationalism, and the figures the same sky. Within this void, Pozzo explodes
physical appeal as Bernini's St. Theresa. a host of figures. Saints and angels with
It calls upon our faith for appreciation, fluttering draperies rest upon clouds,
and we must not expect the moment sit on the painted architecture, or rise
represented to last. It is the dramatic and fall in space. The perspective is cal-

climax that absorbs Guercino's interest. culated from a specific point on the
3 68
THE ITALIAN BAROQUE

289. Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770) Institution of the Rosary, Gesuati, Venice.
 PAINTING 369

floor of the church, and from that point the dynamic composition of the Ba-
the effect is astonishing. So perfectly roque, but combines them with tradi-

has Pozzo taken into account the light tions in drawing and color inherited
and painted shadows, that one cannot from Veronese. The explosive energy of
tell where the real architecture stops and the Baroque lessens as the Rococo spirit

the painting begins. These figures spill of the new century lightens the motives
over on constructed parts of the build- it has inherited, and replaces gusto with
ing as well as on those that are merely vivacity. The color also betrays its date
envisioned. We may question the valid- in its lighter value and softer quality. By
ity of this tour de force on the ground this time, Venice had become a tourist

that a surface can hardly be decorated center, catering to a taste for gaiety and
by denying its existence, but Pozzo and entertainment. Such painters as Antonio
his contemporaries would have rejected Canale, called Canaletto, whose work
this theory, and if we accept his premise, was popular in England, and Francesco
the result could not be improved. Guardi recorded the pageants and spec-
A testimonial to the force of Baroque tacles of Venice as well as its buildings,
decorative tradition lies in its continu- canals, and lagoons, while Pietro Longhi
ation in the eighteenth century. The chronicled the frivolous social life of

Institution of the Rosary (fig. 289) on the citv. If these later Italian painters
the ceiling of the Gesuati in Venice, by lack the stature of their forebears, at
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770), least they portray the city and its society

retains the movement, the fancy, and in their day.

XVI Some Spanish Painters

Though Italy was untouched by the Domenikos Theotokopoulos (1541-

Protestant Reformation and remained 1614), the first Spanish painter of in-

the home of the papacy and the Church, ternational importance, was born at
it was too weak to play an important Candia in the island of Crete. Like the
role in European politics during the rest of the Greek world, Crete was still

late sixteenth and early seventeenth cen- Byzantine in culture; therefore El

turies. Therefore, became the
Spain Greco, as this painter was nicknamed,
prop of the Catholic Church and the must have been aware from his child-
real home of the Catholic Counter hood of the Eastern willingness to dis-
Reformation. It is significant that the tort the figures for the sake of either
Inquisition was associated with Spain design or emotion. However, he received
in the popular mind, and that the his training in Venice, probably from
founder of the Jesuit order and many one of the Bassani family, contempo-
of the other early Jesuit saints were raries of Tintoretto and of Titian's old
Spaniards. Spain has been described as age, the generation of Mannerism. That
a land of contrasts, of the subtropical training left its mark on his work for
coastal area and the bleak and arid years afterward.
plains of the center, of the fabulous For example, the Purification of the
wealth of the hidalgos and the abysmal Temple (fig. 290), painted shortly be-
poverty of the peons, of gaunt austerity fore he settled in Toledo in 1577, is still

and sentimental emotionalism. strongly Venetian. Its architecture be-

370
 EL GRECO
37 1

290. El Greco (1541-1614) Purification of the Temple (1571-74) Institute of Arts, Minne-
apolis. 3'io" x 4'io".

trays that origin, and so too does the Indeed, El Greco more than any other
sumptuous color, not yet personal to El artist becomes the painter of that
Greco himself. Moreover, the figures movement; its mystic emotionalism, its

and the calculated geometry of the com- fervid faith, find in him an interpreter.
position (p. 9) testify to the thor- For example, the Burial of Gonzalo
oughness of Venetian training. The sub- Ruiz, Count of Orgaz (fig. 291), re-

ject, too, has significance. El Greco re- cords a local legend of Toledo. St.

peats it at least six times during his Stephen, whose martyrdom is embroi-
career, though in earlier history the mo- dered on the hem of his robe, and St.

tive is rare. Surely one is justified in Augustine reappear on earth to lower

recognizing here an allusion to the puri- the body into the grave. Dressed in the
fication of the Church by the Council sumptuous vestments of the Spanish
of Trent, one of the most important church, their identity has not yet be-
fruits of the Catholic Counter Refor- come apparent to the noble friends of
mation. Orgaz or to most of the clergy. Mean-
37 2
SOME SPANISH PAINTERS

291. El Greco (1541-1614) Burial of the Count of Orgaz (1586) S. Tome, Toledo, 15'c/'
x n'9".

while, the heavens have opened to re- Christ in the center; below Him to
ceive the soul of this just man, an ec- either side, the Madonna and St. John
static vision witnessed by the priest in the Baptist intercede for the soul of
the right foreground. El Greco paints Orgaz, a vague form wrapped in swad-
 EL GRECO 373

dling clothes and borne aloft in the

arms of an angel. El Greco does not
hesitate to distort these heavenly figures;
their proportions are elongated, in part
through Mannerist tradition, and per-
haps through some dimly remembered
Byzantine conventions, but more as a
personal and expressive element of El
Greco's style. Here, too, his individual
color scheme, characterized by a lumi-
nous white, is displayed. El Greco is

attempting to express the supernatural

by means of the unnatural.
The lower half of the painting forms
a deliberate contrast. A portrait group
of the Spanish nobility have gathered
to attend the last rites of their friend.
They stand in sober grief behind the
group of priests and saints in the fore-

ground. Neither the palette nor the pro-

portions are unnatural in this scene, but
then these figures are of the earth. Con-
trasted as are the upper and lower halves
of this design, they are visually co-ordi-
nated with magnificent success. Curved
lines rise from the backs of St. Augus-
tine and St. Stephen through the angel
into the rhythms of the upper part, and
bind the two sections together. One
292. El Greco (1541-1614) Resurrection
may examine details of El Greco's paint- (1595-1600) Prado, Madrid. 9' x 4V.
ing in photographs, but such details

never look complete. They always ap- that nothing can be added or taken
pear to need something else, so com- away.
pletely has El Greco subordinated each The Orgaz was painted within ten
part to the whole. This cannot always years of the time that El Greco had ar-
be said even of great painters; one can rived in Spain. His later work, such as
sometimes find a part of a painting that the Resurrection (fig. 292), is further
is an entity in itself; but with El Greco, removed from nature. By this time his
the building of a picture is so integrated dynamic sense, foretelling the Baroque,

M
374 SOME SPANISH PAINTERS

has grown apace, and the forms them- portraits alike are filtered through El
selves partake of the action. Especially Greco's mystical nature.
is this conveyed through El Greco's In portraiture, too, he ranks with the
peculiar light, a whitish light, which best. The Nino de Guevara (Plate vi,

flickers over the forms where it is facing p. 333) is a solid painting of that
needed, not so much for its own sake leader of the Spanish Inquisition. His
as to increase the upward movement. puritanical conviction of the justness of
That light helps to give El Greco's his cause and austere determination to
palette its unique flavor; his reds and prosecute it to the limit do not conceal
blues, yellows and greens mold the the intellectuality of this head. Was the
forms they enrich, but each of them piece of paper on the floor that might
models toward this living whiteness have slipped from his fingers an anon-
found in the work of no other painter. ymous accusation of heresy that has

One reason for the mysticism of El caused the cardinal thus to deliberate?

Greco's paintings and for their religious Perhaps so; in fact it bears El Greco's

poignancy is the upward movement of

signature. The gorgeous crimson robes
of the cardinal are set off against a back-
the light. Not only are the forms elon-
gated and accented by light, but they
ground of yellowish tones, subdued in

intensity. Significantly, El Greco places

are piled one above another. The risen
the sitter in an armchair neither facing
Christ with the banner of the resurrec-
the observer, nor in profile; rather the
tion ascends above a sprawling devil,
chair is at an angle that introduces
whose arms and legs conduct our eyes
diagonal planes for the front and sides
up to the Saviour.
of the figure, and thus enhances the
Though most of El Greco's work is
space by which the figure is surrounded.
religious, he does not confine himself
This is combined, however, with a
to that field. The View of Toledo in
linear pattern of curves in sequence,
the Metropolitan Museum is said to be
each leading to the head, a succession
the first pure landscape in the Euro-
of drop-shaped loops which establish
pean tradition— that is, the first with harmony of line. The patterned leather
no figures to provide an excuse for the of the wall completes the design, so that
scenery. A more dynamic landscape even the setting becomes an integral
would be hard to find, as El Greco re- part of the scheme.
solves the hill where Toledo is built Very different from El Greco, and a
into a succession of swirling curves, an- generation later, is Jose de Ribera (1588-
swered in the stormy sky. The strong 1656), who spent most of his active life

greens of the land create a base for the in Naples, at that time under Spanish
steely blues and whites above. Even in domination. His violent spirit vibrates
this field, his personality transforms the between themes of sentimental piety,

subject; landscape, religious themes, and such as in the St. Agnes, and ferocity,
 EL GRECO - VELASQUEZ 375

as in the Martyrdom of St. Bartholo-

mew. The vigorous types and deep
shadows attest the influence of Cara-
vaggio and the Tenebroso style, and at
best give his paintings strength akin to
his own swashbuckling nature; but the
shadows are apt to produce an unpleas-
ant griminess of tone.
With but one important exception,
El Greco received no patronage from
Philip II. That cold and bigoted mon-
arch could not appreciate El Greco's
fiery intensity. On the other hand, Don
Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velasquez
(1599-1660) became court painter to
Philip IV. Though he made two trips
to Italy, he seems not to have been af-

fected by the work of any particular

artists he saw there. This is not surpris- 293. Velasquez (1599-1660) Innocent X
(1650) Palazzo Doria, Rome, q'j" x 3'n".
ing in view of his instinct for optical
realism. Few painters have observed the Vulcan, with the sturdy blacksmiths at
facts of vision so clearly or recorded home but the god in his aureole of light
them so easily. The subtlest changes in distinctly out of place.
light or atmosphere flow from his brush. With this ability to catch the essence

Velasquez could paint anything that he of visual reality, one would expect
could see; therein lies his strength and Velasquez to be successful in portrai-
his weakness, for he lacked the ability ture, and so he was. The portrait of In-

to envision what he could not see. nocent X (fig. 293) in tones of red and
Whenever his subject deals with an un- white, a product of his second trip to
real world his imagination collapses, so Italy, shows an intensity of characteriza-
that in his few Madonnas and mytho- tion rarely equaled. The intellectual
logical characters he is not at his best. force and strong personality of the pope
In the painting called the Topers, Los are portrayed with a vividness at once
Borrachos, an initiation of a follower of faithful to externals and analytical. In
Bacchus, the god is the least effective pose, Velasquez seems here to be influ-
figure of the group. On the other hand, enced by the Greco portrait of Nino
the older devotees, as human figures, de Guevara: Innocent X sits in an arm-
are magnificent. His Mars has been de- chair placed at an angle to the picture
scribed as an undressed policeman. A plane, as though to involve the sense of
Spanish smithy serves for the Forge of depth. But Velasquez does not com-
37 6
SOME SPANISH PAINTERS

294. Velasquez (1599-1660) Las Meninas (1656) Prado, Madrid, ic/5" x 9'

pose his figure or its background with keen analysis. El Greco went on to syn-
the richness of El Greco. He is content thesize his observations with the pic-
to leave the painting as a plain state- torial interest of composition.
ment of the looks and character of his Velasquez zeal for optical realism has
sitter, the fruit of his vision and his full scope in such canvases as the Maids
 VELASQUEZ 377

of Honor, Las Meninas (fig. 294). This composition. Light from the window
is a genre scene, a painting of everyday whose jamb is visible to the right bathes

life. It happened one day that Velasquez the principal group. Being close at hand,
was busy painting the portraits of the these persons are most sharply seen.
king and queen, as he must frequently Farther back a second plane, marked by
have been. The little Infanta, sur- a second window, includes canvases of
rounded by her ladies-in-waiting, wan- Velasquez and a mirror on the wall. Not
dered in to observe the progress of the much of pictorial interest occurs here,

picture, and while there sent one of her lest this zone compete with the main
attendants for a glass of water, which subject, though its recession is clear.

has just been brought. The princess Outside the door is a courtier, not
stands in the center with her maids, merely smaller than the foreground fig-

nuns, dwarfs, and pets. To the left, the ures, but with a thicker veil of atmos-
artist works at his canvas, while a cour- phere between him and our eyes.
tier looks back from the open door on Finally, the king and queen reflected in
the scene he has just left, and finally the mirror, though they stand in the
the king and queen themselves are re-
position of spectators to this canvas, are
flected in a mirror on the studio wall.
visually the furthest away. The light
This incident has no particular sig-
from their persons must travel to the
nificance, and yet Luca Giordano once
further wall and back to our eye. Not
referred to the Maids of Honor as a
only are they small through perspective
theology of painting. The handling is
but, though still recognizable, they are
broad; details are summarized to record
the least precisely painted characters in
their visual effect. A few touches suffice
the whole canvas. To render four planes
to establish the flowered headdress of
in the limitless spaces of out-of-doors
the kneeling lady-in-waiting, and the
involves great depth, but there the con-
pleats and ribbons of the Infanta's
trast between the several planes is large.
gown. In such breadth, as well as in the
Velasquez finds that contrast within the
optical realism, Velasquez anticipates
limited dimensions of an interior, and
the nineteenth-century Impressionists.
renders it with so sure a touch that the
Space envelops the figures. One senses
the volumes of air within the room, and space has become real.

even the visual effect of the atmosphere His feeling for space and his interest

on distant compared with nearer ob-

as in light link Velasquez to the Baroque,
jects. In distinguishing no less than but the religious side of that movement
four planes of light within a small in- touched him not at all. Bartolome Este-
terior by subtle gradations of values and ban Murillo (1617-82), however, ex-

intensities, Velasquez accomplishes a emplifies the sentimental side of Ba-

tour de force of painting. These planes roque faith in his Immaculate Concep-
define the spatial relationships of the tion (fig. 295), one of his many versions
378 SOME SPANISH PAINTERS

295. Bartolome Estcban Murillo (1617-82) Immaculate Conception Louvre,

(1678) Paris.
 MURILLO 379

of a theme popular in his day. Once a thrown back, and the eyes rolling up-

general favorite, Murillo is now less ad- ward. Such sentiment comes close to
mired. His compositions are satisfactory, the saccharine banalities of religious

with a predilection for the diagonal, calendar art, which has not infrequently
here created by the attributes, and the been inspired by it. On the other hand,
angels who flutter around the Virgin. Murillo could be realistic in his genre
On the other hand, the drawing is weak, paintings of the gamins of his native
and the color, chiefly pinks and blues, Seville. These brats, though not devoid
suggests the tones of the nursery. These of a sentimental appeal, are lively; their
qualities go hand in hand with the pie- clothes are ragged, they are dirty and
tistic sentiment revealed through the tanned, but they have a vitality lacking
hands clasped on the bosom, the head in his sacred characters.
XVII Painting in the Low Countries

FLANDERS and received a schooling in court eti-

During the early seventeenth century, quette of great value to him in later life.

the southern Netherlands was still under That he knew how to behave in the

Spanish domination. Among the richest presence of royalty was proved by his
and most industrious of the Spanish reception at the court of France, where
possessions, Flanders remained within Marie de Medici, then the Queen
the fold of the Catholic Church, though Mother, loved to watch him at work
it required the bloody persecutions of and to talk with him; and again in

the Duke of Alva to stem the tide of England, where Charles him the
I did
the Reformation in those provinces. singular honor of commanding from
Also, an aristocracy continued to play him a self-portrait.
an important role there; like the Church, Rubens received his training as a
it patronized the arts and so helped to painter from several minor Flemish mas-
form the character of Flemish painting. ters. Going to Italy after he was trained,
That character was embodied in the he spent eight additional years copying
work of Peter Paul Rubens ( 577-1640) and studying the works of the Italian
1
the greatest Baroque painter of the 'old masters.' This extraordinary length
north, if not indeed of Europe. As a of what one might call a post-graduate
child, Rubens served as page in the course is worth observing by those who
court of Margaret de Ligne-Aremberg, think they can learn to paint in a few
380
 RUBENS 3 Si

years. On his return from Italy Rubens

opened a studio that soon grew to the
proportions of a picture factory. By
1611, two years after his return, 200
painters and students were active there.
Apparently, there was a division of labor
in this shop; there were independent
painters such as Snyders, who special-
ized in animals,and Jan Bruegel, called
Bruegel de Velours from his interest in
textiles. Rubens recognized this method
in his scale of prices; so much for a can-
vas painted entirely by himself; some-
what less for one where his students had
carried out some of the work; and still

less for products of the studio, un-

touched by the master. Such a system
was financially successful. Rubens made
two large fortunes during the course of
Wm
a career of about thirty years in Flan- 296. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) De-
scent from the Cross (1611-14) Cathedral,
ders. The method was adapted to deco- Antwerp. 13'ic)" x 10V.
rative work, and indeed that point of
view dominated Rubens' style, which partly because of their roles in the in-
perhaps reaches its culmination in the cident, but more because of the Ba-
Marie de Medici series in the Louvre. roque love of movement. These men
Rich in color, which is inherited from and women are strong and healthy, as
Venice, his paintings, regardless of the yet without that exaggerated fleshiness
subject, have vigor and a robust, sensu- that today in Rubens' paintings has re-
ous, physical character. pelled so many. They have a material
The Descent from the Cross (fig. reality that enhances their vigor.

296), painted not long after his return The Rape of the Daughters of Leu-
from Italy, is dramatic. Rubens slashes cippus by Castor and Pollux (fig. 297)
a spotlight across his scene; it follows shows this animal exuberance at its best.
the arms of Christ, the diagonal sweep There is a robust grandeur in these
of the sheet on which he is being low- characters who glory in their energy;
ered, and the Magdalen kneeling at the such rousing love of being needs physi-
foot. The man leaning over the cross, cal expression. The composition seems
the body of Christ, and the red-robed to be based on that of a
lost painting by
figure below restore the equilibrium. Leonardo da Vinci, the Battle of An-
The figures sway backward and forward, ghiari, which is known through a sketch
382 PAINTING IN THE LOW COUNTRIES

297. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus (c. 1618) Museum,
Munich. 7*3" x 6'io".

made of it by Rubens himself. But the fight their captors. Moreover, the forms
diamond shapes have become dynamic. are rendered in short quick curves; the
One point throws itself across the can- abundant flesh of human beings and
vas to catch another, one movement horses, the clouds above and the fea-
sweeps into the next. The actors toss tures of the ground below, all repeat
themselves around, even more violently this curving motive with variations.
than the subject demands, especially Such a design becomes decorative; it

since the two women do not seem to appeals less to the mind than to the
 RUBENS 383

eve. It is not so much concerned with is less eager to create a personality on

telling a story, though it does that too, canvas than to establish a decorative
as with the sheer exuberance of these pattern of color and form. The full-

lush forms. length figure, with its rich costume,

That sense of the decorative domi- feather fan, and flowing hat, forms its

nates even his portraits. Helena Four- own justification. Even half-length por-
ment, Rubens' second wife (fig. 298), traits, such as his Self-Portrait, Rubens
is sufficiently analyzed, but the painter paints in the same way, again with the
broad-brimmed hat cocked at a rakish
angle above his bearded face. These are
brushed in with boldness in full color,

a masculine technique, dashing and su-

premely confident of itself. Just how
sumptuous the color can be is apparent
in the portrait of the Emperor Maxi-
milian I (Plate vii, facing p. 364). His
glittering armor with its gold decora-
tions has for a foil the red curtain and
blue sky. With such color, the character
of the sitter must play a secondary role.

One measure of Rubens' greatness

lies in his diversity. Religious paintings,
mythologies, landscape, and hunting
scenes spring from his brush with equal
readiness. His two principal followers
each took up one or two fields of
Rubens' activity, but could not match
his scope. Jakob Jordaens (1593-1678)
had much of his predecessor's vigor in
his genre composition, The King Drinks.
In this Flemish feast, the king of the
banquet, usually the heaviest drinker,
regulates the pace his subjects must fol-

low. The table groans, as well it may

under such bounty, and if not all the
men live up to standards approved by
Emily Post, nevertheless good spirits

overflow the picture. The gusto with

which these vulgar people are recorded
298. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) Helena
Fourment
forms a seventeenth-century version of
(c. 1631) Hermitage, Leningrad.
3
84 PAINTING IN THE LOW COUNTRIES
the zest for life seen earlier in this region traits are Very often these
displayed.
in the peasant scenes of Pieter Bruegel. finely dressed men and women stand
A sober piety of the middle and lower against a generalized landscape, or per-
classes finds its wav into Jordaens' re- haps against the pedestal and lower
ligious compositions. In color, too, the drums of a classic column, while a deco-

warmth of Rubens' palette is continued. rative sweep of drapery may fill in the

It has been said that Rubens dipped his canvas without distracting too much
brush in blood, Jordaens in fire. from the sitter. The color, influenced by
But where Jordaens accentuates his the Venetians, is fresh, but not so in-

predecessor's animal spirits, Anthony tense as to violate the elegant and re-

van Dvck (1599-1641) concentrates on strained technique that matches his

the courtly side of Rubens' nature. Van characterizations. Through his creation
Dvck's religious canvases and his my- of the society portrait, Van Dyck goes
thologies have a restraint that deprives far to establish English portraiture,
them of the exuberance of Rubens' which reaches its finest native expression
paintings. He is, of course, best known toward the close of the eighteenth cen-
for his portraiture, especially that of the
tury in the paintings of Reynolds and
court of Charles I of England. His
Gainsborough.
Maria Louisa van Tassis (fig. 299) dis-

plays Van Dvck's exquisite drawing. HOLLAND

The costumes and accessories retain
Holland, the northern half of the Low
something of Rubens' decorative qual-
Countries, during earlier times had been
ity, but without that passionate energy
the poor sister of the Flemish school of
that lends power to Rubens' smallest
painting. In the seventeenth century,
work. Van Dvck's are society portraits
local history molded conditions there,
at their best; as such they have neither
different from those in Flanders, which
the vitality of Rubens, nor the dispas-
helped to give rise to an independent
sionate accuracy of Holbein. His court
school of equal or greater eminence than
ladies are always seen to their best ad-
the Flemish. For one thing, Holland
vantage. Surely not all these beauties
were so attractive had become predominantly Protestant.
as thev appear to be
in Van Dvck's canvases. At Therefore, religious painting was almost
its worst,
this idealization may produce the vacu- eliminated. When we reflect how large

ity of a routine society portrait, as it

a proportion of the work of all previous

does in some of the beauties of the court painters had been religious in motive,

of Charles I, even at the hands of Van we must realize how profound was the
Dyck himself. At its best, however, such change when painting ceased to serve
an approach can create a sense of in- the Church. Rembrandt, to be sure,

nate distinction that sheds its social dealt with scriptural subjects, but both
prestige over any room where the por- his choice and his treatment were in-
 VAN DYCK 38:

299. Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641) Maria Louisa van Tassis (c. 1629) Liechtenstein Gallery,
Vienna. 4V x 3'.
3
86 PAINTING IN THE LOW COUNTRIES
spired by a Protestant intimacy with the one may use the term, not only of them-
Bible, not by Catholic faith or dogma. selves, but of their lives and all matters

The spread of Protestantism in Hol- that bore on them. They lived not in
land drove the Dutch on to win their palaces but in comfortable houses, more
independence from Catholic Spain in or less the size of our homes today, and
the long wars that ended with the Peace their paintings were domestic in scale
of Westphalia in 1648. One might ex- and in subject. The canvases could not
pect a school of historical painting to be too large to hang in a room of nor-
commemorate with legitimate pride the mal size, and they dealt with themes
heroic incidents of that struggle. In hung in a home.
appropriate to being
reality, the Dutch were indifferent to Moreover, the Dutch burghers had
historical painting. The burghers who the means to command such painting.
had fought that war displayed their pa- Through her proverbial industry, her
triotism in their satisfaction with their dairying, her printing, and above all her
own civilization. They admired painting trade, Holland won prosperity for sev-

that looked as much as possible like eral generations. The Dutch captains
what it purported to represent. They sailed their craft far and wide. For a
were not interested in painting as a ve- brief moment they snatched control of
hicle for the expression of abstract ideas the seas from England. Holland had a
or stories of mythological personages. monopoly of the spice trade, more im-
What they wanted was portraiture, if portant then than today, since before

300. Frans Hals (c. 1580-1666) Officers of St. Andrew's Company (1633) Frans Hals Mu-
seum, Haarlem. 6'o/' x 11'.
 HALS 387

the days of electric refrigerators spices ricality, molds each member, but the
were not merely condiments but essen- trees and foliage in the background are
tial preservatives. kept dark and too vague in detail to ob-
Thus portraiture of individuals and trude themselves. Someone, perhaps the
of all the ramifications of their lives be- painter himself, must have entered sud-
came the dominant production of the denly to utter a remark that has caused
school. Most artists sought reputations many members to break off their con-
for their handling of a given type of sub- versations and turn toward him. Some
ject, and, willingly or otherwise, spe- do not. Many are seated, others stand
cialized in that field. That jolly soul and look back over their shoulders,
Frans Hals (c. 1580-1666) was a por- while still others bend over the table;
traitist both of individuals and of thus no rigid line of heads appears.
groups. During the wars of liberation Everyone's face has adequate space in
many of the merchants joined the civic the picture, and all are at ease, with one
guard to maintain order, and the offi- notable exception. One pompous indi-

cers of these pseudo-military companies vidual has turned around and is posed
naturally formed clubs. These lived on stiffly with his hands resting on his cane.
after the emergency had passed as busi- Surely Hals paints him this way to en-
nessmen's clubs, analogous to the Lions, hance the characterization.
the Kiwanis, and the Rotary Clubs of He is equally sure of himself in sin-
America today. Such groups wanted rec- p- m

ords of themselves. Today, photographs

of classes in school or college, of fra-
ternity memberships, even of banquets,
testify to the same urge.
The Officers of St. Andrew's Com-
pany (fig. 300) is such a portrait group
by Hals. Aside from the usual require-
ments of portraiture, this type of sub-
ject raises two special problems: first, at
least reasonable prominence must be
allotted to each member of the group,
without producing the monotony of
seried rows of figures; and second, the
artistmust avoid the posed artificiality
that makes many group photographs to-
day look stilted. In this painting Hals
masters these difficulties. He depicts the
club around a table in the yard of their 301. Frans Hals (c. 1580-1666) The Jolly
Toper (c. 1627) Rijks Museum, Amsterdam.
clubhouse. A natural light, free of theat- 2'a" x 2'3".
3 88
PAINTING IN THE LOW COUNTRIES
gle portraits. The Jolly Toper (fig. 301) of an inch wide but neither needs nor
leans back in his chair, glass in hand, receives further definition. Therein it

perfectly relaxed. As in most of the Hals anticipates nineteenth-century paintings

portraits, the man seems in a right good by Manet and others. Like some of the
humor. The joviality of the painter him- laterworks of Velasquez, notably Las
self must be reflected in these merry in- Meninas (fig. 294), such boldness of in-

dividuals. From their expressions one dication foretells the Impressionists of

might illustrate an encyclopedia of the 1870.
laugh and smile. Such men would be Hals spent his life in Haarlem; Rem-
out of place at court, but very much at brandt van Rijn (1606-69), the miller's
home in a tavern or at a drinking bout. son of Leyden, made the Dutch metrop-
The technique is suited to the subject. olis of Amsterdam the site of his career.
Hals indicates the necessary details To him, light was the vehicle through
without drawing them. The pleats of the which to reveal his love of mankind.
toper's jerkin Hals sweeps in with a Where others had studied the effects of
flowing stroke of his brush, loaded with this or that kind of illumination for its

pigment. Such a stroke may be a quarter own sake, light was to Rembrandt only

302. Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69) Dr Tulp's Anatomy Lesson (1632) Museum, The Hague.
-

5'5" x 7' 2 "-

 REMBRANDT 389

the means to an end. He was its master. the fingers would flex more than in this
During the ten years of his first Am- painting. The explanation must be that
sterdam period, 1632 to 1642, he was Rembrandt wanted to carry the diag-
fashionable and prosperous. At this onal toward the corner of his design,
time, his style in painting coincided there to stop the movement with the
with the tastes of his clientele. Although open book that cuts across the angle.
he produced only four group portraits, To permit the fingers to curve upward
it so happened that three of these were and inward would have interrupted this
milestones in his career. movement. Rembrandt sacrificed what
Dr. Tulp's Anatomy Lesson (fig. he must have known to be true to his
302), famous though it is, succeeds only desire for pictorial Tightness.
in part. The dramatic concentration of On the whole, however, the Anatomy
interest on the corpse which forms the Lesson was sufficiently like the scene to

subject of this demonstration yields a satisfy his patrons. The portrait of his
lively group of portraits. And yet this first wife, Saskia in a Red Hat, reveals
concentration is won at a price. Strong Rembrandt's aims at this time and the
light intensifies the center of interest, reasons for his popularity. The artist

but to achieve this intensification Rem- painted his subject's profile carefully
brandt sacrificed the outer members of and freshly. The bright carnations of
the group. While the men close to the Saskia's face, the richness of red velvet,

corpse are painted in full light and feather, and embroidery, of necklaces
color, those on the outskirts are depicted and dress, are precise and descriptive.

in shade and in subdued tones— an ob- Each part invites inspection. Beautiful
vious suppression of the corners to stress as the portrait is, it can be described as
the pictorial possibilities of climax. a painting of the surface, rich in color,
Moreover, Rembrandt was not yet sure and silhouetted against the dark back-
of himself in the matter of space. Those ground. Its objectivity, its gay tones, its

doctors leaning over the cadaver for a accuracy, and its finish are enough to

better view are solid down to the waist, ensure its reputation.
but there seems hardly room for them For ten years Rembrandt was content
to stand. Rembrandt appears to have to exploit this style, but the year 1642
forgotten the lower half of their per- marked a turning point in his career.

sons. The artist himself attended the Up till then he had been financially suc-
lectures upon which this painting is cessful and happy. He owned a large

based; it is therefore curious that he house, had accumulated a collection of

should ha,ve represented the fingers of works of art, and was a favorite por-

the corpse extended almost flat on the traitist of the wealthy Amsterdam mer-

leg when the tendons were raised by chants. In that year his wife Saskia died,
the doctor's spatula. Rembrandt must and he painted the so-called Night
have known that under these conditions Watch (fig. 303), properly entitled
390 PAINTING IN THE LOW COUNTRIES

303.Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69) The Night Watch (1642) Rijks Museum, Amsterdam.
11'n" x 14/4".

Frans Banning Cocq's Company of the as remarkable, and was given a promi-
Civic Guard. The nickname can be ex- nent position in the club house of the
plained by the personal treatment of group.
light. Where Caravaggio had explored Unlike most group portraitists Rem-
the possibilities of strong light con- brandt did not give nearly equal impor-
trasted with black shadows, Rembrandt tance to each of the sixteen members
makes the shadows glow with reflected of the company. To be sure, the cap-
light. Instead of representing night il- tain in a red scarf and his lieutenant
lumination in this painting, Rembrandt clad in a white-satin suit dominate the
shows the members of the club as they center, and other figures to the right
issue from the city gate in the morning and left are prominent, but the light
to welcome Amsterdam Marie de
to and their positions to the rear subor-
Medici, the Queen Mother of France. dinate a number of the members. That
Contrary to the common opinion, the these matters improve the picture is

painting was recognized from the first undeniable. The composition assumes
 REMBRANDT 39 :

the form of an e arranged in perspec-

tive. A bar of four figures at the back
forms the upright, from which three
groups come forward, to the right, in
the center, and on the left, with an

opening between each of these groups.

The death of Saskia and the growth
of hisown pictorial sense opened the
way to the introverted style of Rem-
brandt's later years. After 1642 he
painted more and more for himself, to
meet his own ideals rather than those
of possible patrons. Like many another
more recent artist, he separated himself
from the public. A few trusted friends,
such as the burgomaster Jan Six, still
appreciated and helped him, but his
fortunes declined.
304. Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69) c ^
Rabbi (1657) National Gallery, London. 2'6"
Twenty years later, Rembrandt had a x z'i"

last opportunity to handle group por-

traiture in the Syndics of the Cloth Rabbi (fig. 304) to develop psycholog-
Guild. Then he solved the problem, not ical portraiture, which then absorbed
only as a picture, but also as representa- his attention. This old man seems to
tion. Light falls evenly on the group. have endured most of the experiences
Each of the five men around the table of life, and they have inscribed their
is an individual, and even their servant record on his face. His haunting eyes
who stands behind them can be seen as look beyond the grave to everlasting
a subordinate. Their poses are natural, peace. But this was not what the Dutch
and yet Rembrandt produced a paint- wanted; the successful merchants had
ing of great variety. Some of the syndics no interest in these old men, who were
have their natural hair, others wear wigs; of no importance as the world measures
some are seated, others stand; and some importance. Nor are such portraits dec-
look out of the picture, while others orative as paintings. There are no vivid
gaze at their companions. The paint- colors and no picturesque costumes to
ing was realistic enough to satisfy his lend a superficial attraction. A strong
patrons without any loss of artistic in- light plays over the faces as though to
tegrity. extract their personality and to suppress
It was in these later years that Rem- all else in the dark brown background.
brandt's sympathy for humanity reached If one loves mankind for its own sake,

its climax. He turned to old age in The in all its joys and sorrows, then these
39 2 PAINTING IN THE LOW COUNTRIES
men and women become significant, for pasto, or layer of pigment on the can-
Rembrandt here explores the human vas, is heavier and its surface broken.
soul through his own sympathy deep- No longer does it create the glitter of
ened bv grief. Others may have dealt as a smooth finish. Spread unevenly, it

well with objective appearance, but picks out the pictorially significant ele-
Rembrandt stands alone in his warm ments, the heavily pigmented head
love of mankind. emerging from the shadows. One likes

He liked nothing better than to paint to think that the self-dramatization, in

himself. A long series of these canvases this example, may be symbolic. By this

that reveal his instinct for self-dramati- time Rembrandt had undergone heavier
zation stud his whole career. He had a personal misfortunes than fall to the
passion for dressing up and acting an- lot of most men. His fine house had
other character, Rembrandt in a Plumed long since been sold; his art collection
Hat, Rembrandt in a Steel Gorget, and his studio equipment were sacri-

Rembrandt with Haggard Eyes, and ficed to his creditors; he had passed
here at the end, Rembrandt Laughing through bankruptcy; his son Titus had
before the Bust of a Roman Emperor died; his devoted housekeeper and sec-

(fig. 305). His late method differs from ond wife, Hendrickje Stoffels, had died;
his early style of the Saskia. The im- he stood alone. But nothing could sub-
due that spirit. So long as he had brush
and paints, or burin and copper plate,

he could record the life he loved and let

the rest go by.

Rembrandt was not typical of the
Dutch school; he transcended it, though
his style had many elements in common
with his time. His interest in portrai-
ture, his concern with light, though of
a more personal quality, and the scale
of most of his canvases fitted into the
pattern of Dutch painting. But he was
exceptional in the subjective analysis he
substituted for the prevailing objectiv-
ity of vision, and in the range of his un-

dertakings. Though the Dutch tended

to specialize, Rembrandt did not. A
Protestant simplicity characterizes his

305. Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69) Rem- paintings of religious subjects. Portraits
brandt Laughing before the Bust of a Roman occupied a larger place in his output
Emperor (c. 1668) Museum, Cologne. i'S"
than any other kind of subject, but he
 REMBRANDT - VERMEER 393

also handled still life, genre, and land- and tables, beds, stools, and clavichords,
scape themes with equal aplomb, both with pictures or maps on the wall, they
in painting and in etching. He even ex- create a familiar volume of space
perimented with the style of Mughal wherein the figures may live. The ladies

painting, examples of which had come dress in silks, satins, or velvets, exact in

to Holland through the Dutch East In- their appearance of texture. One can al-

dia Company. The same diversity of most hear the satin rustle as the figures

subject marked his extensive production move; one can almost feel the softness
in the graphic arts. His mastery of light of the velvet, or play with the long
and his intrinsic perception of values silky hair of the family spaniel. The
endowed his work in this field with such paintings of Pieter de Hooch record
distinction that Rembrandt has sel- Dutch interiors. The diffused light of
dom been equaled and never surpassed. indoors plays over them from some defi-

Rembrandt alone would suffice to nite light source, such as a door or win-
transfigure the art of any country, but dow. Strongest near the opening, the
for so small a land in so short a time light fades away in imperceptible transi-

Holland produced an extraordinary tions as the depth of the room is

number of other painters. These artists reached.

had to be competent to meet the Dutch Jan Vermeer of Delft (1632-75) be-
demands. Those who specialized in longs with this group because of his sub-
genre and who recorded the life of Hol- ject matter, the small size of most of his

land have come to be known as the Lit- paintings, and his realism. The Girl
tle Masters. Each had his chosen field with a Water Jug (Plate vm, facing p.
of subject matter. For example, Adriaen 365) reaches the climax of the mode of

van Ostade deals with the lower classes, total visual effect. Every fact of vision
drinking or brawling in a tavern, loung- is observed. The graded lighting mod-
ing outside the door of an inn, or sim- els the forms with full appreciation of
ply passing the time of day. Nicholas the existence of reflected light and re-

Maes, a pupil of Rembrandt, steals flected color. The blue dress prints a
something of his master's light to show blue reflection on the pewter jug and
his servant girls peeling apples or active modifies the other colors near it. The
in other culinary and domestic pursuits. change of values and colors is accurate;

Gerhardt Terborch caters to the mer- a blue or yellow passage in light re-

chant class. His paintings show the mains that same blue or yellow as it

wives and daughters of the well-to-do darkens into shade. And yet Vermeer is
burghers at their music lessons, playing not photographic. He has an instinct for
an informal concert, or washing their selection. The forms are simplified to re-

hands. The rooms where these every- tain only those elements pertinent to
day scenes take place are not preten- his purpose, that is, the visually signifi-

tious. Small, and furnished with chairs cant parts. Though informal, the com-
394 PAINTING IN THE LOW COUNTRIES
position is nevertheless calculated. It dael (1628-82) in The Mill (fig. 306)
has neither the geometry of the Ren- depicts an intimate bit of Holland. The
aissance nor the Baroque diagonals. scene with its water and its windmill
Based on a series of rectangles created serves as a symbol of his country. In this

by the bits of wall, the picture or maps alluvial land, the sky is bound to bulk
hanging on it, and the shape of the large in any normal view, and in Dutch
table, Vermeer arranges these shapes to landscapes it may occupy two thirds or
produce a design perfectly balanced and more of the canvas. Billowing clouds
adjusted. Just enough curves vary this roll in from the North Sea and cast

system to avert any touch of rigidity; fleeting shadows on the ground. Certain
the curves of the figure, or of the water devices are so regular that they may be
pitcher, serve as a foil for the straight called conventions. A shadow darkens
lines of the rectangles. the foreground, while the middle dis-

Moreover, Vermeer's interpretation tance and the background are sunny. In

of his subject differs from that of the this example, jetties and marsh grass

other Little Masters. None of them has lower the foreground values, but light
the same intimacy of vision. He con- focuses on the mill and the water. Pos-
fines himself as a rule to only one or sibly several planes of light and shade
two figures, and they arc so absorbed may succeed one another. The result is

in what they are doing that they seem to accent depth and space, and thereby
oblivious of any spectator. The ladies to draw the eye from the foreground
painted by Terborch are on their best into the distance. Even in the paintings

behavior; they conduct themselves with of the sea, one can often find this de-

full consciousness that others are watch- vice of the dark foreground where it is

ing them. The girls of Vermeer are too difficult to explain on rational grounds.
engrossed for that. Through that very In color, though the range is consider-
absorption they seem to be accorded able, the prevailing tone is apt to be
more respect; their privacy is unviolated. brownish. The love of warm color, so
They are no mere decorative adjuncts common in the Baroque, impels these
around the house, attractive enough, but painters to record the shadows as brown-
a useless luxury; Vermeer' s women are ish, the trunks of the trees in brown,
the household, and through their oc- and even the foliage as affected by the
cupations lend domesticity to the same tone. There is every reason why
hearth. the artist should do this. He is painting
If the Dutch are well enough satisfied a picture, not creating a landscape or
with their society to want it painted, even recording one, and if the adoption
they are also proud of their countrv— of a specific tonality aids in pictorial
its gardens and meadows, its canals and creation, then it belongs in his paint-
harbors. Therefore, a group of landscape ing despite any conventional character
painters is inevitable. Jakob van Ruys- it may have. In spite of these conven-
 RUYSDAEL 395

r%.?&.y

fSt

M&

;, ;:

' ^
,
/?

306. Jakob van Ruysdael (1628-82) The Mill, Rijks Museum, Amsterdam. 2' 9" x 3 '4".

tions, however, Ruysdael's picture looks its prosperity and which were shown
like a particular scene. Though doubt- with the same objectivity and with the
less painted in the studio, not in the same grasp of pictorial possibilities that
open, The Mill is not an abstract con- one finds in the pure landscape painters
ception of landscape. The Dutch prefer or in the Little Masters. Others painted
the specific and therefore identifiable the sea and shipping, or buildings. No-
scene, and though the painting may where does the technical virtuosity of
symbolize the country, it still remains a the seventeenth century find more
view of a particular mill in the surround- vivid illustration than in the flower
ings that building probably had. compositions of Jan van Huysum and
Ruysdael painted landscape for its others. These bouquets, convincing in
own sake, largely devoid of people and themselves, are filled with naturalistic
animals; Aelbert Cuyp, on the other detail. Points of light glitter in crystal
hand, dealt with landscape and cattle. drops of water on the leaves or petals,
The lush meadows of Holland pastured while bees and butterflies sip honey
the sleek cattle which contributed to among the blossoms. Still other artists
396 PAINTING IN THE LOW COUNTRIES
specialized in piles of vegetables on a whole gives a picture of a civilization
kitchen tables, combined with culinary in all its aspects, a record as complete
utensils, with game, or poultry. Indeed, as that found in the reliefs and paint-
no facet of Dutch life escaped the at- ings of the Egyptian tombs, but even
tention of these painters. The school as more vivid in that it is more realistic
XVIII The Seventeenth Century in France and England

FRANCE who began to recoup the resources of

While Dutch painting stemmed from France and thereby laid the founda-

its merchant patronage and Holland's

tions on which Louis XIV in the last

democratic way of life, the aristocracy half of the seventeenth century could

and the growth of absolutism dictated build.

the art of France. However, the concen- The architecture of Henry IV in its

tration of power did not arise over- combination of brick and stone sug-
night. After the death of Henry II in gests the poverty of the country. The
1559, his three young sons, who suc- houses lining the Place des Vosges in
ceeded each other on the throne, were Paris show that the style can be re-

not strong enough to unite the coun- strained, though it is affected by the
try when Protestantism, at that time a early Baroque of Italy. The successive
disruptive force, was injected into the French styles of the sixteenth, seven-
situation. The dismal story of the Wars teenth, and eighteenth centuries are
of Religion and the massacre of St. named for the kings, but do not coin-
Bartholomew's Day in 1572 need not be cide with them in date. Thus the Lux-
told here. Suffice it to say that these embourg Palace in Paris, built in 1615-
troubles exhausted France and ended its 20 for Marie de Medici after the assas-

Renaissance. The civil wars were finally sination of her husband Henry IV in
healed by Henry IV, Henry of Navarre, 1610, is one of the largest buildings of

397
?9 8 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND

his style.The queen directed her archi- But the spirit of the century flowered
tect,Salomon de Brosse, to model the under the personal rule of Louis XIV.
building on the newer parts of the Pitti This monarch ascended the throne as

Palace in Florence, which she had an infant in 1643, assumed personal

known in her childhood and drawings command of the state in 1660, and
of which she had had sent up from fashioned French civilization in his own
Italy. The rusticated columns, composed image until his death in 1715. His life

of alternate large and small blocks, come covers the classic period of French art.
from that source. But De Brosse was a The word classic is ambiguous; it may
Frenchman, conscious of French tradi- refer to productions that have stood the
tion. Consequently, the Luxembourg test of time as in the phrase the classics
retains the rhythmical pavilion and link of literature; it may indicate the influ-
scheme, with a central motive and ence of antiquity; or it may describe a
wings that protrude from the plane of quality of restraint, an emphasis on the
the facade and have their own semi- intellectual as contrasted to the emo-
independent roofs. In plan, though the tional, and a control or reserve. As ap-
enclosed court remains, one side has plied to the age of Louis XIV, it has all
been lowered to a single story, and thus these meanings. This is the time of the
the palace is more open than the Cha-
classic drama of Racine. That drama is,

teau of Chambord.
to some extent, modeled on the an-
Under Louis XIII, the architectural
cients, though the latter might not rec-
pendulum swung in the direction of
ognize the fact. Much of the subject
sophistication, restraint, and even, to a
matter of the painters and sculptors is
minor extent, of classicism. The Pavil-
borrowed from Rome. In art, the aca-
ion de l'Horloge (fig. 272) in the
demic point of view with its respect for
Louvre, next to Lescot's wing, was de-
codified rules dominates. At best, these
signed by Jacques LeMercier, 1624-30.
productions are superb; their effects,
Quieter than the work of De Brosse, it
and the means whereby these effects are
lacks the elegance of the very French
realized, calculated and formal. Personal
buildings of Francois Mansart, the
emotion yields to order and system—
uncle of Jules Hardouin Mansart. The
to regularization. In 1648 the Academy
Chateau of Maisons-Laffitte of 1642-
of Painters and Sculptors was founded
51 testifies to Mansart's exquisite sense
of proportion and composition. His under royal protection, paralleling the
style leads on into that of Louis XIV. Academy of Letters established earlier.

At the same time, from the brush of But the arts do not readily submit to
Philippe de Champaigne flowed a such standardization; it tends to stifle

stream of stately and somewhat Flem- originality and vitality, and if it adds
ish portraits, well suited to His Emi- concentration and organization, it is

nence Cardinal Richelieu. questionable whether the gain compen-

 POUSSIN 399

307. Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) Kingdom of Flora (c. 1635) Museum, Dresden, q'q" x 5'n".

sates for the loss. However, to the peo- figures comparable to Titian's Bacchus
ple of that time, formality and order and Ariadne (fig. 244); they are too
outweighed all other considerations. sober to survive the hearty existence of
The two greatest painters of France Olympus. Instead, the spirit is restrained
in the seventeenth century, Poussin and and ordered until a perfect adjustment
Claude Lorrain, spent most of their of the parts is achieved.
lives in Italy. They matured before the Classic, too, in subject is Et in Arca-

Academy had gained the power it was dia Ego (fig. 308), wherein four figures
to enjoy under Le Brun. Nevertheless, ponder the cryptic inscription on the
the spirit of the age was strong upon tomb that gives its title to the painting.
them. Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) Some of the actors hark back to an-
borrowed from Raphael, Titian, and the tiquity, such as the woman on the right
Carracci and their school, but a French with her Greek profile, or the kneeling
logic and clarity of mind illuminated shepherd with his heavy curly beard.
all he did. The Kingdom of Flora (fig. They are types, not individuals; they
307) draws its subject from mythology, have the same abstraction as the char-

but its prevailing quality is that of or- acters of Racine's dramas. Their actions,
ganization, thought out in terms of unimportant as movement, form part of
drawing. These are no lusty Olympian the larger organization of the painting,
400 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND

308. Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) Et in Arcadia Ego (1638-39) Louvre, Paris. 2*9" x 3'n'

or tie in with the generalized landscape. its consequences rigorously pursued to

No Baroque abandon disturbs the a conclusion. So organized a structure
equilibrium of this composition in three- has something analytical in its intellec-

dimensional space. The arm of the tuality. It does not appeal to the emo-
kneeling shepherd tracing out the in- tions but to the mind. It offers no charm
scription carries the eve across to the to the eye, no seduction of color, how-
younger man opposite, whose staff, in ever much the latter may abet the de-
turn, parallels the leg of the first figure. sign. Nothing unexpected can take place
The tree trunk behind continues the in this painting, which pursues its goal
axis of the woman's figure, as the tree with the infallibility of a mathematical
in the left background prolongs the proposition. Whether or not such ad-
movement begun by the leg of the man herence to the demands of picture con-
standing on that side. It is possible to struction can command popular love, it

discover some compositional and pic- has an abundance to offer to the profes-
torial purpose in every part of this de- sional. Hence Poussin has been excep-
sign. A shape, so to speak, is presented tionally influential. Artists have recog-
on the canvas. From that, everything nized his demonstrations of their own
follows inevitably, just as in the French problems, and among the French he has
classic drama a situation is stated and found wide appreciation because of the
 POUSSIN - CLAUDE 4OI

309. Claude Lorrain (1600-1682) Marriage of Isaac and Rebecca (1647) National Gallery,
London. 4'n" x 6 ,wj".

lucidity of his mind and his feeling for lighted middle distance, and the brown-
logic and for abstract types. ish tonality, are present, as they were in
Claude Gellee (1600-82), called Holland. But unlike the Dutch land-
Claude Lorrain, had a wider vogue in scape, this does not represent any par-
England. As compared with Poussin, ticular scene. Claude paints landscape
his mind is less dominant over his emo- in the abstract, with a formal concep-
tions. The structure of the picture, tion of nature analogous to the formal-
therefore, is not so fully developed. On ity of Versailles. These wooded scenes
the other hand, his drawings testify to leave an impression of tidiness, as
a poetic love of nature, which affected though the ground keepers had just
even his paintings. The Marriage of been through them to gather any dead
Isaac and Rebecca (fig. 309) does not branches and sweep up all the fallen
attempt to be natural, although it is leaves. Nature has had its face lifted to
based on a profound study of tree give it the order demanded by the times.
forms. In it, two seventeenth-century Figures are incidental to such designs
conventions of landscape painting, the and were often added by another hand.
dark foreground leading out to the The stateliness of these landscapes de-
402 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND

rives much of its impressiveness from abortive. His scheme called for a Ro-
the feeling for space. Frequently, as man Baroque palace that was foreign to
here, the largest and nearest trees in one the French spirit, and would have re-

corner, commence a spiral which then quired the destruction of the already
sweeps across the dark foreground to existing parts of the Louvre. Therefore,

include the more distant trees on the when he had returned to Italy, his de-

other side. These, well behind the pic- sign was shelved in favor of Claude Per-
ture plane, lead us out to the back- rault's (fig. 310). The new scheme
ground. All is suffused with a glow of suited the taste of the day. Magnificent
light, golden and warm, playing over in scale, it had just the pomp and bril-

trees, grass, and water from a sun that liance expected by the young monarch.
in many paintings may be seen in the Perrault's design combines French, Ital-

sky just above the horizon. These serene ian Baroque, and Roman classic ele-

creations, formal and ordered as they ments, a mixture typical of its time.
are, yet have a fine poetic quality. These three strains interweave with now
The reign of Louis XIV found at one and now another predominant. A
least as full an expression of its love of plain ground floor, whose solid walls
order in architecture as it did in land- are pierced by windows crowned with
scape painting, and a still greater oppor- segmental arches, provides the strong
tunity to display its magnificence. Ber- base needed by the richer treatment
nini's trip to Paris to consult on the above. The colonnade in the Corinthian
design of the Louvre in 1665 proved order is proportioned with classic cor-

310. Claude Perrault (1613-88) Louvre, Paris (1667-74) ^ ast Fa?ade c. 600' long.
 LOUIS XIV ARCHITECTURE 403

rectness. A majestic file of paired col- splendor was his own creation, with a
umns in front of a gallery create a ro- minimum of help from nature. To ap-
bust pattern of light and shade, and preciate Versailles one must try to un-

have something of the Baroque about derstand the point of view of the sev-
them, as do the cartouches with the re- enteenth century, and of Louis XIV in

versed initials of the monarch sur- particular. His phrase, L'etat, c'est moi,
rounded by floral bands. Some break in succinctly stated his conception of
the French tradition occurs in the France. His country might be compared
abandonment of the visible roof, which to a pyramid, the base provided bv the
the earlier part of the century had main- numerous lower classes, and each suc-
tained. The roof is now constructed cessive stratum of society, smaller in
with such a low pitch that it is hidden number, built up to the king at the sum-
behind the balustrade. And yet though mit. Never had such concentration of
the elements are borrowed, the colonnade power been known in Western Europe.
of the Louvre is conceivable nowhere If the monarch could not make all the
but in France. Its fundamental scheme decisions of state himself, he could re-

adheres to French tradition; accented view them, and cancel or alter enough
features at the center and at either end of them to keep control in his own
advance forward of the mass of the col- hands. Granted his identification of
onnade as pavilions, and while they re- himself with France, it followed that
semble the colonnade in design enough anything done to display his own mag-
to compose with it, at the same time nificence shed glory on the country.
they differ from it enough to be dis- Unless we understand this, Versailles
tinct and articulate. The end pavilions, must seem a monument to egotism.
for instance, retain the order but not the This vast design focuses on the bed-
gallery behind, and the central accent is chamber of His Majesty. In front, an
crowned by a pediment. The rhythmic avenue from Paris marks the axis of the

disposition descends from French cha- palace, while other roads converge at
teaux in the style of Francis I, such as equal angles on the Place d'Armes. Be-
Chambord (fig. 270), which also has tween these arrow-like avenues are the
corner accents and a central motive, and stables. A succession of axial courts, each
beyond that stems from the medieval smaller than its predecessor, forces the
castle. attention inward to the three windows
The largest project of the reign was of the royal bedchamber (fig. 311). The
the Palace at Versailles. Louis XIV se- axis continues behind the palace be-
lected a site where a small hunting tween patterns of topiary work and pairs

lodge already existed, in barren coun- of lagoons, along a canal, through for-
tryside, so that when his new work was mal gardens and woods designed by Le
completed it might be said that its Notre. Sculpture, fountains, and straight
4°4 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND

Its state apartments in the central

block provide an appropriate back-
ground for the grandeur of the Sun
King, as his courtiers called Louis XIV.
The principal access leads up a stairhall,
monumental in its proportions and re-

splendent in polished marble, through

chamber after chamber, each more mag-
nificent than the last, to the garden
front. There only three rooms exist, the
small Salon de la Guerre and the Salon
311. Palace, Versailles ( 1661—1756) Total
length 1903'.
de la Paix at the ends, and the huge
Galerie des Glaces (fig. 312) or Hall of
paths lead to statues, more fountains, Mirrors between them. This last cham-
or garden pavilions, which close each ber is the setting for state functions.
vista through the woods. Designed by Jules Hardouin Mansart,
The palace itself is also symmetrical. who built or remodeled much of the

312. Jules Hardouin Mansart (1645-1708) designer; Charles le Brun (1619-90) decorator; Hall
of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles (1678-84) 240' long x 34' wide x 43' high.
 LOUIS XIV ARCHITECTURE 405

palace, and decorated in part by Le The latter is a composition of gold,

Brun, the director of the Academy, it mercury, and copper. Such opulent ma-
epitomizes the reign. Its mirrors reflect terials are climaxed by the solid silver

arched windows. A pilaster order, where furniture the Sun King provided for his

a Gallic cock modifies the normal Corin- halls of state.

thian capital, punctuates walls enriched To see Versailles properly requires an

with marbles, gilding, and Baroque effort of the imagination. One gener-
decorations, and supports a barrel vault ally visits it in company with a motley
whose surface is covered with gilded group of tourists in the charge of some
stucco and paintings of a warm brown- pensioner, who is eager to complete his
ish tonality. Individually, the paintings patter as quickly as possible. But one
and the sculpture are not masterpieces, should envision Versailles as the setting
but as a whole they complete the sump- for a court. The costumes, gorgeous in
tuousness of the hall. lace, silk, and velvet, the powdered wigs
Nor is the furniture less ornate. Ba- and red-heeled shoes, the lights from
roque scrolls form the arms and legs of thousands of candles redoubled in the
upholstered chairs. The shell motive, mirrors, the hundreds of lackeys bus-
masks of human or animal heads, and tling about and the incidental music
acanthus leaves encrust beds, chairs, from Lully's orchestra, the buzz of con-
tables, cabinets, and chests of drawers. versation suddenly hushed at the an-
Inlaid designs of veined wood had de- nouncement that His Majesty is about
veloped in the Italian Renaissance; un- to make his state entrance— these cir-
der Louis XIV, Boulle gives his name cumstances made Versailles and its king
to a type of inlay or marquetry wherein impressive indeed to the ministers of
tortoise shell and ormolu are employed. foreign states. What tales they took

313. Jules Hardouin Mansart (1645-1708) Garden Front, Palace of Versailles. Total length
1903'.
406 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND

home of the power and glory of France! The triple strain of classic, Baroque,
Such a life is the cause of Versailles. and French occur also in the sculpture

To make his court splendid, Louis and painting of the reign. Pierre Puget's

XIV drew the upper nobility into de- (1620-94) Milo of Croton (fig. 314)
pendence upon himself, and forced it was a commission from the state. With
to attend his every act from the lever

du roi to the coucher du roi. The extent

of Versailles as seen from the gardens
(fig. 313) is inexplicable unless one
bears in mind that it is not a residence,
even of a king, but the seat of the gov-
ernment of France. At its prime, Ver-
sailles housed ten thousand people in
the palace. Men preferred to leave their
own estates to live in an attic bedroom
in Versailles, because only by attend-
ance in person could they obtain the
royal favors. The garden facade of the
building is, if anything, richer than the
entrance front. Rustication marks each
course of stone in the plain ground
floor. The principal floor gains promi-
nence by its orders in pilaster form, with
three groups of free-standing columns
in the center and near the ends. A deco-
rative attic story tops the design. The
roof is not visible, but Baroque accents
enrich the skyline. The smaller of these 314. Pierre Puget (1620-94) Milo of Croton
(1672-82) Louvre, Paris. 8'io" high x 4*7"
accents are urns placed over each single
wide.
pilaster below; the larger, repeating the

corners of the colonnades and the paired academic formality, Puget creates a
pilasters, are trophies: piles of armor, parallelogram whose sides are the torso
cannon, shields, and other weapons and the tree trunk, the arms with its

heaped together and carved in stone; fingers caught in the cleft stump, and
together, the urns and trophies recall in the legs, echoed in the lion and the
the silhouette of the building the drapery that falls between the legs of
rhythm of its design. Thisrhythm is Milo to the ground. A Baroque open-
fainter than at the Louvre, and thus ness may be detected in the void in the
implies the fading of the tradition of center, in the movement of the figure
rhythm in French design. turning its head around, and in the pic-
 LOUIS XIV SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 407

torial details that complete the group. ever, the movement is not as pro-
And yet the effect is neither more nor nounced, the features not as animated
less Baroque than is the effect of the as in the works of Bernini. Details are
Louvre. It is more controlled than the realistic, but the total effect is academic.
Baroque; it has the academic regard for More so, however, are Coysevox's deco-
rule; and in its anatomical treatment, rative works at Versailles, such as the

its proportions, and its muscularity, it oval relief of Louis XIV in Triumph in

may recall the Hellenistic statue, the the Salon de la Guerre. So powerful an
Farnese Hercules. organization as the Academy, under
Puget preferred to work in Genoa or royal control, could dictate the kind of
Toulon rather than in Paris. Antoine design in sculpture.
Coysevox (1640-1720), on the other Charles Le Brun (1619-90), as the
hand, spent most of his career in Paris leader of the Academy and dictator of
and Versailles. His portrait of Le Brun design, reflects the reign in his can-
vases. They are not appreciated today,
because of the lack of sympathy with
the life they were painted to adorn. Gi-
gantic in size, they need a palace as a
setting. The subject of his Alexander
Entering Babylon is superficially classic,

but compliments Louis XIV, who im-

personates Alexander in triumph. Great
columns, elephants, and burly men
carrying loot compose a design no classic

artist would have recognized. The lav-

ishness of this design is artificial; the

effect has a heavy-handed grandiosity
which the rich browns do little to re-

lieve.

The state portraiture of Hyacinthe

Rigaud, late in the reign, is as formal as
the official art of Coysevox. Less staid
315. Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720) Le Brun than paintings by Philippe de Cham-
(1679) Louvre, Paris. 2'z" high. paigne, his rendering of Louis XIV is

a record of an official position, not of

(fig. 315) betrays the influence of Ber-
nini. The drapery, Baroque in its move- an individual. The king appears in robes

ment and in its undercut pattern of of state; behind him is a sweep of cur-

light and shade, contrasts in texture tain, the base of a column, and all the

with the curls of the flowing wig. How- accoutrements common in official por-
408 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND

traiture. These decorative accessories, painters, such as Michael Wright, were

the drapery and the column, originate more vigorous.
in Venetian paintings of the time of In architecture, however, the century
Titian, and become stereotyped later. produced two of the greatest figures in

Vitality and individualism are subordi- the history of that art in England. The
nate to pomp and circumstance. first of them, Inigo Jones, was equally
eminent in stage design; he is credited
ENGLAND with the development of the proscenium
While these developments were tak- arch and of movable scenery, and his
ing place in France, England produced sets for Ben Jonson's masques were so
but little sculpture and painting. Dur- ingenious as to steal attention from the
ing the first half of the seventeenth cen- masques themselves. He developed an
tury Van Dyck painted portraits for the enthusiasm for Palladio that induced
court of Charles I. Under the Protec- him to take at least one and perhaps
torate and after the Restoration, Sir two trips to Italy, chiefly to Vicenza,

Peter Lely and later Sir Godfrey Kneller, Venice, and Verona, where might be
both German by birth and both trained seen the works of his idol. When, in

in the Low Countries, continued the ex- 1619, he designed the Banqueting
ternals of Van Dyck's style, but without House in Whitehall in London (fig.

his strength. Some little-known native 316), he composed it in an academic

'
1

;^»V

316. Inigo Jones (1573-1652) Banqueting House, Whitehall, London (1619-21) 120' long,
75' high.
 JONES - WREN 409

and Palladian vein. It has no element The academic style of Inigo Jones
that is not duplicated in one of Palla- was hardly launched when England
dio's palaces. The plain basement sup- found herself in the whirlpool of the
ports two floors, treated with super- Great Rebellion. Its disturbances par-
posed orders of pilasters at the sides and ticularly affected the cavalier classes

of engaged columns in the center. The who employed Jones, and so minimized
entablature breaks forward above every the opportunities for the spread of his
pilaster and column. Garlands of fruit style. When architecture revived with
and flowers enrich the second floor at the Restoration in 1660, it assumed a

the level of the Corinthian capitals. Baroque quality in the work of Sir

Triangular and segmental pediments Christopher Wren. This astronomer,

alternate over the windows. A balustrade mathematician, and charter member of
crowns the rusticated wall. These fea- the Royal Society had much of the uni-
tures reinforce the distinguished propor- versality that appeared in Leonardo da
tions that really account for the success Vinci; his discoveries and interests

of the building. To say that this design ranged from new methods of sailing and
is Italianate in origin is not to deny better types of street pavements to im-
that it is also English, just as to recog- proved forms of embroidery and a de-
nize the Italianism of the Luxembourg vice for writing double. Wren always
Palace need not blind us to its French had an amateur interest in architecture,
character. but after the Restoration his appoint-
To exaggerate the historical impor- ment to the committee in charge of
tance of the Banqueting House is im- rebuilding old St. Paul's Cathedral in
possible. Few Englishmen had ever had London led him to a closer study of
an opportunity to see what Italian archi- building problems.
tecture was really like. Its sense of order The great fire of London in 1666
was diametrically opposite to the law- burned for a week and destroyed much
lessness of the Jacobean, and its Palla- of the medieval city. This offered Wren
dian purity to the florid ornament of an unparalleled opportunity. First, he
its predecessor. Thus the Banqueting drew up a plan for rebuilding the city,
House was a revolution in English archi- one of several that were submitted. His
tecture that brought the island in step plan displayed an insight into the prob-
with continental developments. Though lems of civic design in advance of his
its style would have been current in the day. Instead of imposing a geometrical
last part of the sixteenth century in pattern of streets, Wren attacked the
Italy instead of in the early seventeenth problem of traffic, and planned residen-
century, it provided a closer approxima- tial streets 30 feet in width, business
tion to the developments on the Conti- streets of 60 feet, and thoroughfares 90
nent than anything England had pro- feet wide, so disposed that passage
duced since the reign of Henry VIII. through the city and to its principal
410 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND

centers would be facilitated to the ut- space they occupied, they prompted the
most. At the intersection of avenues addition of galleries to supplement the
and wherever else a vista might be cre- accommodation. Although the altar re-
ated, Wren reserved sites for public mains in the center of the chancel and
buildings, usually parish churches, while the pulpit to one side, the decline in
the two foci of the city, St. Paul's and emphasis on the service of Holy Com-
the Royal Exchange, had splendid ap- munion allows a shallow chancel to re-

proaches to them. Modern city planners place the deep sanctuary of medieval

would not design as Wren did, but had times.

his plan been carried out, it would have The towers and steeples of these
many of the traffic jams that
prevented buildings are often the only parts of the
hamper London today. But although exterior visible from the street; the rest
his scheme would have given to every is hidden behind other buildings. The
landowner as much ground as he had same fertility of imagination that dis-
before, and a site at least as desirable tinguishes these features in the Wren
because of its accessibility, the lots churches also marks his interiors. The
could not in all cases be identical with steeple of St. Mary-le-Bow (fig. 317) in
the pre-fire holdings. The conservatism
of the English was not to be overcome,
and the city was rebuilt on its old lines.
Among the losses caused by the fire

were many parish churches of London.

As Surveyor General to the King, it was
Wren's task to redesign them. Many of
the old sites had been irregular, but that
merely challenged Wren's ingenuity.
The spirit of his time called for axial
designs, and these Wren provided; in
each instance he adapted a regular plan
to the limitations of the site with little
sacrifice of available space. The variety
in plan and elevation is amazing. Some
churches are domed, others barrel
vaulted, while still others are arranged
with flat ceilings, or any conceivable
combination of these forms, and with
an equal variety in the type and arrange-
ment of the supports. Pews had come
into general use, but since their seating 317. Christopher Wren (1632-1723) Steeple
of St. Mary-le-Bow, London (1671-83) Tower
capacity was small in proportion to the
and steeple 223' high; steeple 104' high.
 WREN 4 11

1680 shows Wren's appreciation of the

value of silhouette. A tower must be
seen against the sky, therefore the out-
line is its most telling feature. The tower
is usually square in plan and severe in

masonry; its upper story, where the bells

hang, is enriched by arches, columns,

or pilasters. The lowest stage of the
steeple in St. Mary-le-Bow is circular,

with a ring of free-standing columns.

Baroque scrolls and urns soften the
transition from the square to the cir-

cular form above. Above that, more

scrolls lead to a smaller colonnaded
story that supports a pyramid, a fre-

quent conclusion of these steeples. St.

Mary-le-Bow is exceptionally rich, but

the steeple is only one of many Wren
designs.

St. Paul's Cathedral, begun in 1675,

is his masterpiece. Wren preferred a
318. St. Paul's, London (1675-1710 5M'
church of the central type, his model 250'.

for which still exists, but the English

tradition called for length. The final ar- though to buttress it. The facade, influ-

rangement (fig. 318) combines the enced by the east front of the Louvre,
length, the western transepts, and the has two stories of paired columns, the
choir of the English medieval plan with lower story somewhat wider, to indicate
a system at the crossing that was in part the presence of aisles as well as nave,

suggested by the Sorbonne in Paris. whereas the upper colonnade corre-

Shallow transepts separate the nave and sponds to the span of the nave alone.
choir and create a crossing covered by Flanking towers enframe the dome as

the great dome. The external dome of one looks up Ludgate Hill; like the

wood and lead expresses the existence steeples of Wren's parish churches, their

of a lower dome of masonry embedded design is fraught with Baroque license

within the drum. The visible dome dom- in the treatment of the orders, provid-
inates the exterior (fig. 319), its curve ing interest in silhouette. His towers
exposed and supported on a continuous and steeples are influenced by Italian

colonnade. This unbroken entablature towers of the High Baroque, familiar to

encircles the drum like a band, as him through publications, but the fre-
412 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND

319. Christopher Wren (1632-1723) St. Pauls Cathedral, London (1675-1710) Total height
366'.

quency with which they occur must be rope to be completed by the man who
traced to the English tradition of tower had designed it. The final stone in the
building. lantern was set in place in Wren's pres-
St. Paul's is more structural than St. ence by his son in 1710. All the other
Peter's in the disposition of the dome great churches took centuries to build,
and drum. In scale, St. Paul's, though and involved the designs of several archi-
smaller, is infinitely superior. Wren in- tects. What could be more appropriate,
corporates small features on both in- then, that when Wren died in 1723 his
terior and exterior to emphasize the bones should be laid within the church
size of his building, while the lack of that he had conceived? Above them is a
these elements, human in scale, renders simple inscription ending with the
ineffectual the vastness of the papal words Si monumentum requiris, circum-
monument. St. Paul's is the only one spice, Tf you seek a monument, look
of the major cathedrals in Western Eu- around vou.'
 SW&

XIX The Eighteenth Century — Rococo and Georgian Art

FRANCE boudoir were emblems of the early

When XIV eighteenth centurv. In these smaller

Louis assumed personal
control of France, his spirit was in ac- rooms, groups became intimate, and
cord with that of his day, but the old their tvpes of entertainment less pre-

monarch had lived too long. By tentious.No age has ever been so shaped
1715,
the ideals of France were changing be- bv woman as the age of Louis XV. She
neath the surface. The repression of this expected delicacy and politeness; the

new arts of the drawing room, conversation,

spirit by Louis XIV, who was under
Madame and the mot juste met with her ap-
the influence of de Maintenon
during the closing years of his reign, proval; etiquette prescribed every word
made the reaction the more violent and action. She was the supreme arbiter

when he was succeeded by his grandson, of conduct, the dictator of society. Such
Louis XV. The new century revolted a life was artificial. Indeed, pretense lay

against formality and heaviness. When- at the core of the times, and yet the
ever possible, society escaped from Ver- simplicity of nature, as then conceived,

sailles to seek diversion in elegant pri- had infinite charm. Later in the cen-
vate mansions in Paris. tury the affectation of society evoked
If the Hall of Mirrors symbolized the a nostalgia for the natural man, who,
seventeenth centurv, the salon and the free from the evils of society, pursued a

4*3
4H THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

noble and simple existence. But no amusement. And yet, however licentious
group that had grown up in Versailles the age might be, it was never coarse;
could possibly become natural, as we its very immorality had an elegance
understand the term. about it.

The age of Louis XV rebelled against Toward the end of the century the
the rules and order of the seventeenth freedom of the reign of Louis XV pro-
century. People craved pleasure, frivol- voked its own reaction. Pleasure had
ity; they wanted to be gay. Thev de- sated society and immorality in itself

manded freedom and license in art as had ceased to satisfy. Skepticism and
well as in life, and achieved them. The rationalism ridiculed certain aspects of
Italian comedy, which because of its French life. The pendulum swung from
salacious character had been banished liberty to sobriety. The style of Louis
during the closing years of the reign of XVI began before his accession to the

Louis XIV, came trooping back. Ama- throne in 1775; it preserved the elegance
teur theatricals, pageants, and tableaux of the earlier period, but the expression

afforded an outlet to the craving for was controlled, the effect quieter, as

320. Germain Boffrand (1667-1754) Salon de la Princesse, Hotel de Soubise, Paris (c. 1740'
c. 33' x 26'.
 ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE 4*5

though the serious times of the French is smaller in scale. The Salon de la Prin-

Revolution were casting their shadows cesse in the Hotel de Soubise in Paris
before them. (fig. 320), designed by Boffrand about
In architecture, the classic strain of 1740, is typical. A smallroom supplants
Louis XIV faded away. The boldness of the immense halls of Louis XIV. Such
the Baroque melted into the playful- a chamber provides a setting for and an
ness of the Rococo. The full effect of expression of sophisticated life and
this new manner was felt only on the witty conversation. The orders have
interiors in France. To be sure, in their vanished; in their stead delicate panels,
enthusiasm for all things French the whose upper and lower edges bend in

Germans tortured the exteriors of their free reversed curves, line the walls. The
buildings, like the Zwinger at Dresden, panels may be left in the natural sur-
with Rococo details that had been de- face of the wood, but more often they
vised for the salon and the boudoir; but are painted white and the moldings
in its native country the style is less gilded. The language of classic architec-
marked externally. The orders lose their ture is avoided, so that in extreme cases
prominence, windows are apt to have the panels become asymmetrical. In
segmental tops, and the whole project such instances, a panel in one part of a

321. Jacques-Ange Gabriel (1698-1782) Petit Trianon, Versailles (1762-68)

.i6 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

322. Jacques Germain Soufflot (1709-80) The Pantheon (Ste. Genevieve), Paris (1764-90)
265' high.

room may balance one in another part. furniture under Louis XV. The straight
Even the walls and ceilings of the rooms line almost vanishes as the legs of tables
are no longer separate; the upper mold- and chairs bend in sinuous curves which
ings of the panels so interweave with are playful at the expense of sound con-
the decoration of the ceiling that one struction, while the fronts of writing
cannot say where the wall ends and the tables, commodes, and cabinets bulge,
ceiling begins. This is especially true echoing in their shapes the slender flow-
when the plane of the wall curves into ing scrolls of the wall and ceiling deco-
that of the ceiling, as it does in this rations. Tapestried upholstery, lacquer,
example. Such designs do not pretend marquetry, ormolu, and even porcelain
to monumentally, or often to more than inserts add their beauties to designs that
interior decoration, but they do have illustrate the virtuosity achieved by the
charm and delicacy. master craftsmen of this time.
Asymmetry, lightness, and a rejection Just after the middle of the century,
of classic motives characterize Rococo 1762-8, the Petit Trianon at Versailles
 LOUIS XVI ARCHITECTURE 4X 7
(fig. 321) rejected that freedom and in archaeology characterizes the second
turned toward classicism. A cornice half of the eighteenth century, such as
crowns rectangular windows. The orders the excavation of Pompeii and Her-
regain popularity, but without the pomp culaneum, and the publication of scien-

of the preceding century. The Petit tific drawings of Roman and even of
Trianon, by Jacques-Ange Gabriel, has Greek monuments, though the latter

such beauty of proportion that it de- do not bear fruit until the next century.
serves a place among the greatest mas- Under this influence, Soufflot designed
terpieces of architecture, small as it is. the portico of the Pantheon in the Co-
The relation of height to width, of sides rinthian order, with a full entablature
to center, of solids to voids comes close

to perfection. These beauties are rein-

forced by the exquisite delicacy of de-

tail. Without sacrificing the lightness
of the Rococo, Gabriel introduced a
control that gives to each smallest part
its due place. It is no accident that in

the days when architecture was taught,

in part, by making measured drawings
of the great monuments of the past, the
Petit Trianon was almost invariably one
of those selected for instruction.
Still later, and still more sober, is the
church of Ste. Genevieve in Paris. Called

the Pantheon (fig. 322), it was executed

bv Soufflot between 1764 and 1790. Its

Greek cross plan (fig. 323) is remark-

able for its spaciousness. Just before the
French Revolution, society turned its

attention to England with enthusiasm;

its political forms, its organization of 323. Pantheon, Paris (1764-90) 360' x 262'.

societv, its gardens, and its art all re-

and pediment like the front of a classic

ceived the approval of an influential
part of the French public. Hence St. temple. The archaeology of this colon-

Paul's inspired the dome of the Pan- nade is not only purer than that of the

theon. The ring of columns that forms Baroque-one might expect that-but
it is also more classic than that of the
its drum is based on Wren's master-
piece Renaissance. When Roman art was first

Even more important is the increase revived, such artists as Brunelleschi per-

of classic influence.Remarkable activity mitted themselves great freedom. Even

418 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

the buildings of the High Renaissance paneling of the walls, and in the sides
are not copies of any Roman, still less of commodes and desks. The lightness
Greek, edifice. The portico of the Pan- of theRococo remains without its asvm-
theon, however, leads on to the still metry and its extravagance. The decora-
more archaeological adaptations of the tive vocabulary in furniture is simpler
early nineteenth century. Its unbroken and acquires a restraint to which fluting
walls contribute to this increased clas- and other classic motives contribute.
sicism. As it was originally designed,
Soufflot had intended to have tall win- The painting of the Fetes Galantes
dows in those walls, but the amateur corresponds to the Rococo in architec-
archaeologist Ouatremere de Quincy ture.Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) is
forced his hand and made the building the most perfect, if not the most char-
measure up to a standard of correctness acteristic, painter of his age. The Em-
more exact than it might otherwise have barkation for Cythera (fig. 324) is the
been. antithesis of the vast canvases of Le
The increased sobriety of the age of Brun. Painted on a small scale, it is in-

Louis XVI makes itself felt in furniture tended for a small and intimate room.
design too. Straight lines reappear in The exquisite figures are hardly a foot
the legs of tables and chairs, in the high, and in many of his other paintings

324. Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) Embarkation for Cythera (17 Paris. 4'3"
6' ".
4
 WATTEAU 419

are still smaller. Their gay costumes the somber browns of the previous reign,
sparkle like jewels, with flashes of green, In spirit too the painting reveals the
blue, yellow, and lavender in place of aristocratic society of its day. Here is

325. Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) Gilles. Louvre, Paris. 6' x 4'n".

420 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

no attempt to glorify the state, or to in a park. Their silks and satins bespeak
compliment its ruler. These ladies and their sophistication; these dainty cour-

gentlemen of the court stroll through a tiers transfer themselves for the mo-
world of Watteau's imagination to ment from the salon to a well-groomed
Cythera, the enchanted isle of love. A wilderness, or perhaps a stage set. The
delicate eroticism colors the motive, but life they lead is artificial, and though
is always refined. Moreover, this scene they, or their successors like Jean
has no classic background. The charac- Jacques Rousseau, may talk of their love

ters go out of doors, but find themselves for nature and the natural man, it is at

326. Francois Boucher (1703-70) Vulcan Presenting to Venus the Arms of Aeneas (1757)
io'6" x io'6".
 WATTEAU - BOUCHER - CHARDIN 421

most a lip loyalty, a mannerism and a dered whites and pinks, fresh from the
pose. hands of the hairdresser. The swirling
There is a tinge of melancholy be- movement of the composition shows
neath the frivolity, but that is Watteau's the Rococo to be a development of the
personal contribution, not present in Baroque, but in a lighter vein. These
other painters of his day. Gilles (fig. designs, with their eighteenth-century
325) is a character from the Italian cupids, set the type for tapestries and
comedy, whose other players are behind even porcelain.
him. He is dressed as a clown, but The aristocracy molded the character
Watteau's painting belies the comic of the age, but the middle class was
costume. This clown, like He Who Got increasing in numbers and influence.
Slapped, is pathetic. Perhaps the painter Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699-
had a premonition of his early death. 1779), in addition to doing a series of
In any case, the Gilles is exceptional in powerful still lifes, became the painter
his scale, almost life size, and demon- of this group. The Blessing (fig. 327)
strates Watteau's ability to develop plas- has none of the frivolity of the upper
tic forms at that size, and to conceive class but rather the sober virtues of
a figure who might serve as a monu- the bourgeoisie. The pause while the
ment to his own nostalgic spirit. younger daughter says grace before the
Francois Boucher (1703-70), the noonday meal is restrained and digni-
favorite painter of Madame de Pompa- fied, ennobled into a type scene. This
dour, is more typical of the Rococo in genre subject does not have the descrip-
that he is less serious. The Vulcan Pre- tive character of the Dutch; however
senting to Venus the Arms of Aeneas much it reflects its day, it also trans-
(fig. 326) has none of Watteau's spar- cends time and place. The figures have
kle, but then Watteau is a master drafts- a monumentally absent in the paint-
man. Boucher's drawing is adequate but ings of Boucher. All details are con-
undistinguished. His palette has the ceived with accuracy and freedom. Less
softness of the boudoir in its pinks and meticulous than in Dutch painting, the
blues. This scene, though based upon objects may be realistic but are not
mythology, might be one of the tableaux naturalistic: that is, the essential char-
enacted by society in some of its select acter of each is enhanced and its acci-

parties. This Venus and her attendants dentals of appearance suppressed. A

could never survive the lusty life of Mt. superb control over his medium, a feel-

Olympus. One cannot imagine her tak- ing for the brush in rich scumblings of
ing an active part on the battlefields of pigment, a grasp of solidity, and a dis-
Troy and being wounded while defend- tinguished sense of composition in space
ing her favorite, Paris. She represents mark Chardin as one of the soundest
aristocratic beauty of her day, small of painters of his or any other time.
head and delicate in body, with pow- During the second half of the cen-
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

tury, Jean Honore Fragonard (1732- ing. He represents the frenzied quest

1806) prolonged the spirit of the first for pleasure maintained by a dwindling
half even though that spirit was chang- group of the upper class. The Swing

327. Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699-1779) The Blessing (1740) Louvre, Paris. 1'/
x i'f.
 FRAGONARD 423

328. Jean Honore Fragonard (1732-1806) The Swing (c. 1766-69) Wallace Collection, Lon-
don. 2'8" x 2V.
424 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

329. Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805) The Return of the Prodigal Son, Louvre, Paris, q'^"
x 5' ".
4

(fig. 328) was ordered and its subject ter's narrative compositions, of which
dictated by a young nobleman. Watt- The Return of the Prodigal Son (fig.

eau's delicate eroticism develops into 329) is typical, are banalities. It would
ribaldry. The fresh color, the drawing, be hard to imagine a more stilted ges-

and the technique raise a trivial theme ture than that of the mother calling her
into a painting of distinction. Elsewhere son's attention to his dead father, the
Fragonard exploits the possibilities of extravagant sorrow of these gesticulat-
light and shade; he paints with strong ing daughters, or the trite remorse of
color and impressionistic breadth such the son. The characters overact their
canvases as the Bathers. parts. Greuze tops this type of work by
Fragonard's willingness to cater to a series of young women who masquer-
the amorous
whims of his clients ade under such titles as Innocence, Girl
brought down upon him the condemna- with a Lamb, or The Broken Pitcher.
tion of Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725- They have little to recommend them
1805), who pretended to be more seri- beyond their youth. Often badly drawn,
ous and perhaps more moral. The lat- they assume a modesty that is belied by
 GREUZE - FALCONET 425

their costumes, disarrayed to reveal their

charms. Greuze, not Fragonard, exempli-
fies the spirit that provoked the French
Revolution.

The type popularized by Boucher re-

curs in The Bather (fig. 330) by his

contemporary, the sculptor Etienne
Maurice Falconet (1716-91). Its slen-
der figure, lithe and graceful, supports
a small head with a fashionable coiffure,
expressing in marble the courtly ideal
of feminine beauty. Though The Bather
turns slightly, the movement is less vio-
lent than in the Baroque, while the
modeling shows the naturalism of the
eighteenth century. In Falconet's eques-
trian statue of Peter the Great at Lenin-
grad that naturalism is extended even
to the pedestal, in which an irregular,

pseudo-naturalistic outcropping of rock

supplants an architectural base. The
horse, rearing on his hind legs, is bal-

anced by a flowing tail weighted with

lead. Nevertheless, active as the group
is, it does not lack characterization.
Falconet also designed for bric-a-brac.
A frivolous interpretation of classic ma-
terial, his Venus Spanking Cupid, for
example, does not pretend to be serious;
it is a light and amusing piece of genre
intended for a casual glance, not for
analysis.

A generation later, Claude Michel,

called Clodion, formed one of a group
that met the demand of society for this
sort of thing. He modeled terra-cotta
figuresand groups, like the Nymph and
Satyr (fig. 331). Conceived on a small 330. Etienne Maurice Falconet (1716-91)
The Bather (1757) Louvre, Paris. Marble,
scale, it mocks mythology by the trivi- V high.
426 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

331. Clodion (1738-1814) Nxniph and Satyr. Metropolitan Museum, New York. Terra cotta,

i'h" high.
 CLODION - PIGALLE - HOUDON 427

ality of the motive and by the amorous is more extravagant than

yet in Bernini's

quality, which is more outspoken in tombs, and finds its climax here. Such
these objets d'art than in most paintings elaboration is ill adapted to our concep-
and monumental sculpture. These tion of the purpose of a tomb. Its senti-

nudes, overflowing with animal spirits ment, its drama, its naturalism of de-
and fleshy in physique, he conceives tail would be more appropriate on a

with dainty naturalism. Notable, too, is

small scale in the salon or the boudoir.

the momentary quality, a transitoriness Nevertheless, Pigalle is the incarnation

appropriate to such a theme and such of his century; its growing confidence
in science finds expression in anatomical
a scale.
Many of these characteristics find accuracy. His animated figures convey

their way even into the tombs of the the feminine ideals of the Rococo as
fully as do the paintings of Boucher.
At the very end of the century,
France produced in Jean Antoine
Houdon (1741-1828) a figure who
ranks with her greatest sculptors. The
increasing sobriety of the age spared
Houdon the necessity of catering to the
less sculpturesque aspects of the Rococo,
and the reviving classicism had not pro-
gressed so far as to insist on archaeology
as basic to success, although Houdon
did return to the Roman portrait bust

as a form. The Voltaire (fig. 333) is

clad in simple drapery with none of the

furbelows of the Rococo to disturb its

sculpturesque lines. In fact, it is too

general to suggest historic costume of
any period. Its ample folds avoid the

naturalism of the mid-century, lest by

332. Jean Baptiste Pigalle (1714-84) Tomb of
superfluous detail they distract atten-
Marshal Saxe (1756-76) Church of St.

Thomas, Strasbourg, c. 16' high. tion from the head and the hands where
lies the characterization. With consum-
century. That of Marshal Saxe (fig. 332) mate taste Houdon selects those details

by Jean Baptiste Pigalle, dated 1756- best calculated to reveal the personality

76, developed from the Baroque but of Voltaire: the vivacious eyes, the cyni-

carried movement and its

its pictorial- cal twist of his lips, the intellectual ani-

ism even further. The drama of death mation of his features. Voltaire leans
428 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

ENGLAND
Meanwhile in England a different
history was being shaped. The Georgian
period was not exciting, and did not
want to be. Its ideal was stateliness,
serious and academic, but it was with-
out the pomposity of the reign of Louis
XIV, as it was also without the political
absolutism of that age. A desire for rule
and order affected everything, and com-
pelled a sophisticated propriety. This
sounds stuffy, but no century that pro-
duces a Hogarth or a Dr. Johnson can
be dull. In fact, the Doctor and his
circle are typical of the time. Moreover,
the very order of the century provokes
eddies of protest— a shadow of the
Rococo, or the vagaries of the 'Chinese
taste' or of the 'Gothick taste.' These
333. Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828) Vol-
taire (1781) Theatre-Francais, Paris. Life-size.
are not serious studies of Chinese or
Gothic art or architecture; they are vari-

forward, gripping the arms of his chair ants, mostly of a flippant character, on
as though absorbed in conversation and the sober norm of Georgian architec-

as though he had just uttered one of ture.

his provocative sallies. The Baroque style of Sir Christopher

The Rococo does not constitute a Wren and his successors did not permit
major style comparable to the Gothic, the academic rule demanded by the
the Renaissance, and the Baroque. It is new age. Under the leadership of Rich-
slight and affected, and as such has ard Boyle, the Earl of Burlington, archi-
been bitterly attacked by more sober tecture in the first half of the eighteenth
times. Nevertheless, this boudoir style century turned instead to Inigo Jones
has many admirable qualities. If it does and Palladio. Burlington himself was
not inculcate any moral and intellectual an amateur, though his circle included

precepts, at best its proponents are ex- many trained architects. Such amateurs,
quisite draftsmen and delicate colorists, like Quatremere de Quincy in France
who display a sympathetic understand- at the end of the century, needed a
ing of their media in sculpture and formula wherewith to measure architec-
painting that may well be the envy of tural success, as with a yardstick. In the
other generations. case of Quatremere de Quincy, the
 GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE 429

standard was archaeological; for Burl- Georgian designers were more inde-
ington, it was academic. The propor- pendent. James Gibbs was less academic
tionsand members of the classic orders and was, therefore, disapproved of by
were all important; symmetry was to be the Burlington group. More than any
achieved at any cost; imagination was other mid-eighteenth-century architect,
subordinate to regularity. Jones himself he carried on Wren's Baroque manner,
had been less narrow than this, while confirmed in this tendency by his own
Wren was great enough to be a law trip to Italy and by the Italian stucco

unto himself. workers whom he brought back with

No outstanding architect appeared in him. His portico on St. Martin's in the
this group, but many of its members Fields in London, 1721-6, is Georgian
were competent. Colin Campbell com- in spirit, but the steeple would do Wren
piled the Vitruvius Brittanicus, a col- himself credit in its beauty of silhouette.
lection of the best examples of English Gibbs has importance for Americans as

architecture as measured by the stand- the immediate source of inspiration for

ards of the Burlington clique. Signifi- many colonial designs.
cantly, many of Jones's buildings were The best site for the study of Georg-
illustrated, but few by Wren. The best ian domestic architecture is the city of

iii
::

v $,;

^^^^H

334. John Wood (c. 1704-54) Prior Park (1735-43) Bath. 147' long; columns 32' high.
43° THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

Bath, which became fashionable at this to the dignity and formality of the life

time. Its regular lines and its blocks of within.

uniformly designed houses make whole The smaller Georgian interiors, with
streets and squares units of design. The their paneled walls sometimes painted
best architectural expression of the quiet in quiet colors and elsewhere left in
culture of Bath is found in the work of the natural color of the wood, were very
the John Woods, father and son. Prior satisfactory. In the larger houses the de-

Park (fig.
334) near Bath, built from
1735 to 1743, shows the Georgian at its
best. It was the estate of Ralph Allen,

the prototype of Squire Allworthy in

Fielding's Tom who promoted
Jones,
much of the new work in the city. The
main block of the house is rectangular
in plan and strictly axial; quadrant
wings curve forward from each corner
of the facade to connect with smaller
blocks that often functioned as kitchens
and stables, their masses serving as a foil

to the central building. This triple

scheme can be traced back through de-

signs of Inigo Jones to the villas of Pal-
ladio. Its effect is stately, but presup-
poses a corps of servants and some sac-
rifice of convenience in the separation of
the kitchen from the dining room. The
spacious apartments are designed more
for display than for domestic use as un-
335. Home House, London (1775-77)-
derstood today. However, this impres-
sion that the house is designed for show sire for display led to the introduction
is partly due to its monumentality. On of polished marbles and columns, pedi-
the facade, window balances window in ments, and other features too large in
number, size, and design. A free-stand- scale and too public in character to be
ing portico, complete with entablature appropriate. Hence toward the end of
and pediment, accents the center, but the century the Georgian style, espe-
notice that this feature is in the middle cially on the interior, gave way to the
of the long side of the house, and the style created by the Adam brothers,
pediment does not, therefore, terminate who were partly under the influence of
the principal roof, as it did in classic the increasing classicism. Robert Adam
art. Such a portico adds the final touch returned in 1760 from his travels in
 ADAM 43 1

336. Robert Adam (1728-92) James Adam (1730-94) Lord Derby's House, London (1773).

Italy, where he had shared in an arch- (fig. 336) in London shows the result of
aeological investigation, which he later such a plan and also its substitution of
published, of the Palace of Diocletian elegance for grandeur. The forms be-
at Spalato. come lighter and better adapted to an
The new classic vogue betrays itself, interior than to an exterior. A rich vo-
on the facade of Kedleston, in the cabulary of small decorative features en-
choice of such Roman motives as the livens walls and ceilings alike. Rosettes,
triumphal arch and the saucer-like festoons of corn husks, urns, and floral

dome, but the Adam exteriors differ motives modeled in plaster create an
from the Georgian manner less than do interior of sophistication and refine-

other parts of their designs. In plan ment suited to the polished life of this

335) the Adam style varies the vol-

(fig. generation. A few touches of bright
umes of several rooms in a suite, from color, or perhaps decorative paintings
the square to the rectangle or circle, by Angelica Kaufmann, enhance these
with large or small niches and exedrae to details. The whole room is homogeneous
enrich the impression of each chang- in design, thanks to the application of
ing area; Home House, London, is an like motives in the furniture, and even
excellent example. Lord Derby's House in the locks, keys, and hinges. These
432 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

were the fashionable interiors which George Hepplewhite lived a few years
housed the social celebrities painted by later than Chippendale. His book,
Reynolds and Gainsborough. The Cabinet-Makers and Upholsterers
7

The eighteenth century is recognized Guide, was published in 1788 after his
as the great age of English furniture. death. He preferred tapered legs; curved
Walnut began to supersede oak as the fronts for sideboards and commodes,
favorite material as earlv as 1660, giving perhaps with shutters; oval, shield,

way in turn to mahoganv about 1725. heart, or hoop-shaped backs of chairs;

However, these dates are approxima- and sometimes light woods in fine ve-

tions only, and walnut pieces were made neers. However, these characteristics
long after 1725. Many familiar motives, also occur in furniture not connected
such as the cabriole leg and the ball-and- with him. The designers of the eight-
claw foot, prevail in the first half of the eenth century drew on the same tradi-

century in both walnut and mahoganv tions and also borrowed motives from
designs, which were characterized by one another.
vigor and restraint and executed with Finally, Thomas Sheraton published
such skill that the unknown craftsmen The Cabinet Makers and Upholsterers'
need not bow to the celebrated cabinet- Drawing Book about 1791. Though he
makers who succeeded them. was scornful of the designs of his prede-
The first of these craftsmen to give cessors, his own manner draws on the
his name to a style of furniture was same sources. In general his models are
Thomas Chippendale. Several types of simpler, less influenced by the Rococo
design are associated with him on the and more by the developing classic fash-

basis of the illustrations to The Gentle- ion. Legs are usually straight, chair
man and Cabinet Maker s Director, first backs square or with quadrant corners,
published in 1754. He continued the and although curved fronts are not elim-
cabriole leg and the ball-and-claw foot; inated, they become less common.
he popularized the tripod support for Greater reliance is placed on the beauty
screens and small tables; fretwork in of workmanship and veneers. The level

either the Chinese or the Gothic tastes of craftsmanship faded during the nine-
create playful variants; and at other teenth century when the rise of indus-
times, the influence of the French Ro- trialism, mass production, and material-
coco style is paramount. Chippendale ism led to a striving for effect without
also worked for the Adam brothers after taste. In protest, the arts-and-crafts

1766, but then the design more theirs is movement of the late nineteenth cen-
than his. The same motives— corn husks, tury, led by William Morris, attempted
slender urns, and fluting— that charac- to revive craftsmanship in printing, wall
terize the Adam style in architecture paper, textiles, and furniture. The Mor-
also adorn the furniture that bears their ris chair, with its adjustable back, was
name. the most functional piece of furniture
 FURNITURE - HOGARTH 433

337- William Hogarth (1697-1764) Marriage a la Mode I (finished 1744) Tate Gallery, Lon-
don. 2'3" x 2'n".

developed during the nineteenth cen- pictorial arts. William Hogarth (1697-
tury. 1764), the first great English painter,
presents vivid narratives in sets of pic-
Before the eighteenth century not tures, each canvas comparable to a chap-

much painting had been produced in ter in a novel. Such a work is the Mar-
England by native artists. Foreigners riage a la Mode series. The first design
like Van Dyck established a tradition (fig. 337) introduces the characters.
of aristocratic portraiture. Some Georg- The social position of a nobleman is to
ian houses contained Baroque decora- be bartered for the money of a wealthy
tive paintings, perhaps in the stair hall tradesman. A gouty earl on the right
by the Italian Verrio, or the French- points with pride to his position in a
man Laguerre. The dome of St. Paul's family tree that traces his ancestry back
was decorated by SirJames Thornhill, to a knight in medieval armor. In ex-
a native artist, but on the whole Eng- change for this social eminence, he re-

lish decorative art is not important. ceives back the mortgage on his estate,

Aside from portraiture, however, the and a cash settlement as well. The
English spirit demanded narrative of its father of the bride-to-be inspects the
434 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

marriage settlement with the same care These compositions may well, like the

and the same absence of emotion he novels of Dickens in the next century,
might feel in reviewing a business con- have borne their share in ameliorating
tract. The engaged couple sit beside the conditions they attacked.
each other to the left, but Hogarth al- But however biting the satire, and
lows them to turn their backs upon one however vivid the narrative, these qual-

another. The young woman twirls her ities alone could not make Hogarth's
ring on her handkerchief and listens to canvases great paintings, nor should the
the charming conversation of the lawyer effectiveness of these satires overshadow
in charge of this job. With such a be- Hogarth's power as a draftsman. De-
ginning, one can hardly expect a happy tailed as these are, he is capable of ex-
issue from this marriage, and the re- traordinary breadth, as in the Shrimp
maining show the progress
five pictures Girl, or of keen character study, as in

of the tragedy— the boredom of the his portrait of Captain Coram. His com-
couple in each other's companv after position appears to be accidental, or,

marriage, the empty gaiety of the house- more precisely, defined by the narrative
hold, the infidelitv of the bride leading demands of his subject. In reality, Ho-
to a duel in which the young nobleman garth shows a remarkable feeling for
is killed, and the subsequent death of space, and for the co-ordination of the

his wife. figures with the rooms they occupy. The

This and Hogarth's other series of pictorial strength of these designs rests

paintings were made to be engraved and on an organization that is none the less

the reproductions sold broadcast. Finan- present for not being obvious.
cially, they were verv successful. The But after all, it is the portrait school
lucid story would ensure that. These in the second half of the century that is

satires on social customs of Hogarth's most characteristic of the age. Its leader
day are historical documents of the first Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-92), des-

importance. They are often mistakenly tined to be the first president of the
described as moralistic. A moral teaches Royal Academy, studied for years in

that the consequences of wrongdoing Italy. His color and even his lighting are
fall upon the transgressors, but Hogarth affected by the Venetians, through his
allows the guilty to escape untouched. own study, and through the Venetian
The young couple have their union ar- influence upon Van Dyck and Rubens,
ranged for them, but they, and not their who laid the foundations of English
parents, bear the brunt of the tragedy. portraiture. Reynolds is often said to be
Rather than describe Hogarth as a at his finest in his paintings of women,
moralist, one should recognize in him a for example, Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic
realist, who takes a custom of his day Muse, inspired by Michelangelo's Isaiah
and demonstrates its probable conse- from the Sistine ceiling. He infuses that
quences without a trace of sentiment. portrait with a histrionic character
 HOGARTH - REYNOLDS 435

through the pose and background light- more powerful than his female portraits.

ing, appropriate since Mrs. Siddons was Dr. Johnson (fig. 338) could hardly be
a great Shakespearian actress. better characterized. The painter and
But Reynolds' best male portraits are his sitter were friends, as intimate as the

National Gallery, London. 2'

338. Joshua Reynolds (1723-92) Dr. Johnson (1772-1780)
x 2V.
436 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— ROCOCO AND GEORGIAN ART

spirit of the eighteenth century and the

reserve of Reynolds himself would per-

mit. The painter catches the ponderous

intellectually of Dr. Johnson perfectly.

The Doctor might be formulating a

definition of some word for his Dic-
tionary, or characterizing one of the
English poets. He looks the part of a
dictator of English letters. Reynolds is

at his best in these intimate portraits,

concentrated against a plain back-

ground. In the more pretentious can-
vases, custom dictates such accessories

as the lower part of a column, a sweep

of drapery, or a bit of landscape. Lord
Heathfield, the defender of Gibraltar, is

reinforced by a cannon and other ob-

jects that allude to his profession. The
lighting is generalized and no attempt
to be natural is made. Sufficient to
bring out the modeling, it comes closer

to the diffused light of an interior than

339. Thomas Gainsborough (1727-88) The
to sunlight. Technically, the middle Honorable Mrs. Graham (1775) National Gal-
lery of Scotland, Edinburgh. 7'c/' x 5'.
range of values in nature is recorded
with nearly its actual contrasts, and
nolds, and the pictorial accessories of
therefore a crowding together of the
landscape and column create a sumptu-
high and low values comes inevitable.
ous effect. The portrait sheds its rich-
This English school is one of society
ness and its social eminence wherever
portraiture. Thomas Gainsborough it may be displayed. Gainsborough is

(1727-88) has a flair for infusing his

not so intellectual in his analysis of
characters with all the social graces. In character as Reynolds. He never, like
his portrait of the Honorable Mrs. Gra- Reynolds, traveled to Italy, nor was he
ham (fig. 339), she looks as though she so influential in his day. On the other
might just have come from a reception hand, Gainsborough is more brilliant as
at St. James's Palace. She looks to the a painter; he has sheer genius. His dash
manner born, with that self-confident and verve, his freedom, his pictorial in-
distinction caricatured in the March of stinct, and his virtuosity with the brush
the Peers in lolanthe. The color, are pronounced.
stronger and fresher than that of Rey- The danger of such brilliance of tech-
 REYNOLDS - GAINSBOROUGH 437

nique lies in its charm. Many painters shell of the school of Reynolds and
in the late eighteenth and early nine- Gainsborough is preserved. At its worst
teenth centuries follow the lines laid this school indulges in all the superfi-
down by Reynolds and Gainsborough, cialities of society portraiture, and ad-
men like Henry Raeburn, George Rom- heres to a monotonous pattern. In this
ney, and John Hoppner, to name only formula, established by Van Dyck, a
three. But these portrait manufacturers, fashionably dressed figure is placed
as a more critical age has called them, against a generalized background or one
lack the intellect of Reynolds and the filled with vague accessories that hint
pictorial structure of Gainsborough. Sir at some achievement or interest of the
Thomas Lawrence carries the school to sitter. However, even the weaker mem-
its glittering extreme in sparkling color bers of the group retain the decorative
and virtuosity, but the means have be- color and the social poise that typified

come an end in themselves, and only the the school at its best.
XX Arts of the American Indian

Over a long period of time and in rela- either sedentary small village dwellers
tively small groups, the American In- near their fields, or semi-nomadic groups
dian migrated across the Bering Straits dependent for their subsistence diet on
into this hemisphere from northeast agriculture as well as on hunting and
Asia. Evidences of human occupancy fishing.

of the Americas have been traced back With the domestication of plants,

to about twenty-five thousand years ago, numerous structural and conceptual

while habitation sites in caves in Ore- changes occurred in the various Indian
gon and elsewhere are over seven thou- cultures. Agriculture was diffused all

The immigrant peoples

sand years old. over the Americas and was fundamental
were nomadic hunters who roamed over to the formation of high cultures in
the extensive reaches of both North and Mexico, Middle America, and Peru. It

South America, as far as the southern- was also basic in the survival pattern of
most point. They were of Mongoloid the majority of tribal groups elsewhere.
stock; but differences in physical type It is necessary in the study of Indian
and languages suggest that they came art to make certain temporal and cul-

from different areas or groups in their tural distinctions. Chronological dif-

northeast Asian homeland. At some ferences must be observed between the

point long after their arrival, the In- undocumented archaeological arts of
dians domesticated such plants as maize, Pre-Columbian times and the tribal arts
beans, squash, and tobacco, and became recorded by Europeans at about the
438
 PERU
439
time of contact with the Indians. Dif- derives to some extent from the written
ferencesmust also be noted between the records of the Spanish following their
high and tribal cultures. The high cul- conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532,
tures are distinguished by such elements but is scientifically based on archaeo-
as a consolidated government, a unify- logical work of the past seventy-five
ing institutionalized religion, speciali- years. Although these Indians evolved
zation in the arts and vocations, uni- a culture with a well-organized religious,
formity of institutions and customs, and political, and social structure, thev
a planned and organized use of man- lacked knowledge of the wheel, the
power for the prosecution of such ex- arch, and any method of writing and
tensive plans as large architectural proj- dating.
ects and warfare. Tribal cultures, on Ancient Peruvian art encompasses
the other hand, have a simpler pattern many of the so-called minor arts, such
of life in which man} of the elements as pottery and textiles, and the major
above are either lacking or are modestly arts of architecture and sculpture. The
developed within a small isolated group. greater number of surviving examples
The high cultures developed in the from all eras, however, are of pottery
Peruvian Andean) area of
(Central and textiles. Throughout the long time-
South America and Middle Americain span of this art emphasis was placed,
(Central America and Mexico), but regardless of medium, upon technical
there are suggestions of a near-high excellence.
culture in the archaeological material Three broad chronological periods,
from the Ohio-Mississippi area. Knowl- early, middle, and may be charac-
late,

edge of these high cultures has accumu- terized in Peruvian art. The earlv pe-
lated from archaeological investigations riod, roughly 1000-400 b.c, is best rep-
of the past hundred-odd years. The dat- resented by the stone sculpture of the
ing of them, however, is still somewhat Chavin culture of the northern high-
hypothetical, although a relative time lands; the middle period, a.d. 400-1000,
sequence is now generally agreed upon. by Mochica pottery of the northern
Hence, the dates used here will be coastal region and by Nazca pottery and
broad and general. textiles of the southern coast; and the
The ancient Peruvian region extended late period, 1000-1532, by the stone
along the western part of South Amer- sculpture of the Tiahuanaco culture in
ica from Ecuador in the north to the southern highlands and by the archi-
northern Chile in the south. Topograph- tecture and decorative arts of the Inea
ically and culturally it can be divided Empire. But pottery, art forms in metal,
into a lowland coastal strip and a high- usually gold or silver, and evidences of
land zone, often over 10,000 feet in textiles appear in all periods and areas,

elevation within the Andean escarp- while wood sculpture has survived in
ment. Our knowledge of these peoples some regions.
44° ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

In the highlands throughout the

length of Peru an abundance of stone
led to the development of stone sculp-

ture and architecture; good clay fur-

nished material for pottery and adobe;
and the llama, alpaca, and vicuna pro-
vided food and wool for textiles. Cha-
vin, the earliest highland culture, de-
340. Relief, detail of Cornice Soffit, Chavin
rives its name from the site of Chavin
de Huantar (1200-400 B.C.).
de Huantar, where the most extensive
remains of it have been found. The art carving of an anthropomorphized feline
is dominated by a single all-pervading form with an enormous headdress of
motive— a heavv, fanged feline head. It superposed feline faces and serpentine
appears on stone sculpture, ceramics, forms; the other, a 15-foot-high lance-
and gold work, in profile, top and front like shape carved with a large feline
views, often moderately or considerably head. Examples of both architecture and
stylized. The head is attached in some sculpture reveal an accomplished tech-
examples to a feline body; in others it nique of stone cutting; while the ever-
is appended to a bird, or fish form; while present feline motive, certainly a per-
in all three it is often used to indicate vading symbol, has contributed to the
joints or body details. Often the fanged belief that Chavin de Huantar was a re-

mouth alone is used. This motive is ligious center of a theocratically domi-

rendered in a two-dimensional incised nated culture. The large architectural
style composed of curving, somewhat complex also hypothecates a religious or
angular lines, frequently used as parallel political organization strong enough to

pairs to produce a strap-like effect. utilize and control mass labor.

Characteristic Chavin relief sculpture The ubiquitous feline head or face

appears on the cornice soffits of exten- motive has been found at early cultural
sive architectural ruins discovered at levels over much of Peru, an indication
Chavin de Huantar (fig. 340). These that Chavin culture may have been pan-
ruins include sunken plazas, platforms, Peruvian in its distribution. It is cer-

terraces, and structures of several floors, tainly one of the most interesting of

together with subterranean drains, gal- early American Indian art styles.

leries, ventilation shafts, ramps and Mochica art of the middle period is

stairways. Carefully dressed stones were best represented by a distinctive pot-

set without mortar or dowels in alter- tery shape, modeled, well polished, and
nating wide and narrow courses to face painted red, white, and black in a

the interior and exterior walls. Within unique and characteristic manner (fig.

the buildings two large stone sculptures 341 ) The pottery was used as an ad-
.

were found: one, a 6-foot-high flat relief junct to burials, possibly indicating the
 CHAVIN - MOCHICA 441

anthropomorphic feline, presumed a

deity, is fundamental to this art; while
other human and anthropomorphic ani-

mal figures, such as the lizard and dog,

are considered as menials in the religious
hierarchy. Because of the pottery deco-
ration, more is therefore known or may
justifiably be surmised about Mochica
culture than about any other early cul-
ture of Peru.
In the dry desert coastal region to the
south, textiles as well as ceramics have
survived from the Nazca middle period
culture. Here the decorated pottery was
coil-made and molded by hand. Distinc-
tive of this art, both in pottery and tex-

tiles, are the range and variations of col-

ors: on a white, cream, gray, or buff
slip as many as eleven different colors
341. Pottery Jar, Mochica (400-1000) Ameri- may be distinguished in the painted
can Museum of Natural History, New York.
11Y2" high. ceramics, and a similar color range is

found in the textiles. The designs, often

social, political, or religious importance outlined in black, are rather descriptive
of the deceased. Mochica decorated pot- or stylized, and are usually less pictorial
tery was mold-made in two identical than in Mochica art. A wide variety of
vertical halves, which were joined to- shapes, including the bowl and open
gether and topped by a so-called 'stir- cup, are typical of the pottery (fig. 342)
rup-spout' consisting of an open tubular The decorative subjects include birds,
loop surmounted in the center or to the plants, fish, cat-demons, centipedes,
side by a tubular spout. These vessels trophy heads, and a number of geo-
were decorated either by modeled and metric designs.
painted forms, or by linear designs Nazca textiles consist of both cotton
painted on the surface. The subject and wool fibers, while embroidery and
matter was often a genre-like descrip- tapestry were the preferred techniques
tion of various mundane activities or a (Plate ix, facing p. 556). Textile de-
lively representation or symbolic depic- signs, like those of ceramics, are usually

tion of religious, mythological, and mil- composed of small units and often rep-
itary scenes. The forms were human, resent highly conventionalized anthro-
bird, animal, or hybrid, arranged as pomorphic figures. Outstanding in the
groups or as single figures. A fanged textile designs are the numerous varia-
442 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

winged-eye, and a geometric stepped de-

sign.

A number of monolithic stone sculp-

tures have been found at the site of
Tiahuanaco in an enormous architec-
tural ruin measuring almost 4000 feet
by 2000 feet. The most famous of these
sculptures is the so-called Gate-way of
the Sun, a monolithic structure approxi-
mately 7 feet high, 13 wide, and 18
inches thick. On the front surface the
basic motives of Tiahuanaco art appear
in a very low relief and an incised tech-
nique: a frontally posed stylized human
figure, flanked by running condor-

342. Pottery Jar, Nazca (400-1000) Ameri- headed figures. Several colossal stone
can Museum of Natural History, New York. sculptures, ranging from 6 to 24 feet
7 1/2" high.
high and representing humanoid figures,

tions, alternations, and inversions used, have been uncovered at this site (fig.

together with changes in color, in the 343 ) . The over-all proportions serve to

emphasize the large rectangular head,

composition of a single design unit, or
while the body below has a similar rec-
several, in the same cloth.
tangularly of shapes. All of the forms
The later period culture of Tiahu-
are blocky and four-sided, with descrip-
anaco, found at the site of that name,
tive details of costume and facial fea-
south of the shore of Lake Titicaca in
tures incised or carved in low relief on
Bolivia, is typified by an art style most
the surface. The motives of Tiahua-
clearly defined by stone sculpture and
naco style spread all over Peru and be-
painted ceramics. A particular motive
came dominant influences in the forma-
also dominates this style— a convention-
tion of later art styles.
alized human figure with a short, heavy
The year 1438 is the date accepted
body and a large rectangular head. Em-
for the establishment of the Inca
Facial features of these figures consist
pire. In many respects this Empire, con-
of low-relief rectangular eye, nose, and quered by the Spanish in 1532, was a
mouth elements, with a vertical rectan- cultural synthesis of what had been de-
gular band of three 'tear-drop' forms veloped by earlier Peruvian cultures; but
below the eyes. A conspicuous variant of the Inca were more deeply concerned
the human head is that of a bird, a with the formation of a tightly knit so-
condor; while other constantly recurring cial and political organization and less

elements include stars, puma, fish, with the creation of a distinctive art
 TIAHUANACO - INCA 443

achieved, however, through the medium

of architecture. Numerous fortresses,

cities, and ceremonial structures were

built in various types of heavy stone
masonry. Some of them were con-
structed of huge megalithic blocks of ir-

regular sizes and shapes, carefully cut

so that they would fit perfectly together;
other structures were built in a similar
type of masonry but of smaller stones;
and still others were built of large blocks
with the surfaces cut as a convex or
expanding plane, producing a rusticated
effect (fig. 344). The Inca also used a
dressed stone and coursed masonry, and
rough or split stones laid in courses of

clay cement, as well as a common type

of adobe brick construction. Although
the aesthetic character of Inca architec-
ture largely derives from the excellence
of technique in the cutting, shaping,
and fitting together of the stones, it is

also important to note a sculptural qual-

ity in space— the way the bulky, volu-
minous forms are arranged in relation to
each other.
Ancient Peruvian art consists predom-
inantly of two-dimensional designs, as
on ceramics and in textiles, although
three-dimensional forms are also well
represented in stone sculpture, ceramics,
metal work, and in the massive archi-

343. Stone Figure, Stela Bennett, Tiahuanaco

tectural shapes. There are very few style
(1000-1300) American Museum of Natural elements common to the entire area;
History, New York. c. 24' high.
but there was a continuing and uni-
style. Their art, although technologi- versal emphasis on technical dexterity,
cally accomplished, produced relatively and a close adherence to local or re-
few typical shapes and patterns in ce- gional art styles.
ramics, textiles, and metal-work; a sig- Middle America, comprising parts of
nificant, and awe-inspiring art was Honduras, Guatemala, and all of Mex-
444 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

344. Detail, Stone Architecture, Tampumachay, near Cuzco, Inca (1438-1532)

ico, may have had, as present archaeo- given important artistic expressions.
logical knowledge suggests, a cultural Several pre-writing systems or notations
depth comparable to that of Peru. In were evolved: one consisting of glyphs
this extensive region there evolved a composed of natural forms and symbols
considerable number of cultures and art arranged to record a date or a period of
styles for which a chronological se- time; and the other a pictorial account
quence has been established by both of ceremonies or events painted on deer-
and historical evidence.
archaeological skin or a type of parchment.
Middle-American art may also be di- In Middle America, the so-called
vided into early, middle, and late pe- pyramid is a conspicuous feature of
riods, the three periods covering a time civic-religious sites. The pyramid was,
span extending from about 300 b.c. to with few exceptions, truncated, and it

a.d, 1521, when the Spanish conquered served as a massive, lofty base for the
the Aztec state. temple built on its flattened top. The
Within each of the three periods temple was reached by steep steps ar-

there developed a number of different, ranged on the outer slope of the base.
and in most cases distinctive cultures This was essentially an architecture of
and their attendant art styles. The mass and bulk, constructed of rubble,
major arts of architecture, sculpture, and cut stone blocks or slabs, and adobe
painting were more highly developed brick, the exterior and interior walls fre-
here than in Peru, although ceramics quently being decorated with sculpture
and elaborate metal-work were also or fresco painting. The true arch was
 MIDDLE AMERICA 445
not known, but the corbelled arch was added to and modified with each year
used extensively, particularly as a cov- of research. The late-period art is that
ering for the narrow interior rooms and of the Aztec state, which may be dated
galleries. In Middle America the civic- 1325-1521; and possibly that of the
religious urban centers were often enor- northwestern Mexican area of Tarascan,
mous in size and complex in plan. where a strongly developed local art

Sculpture in stone, pottery, or jade evolved and for which at the moment
was an outstanding art, carved or mod- no dates can be given. Only the late pe-

eled in high and low relief, or in the riod may be considered historical, owing
round. Color was sometimes used to to the recording by the Spaniards of the
clarify a design and inlays of various ma- culture of their conquered peoples.
terials were employed. Bulk and vol- Associated with the Zapotec tribes or
ume of component shapes were stressed, peoples, the ceremonial center of Monte
although descriptive or symbolic details Alban consists of a number of fairly

were often elaborately rendered by stubby truncated pyramids, plazas, tem-

small-scale, multiple-design elements. ples, ball courts, and shallow subterra-
The early-period Middle-American nean tombs, and was used for a long
arts developed in four main centers: at time apparently as a combined religious

Monte Alban in the Oaxaca Valley of and mortuary center. Among the earliest
western Mexico, tentatively dated 100 arts from Monte Alban are a series of

b.c. to a.d. 550; the east Mexican Vera 3- to 4-foot-high vertical stone slabs set

Cruz area, known as La Venta, 100 b.c. up to line the entranceway to the
to a.d. 600; the Mexican Valley site of tombs, and carved in an incised or is-

Teotihuacan near Mexico City, 300 b.c. land-relief technique, depicting dra-

to a.d. 900; and the early Maya cities of matic, energetic 'dancing' figures. In
Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico, a.d. style, irregular curving lines boldly and
325-900. These four art styles have a simply delineate the forms and the
considerable geographical spread and a sparse details.
marked distinctiveness of character. The best-known examples of art from
The middle-period arts are those of the this site are clay-modeled, well-fired an-

east Mexican Totonac area, dated a.d. thropomorphic urns, ranging from 1

800-1200; from the Toltec sites in the foot to over 2 feet high and from a

Valley of Mexico, not far from Mexico gray-tan through a red-tan in color (fig.

City, 900-1200; of the Mitla-Mixtec 345). They were found in the tombs
center in Oaxaca, 900-1300; and in the and represented a seated or kneeling fig-

Yucatan Maya cities, 900-1204. Knowl- ure in a ceremonial dress consisting of

edge of the art of the early and middle an often very elaborate headdress and a
periods is derived from archaeological cloak-like costume believed to be that
investigations; and, since these are still of a priest. The earliest of these figures

continuing, this knowledge is being wear a simpler costume. In early and

a
446 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

represented by a few colossal stone

heads, measuring as much as 7 feet
high, found in association with archi-
tectural ruins. The significance of these
massive and strongly sculptural heads is

not as yet known. In the La Venta area

carved calendar stones and complex
glyphs, at present undecipherable, have
also been discovered. The influence of
this culture may have extended south to
Guatemala and west to Monte Alban;
and it may have been basic in the for-
mation of other Middle-American cul-
tures.

At Teotihuacan there was located a

vast early-period ceremonial center com-
prising two large, stepped, truncated
pyramids, the so-called Pyramid of the
Sun, 216 feet high, and the Pyramid of
the Moon, 140 feet high. They served as
345. Anthropomorphic Urn, Monte Alban-
Zapotec (500-1000) Museum of the American lofty foundations for temples, which
Indian, New York. 26H" high. have now disappeared, and were built of
sun-dried brick covered with a thick

late examples there is a naturalistic in-

terpretation of form, rendered by a

sensitive modeling of shapes and struc-

ture. Carved jades and highly stylized

fresco paintings are also typical of
Monte Alban art.
The most important evidences of La
Venta art, formerly known as Olmec,
are finely sculptured jade and stone ob-
jects, including mask-like forms, statu-
ettes, votive axes with human features, 346. Face Type from Stone Head, La Venta-
Olmec (100 b.c.-a.d. 600) c. 7' high.
and colossal heads (fig. Body
346).
shapes are consistently squat and fat, layer of adobe mixed with broken stone
while the facial features have heavy and surfaced with stucco. Nearby are
Mongoloid eyes and a composite feline ruins of houses built of the same ma-
and infantile mouth. The style is well terials, with developed ground plans and
 MIDDLE AMERICA 447
elaborately stylized fresco paintings on seems a forerunner of the glyph nota-
the plastered walls of some of the tion and writing developed by the Maya
rooms. and other Middle-American peoples.
The largest building complex at this The original homeland of the early-
site,known as The Citadel, was a cere- period Maya tribes is not known, al-

monial structure. It measures over 1300 though it is believed that it may have
feet long by 250 feet wide and consists been to the northeast. They apparently
of high embankments reached by stair- migrated south and southwest, one
ways and surrounded by a courtyard. group continuing into Guatemala, and
The Temple of Quetzalcoatl is located the other breaking off and moving
within the citadel and is one of the northeast into Yucatan, where a Mayan
most famous buildings in Middle Amer- culture was evolved just a little later
ica. It is a stepped truncated pyramid, than that to the south. In both the
which was covered over by one built at north and south early Maya art is char-
a later date; hence its front face or fa- acterized by large, well-planned civic
cade was protected and has suffered only centers, where architecture and sculp-
slight deterioration. This structure is
55 ture combined to produce an awesome,
feet high, built up in 6 terraces or steps spectacular effect.
faced with stone. Each terrace is richly Despite the agrarian character of the
decorated with sculptures representing economy, Maya culture centered around
alternately the mask of the rain-god, a unique type of city plan. Each city

Tlaloc, and the feathered serpent, a with a population estimated as ranging

symbol of the deity-culture hero, Quet- from a few thousand to over a hundred
zalcoatl. These symbolic sculptures, thousand had a large, often enormous
large in both size and scale, were carved religious-civic center. These centers con-
in stone in low and high relief, the head sisted of numerous courts and sunken
of the serpent projecting in the round, plazas, surrounded by temples raised on
the teeth painted white, and the eyes very high pyramid bases and palaces or
inlaid with round obsidian disks. It has civic buildings built on lower platforms.

been calculated that there were orig- From this hub the small farms and the
inally 366 carvings on the pyramid. simple mud-and-stick homes of the com-
Teotihuacan art also includes carved moners or peasants spread out in all di-

stone masks and a quantity of small rections, forming a heavily populated

hand-molded pottery figurines with area dependent upon the civic-religious

mold-made faces and headdresses, prob- center. Labor, food, and other services

ably used as temple votive offerings. This were exacted of the population of a city

art is in general architecturally rigid, by the numerous priests and officials,

formal, and highly symbolic, particu- thus making possible the often astound-
larly in the painted frescoes, but also in ing architectural achievements.
the sculptures. The symbolism at times The Mava, like all Pre-Columbian In-
448 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

dians of Middle America, had no metal

tools until after European contact; they
quarried, cut, and carved stone with
stone or wooden tools and abrasives.

Surviving Mayan monuments well at-

test to an amazing proficiency in the
use of these tools, but a great deal of
time and manpower must have been in-

volved. Their architecture consisted es-

sentially of monolithic lime-concrete
walls or core, covered with cut stone,
usually limestone, and surfaced with a
lime plaster. The cut-stone work was
therefore nonfunctional. In the south,
the temple bases are lofty, truncated,
stepped pyramids, frequently over 100
feet high, the highest at Tikal in Guate-
mala measuring 240 feet. Steep stone
steps lead up one side of the base to a
platform on top where the temple was
constructed. The temple was rectangu-
lar in plan, with a single or three-door-
way entrance, and an interior of only a
few rooms covered with a corbelled
vault, a trait unique in America to the
Maya Indians. The exterior facade was
usually divided into two almost equal
parts by a medial cornice, with a cap-
ping cornice at the top; while the flat

lime-concrete roof was surmounted in

the center by a very high wall parallel
to the front facade, a purely decorative
form known as a roof-comb. Above the
medial cornice the exterior facade was
frequently decorated with relief sculp-
tures, and the roof-comb was always
given a decorative treatment.
Characteristic of the southern Maya 347. Stela 14, Piedras Negras, Maya (436—
area were the carving and erecting of 534) The University Museum, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (on loan from the
large, vertical, slab-like stone stelae, 10
Government of Guatemala), c. 9' high.
 MAYA 449
to over 20 feet high (fig. 347). Stelae unique architectural forms and decora-
were set up to mark the conclusion of tion. Supporting bases or platforms are
five-, ten-, or twenty-year calendrical moderately low and decorative roof-
cycles, when important ceremonials combs are replaced by 'flying facades/
took place. They were usually carved on a continuation upward of the front fa-

the back and sides with a series of cade as a decorative wall. Large stone
square-shaped glyphs which recorded mosaics of considerable elaboration were
the date and other matters. Large frequently set into the walls above the
priest figures, replete with an elaborate medial cornice as symbolic decorations,
headdress and costume, were sculptured and a thin, finely cut stone veneer was
in very high and low relief on the front used to cover the wall below this cor-
surface of stelae, figures usually front- nice. The stone mosaics, which consti-
ally posed and often so lavishly cos- tute the important sculpture in this area
tumed that the human form is almost where stelae time-markers are exceed-
completely hidden. Highly stylized hy- ingly rare, are often projecting forms
brid human, animal, and serpentine carved in the round before being em-
forms and detailed costume and icono- bedded in the surface of the wall. The
graphy are characteristic of this essen- ubiquitous Mayan serpent-deity figure,

tially descriptive and didactic art. Other together with human heads and figures

carvings, made for the inner sanctuaries and geometric forms, is typical of this
of the temple and depicting priests and sculptured stone work. The best exam-
ritual scenes in low relief on stone ples of northern Maya art are found at
panels, have a less profuse costume and the Yucatan city of Uxmal (fig. 348),
iconography. Here the human form is while other excellent examples appear
rendered in a strongly articulated, mod- to the northeast at the famous site of
eled style. Examples of these sculp- Chichen Itza, although this city was to
tures were found at Palenque and Yax- reach its greatest development during
chilan in western Guatemala. the following period.
Southern Maya stvle defines forms Maya art, both in its uses and sub-
and details with sharply rendered sin- ject matter, was the product of a theo-
gle or often double strap-like outlines. cractically dominated culture in which
The forms are frequently broken up into both spiritual and secular matters were
multiple parts by small rectangular largely in the hands of priests. Reli-

units, while contrasting short or angular gious rites centered around a large pan-
curves give contrast and variety to the theon of nature deities, particularly
design. In relief sculptures a half dozen those favorable to agriculture, such as
or more parallel planes may recede into the rain god. Complex and accurate
depth, although some details may be calendrical systems were worked out by
carved in the round in very high relief. the Maya, who had observatories and
Early northern Maya art appears in various techniques for determining sea-
450 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

348. Detail, Stone Architecture, The Nunnery, Uxmal, Maya (700-1000) 189' x 33V2'.

sonal changes. The development of the their culture, modified by peoples and
arts, together with the organizational elements from the west, took place in
character of this culture, indicates an the following period.
advanced degree of specialization. Tech- Totonac art of the middle period is

nical excellence in architecture and best represented by that found at the

sculpture and the abundance of finely city-ceremonial site of Tajin. The most
decorated pottery supports this assump- important ruin at Tajin is a six stepped
tion. pyramid temple base, with each step
In the ninth century the many large containing a continuous row of deep
southern Maya cities were abandoned. niches. In association with this pyramid,
It seems most likely that this was a re- many carved stone panels and rectangu-
sult of the collapse of their method of lar blocks suggest that the temple had
agriculture in the face of an increasing sculptured stone wall panels and cor-
population. The Maya thereafter wan- nices. The sculptures, carved in a low
dered or migrated in various directions, relief, represent gods and humans often
some to the northwest and north and engaged in sacrificial ceremonial scenes.
others to the northeast, eventually ar- A relatively open spatial setting for the
riving in Yucatan, where a revival of figures distinguishes this stvle, in which
 TOTONAC - MIXTEC 45 1

the forms and details are described by

strongly marked double outlines of an- .•'"•';

gular curves. Glyphs are sometimes

carved on the heads of the figures. Other
unique Totonac forms include three
enigmatical types of stone sculpture:
heavy, horseshoe-shaped stone 'yokes/
sometimes of polished diorite, carved
in a relief style similar to that of the
§
architectural stones; axe-shaped forms
sculptured with a human or animal
head; and vertical ovoid shapes, called
'palmas' (fig. 349), sometimes 24 inches
high and covered with low-relief repre- w *

sentations of single figures or animals, W. r f m

or compositional groups. Totonac re-
E* , ^7**
lief sculptures are frequently heavily
stylized and sometimes difficult to read
visually. Characteristic of this art, too,

are three-dimensional terra-cotta figu-

'' '

rines and heads, and stone figures and

mask-like faces interpreted in a sensi-
tive naturalistic manner, often carved
with somewhat infantile faces and pleas-
ant smiling features. ^H
W~*
In the middle period at Mitla, near
Monte Alban, the Mixtec tribe of north-
-/- :
:r}:^^^^
ern invaders established an art of new
forms and greatly modified earlier-
349. Stone Palma, Totonac (800-1200)
Monte-Alban elements. The outstand- American Museum of Natural History, New
ing achievement at Mitla is the cere- York. 18" high.

monial building with its attendant stone

shaft tombs. This structure, raised on a facades and interior walls are geometric
relatively low platform, is dominated by mosaic designs composed of small white
long, low horizontal lines. Built around stones, fitted together without mortar
a central court, it comprises a number and set in a hard red stucco background.
of narrow rectangular rooms and a large The geometric designs, supposedly styli-

wider room in which the wooden ceil- zations or symbols of a feather-serpent

ing beams are supported by round mon- deity, consist of frets, stepped frets, and
olithic stone columns. On the exterior angular spiral motives, often arranged

i
45 : ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

in a diagonal direction. Various kinds columns consisted of three parts: a

of polychromed pottery and richly large, sculptured serpent head lying hori-
worked gold ornaments have been found zontally along the ground; the columnar
in the Mitla tombs. body rising vertically above it; and the

The Toltecs, another invading north- tailand rattles placed at right angles to
ern tribe, in the Tula area developed the body and projecting forward in an
unique cultural elements, including new L-shaped manner to function as sup-
architectural and sculptural forms. They ports for the stone entrance lintel.

were an aggressive people who had as im- Three-dimensional sculptures in this

portant culture traits warrior societies style represent a recumbent figure,

and extensive human sacrifice. Although known as Chacmool, and various small
human sacrifice was common to other caryatid or atalantid supporting-figures
Middle-American groups, sacrificial al- for low bench altars or table-like altars.

tars and structures for the display of All of the characteristic Toltecan archi-
victims dominated the ceremonial cen- tectural and sculptural forms appear at
ter at Tula. Chichen Itza, where the building ac-

Toltec art appears in a pure form at tivity during this middle period was ex-
Tula and in a slightly modified style at tensive. A quantity of finely wrought
the Yucatan-Maya city of Chichen Itza. gold work from this period has been
Temples were raised on a low or high recovered from the deep cenotes or nat-
truncated pyramidal base. A wide mold- ural wells in the Yucatan area, objects

ing marked off the sloping or battered which had been thrown, together with
lower wall area from the upper part of living human sacrifices, into the wells
the flat-roofed structures. Frequently the on ceremonial occasions.
wall above the sloping base and the The Aztecs were still another north-
space between the upper capping cor- ern tribe who came into the Valley of
nice and a parallel molding slightly be- Mexico and established their power by
low it were decorated with elaborate 1325. They, too, were an aggressive, war-
low-relief carvings. These, painted de- like tribe with an innate ability to as-

scriptively red, white, and black, repre- similate and synthesize the cultural ele-
sented the military societies symbolized ments they encountered in their con-
by jaguars and eagles. Ceremonial scenes quest of the Mexican area. Their culture
involving combat or human sacrifice are was therefore largely of an eclectic na-
often graphically depicted in these low ture, a summation of what had been
reliefs by a distinct, didactic linear style. achieved by the earlier peoples. Aztec
Other Toltec architectural innova- achievements are found in the fusion
tions included the colonnaded court and and organization of conquered peoples
the use of great feathered-serpent col- into a consolidated militaristic state in
umns as structural and decorative forms which there was a complete and oppres-
flanking the entrance to temples. These sive control over the masses of the pop
 TOLTEC - AZTEC 453

ulation. Religious beliefs were largely

derived from the Toltecs, but Aztec
deities were even more fearsome and
and ritual surrounding
bloodthirsty,
them demanded constant human sacri-
fices.

Architecture followed the usual Mid-

dle-American pattern of large, complex
civic-ceremonial centers with lofty tem-
ple-pyramids, courts, and altars. Added,
however, were trophy platforms for the
exhibition of human heads and hearts.
But the most important Aztec artistic

achievements were in the medium of

three-dimensional stone sculpture. Their
figures were often gruesome in appear-

ance and colossal in size, such as the

Mother of the Gods in the National
Museum in Mexico City, a Janus-figure
over 8 feet high, represented with the
heads as pairs of confronted serpent
heads, the feet as claws, the hands as
snake heads. She wears a large necklace
of human hands and hearts with a 350. Stone Figure, Aztec (1325-1521) Museum
of Primitive Art, New York. 14V2" high.
death's-head pendant, and as a skirt, a
writhing mass of braided rattlesnakes.
Aztec culture, as that of the Inca,
Other deities are represented by equally
was documented by the Spanish who
awesome figures, or are depicted by
conquered the Aztecs in 1521. This re-
carefully wrought skulls encrusted with
corded knowledge was supplemented by
a mosaic of turquoise and obsidian and
skulls carved in rock-crystal. Other Aztec
a number of codices or pictorial manu-
sculptures represent simple scripts painted on parchment or deer-
deities as
and strongly rendered naturalistic forms
skin by the Aztecs and other Middle-
American peoples. These depict cere-
(fig. 350). Their sculpture stresses full
volumes and structurally heavy masses; monies, events, and histories involving

and although the forms are emphatically particular persons and scenes in the art

three-dimensional, they are frequently style characteristic of the period and

somewhat four-sided, and almost always area in which they were painted. A num-
express the original square or rectangular ber of significant Aztec manuscripts
shape of the stone block. have survived.
 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
454
A distinctive art of undetermined age uralism, a remarkable vitality, and an
developed in the mountainous area of instantaneous appeal.
northwest Mexico among peoples known North of Mexico the Indian cultures

as Tarascans, and among related groups of the vast area of the United States

in Nayarit to the north and Colima to and Canada can also be divided into
the south (fig. 351 ) . These people main- archaeological and historical periods,

tained their independence from the the archaeological being a cultural re-

construction based on excavated sites

and areas, and the historical or tribal

derived from the facts recorded at the

time of, or subsequent to, European
contact. In both the archaeological and
tribal phases, large regions are domi-
nated by a basically similar culture and
art style. The art is extremely varied in
materials and techniques, including such
materials as stone, wood, clay, fibers,

bark, hides or leather, shell, and quills.

Various forms and designs were evolved

in the media of architecture, sculpture,
pottery, and two-dimensional designs.
The basic areas of archaeological or
Pre-Columbian art are the Southwest,
comprising largely the region of Arizona,

351. Figure, raised arm in form of vase,

New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado; the
Tarasca (Colima area) (c. a.d. 1200?) Coll. east-central region, containing the Ohio-
Diego Rivera. 14' high. Photograph from
Medioni and Pinto, Art in Ancient Mexico,
Mississippi River drainage basin and the
Oxford University Press. area to the east along the Gulf of Mex-
ico; and the far northwest, including
Aztecs and created a modeled-pottery areas around the Columbia and Fraser
art of unique character. Large and small rivers. Chronologically the Southwest,
solid and hollow figures were modeled, together with the Valley of Mexico, has
fired, covered with a red slip, and often produced archaeological evidence of be-
painted with black and white details, ing among the oldest habitats of the
interpreting in a sensitive, often humor- American Indian, the evidence indicat-
ous, but never realistic manner men and ing an occupation going back many
women engaged in ordinary activities, thousands of years before Christ to a
the crippled and the deformed, and time when mammoth and other now
chubby dogs and birds. The forms, extinct animals were present on this

poses, and expression have a sturdy nat- hemisphere. But the more developed
 TARASCAN - PUEBLO 455

culture from which there is an abun- huge multistoried structure or structures

dance of art remains has been dated capable of housing in some instances
back to about the beginning of the over a thousand persons. Each floor was
Christian era. By that time, agriculture set back from the one below, and in the

was established as the staple for sub- famous Mesa Verde so-called Cliff Pal-

sistence, and the arts of architecture, ace in southern Colorado some of the
polvchromed pottery, weaving, and some structures were four floors high. Here
stone sculpture were well beyond an the walls were of loaf-shaped stones set
early formative stage. Although hunting within a thin mortar. One of the most
contributed to their diet, the Indians of renowned of the architectural remains
the Northwest Coast were largely fisher- in the Southwest is that of Pueblo
men, and other early peoples were agrar- Bonito in Chaco Canyon in northern
ian sedentary village-dwellers. New Mexico. This large single-structure
The great period of Pre-Columbian pueblo, built on the canyon floor, was
art in the Southwest dates between a.d. of D-shaped ground plan. The building
1000 and 1300 and has three main cen- surrounded and faced a large central
ters: a northern or plateau area in the court. The curve of the d consisted of
regions of the San Juan and Colorado five floors; each one faced the court and
rivers; a central one in the lowlands of was set back from the one below, while
eastern Arizona and western New Mex- the connecting arm of the d consisted
ico; and a southern one in the desert of a single story. Walls were massive,
region, largely near the Gila and Salt decreasing in thickness as they rose from
rivers in Arizona. The northern region floor to floor, and built of stone, adobe,
was the home of the Pueblo peoples; and rubble faced on both sides with
the central, of the Mimbres, a sub-group thin, dressed, perfectly-fitted stones,
of the Mogollon culture; and the south- mostly of a tabular shape. Pueblo Bonito
ern, of the Hohokam. While all of the contained over 800 rooms and had an
arts typical of the early Southwest were estimated 1200 inhabitants.
produced to some measure in all three Aside from these large houses, the
of these centers, in each area certain arts greater majority of Pueblo peoples lived
reached a high level of accomplishment. in small-unit houses in communities
Architecture was the outstanding scattered throughout the area. These
achievement in the Pueblo area, espe- were built way and, as all of
in a similar

cially during the great period when the the Pueblo buildings, had flat roofs of
apartment house type structures such cross-timbers, matting, and adobe. By
as the famous 'cliff houses' and 'pueblos' 1300 the great houses and the entire
were built. The cliff-dwelling, built Pueblo region had largely been deserted
within a deep recess high above the or abandoned. The reason or reasons for

ground level, below and underneath this are still not agreed upon, but it

large overhanging cliffs, consisted of a seems likely that erosion of the soil
456 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

from their method of farming, the great geometric, fantastic, or stylized natural-
drought of 1276-99, and possibly an in- istic forms were painted. Even lines,

crease in population had combined to ranging from a hair in thickness to a

enforce this exodus. moderate thickness and often used in
In every area of the early Southwest parallel groups, are basic to this style.

many distinctive styles of painted pot- The designs are carefully composed of
tery are characteristic of a region or even sharply angular, frequently combined
of a single site. Among the finest of this with curvilinear, lines and shapes.
pottery are the shallow bowls of the Both the Mimbres and the more
Mimbres peoples. Found associated with southern Hohokam peoples relied on an
burials, with a hole knocked or cut in irrigation agriculture, and much effort

the bottom, they were apparently thus and time were devoted to the construc-
'killed' at mortuary rites in order to ac- tion and maintenance of ditches. Houses
company the dead (fig. 352). Only the were of a single story semi-subterranean
interior of these shallow bowls are or surface type, usually of single-unit
painted, in a black or dark design on a character. The Hohokam also produced
white ground. The design usually con- a fine painted pottery, with designs on a
sists of an elaborate geometric wide-rim buff ground of large and small geometric
pattern, so composed as to suggest a forms, either angular or curvilinear, at
movement around the inner perimeter times even spiral. Their pottery was
of the bowl; while in the central field usually shaped as bowls and jars, some-
times large in size. But the most signifi-

cant Hohokam art is perhaps its stone

sculpture. Small stone bowls and mor-
tars were sometimes decorated with re-

liefs of animal forms, often the snake

or toad, and sometimes shaped as an
animal. Other extant Hohokam stone
sculptures include small fragments of
figurines representing simplified human
figures, and many shallow palettes used
as mortuary offerings and found in cre-

mation pits. The edges of the palettes

are decorated with sculptured birds and
animals or with incised geometrical re-

lief designs. Painted pottery and pottery

figurines were also used as offerings to

the dead.
352. Pottery Bowl, Mimbres (950-1050) Mu- The dating of the early Pre-Colum-
seum of the American Indian, New York.
10V2" diameter. bian period in the Southwest has been
 MIMBRES - HOHOKAM - MOUNDBUILDER 457

more certain than in other areas be- of pipe-stone, a stone which is soft when
cause of the discovery in 1929 and the quarried and hardens with exposure to
subsequent perfecting of a tree-ring cal- air.Termed platform pipes, they are
endar, whereby it is possible to date the made with a flat, moderately wide base
timbers in the early structures and so surmounted in the center by a hollow
the year or years when they were built. bowl, a hole drilled lengthwise through
Objects found at these sites may there- the base leading to the bowl. They were
fore be given a comparable terminal used without a stem. The bowl was
date. given a variety of shapes, but those
The archaeological period of the east- carved as animal or bird forms, such as
central part of the United States, that the hawk, beaver, and squirrel are the
of the Ohio-Mississippi drainage area most artistic (fig. 353). These animals,
and the eastern Gulf Coast region, is carved in the round, have a direct and
characterized bv the presence of earth
mounds and by the numerous art forms
found in burials. Because the mound
was a distinctive cultural element, these
peoples have been called the 'Mound-
builders.' In the northern part of the
area, centered in the Ohio Valley, the
majority of these structures were coni-
cal in form and sometimes over 100 feet

high, carefully and regularly shaped.

Within them have been found one or
353. Stone Pipe, Moundbuilder, Ohio (?-a.d.
more logged-in burial chambers, large 500) Museum of the American Indian, New
enough to contain the body and the York. 51/2" high.

numerous and various kinds of offerings.

In these graves a profusion of flaked strongly expressive naturalism; while de-
flint and obsidian blades and points scriptive details, rendered in low relief

have been found, together with grizzly- or incised lines, often distinguish sur-

bear claw necklaces, both the claws and face textures. Pipes of this kind are
the obsidian obtained from the Rocky unique to the more northern Mound-
Mountain area. Other grave offerings builder peoples, who had, as the variety
included freshwater pearls, mica from of materials found in the graves indi-
the Carolinas cut in pierced designs as cates, trade or other contacts over an
ornaments, and hammered surface-cop- extensive geographical area.
per breastplates, the copper from the In the southern Mississippi region,
Lake Michigan region. the most significant forms are mortuary
But the most important art forms in pottery jars, some sensitively modeled
the graves are innumerable pipes made to represent fully rounded human heads.
 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
45 8
Others are modeled with large surface and low reliefs of stylized animal heads
bosses incised with spiral or concentric and forms, particularly the owl and
circular designs; and still others are turtle. In this area, too, fairly large

painted with geometric curvilinear pat- stone slabs were shaped in a pecked-
terns. The outstanding art achievements and-ground technique to represent con-
of the southeast, also used as mortuary ventionalized owls and mountain goats,
offerings, are small, finely carved lime- while some carvings in the round depict
stone heads, some only a few inches the same animals with a sculptural
high, and carved stone bowls, delicately feeling for volumes and natural forms.
and carefully shaped as birds, or with In the Fraser River region, the ma-
bird heads, wings, and tails attached to jority of stone sculptures represent in a
them. These bowls often have a pierced more sculpturally descriptive and dra-

design around the sides, and they too matic manner a seated or squatting hu-
were 'killed' when placed in the grave. man figure holding tightly gripped in
In the southeast, sculptures are not usu- front of it a bowl. The bowl was often
ally found in the mounds but in burial carved as an animal head or form and
grounds nearby. Southeastern earth- served as a mortar. A dramatic physical
mounds were truncated, stepped pyra- and psychological relationship between
mids, and served as bases for religious the human figure and the bowl is always
or secular structures which have now evident. While in this area too the form
disappeared. They are therefore com- is often achieved by grinding and peck-
parable in shape and function to the ing, cut surfaces and incised lines are
pyramids of Middle America. also used. Here, as in the Columbia
The date of Moundbuilder culture River area, there are no clearly deter-
is at present controversial. It has been minable dates. It is certain, however,
dated by archaeological methods from that, since the Indians in both regions
900 to about 1400; but as a result of a considered the stone sculptures ancient
new technique of dating known as Car- at the time of European contact, they
bon 14, it now seems probable that it date considerably earlier than the tribal
may date from about the beginning of art of historical times.
the Christian era. The dating of our knowledge of tribal
Numerous aesthetically significant art is for most areas that of the period
Pre-European stone sculptures have when there was continuous contact with
been found in the Columbia River and the Indians. Since these contacts were
Fraser River areas of the Northwest. established by the gradual extension of
The majority of examples of this sculp- frontiers following the initial era of dis-
ture appear on, or as, stone bowls, mor- covery and colonization, the dates vary
tars, and palettes of various sizes. They widely for different parts of the coun-
are numerous in the Columbia River try. In the Southwest, for example,
Valley, where they were carved as high Spanish contact dates from early in the
 MOUNDBUILDER - FRASER RIVER - NAVAHO 459
sixteenth century, while in the North- acquired by them from the Pueblo peo-
west it occurs in the early nineteenth ples. The tribal arts of the Southwest
century. also include numerous styles of deco-
By the time of Spanish contact the rated baskets as well as ceremonial
centers of Pueblo culture had, follow- masks and figurines carved in a soft
ing the migrations of the late thirteenth wood or fabricated with leather, cloth,
and fourteenth become estab-
centuries, orwooden boards.
lished in the Rio Grande River region There is relatively little knowledge of
and in the older Zuni and Hopi areas early tribal arts along the eastern coast,
to the west. Architecture was by then where contact dates back to the end of
only slightly modified for defensive pur- the sixteenth century and the beginning
poses to protect against the marauding of the seventeenth century. From this

sorties of their neighbors, the Navaho early period a few clubs in European
and, especially, the war-like Apache. As collections are the oldest examples of
in the earlier period, the varied shapes the art of this area. Other early examples
and painted patterns of polychromed include large incised pottery jars and
pottery were perhaps the most character- numerous stone, pottery, and wooden
istic expression of the artists of the pipes, sometimes decorated with tiny
Southwest. As time went on, however, carved animal and human figures. But
the traditional designs were either for- the best-known examples of the art from
gotten or became modified by European the east are the somewhat later wooden
influences. Although this was common masks of the Iroquois Confederation.
to all Pueblo groups, it is well repre- These masks, usually carved in a living
sented by the large pottery jars of the ash tree and then detached, emphasize
Zuni, with floral, geometric, and animal facial bone structure and the heavy
forms painted red and black on a white creases or wrinkles expressive of tension
background. and aggression. Each mask, painted red
Meanwhile, the new art of silver- or black or both, was used in communal
smithing, introduced in the late six- therapeutic rites and represented or
teenth and early seventeenth centuries, symbolized a particular supernatural be-
had developed into a distinctive South- ing who had the power to cure or pre-
western art, now largely that of silver vent illness.

jewelry, often inlaid with turquoise. The In the New England area the signifi-

Navaho peoples greatly modified the cant art was two-dimensional and con-
traditional designs of their woven blan- sisted of sewing shell beads on hide or
kets to produce rugs commercially. They cloth to form abstract designs symbolic
retained unaltered their ceremonial art of the magical properties of plants.
of 'painting' on the earth symbolic and Basically curvilinear, these designs are
realistic designs in fine pulverized vari- usually arranged bilaterally and often
colored sands and rocks, an art originally with a symmetry of upper and lower
460 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

elements. This so-called double-curre senting the beneficent, protective Thun-

motive appears as far north as Labrador, derbird, a stylization of the eagle; but

where it is pressed on the edging of shortly after European contact, occur-

leather coats as a decorative and protec- ring here in the seventeenth century,
tive element; in the St. Lawrence River the designs became greatly modified to
region it occurs as positive and negative include foreign floral and geometric ele-

designs on birchbark containers. These ments.

containers were made from a single The acquisition of the horse in the
sheet of bark by folding, cutting, and early seventeenth century converted the

stitching together the edges, a technique earlier agricultural Plains peoples into
of aesthetic importance in this area. nomadic, meat-eating hunters. They
In the Great Lakes region a type of also became aggressive, war-like, and
finger-weaving or plaiting of reed and egocentric; and their arts, applied to
wood fibers was employed to make clothing and horse trappings, were
shoulder bags. These bags were originally largely of sociological significance, sym-

decorated with a woven design repre- bolically recording the position and ex-

yk.

354. Painted Buffalo Robe, Dakota tribes (19th cent.) American Museum of Natural History,
New York. 107" x 91".
 GREAT PLAINS - NORTHWEST COAST 461

ploits of the warrior leaders and decora-

tivelv indicating their rank and position.
The arts of the Plains are almost ex-
clusively two-dimensional, highly poly-
chromed, and include such techniques
as incising and painting on buffalo hide
(fig. 354), and the delineation of a de-
sign on leather by the use of porcupine
quills or European beads. Fundamen- C~
tally it is a geometric decorative art, the

same geometric motives used individu-

ally for symbolic purposes. Simplified n
naturalistic forms were painted on buf-
falo robes or on tepees to record exploits
or to represent the source of an indi-
^rr^,
vidual's supernatural power.

The most significant tribal sculpture

was produced on the Northwest Coast,

an area extending from Oregon north to

and including the southeastern-most

part of Alaska. The crucial environ-
mental elements in the culture of this

region were the seasonal run of salmon

and the abundance of the cedar tree.
As a consequence of the availability of

salmon at certain seasons of the year

considerable time was freed for leisure,
particularly during the winter months,
when elaborate religious and social cere-
monies were performed; while the vast
stands of cedar provided material for
an extensive wood sculpture, for the 355. Totem Pole, Haida, Northwest Coast
(mid 19th cent.) c. 35' high.
building of plank houses and canoes,
and for the making of clothing and human, but the majority of them are of
utensils. Many masks, varied in size, hybrid, often fantastic human-animal
color,and expression, were used in the forms.
complex ceremonials of Northwest A most spectacular form of American
Coast peoples (Plate ix, facing p. 556). Indian tribal art is the often lofty so-
In design, some masks are realistically called totem-pole, unique to the North-
462 ARTS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

west Coast (fig. 355)- These poles were monial rattles. In style, the carved shapes
made as memorials, burial-poles, and as are large in scale and strongly sculp-
decorative or partially functional archi- tural; while the forms range from a de-
tectural adjuncts, and always repre- scriptive realism to a conventionalized,

sented the crests and legends owned by almost abstract expression, such as on
and denoting the rank of the person the Chilkat blankets of southeastern
who had them set up. Human, animal, Alaska. After European contact the art
and composite beings provide the mo- flourished and remained largely unmodi-
tives for the low- and deep-relief carv- fied for many years, the only marked
ing on the poles; the figures are arranged difference appearing in the use of
in superposed and overlapping manner, brighter and more varied commercial
with forms and details further clarified colors.

bv a light wash painting in various The most significant single feature of

colors, largely red, white, blue-green, American Indian tribal art was the
and black. numerous techniques developed in the

Numerous other art expressions of the use of a wide variety of materials, the
Northwest Coast included the incising aesthetic effect often being the result of
and painting of wooden boxes, made by the technical manipulation of the ma-
steaming and bending cedar planks; terial. Although much of this art was of
painting of crest designs on wooden decorative or sociological importance, a
house fronts; weaving; basketrv; and the sizable proportion of it was also charged
sculptural decoration of clubs and cere- with religious-philosophical meaning.
XXI The Birth of American Art

The early settlements along the Atlan- habits of thought. They built in the
tic seaboard varied in origin; the largest wilderness the same type of house they
colonies in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, had known at home, modified as little

and Virginia were English, but the as might be by the circumstances they
Dutch settled in New York, the Swedes encountered in the new land. Conse-
in Delaware, and the Germans in and quently the formative force in colonial
around Philadelphia. Before the end of art was its European background, gen-
the seventeenth century, however, the erally English, but with some Dutch in-

English absorbed all of these settle- fluence in New York and the Hudson
ments, and their origins began to be Valley, and traces of other Continental
eclipsed by the prevailing English cul- origins elsewhere on the Atlantic sea-
ture. The colonists in this new land board; and of course in Florida and the
might have laid the groundwork of an Southwest the background was Spanish.
indigenous art appropriate to the coun- In 1620, the date of the settlement of
try and the climate, based on the avail- Plymouth, English building traditions
able materials and the conditions of life were still medieval. Inigo Jones, to be
under which they found themselves; ac- sure, had just begun the Banqueting
tually they did not attempt to be origi- House, but its influence was still in the
nal. The fact that settlers had sailed future. The Renaissance had appeared
across the ocean from England did not in England a century before this, but, as
in itself alter their traditions or their we have seen, the classic side of that

463
 THE BIRTH OF AMERICAN ART
46 4
movement was misunderstood and its

application was confined to the estates

of the wealthy. It was not from such
families that the colonists came. The
houses of the lower and middle classes
in 1620 were Gothic and continued to
be so, even into the eighteenth century.
356. Parson Capen House, Topsfield (1683)
Though smaller and simpler than 42' x 21'.
Compton Wynyates, the style is fun-
damentally the same. Many of them tween the chimney and the door. These
were built of timber, or of half-timber; two rooms differ in size; therefore the
the house was made half of timber and house, like most medieval designs, is

half of something else, the spaces be- asymmetrical.

tween the timbers filled in with brick, The forest, which had to be cleared
or with clay matted on twigs. One does anyway, provided material. Rough-hewn
not expect vaults, flying buttresses, and logs compose the frame of the building,
membered piers in wood construction, the half-timber of English tradition,

but a directness of solution and a frank but experience showed the colonists that
exposure of structure are essentials of the colder climate of New England de-
Gothic architecture, and these qualities manded additional protection. Hence
characterized the cottage architecture the exteriors of these houses (fig.
357)
of England at the time of the settle- are clapboarded— thin boards overlap-
ment of America. ping one another to make a blanket of
Thus the afterglow of the Gothic day, wood around the house. Clapboards
whose high noon had produced Canter- were more common in seventeenth-cen-
bury Cathedral and Westminster tury England than they are today, but
Abbey, can be seen in the seventeenth- in New England thev are almost uni-
century colonial house. The best pre- versal. Consequently the sturdy frame-
served examples of this type are found work becomes visible only at the cor-
in the North, though the form was com- ners, and not always there, but is often
mon in Virginia. The Parson Capen expressed by pendants that project be-
House in Topsfield, Massachusetts, built low the overhanging second story. These
in 1683, shows that the type remains pendants, the only enrichment of the
unchanged through the seventeenth house, recall the Gothic style since they
century. In plan (fig. 356) the house are structural members made decorative
huddles around the great central chim- rather than decoration applied as some-
ney, as though for warmth. It usually thing distinct. A good deal of variety
consists of two rooms only on each floor, exists between the colonies and also be-
one to either side of the chimney, with tween different houses in the matter of
narrow stairs to the second story be- the overhang; sometimes it is found
 SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY ARCHITECTURE 46:

357. Parson Capen House, Topsfield, Mass. (1683) 42' long x 21' wide.

only on the front, sometimes only on bers, but two, three, or even more units
the ends of the house, and at other to light the larger rooms— though none
times in both places. The idea comes of the rooms were large by present-day
from the Middle Ages, not only in standards. Leaded glass in rectangular
England but in the timbered houses of or diamond-shaped panes is known from
France and Germany, where it increased the earliest days of the colonies, but
the room within the house by encroach- cannot have been general, since letters

ing over the street in the crowded medi- advise prospective colonists to bring
eval towns. That reason carried no paper and linseed oil for the windows.
weight in colonial America, but tradi- No porch mitigates the severity of
tion was strong enough to ensure its re- these designs. The door of sturdy planks
tention. A steep gable roof covers the opens on the stair hall. The stairs are
mass. As the family expands, more space too narrow to permit more than one
may be gained by adding other gables, person to ascend at a time, and are dan-
as in the famous House of the Seven gerously steep. Each room centers on its
Gables in Salem, Massachusetts, or by fireplace, which warms it, and where

adding a lean-to. Small casement win- the cooking is done. Into such fireplaces
dows are placed wherever light is one could roll a tree if necessary; like
needed; no preconceived principle of everything else in these modest houses,
symmetry dictates their arrangement. they are designed for a specific purpose,
They are composed of multiples of small and their beauty is consequent on the
units; a single opening for small cham- directness with which they meet that
4 66
THE BIRTH OF AMERICAN ART

purpose. The ceilings are so low for ad- achieve their homespun beautv, as

ditional warmth that tall men cannot sturdy as the men who built them.
walk under the exposed beams and The need for shelter made it inevita-

joists of the second floor without stoop- ble that the house first should absorb
ing. So, too, are the posts of the walls the energy of the builders. And vet
visible on the interior. But rarely do worship was so vital to them that it

these builders permit themselves the had formed a major reason for their

luxurv of sheathing the walls on the migration. Few churches have been pre-
inside, and then usually only on the fire- served from these days, but those few
place wall. In fact, when Winthrop are instructive. St. Luke's, Smithfield,
sheathed the interior of his house with Virginia, in an Anglican settlement,
plain boards the governor of the colony was built in 1632 of brick and retained
called him to task for such ostentation, the plan and even the buttresses, pointed
so that Winthrop had to explain that arches, and tracery of Gothic parish
this sheathing was inexpensive and churches in simplified form. In New
added to the warmth of his house. England, the Old Ship Meeting House,
Houses in masonry were rare indeed in Hingham, Massachusetts, dated 1681,
because of the difficulty of procuring had the open frame construction of the
lime. Bricks were imported, but they houses on a larger scale. The great
were also made in the colonies from the curved timbers of the roof resemble the
time of settlement, and all the evidence beams of a wooden ship. Its square plan,
points to the prevalence of the local the pulpit centered on one wall, and a
product. Bacon's Castle, Surry County, general openness reflect the democratic
Virginia, built before 1676, is a remark- form of Congregational worship in con-

able example of the Jacobean style. A trast to Anglicanism.

projecting chimney at either end breaks By the eighteenth century conditions
the simple rectangular plan of the Par- had changed along the seaboard,
son Capen House, as do the three- prompting an architectural revolution.
storied vestibule in front and the stair The thrifty and enterprising merchants
turret behind. The grouped chimney- of the North and the Southern planta-
pots and especially the gable ends with tion owners alike had accumulated suffi-

their quadrants and right angles are cient wealth to tempt them from the
earmarks of that style. Spartan rigors of the days of settlement.
Simple as they are, nothing more The modest houses of their forebears
functional has ever been built, or ever could not accommodate the genteel and
will be built, than these seventeenth- formal life that now became possible.
century colonial houses. In whole and Luxuries and amenities, far from being
in part they follow the needs of the suspect, were now sought.
day; they take no thought for their ap- With their greater wealth the colo-
pearance, and perhaps in consequence nists turned to the mother countrv, not
 GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE 467

for traditions but for the latest fashions differences are negligible in comparison

in building. Consequently America to the unity of style in the colonies. The

jumped from the fifteenth century to the same fundamental plan and the same
eighteenth, from the medieval to the principles of design govern the style

Georgian. Floods of architectural text- from north to south, and one may find
books, simple carpenters' handbooks, identical details, inspired by the same
submerged the traditional style. Many handbooks, in Virginia, Pennsylvania,
of these were imported from England, or New Hampshire.
but a considerable number as the cen- The sophisticated Georgian spirit not
tury progressed were local products. only demanded larger houses; it also re-

These inexpensive volumes began with quired symmetry. Therefore the typical
descriptions of the orders, went on to house— such as Westover, Virginia, the
explain the intricacies of carpentry, and Chew Mansion in Germantown, Penn-
concluded with designs for windows and sylvania, or the Royall House, Medford,
doors, staircases and fireplaces in the Massachusetts (fig. 358)— is a rectangle

latest fashion. When some well-to-do

in plan and has four rooms, each larger

merchant determined to build a house,

he called in the builder, his neighbor,

and together they thumbed through

these handbooks to decide on the ap-
proximate model for the living-room fire-

place or the balusters for the stairs.

These manuals establish the Georgian

style as the model followed in Massa-
chusetts and New York, in Philadel-
phia and Charleston. Such differences
as had existed in the seventeenth cen-
tury because of divergent national ori-
358. Isaac Royall House, Medford (1747) 45'
gins no longer obtain. The differences
x 38'.
in the several colonies are traceable to

climate and available materials. The than those of the preceding century, two
warm climate and plantation life of the on either side of an ample central hall.
South allow a more open design than The hall contains the stairs and provides
that found in the compact New Eng- access to the rooms. Nothing, in plan,
land houses. Also, brick walls are more suggests the use to which these cham-
popular in Virginia than in Massachu- bers were to be put. Since each room
setts, while the available ledge stone needs its own fireplace, a single chimney
near Philadelphia colors the architec- no longer suffices; two are possible, but

ture of that region. Nevertheless, these more often four chimneys, two in each
4 68 THE BIRTH OF AMERICAN ART

359. Isaac Royall House, Medford, Mass. (1747) 45' long x 38' wide x 36' high.

side wall of the house, indicate the pilasters carry blocks of entablature, but
rooms within. almost never do the builders allow more
This symmetrical plan dictates the than the cornice to support the eaves of
exterior of the Isaac Royall House at the house: to adopt a full entablature
Medford, Massachusetts (fig. 359), cited would interfere with the second-story
in mid-century as one of the grandest in windows.
the colonies. The roof is lower in pitch Five windows of the second floor re-

than in the seventeenth century, and oc- peat four windows and a door on the
casionally is flattened at the top; per- ground floor. These symmetrical open-
haps it has a balustrade to finish the ings are larger than those of the seven-
design. Pilaster orders accent the cor- teenth century, and the sash slides up
ners of the house, or in other instances and down in the plane of the wall.
the place occupied by the hall. Perhaps Leaded glass has given way to larger
the Ionic order is the favorite, but the panes set in wood bars. In wooden
Doric almost as popular; though the
is houses only a cornice may finish the sec-
Corinthian is known, its complexity for- ond-story windows, but pediments,
bids its common use. These builders, either triangular or segmental, enrich
though influenced by an academic style, those of the ground floor. The door fo-

will not sacrifice much to it. Thus the cuses the design and gives character to
 GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE 469

the house. Here again the orders with tume to the colorful garb of the colo-

entablature and pediment express the nial worthies portrayed by Copley.

dignity of the owners, though even now As the colonies grew, they needed
no porch offers shelter to the visitor. public buildings, though these remained
A complete change remodels the in- simple until after the Revolution. The
terior also. The plastered ceilings, higher Old State House in Boston and Inde-
than in the seventeenth century, no pendence Hall in Philadelphia are in
longer expose the floor beams of the essence enlarged private houses, bigger
second story. At least the principal rooms in scale but with no fundamental change
are paneled, and may even admit the in conception. Time after time, local

orders in pilaster form, especially around tradition points to a colonial church as

the fireplaces. Occasionally native or im- designed by Sir Christopher Wren. Ex-
ported wallpaper takes the place of the cept for the College of William and

panels. We are apt to think of these Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia, no

Georgian interiors as white, when in foundation exists for these attributions.

reality wide latitude in color prevails: Like the houses, the churches of the
eighteenth century are Georgian, some
dull blue, oyster gray, green, red, and
even marbleized interiors are not un-
of them, such as the First Church in

common, though often the original

Providence, Rhode Island, inspired by
the designs of James Gibbs. These white
color has been changed. The fireplaces
churches are distinguished by a tower,
are large enough to be serviceable, but
perhaps with a steeple built up in the
since most of them are no longer in-
manner of the Wren steeples, but sim-
tended for cooking, they are less ample
pler and conceived in terms of wood.
than before. Early in the century, a
The interior of these meeting houses
molding frames the fireplace, but in the
centers on the pulpit, which is raised
decades just before the American Revo-
above the floor in the position occupied
lution, elaborate mantels and overman-
by the altar in a Catholic church. Even
tels establish the hearth as the focus of
Anglican churches, such as Christ
the room. The stairway is commodious Church, Alexandria, or Christ Church,
and its slope gentler than hitherto; a
Philadelphia, subordinate the altar to
balustrade offers an opportunity for the the pulpit, and minimize the chancel.
carpenters to demonstrate their ability, The exquisite craftsmanship, as demon-
and all manner of spiral turnings and strated in the box pews and the pulpit,
complicated designs in the newel posts turns to the same basic motives and
attest their skill. Such an interior suits moldings as in the houses.
the sedate existence of its day. Its rooms
with their plastered ceilings and pan- Sculpture in colonial America was
eled walls match the change from the negligible save for tombstones and fig-

austerity of the seventeenth-century cos- ureheads in wood on the ships. Civic

47° THE BIRTH OF AMERICAN ART

had not grown enough

life to command
monuments, and the cost of sculpture
militated against its spread if it de-
pended on private patronage. Perhaps
the Puritan hostility to luxury acted
more in sculpture than in painting; per-
haps the unimportance of sculpture in
England was responsible. Whatever the
reason, the demand for the representa-

tive arts was satisfied by painting, and

even this only got under way by the
middle of the eighteenth century.
Some of the limners, as they often
styled themselves, were English trained,
likeJohn Smibert; others, such as Robert
Feke of Newport, Rhode Island, were
native products. In either case, their sub-
ject was portraiture. The colonial gen-
tlemen had sufficient pride in them-
selves and their families to demand like-

nesses from their painters. Smibert's

most important canvas, Bishop Berkeley
360. John Singleton Copley (1737-1815)
and His Entourage, reveals his Euro-
Jeremiah Lee (1769) Museum of Fine Arts,
pean training, among other ways in its Boston. 8' x 5'.
sophisticated arrangement.
That this canvas influenced Feke's composition that was too difficult for
painting of 1741 of Isaac Royall and His him. Nevertheless, he had great native
Family is obvious; the Feke portrait ability, and his painting shows an in-

shows the same man for whom the stinct for formal design.
Royall House at Medford in its present The greatest of the colonial painters
form was built, and is unusually elab- was John Singleton Copley (1737—
orate. The rich costumes and the carpet 1815) of Boston. He painted Jeremiah
table cover tell of the social position of Lee of Marblehead and Boston (fig.

the family, but the artist's desire has 360), matching his colors to those of his
outrun his performance. Though his aim sitter and his costume. There is little of
was realistic, his draftsmanship was in- the fluency or the sophistication of a
adequate; some of the characters are lit- Gainsborough. Painting did not come
tle dolls, though others are more at ease. easily to Copley; the form was pains-
The design leaves something to be de- takingly rendered, but to achieve this ab-
sired, as though Feke was attempting a sorbed Copley's energy too much to per-
 FEKE - COPLEY - WEST
47 1
mit him to fall into superficialities. The eration was dominated by the group
portrait has an unpretentious honesty that formed the backbone of the Fed-
about it. We have every reason to sup- eralist party in American politics, and
pose that the sitter looked like this, and the duration of the style almost coin-
that Copley did not tamper with reality cided with the life of that party. Though
in order to give social graces to his some members of what we might call

models. Probably the independence of the colonial aristocracy belonged to the

these portraits, their unwillingness to Democratic party, on the whole (partic-
seem what they are not, may be due to ularly in the North) the wealthier indi-

the clients also. One is tempted to see viduals of the community tended to be
in this sober honesty and this hatred of Federalist, and it was for them that
affectation qualities outstanding in those the art of the time was produced. That
men who laid the foundations of our class did not change its traditions with
country. its allegiance.

In 1774, just before the Revolution, When at the outbreak of the Revo-
Copley went abroad, and in the follow- lution Copley went to England, he
ing year settled in London, where he was found Benjamin West (1738-1820), a
admitted to the Royal Academy, and Pennsylvanian, established in London.
where he lived for the rest of his life. West, despite his backwoods origin, or

Despite considerable success in his pro- perhaps partly because that background
fession, at least down to 1800, the cos- made his modest achievement seem re-

mopolitan atmosphere of the metrop- markable, won notable success in Eng-

olis was not an unmixed blessing; what land. He became the historical painter
his style gained in facility, it lost in to George III, and succeeded Reynolds
vigor. His later portraits lose the sturdi- as president of the Royal Academy. His
ness of his earlier work without achiev- painting is not inspired; one can almost
ing the brilliance of a Gainsborough. agree with Byron's strictures about that
It is natural to suppose that the Amer- dotard West, Europe's worst daub, poor
ican Revolution broke our cultural rela- England's best.' West was personally
tions with the mother country, but it both genial and generous, and his home
did not. Many revolutionary heroes and studio became a center for Amer-
maintained that they were defending ican artists who had come to London
their rights as Englishmen, and with to study.
them a large party in the mother coun- Among them was Charles Willson
try agreed. In any case, no abrupt break Peale (1741-1827), who filled the gap
in tradition occurred. The period after between Copley and Stuart; if not in-

the Revolution and down to about 1820 spired, he was so enthusiastic about his

has been called the Post-Colonial or the art that he named several sons after old
Early Republican, but the best name for masters, such as Rembrandt and Raph-
the era is Federal. Culturally, the gen- ael. It would be fortunate if our image
47 2 THE BIRTH OF AMERICAN ART

of Washington were based upon his por- ington's death. In one of his finest paint-
traits by Peak, made when the first ings, a self-portrait, Peale lifts a rich
President was in the prime of life, in- red curtain so that the spectator may
stead of on those by Stuart, which were peep at the exhibits lining the walls of
painted just a few years before Wash- his museum in Philadelphia, devoted

361. Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828) Thomas Jefferson (1799) Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine.
3'n" x 3' 3 ".
 PEALE - STUART - TRUMBULL 473
partly to painting and partly to natural the founder of his country was suffering
history. from a badly fitted set of false teeth
Although Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828) which gave a prognathous appearance
studied with West in London, he was to his jaw and lips.

little influenced by him and became a Very from Stuart is John

different
better painter. When Stuart returned Trumbull (1756-1843), son of the Rev-
to America in 1792, he was the best- olutionary governor of Connecticut. An
trained painter in the country. His por- intellectual haughtiness revealed in the

trait of Thomas Jefferson (fig. 361) clear-cut features, with none of Stuart's
shows the cosmopolitan technique of his geniality, characterizes both Trumbull
English experience, as compared with and his portraits. Congress commis-
the more provincial style of Copley be- sioned him to paint a series of Revo-
fore the Revolution. Painting came eas- lutionary battles and scenes of the for-

ily to Stuart; his brush flowed with a mation of the Federal Government for
readiness that yields something of the the rotunda of the United States Cap-
decorative value of the English portrait itol. The artist studied each subject in
school. His characters seem a little more detail; every character is a portrait, and
aristocratic than Copley's, and their so- therefore these paintings have great his-
cial poise is greater. They sit easily, and toric value. Moreover, they are well
the likeness is gracious, but to reach this drawn and fresh in color, at least in the
cosmopolitan style in place of the pro- sketches preserved in New Haven, Con-
vincialism of the earlier men, Stuart has necticut. The few large paintings com-
lost something. His portraits have not pleted by him for the Capitol fail to
the self-evident honesty of Copley's. His preserve that spontaneity, nor are they
sense of structure is less powerful, and well adapted as murals.
his figures a little flatter. This portrait school survived until
Stuart's famous portraits of Wash- well on into the nineteenth century,
ington are too well known to need much when American artists turned their alle-

comment. One regrets this, because the giance from their English origin to Diis-
portraits of Washington are not the best seldorf, Munich, and ultimately Paris.

of Stuart's work. Stuart had a faculty for

putting his sitters at their ease by his The same English origin persists in
conversation, but Washington's innate the Federal style in architecture. This is

dignity appears so to have awed Stuart woven of three strains: a continuation of

that he could not himself be comfort- Georgian tradition, a strong influence
able in the presence of the man he so from the Adam style, and a new archae-
admired. Also, Stuart only had the op- ology that reflects the incipient Roman
portunity to paint Washington a few revival. To these we may add at times
years before Washington's death, when some influence from the style of Louis
physical vigor was beginning to fail and XVI. The Georgian elements are more
474 THE BIRTH OF AMERICAN ART

apparent early in the period, and the higher ceilings than before. Wallpaper,
Roman features later, though many ex- silk, or plain plaster replace paneling,
ceptions to this generality can be cited. though the latter is not unknown. Much
Books continued in use, but the books of the detail, especially in the work of
themselves reflect the new ideals. More Samuel Mclntire of Salem, is influenced
complex architectural needs arose, by the Adam manner. No less exquisite

caused by the growth and independence in craftsmanship, often even more dex-
of the country, and called into existence terous, the sturdiness of the Georgian
architects as well as builders. The stvle yields to a refinement that approaches
is consequently more architectonic than virtuosity.

the American Georgian, as evidenced in The two leading architects were

Latrobe's w ork on
r
the Capitol in Wash- Charles Bulfinch and Thomas Jeffer-

ington. son. Bulfinch belonged to the Boston

Even the houses catch the new spirit, aristocracy; he had traveled abroad,
though the absence of anv single tvpe especially in England, and as a young
makes generalization difficult. Protrud- man had cultivated a gentleman's in-

ing bays, or a salon bulging on axis, terest in architecture without the need
complicate the simple rectangular plans. to turn his taste to financial profit. Un-
The rooms also cease to be always rec- fortunate investments in real estate
tangular; the varied volumes of Adam compelled him to become a professional
interiors won popularity on this side of architect to supplement his civic career
the Atlantic. Furthermore, a niche to as the Great Selectman of Boston.
contain a sideboard or an alcove for a The Boston State House, begun in
four-poster bed shows that some archi- 1795, the second of his three state Cap-
tects now had specific purposes in mind itols (the others being in Hartford, Con-
for such rooms. A balustrade or parapet necticut, and Augusta, Maine), reflects

at the eaves of the house often conceals his European travels. Traces of English
the roof. Especially in the South, a two- and French influence suggest the archi-

storied portico dignifies the design, but, tectonic Federal approach, but his sense
like those of the English Georgian, it is of proportion gives the State House its
placed in the center of the long side of distinction. The white trim in wood

the house, not on one end. Since these and stone contrasts with the warm brick
colonnades reduce light in the second of the walls. A noble colonnade above a

story, the North preferred a smaller high arcaded basement marks the orig-

porch, only large enough to shelter the inal lower house of the state legislature.
door, whose composition is complicated To the right was the chamber of the
by semicircular or elliptical fanlights upper house, and to the left the admin-
above, in addition to rectangular side- istrative offices of the state government,
lights. though these uses have now been al-

The interiors of these houses have tered in part, owing to the growth of the
 FEDERAL ARCHITECTURE 475

legislature. The dome, though visually sented the cultured upper class, but his
insecure above the pediment, serves to career left him with no need to become
tie the design together and to provide a professional architect. When he be-
stateliness to the whole. One might al- came enthusiastic about Roman archi-

most say that the dome introduced here tecture he threw himself into a study of
became standard for state capitols that style. His design for the Richmond
throughout the country. Bulfinch's de- State Capitol, sent back from Paris in
sign shows the conservative side of the 1785, was modified in execution (fig.

Federal style. The proportions of the 362), but its classic elements and pro-
order are a little more slender than portions were retained. Jefferson studied
usual, and much of the interior detail the Maison Carree in Nimes (fig. 83)
shows the influence of the Adam style, with Clerisseau, a French archaeologist.
which was still fashionable at the time To Jefferson, the little Roman temple
of Bulfinch's sojourn in London. As yet was the 'model of cubical architecture';
there is little to suggest archaeology. he could find no more fitting source for

With Thomas Jefferson the case was the Virginia capitol. The exigencies of
different. Like Bulfinch, Jefferson repre- use compelled him to admit windows

362. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) State Capitol, Richmond, Va. (1785-98) 146' long x 84'
wide x 53' high.
 THE BIRTH OF AMERICAN ART
47 6

along the sides; the difficulties of execu- The plan is complex but ingenious and
tion presented by the Corinthian cap- workable, and the building has been
ital prompted the substitution of the called the 'finest piece of proportion in

Ionic order; but on the whole Jefferson America.' His last great design is the
followed his model closely. academical village for the University of
Though not a copy of the Maison Virginia at Charlottesville, dated 1817-
Carree, the Richmond capitol demon- 26. Long colonnades flank the lawn on
strates the new interest in the classic in the each and west, and screen the stu-
its revival of not only the Roman vocab- dent's quarters. These are punctuated at
ulary but also the Roman type of build- intervals by larger pavilions that served
ing. This is the first application any-
at first as the homes of the faculty and
where in the world of the complete Ro- The
the classrooms of the university.
man temple form to a building intended
colonnades approach the climax of the
for practical use. Before this, some tem-
scheme, the library, whose source is the
ples had been copied on a small scale as
Pantheon in Rome, believed by Jeffer-
garden ornaments; after this, the temple
son to be the 'model of spherical archi-
form would be widely revived in Europe
tecture.' Although, as in the Richmond
and America, and for such buildings
capitol, windows had to be introduced
Jefferson's design was pioneer. Whether
and some other changes made, the li-
such a borrowing from the past of com-
brary is almost a replica of the Pan-
plete types of building is desirable, and
whether
theon at one quarter the size. The pa-
it does not entail a great sacri-
vilions also are modeled on specific Ro-
fice of its functions to cram a state legis-

lature into the box of a Roman temple man temples, each different, in part as

are debatable points, but to Jefferson demonstrations of correct design for the

the beauty of the form justified its use, gentlemen students. To Jefferson, a

and the extent of the sacrifice can be knowledge of architecture was essential

exaggerated. to the education of every gentleman, and

With his interest in architecture, Jef- to him the proper guide for young Amer-
ferson naturally used his own house, ica was Roman architecture. That style

Monticello, near Charlottesville, Vir- he did his utmost to foster in this coun-

ginia, as a proving ground for his ideas. try.

XXII Neoclassicism in Europe

The years in Europe corresponding to This new scholarship was rooted

the Federal style in America, 1785-1820 partly in the excavations carried out
or somewhat later, witness the flowering through the second half of eighteenth
of that branch of Romanticism known century at Pompeii and Herculaneum,
as the Neoclassic, with which indeed the cities that had been buried by an er-

Federal style itself may in part be ruption of Mt. Vesuvius in a.d. 79.
classed. This new revival of antiquity The discoveries there showed types of
differs from the revival of Roman art Roman domestic architecturewhich
under the Italian Renaissance in the were quite different from the better-
degree of its accuracy. The Renaissance known monuments of the Roman
had great enthusiasm for Roman times; forum. Moreover, scientific archaeology,

it did recapture the vocabulary and based on measurement, was pursued in

something of the spirit of the past, but the later eighteenth century, and a

modified both form and expression to series of important volumes were pub-
suit its own needs. Later ages ascribed lished that familiarized the European
even less importance to archaeology. world as never before with the exact na-
Under Neoclassicism, success is judged ture of Roman architecture. Robert
by archaeological accuracy. Moreover, Adam's work at Spalato, already men-
at least in later Neoclassicism, a Greek tioned, was paralleled by Wood's stud-
inspiration, unknown to the Renais- ies at Palmyra, by Clerisseau's Monu-
sance, challenges and often supplants niens de Nismes and, most important of
y

the Roman. all for later history, by Stuart and Rev-

477
 NEOCLASSICISM IN EUROPE
47 8

ett's The Antiquities of Athens, which Neoclassicism; the Adam style in Eng-
firstopened the eyes of Europe to the land, the portico of the Pantheon in
difference between Greek and Roman Paris by Soufflot, and Jefferson's Rich-

architecture. mond State Capitol herald the move-

The revival of the classic was not con- ment in their attention to archaeology

fined to the arts, by any means. It was or their increasing seriousness. The full

part of the spirit of the times. The grow- character of the Roman Revival appears
ing republican sentiment, rife in France in the Madeleine, 1806-42 (fig. 363),
even before the outbreak of the Revo- bv Barthelemy Vignon, originally in-

lution, sought a precedent in the repub- tended to celebrate Napoleon's victories.

lics of Greece and Rome, however dif- Ifwe cannot visit a real Roman temple,
ferent they were in actuality from the we can still get an accurate idea of its

civilization and background of Europe external form from this building. Like
in the late eighteenth century. That en- a Roman temple, it is raised on a base
thusiasm for the past was sufficient to and approached by a flight of steps
induce men to call one another after the across the front. A colonnade surrounds
names of classic characters, and at times the building, and supports an unbroken
to modify their costumes in the direc- entablature and pediments, which ter-

tion of classic garb. In literature, Mme minate the low pitched roof. The Corin-
de StaeTs Corinne was a pastiche of thian order is correct, like an academic
classic fragments, Walter Savage Lan- study. And yet, like such a study, the
dor became an enthusiastic proponent of Madeleine is cold and precise; it is a
Rome, and Keats was inspired to write mummy from the past, without the life

an Ode on a Grecian Urn. that the best Roman buildings display.

In architecture, Neoclassicism has two Furthermore, aesthetic unity in a

sources, Roman and Greek. In general, building demands consistency. At least

the Roman Revival is earlier than the the major units of the interior should be
Greek, and the latter receives its fullest visually expressed on the exterior. The
development in those countries that had Parthenon, the Pantheon in Rome, the
not formed part of the Roman Empire. Romanesque and Gothic Cathedrals all

But little Greek Revival occurs

of the predict through their external forms the
in Italy, and almost none in France or major divisions within them. The vis-

Spain, whereas it flourished in the sec- itor is therefore prepared before he en-
ond quarter of the century in Germany, ters to find a single room, the cella of
England, and America. One obvious the Parthenon, the vast dome of the
reason why the Roman Revival appears Pantheon, the nave, aisles, transepts,
first is that, since the Renaissance, Euro- apse, and radial chapels of the medie-
pean architecture has derived from Ro- val cathedrals. What these buildings say
man architecture. The late eighteenth on the outside, they confirm on the in-
century produced the forerunners of side. This is not true of the Madeleine.
 ARCHITECTURE 479

363. Barthelemy Vignon (1762-1829) La Madeleine, Paris (1806-42) 350' long x 147' wide.

No one would guess from the exterior imated in the Madeleine. The latter re-

that the building is roofed by three con- lies on archaeology, but the Arc de Tri-
secutive domes; on entering, the visitor omphe has an architectural basis. As a
sustains a sense of shock. The design matter of fact, Chalgin's masterpiece
of the interior and the exterior are not touches a higher peak of architectural
co-ordinated. distinction than any similar Roman edi-

At best, the Madeleine has an icy dig- fice.

nity. But the Roman revival is not al- By the i82o's the Greek temple form
ways so rigid in its archaeology. The Arc begins to be the motive for houses,
de Triomphe in Paris, built by Chalgrin churches, and public buildings. The
from 1806 to 1836, though inspired by Walhalla at Regensburg, built 1830-42
a Roman triumphal arch, is like no by Leo von Klenze, is based on the
known example of Roman work. Its he- Parthenon, save for its picturesque set-

roic scale, its bold proportions, and its ting. The absurdity of a Greek temple
reliance on sculptured groups for en- dedicated to Norse heroes bothered no-
richment instead of on columns, give body. Langhans's Brandenburg Gate in
Chalgrin's arch a vitality not approx- Berlin, an exceptionally early example,
480 NEOCLASSICISM IN EUROPE

dated 1788-91, derives from the Propy-

laea. These two sources, with the addi-
tion of the Erechtheum, the Choragic
Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, and
the Temple of Hera at Paestum provide
the direct inspiration of almost all the
Greek revival works, and can be recog-
nized over and over again. However,
some features of the Brandenburg Gate,
such as the arrangement of the trig-

lyphs and the separate bases for the col-

umns, betray a modification of the
Hellenic style by Roman models. The
details of the Walhalla, on the other
hand, or of Thomas Hamilton's Edin-
burgh High School of 1825-9, adhere
rigidly to Athenian precedent.
As with the Roman revival, not all the 364. Antonio Canova (1757-1822) Perseus.

Greek revival monuments are so strict. Vatican, Rome.

In the Bank of England, 1788-1835, Sir

Similarly strict and free phases, Ro-
John Soane borrows at will from the Ro-
man Temple man and Greek precedents, influence
of Vesta at Tivoli and the
Neoclassic sculpture. The Italian An-
Erechtheum in Athens, but conceives
tonio Canova (1757-1822), at the out-
parts of his design in geometric volumes,
set of his career, retained much of the
almost stripped of detail, and thought
very late Baroque spirit. His Hercules
out, like the works of some modern
Hurling Lichias into the Sea incorporates
architects, as designs in abstract shapes.
turbulent energy. The open design has
The simplified detail of his own house,
a violence and an interest in pictorial
now the Soane Museum in London,
detail, handled with some realism, that
hardly interrupts the surface; therefore,
testify to the influence of Bernini. The
the block-like masses dominate any heavy beared type of Hercules and its
traces of archaeology. In fact, the end muscularity and proportions may be in-
of the Greek revival so purifies its de- spired by the Farnese Hercules, a famous
signs that they have style without Graeco-Roman statue, but these early
styles; they are conceived as architec- works of Canova are no more than tran-
ture, not as Greek architecture, and sitional to Neoclassicism.
through this elimination of historic His later work, after the beginning of
precedent they parallel certain develop- the nineteenth century, is purely Neo-
ments of modern architecture. classic. The Perseus (fig. 364), ordered
 SCULPTURE - PAINTING

bv the Vatican to replace the Apollo quently, the painters were not hampered
Belvedere, which had been stolen and by direct comparison, nor could the dead
transported to Paris by Napoleon, is in- hand of the past stifle originality. None
spired by that statue. The movement of the less, Jacques Louis David (1748-
his earlier manner has gone. In its place, 1825) had the evangelist spirit, and the
we have a quiet Neoclassic work, its sur- will to impose the tenets of his creed on
face generalized to such a point that all a world that was ready to receive them
interest has been lost, in spite of a trace as an antidote to the frivolity of the Ro-
of eighteenth-century softness of model- coco. An ardent Jacobin, high in the
ing. The affected grace of pose, derived councils of the Revolution, he reorgan-
from its model, has a deliberately 'ar- ized the old Academy as the Institut de
tistic' character; but Canova's statue is France and promulgated a code on the
no worse than its dull Hellenistic proto- basis of the seventeenth-century aca-
tvpe, once so extravagantly admired. demic formula, which became the ac-
If Canova represents the Roman re- cepted doctrine for a generation.
vival, Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770-1844), First, art must be noble and public.
the Dane, prefers an emasculated Hel- Anvthing that smacked of triviality fell
lenism. For all his study of the monu- under the ban. Dutch genre paintings
ments of Athens, and despite his bor-
and the frivolity of the Fetes Galantes
rowing of motives and details from
could not meet this goal. But nobility of
them, he misses the Greek breadth and
subject matter to David meant subject
freedom of spirit. His Jason again re-
matter drawn from Roman or Greek
studies the Apollo Belvedere, but with
history or mythology, invested with the
even less vitality than Canova. In him is
stern virtues of the Roman republic. Na-
nothing of the majesty of Hellenic ideal-
ture as a whole was an undesirable
ism, none of the largeness of conception
source of inspiration; only the most
or the feeling for the material Greek art
beautiful aspects of nature were worthy
had demonstrated in its earlier and more
of the artist's attention. Painting was
vital periods; only the hard and empty
like poetry, and the painters allowed the
shell remains.
poets to select and interpret their sub-
jects. This view unfortunately ignored
For both sculpture and architecture,
the difference between verbal and visual
artists had a wealth of precedents to
which they could and did refer. Painters
modes of expression, and prompted the
were more fortunate in this respect. desire for clarity of statement that could

With the exception of Greek vase paint- best be achieved by drawing. Color,

ings, really drawings, and a few second- therefore, must be subordinated. It be-

rate mural compositions mostly on the came merely a means to elucidate the

walls of Pompeii, nothing of ancient drawing that told the story or described
painting has been preserved. Conse- the scene; it was an afterthought instead
482 NEOCLASSICISM IN EUROPE

of being the principal medium of the This is the type known as a historical

painter. canvas, on which David expected his

The Oath of the Horatii, first exhib- reputation to rest in later ages. Another
ited in 1785, is the ultimatum of this example is the Death of Socrates (fig.

new style. The figures, modeled in cold 365). It is hard thus to visualize the
light, are firmly drawn. Only in the scene after reading the Platonic dia-

group of women to the right is there a logue of Phaedo, on which it is based.

trace of eighteenth-century grace. The However, the histrionic attitudes, the
severe architecture has already assumed jailer who covers his eyes as he hands
the guise of the Roman revival. The Socrates the fatal cup of hemlock, the
men seem inspired by grim determina- philosopher who blandly accepts the cup
tion; they might well become Jacobins, and points upward to indicate the im-
pledging themselves to the cause, so aus- mortality of his soul, which he has been
tere is their zeal and so high are their discussing, and the mourning of his

principles. Such a painting is too anxious friends may all find their excuse if not
to preach its lesson ever to relax its se- their feeling in Plato. These characters
verity. Its cold intellectual approach do not ring true; their sentiment is ob-
forbids any emotional treatment of vious and fails to carry conviction to the
form. spectator. However clear its didactic les-

365. Jacques Louis David (1748-1825) Death of Socrates (1787) Metropolitan Museum, New
York. 4'n" x 6'6".
 DAVID 483

366. Jacques Louis David (1748-1825) Madame Seriziat (1795) Louvre, Paris. ^4" x 3*2'
484
NEOCLASSICISM IN EUROPE

son, the whole scene is badly conceived. of David's other works in a realistic

Each form is modeled as though cast in vein are more stirring than those official

plaster. The drawing is accurate but canvases he himself believed to be his

academic. In spite of the reds and blues, masterpieces.
the impression persists that these tones Whatever be the final judgment of
have been applied to a design in black David's painting, its historical impor-
and white by some later process; they tance is enormous. Not only does it re-
are not integral to the conception, so the civilization of his day,
flect its aims
that the painting hardly suffers in a
and ideals, but it lays the tracks on
monochrome reproduction.
which the Academy and official art are
Occasionally, David is shocked out of
to run through the nineteenth century.
his academic ivory tower. The assassina-
To be sure, not even the Academy pre-
tion of his friend Marat inspired a real-
served indefinitely David's kind of his-
istic design, stark in its contrast of
torical painting. The pressure of later
light and shade, and hard in modeling,
developments and new tastes drew the
which in this instance enforces the ex-
Academy further and further away from
pression of gaunt tragedy. To some de-
its origins. But the pseudo-intellectual-
gree, portraits evoke this power of real-
ism and the insistence upon drawing as
ism, since the necessity of adhering to
basic to success in painting have charac-
the sitter's appearance helps to blast
David loose from his formulae. Madame terized official art for the whole century.
Seriziat (fig. 366) is dressed in the fash- Thev helped to turn this influential

ion of her day, a plain high-waisted group, the Academy, into a reactionary

gown simplified through classic influ- force which opposed each new move-
ence. Details of figure and costume are ment of the nineteenth century. By in-

precise and firmly modeled in cold light. vesting official patronage in this con-

And yet David can observe and present servative body, which popular opinion
with loving care such details from na- was apt to follow, David made difficult

ture as the spray of flowers in her hand. the path of progressive painters for many
To many, the portraits and the handful generations.
 Romanticism

In its underlying aspects, Romanticism was different, beckoned the imagination

may have been an escape mechanism to vicarious adventure and romance.
prompted by the sordid living conditions Second, exotic lands enchanted and al-

of the nineteenth century. The Indus- lured through distance. Finally, the
trial Revolution, that substitution of mind might turn to the subjective, and
machine power for handicrafts, accom- to flights of fancy having no connection
panied by the rise of the factory system with reality. To these three possibilities,
and therefore of large cities, had been and in certain ways connected with
manifest through the eighteenth cen- them, must be added a renewed inter-

tury, especially in England. It is signifi- est in nature, its freshness in contrast to

cant that Romanticism took deep root the dingy cities, its beauty as opposed
in England and that it first appeared to sordid urban reality. Probably all pe-
there. Whatever advantages may have riods would claim to love nature in

accrued to humanity in the long run some measure, even the age of Louis
from the Industrial Revolution, it XIV, but under the impulse of Roman-
brought in its train chaotic, over- ticism nature was accepted more nearly
crowded, and unsanitary cities, grimy as she is, in her intimate details as well
with smoke and filth. as her larger effects. This interest ac-

Three possible ways lay open for es- companied the scientific explanations of

cape. First, past centuries, when life natural phenomena reached in the

485
 ROMANTICISM
4 86
eighteenth century and marked by Reau- Walpole played with the style at Straw-

mur's invention of the thermometer or berry Hill about 1752. His interest lay

Lavoisier's discovery of oxygen. in the details of Gothic, in its pictur-

On the surface, no two movements esqueness, but not at all in its principles

seem more opposite than Neoclassicism or in its construction. The Gothic de-

and Romanticism in the visual arts. In tails were a stage setting, and often
architecture, it is the gulf between the frankly a sham. The eighteenth century
Roman and the Greek revivals on the considered Gothic buildings as a set-

one hand and the Gothic revival on ting for a mood, a background for self-

the other. In painting and sculpture, the dramatization. Some fortunate individ-
Romantic movement assaults the sub- uals owned estates where the crum-
ject matter, the style, and the very pur- bling walls of medieval abbeys remained,
pose of painting as laid down by David. but for those whose property was not
And yet, these two movements are not so well equipped there was always the
discrete; they are the obverse and re- possibility of beautifying the place by
verse of the medal, or two leaves grow- building a ruin. William Mason per-

ing from a single stem. The roots of fectly describes this curious point of
Neoclassicism reach back into the eight- view in his poem, The English Garden.
eenth century; so also the origins of the Fonthill Abbey (fig. 367), designed
Gothic revival occur at least as early as by Wyatt at the turn of the century for

1750. An archaeological note is common the eccentric millionaire, William Beck-

to both, though the archaeology of the ford, was not built as a ruin, though it

Middle Ages was slower to mature. shortly became one. It is simply the
Often the same persons contributed to most extravagant manifestation of this

both aspects of the movement. Keats urge for the picturesque. This must have
not only admired the classic in the Ode been the most inconvenient house ever
on a Grecian Urn; he also loved the built. Its four great wings consist chiefly
Gothic as in The Eve of St. Agnes. Most of corridors that lead to nothing. The
significant, in so far as Romanticism is entrance hall, with a broad flight of
an escape in time or place, the reversion thoroughly un-Gothic stairs, is big
to Rome or Greece is as much of an es- enough to accommodate larger crowds
cape as the return to the Gothic. than the house itself could hold. This
The Gothic revival started as a varia- hall exaggerates the proportions of a
tion on the Georgian, as playful as the Gothic church, its doors and windows
Chinoiseries, those wallpapers, bits of tall and narrow. Externally, the pictur-
china, and decorative carvings that the esque asymmetry of the Middle Ages
eighteenth century loved to call Chi- becomes a goal instead of the result of
nese. The fad of working in Gothic, at the building's purpose or its site. Such
first sponsored by the nouveau riche, be- an edifice denies the principles of Gothic
came sociallv respectable when Horace construction and its unself-conscious
 GOTHIC REVIVAL 487

367. James Wyatt (1748-1813) Fonthill Abbey (1796-1813) Interior c. 245' long x 35' wide.
488 ROMANTICISM

spirit. Wyatt gave thought to his effect; dicular elements. Then John Britton
indeed he thought of little else. It is for- spread a popular knowledge of the style
tunate that Fonthill Abbey should have through volumes of fine engravings, sold
vanished. We can revisit the building extensively because of the growing in-
only in imagination, where its inconven- terest in and enthusiasm for Gothic
ience and its flimsy construction can be architecture. Finally, the elder Pugin
forgotten. Built as a fantasy, Fonthill published measured drawings of de-

Abbey should be veiled in a haze of un- tails that gave the architect who had to
reality. design a Gothic building the informa-
Neither Wyatt nor Beckford, nor for tion he needed. A new church or castle

that matter Walpole, were hampered by cannot be planned on the basis of gen-
much knowledge of medieval styles. In- eral views, however picturesque, but
deed, their day had not realized that Pugin, himself an architect, knew just

the Middle Ages produced more than a what sort of information was requisite.
single style. Still archaeology, stimulated These men laid the archaeological
by antiquarian interest, gradually col- foundation for the sober maturity of
lected the information essential to any the Gothic revival. The identification of
serious adaptation of the style. Thomas Gothic as a national architecture, when
Rickman devised the first intelligible nationalism was beginning to be power-
classification of the medieval styles; he ful in England, fostered the style. The
demonstrated their sequence and made English believed that Gothic was local
impossible an unwitting combination of in origin, whereas the Roman and the
Early English, Decorated, and Perpen- Greek were foreign. It had not yet been

368. Charles Barry (1795-1860) Houses of Parliament, London (1840-60) 940' long.
 GOTHIC REVIVAL 489

369. Francois Rude (1784-1855) Departure of the Volunteers, Arc de Triomphe, Paris (1836)
4i'8" x 26'.
490 ROMANTICISM

realized or admitted that however native religious spirit enabled him to with-
the Gothic became, it was first imported stand the contemporary tendency to dis-

from France to England. play. At their best, his buildings are cor-

Even more influential was the identi- rect in detail, sound in construction, and
fication of Gothic as Christian architec- devotional in character.
ture.The revival within the Anglican
Church known as the Oxford Move- If Romanticism in architecture is per-
ment provided a stimulus to faith and fected in England, its sculpture and
worship that turned to the ritual of the painting, save in the field of landscape,
Middle Ages for expression. That ritual

needed a setting. Therefore, religion

converted the spirit of the Gothic re-

vival from superficiality and pictur-

esqueness to sobriety and a seriousness

comparable to a Quest of the Holy
Grail.
The most famous building of the
Gothic revival in England, where the
movement was strongest, is the Houses
of Parliament (fig. 368) designed by
Sir Charles Barry in the middle of the
century, but with its Perpendicular
Gothic detail supplied by the younger
Pugin. Barry was by training and prefer-
ence a classicist. If his plan and mass
are not classic, neither are they Gothic.
The plan has a coherence no Gothic
revivalist could have attained. The sil-

houette is so picturesque that the

Houses of Parliament has long been a
theme for painters, but its style, the
Perpendicular, was identified at the
time with the decay of Gothic architec-
ture, and went out of fashion before the
building was completed. For his own
work, such as St. Augustine's at Rams-
gate in 1842, A. N. Welby Pugin pre-
ferred the Decorated or sometimes the
Early Englishstyle. His profound knowl-
370. Francois Rude (1784-1855 Marshal
edge of medieval architecture and his
Ney, Luxembourg Gardens, Paris.
 RUDE 49 ]

can better be illustrated on the Conti- would identify them with well-known
nent. The Departure of the Volunteers examples of classic sculpture, such as
(fig. 369) by Francois Rude
(1784- Canova's portrait of Pauline Bonaparte
1855) on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris Borghese as a semi-nude Venus Victrix.
is transitional. Though the youthful Rude dresses Marshal Ney in his Napo-
nude carries over from Neoclassicism, leonic uniform. He is rendered not as a
the proportions and the modeling to type but as an individual. His upraised
bring out the tenseness of the forms are arm, with sword aloft, and mouth open
not academic or classic. The armor is as though commanding a charge create
Romantic, based upon French armor of a dramatic moment of action to char-
the sixteenth century. The group has a acterize the figure.

surging movement that Neoclassic sculp- In the actuality of Marshal Ney, the
ture abhorred. Under the patriotic stim- Romantic return to nature is manifest.
ulus of the Marseillaise, this band of So too, but more pungently, does it ap-
volunteers leaving for the front inspires pear in the animal sculpture of Antoine
emotion as the cold intellectuality of Louis Barye (1796-1875). His Jaguar
Neoclassicism never does. Rude becomes Devouring a Hare (fig. 371) testifies to

completely Romantic in the portrait of his study in the Paris Zoological Gar-

Marshal Ney (fig. 370). Neoclassic por- dens and his measurements of its exotic
traits had been generalized; their sub- animals. Though Barye never saw them
jects were arrayed in some garb that in their native habitats, no one has so

371. Antoine Louis Barye (1796-1875) Jaguar Devouring a Hare (1851) Louvre, Paris. Bronze,
3' 5" long x i'5" high.
 ROMANTICISM
49 2

grasped their Romantic wildness and human emotions. We, as humans, re-

ferocity. The style is at once realistic spond to the qualities Barye discovers
and broad. No detail is present that in his subjects.

might not be found in reality, but many

details that exist in nature are suppressed The painters of Romanticism, like

to stress the essential and the expressive. the sculptors, reject Neoclassic doctrine.
Through such a treatment, Barye cre- They ignore the formulas laid down by
ates a succession of dynamic and sculp- the Academy, and turn to subject mat-
turesque animal groups. His understand- ter of greater range. Not only do they
ing of character in animals is unsur- exploit the Middle Ages— in fact, they
passed. The action of the big cat with do that only to a limited extent— but
ears laid back, its tail flicking to and they also turn to their own day for ma-
fro, and its tense crouch while feeding terial that touches their lives and arouses
can be observed in the domestic cat, their emotions. Thrills, excitement, hor-

but they are, naturally, increased in ror, not born of the mind but of the
scale. The exotic nature of these crea- emotions, replace the aridity of Neo-
tures and the selection of a moment of classicism. Such a purpose demands a
feeding or combat to emphasize their change of technique. Therefore the in-

wildness are fundamentally Romantic sistence on drawing and especially on

traits. No animal sculptor has ever delineation must be reduced. In its

reached the height scaled by Barye, place, the emotional possibilities of

partly through his combination of real- color once more come into their own.
ism and the sculpturesque, and partly Although the color and vitality of
through his use of animals to parallel Rubens had been anathema to David,

372. Goya (1746-1828) Maja Desnuda (1799) Prado, Madrid. ^^" x 6'-$".
 BARYE - GOYA 49?

373. Goya (1746-1828) Execution of Madrilenos (1808) Prado, Madrid. 8'o/' x n'4".

the Flemish painter helped to mold the Goya painted the queen as a sensual
foremost Romanticist, Delacroix. vixen, and the king as a moron— accu-
One forerunner of the full-blown Ro- rate characterizations, but only the in-

mantic movement calls for comment. ability of the court to recognize their

Francisco Goya y Lucientes (1746- truth prevented these paintings from

1828) was as turbulent as were the days being suppressed and Goya with them.
of the Napoleonic occupation of Spain In many of his early works, Goya is not
through which he lived. Strongly erotic above criticism. His figures are often
—he almost lost his life in consequence stiff and wooden; they do not stand
of one ill-starred escapade— Goya was firmly, nor have they much atmosphere
never happier than when embroiled. around them.
The best Spanish painter since Velas- The Maja Desnuda (fig. 372), the
quez, he became portraitist to the deca- same motive as Giorgione's Venus (fig.
dent court of Charles IV. It is aston- 242), is entirely representative of Goya.
ishing that Goya retained this post un- No more sensual or naturalistic portrait
challenged. His realism enabled him to of the female figure can be discovered
characterize to the point of caricature. in the annals of great painting. Every-
 ROMANTICISM
494

374. Goya (1746-1828) Hasta la Muerte (Los Caprichos) Etching, 7V2" x 5W

 GOYA - GROS 495

thing is done in drawing, in color, and expression in the series of etchings called
in pose to make this figure as seduc- Los Desastres de la Guerra, and to a
tive as possible. Nevertheless, Goya lesser extent in the series, La Tauro-
does not neglect composition. The fig- maquia, a sort of history of the bull
ure ranges the diagonal of the canvas, ring. His wild fancy and his sarcasm
and the arms, folded behind her head, prompt the other two series, Los Cap-
provide a counter movement to stop richos and Los Proverbios. A single
the action. Goya once said, 'Lines, al- plate, Hasta la Muerte (Till Death)
ways lines, and never body. But where (fig. 374) shows his grim humor. The
,

do we see these lines in nature? I see age-old desire to retain the habiliments
only forms which advance, forms which of youth after they have ceased to be
recede, masses in light or in shadow.' appropriate receives here a sarcastic
Clearly, Goya was not in sympathy with commentary. If these etchings are hu-
the delineation stressed by the Academy, morous, there is also present much that
and intended to turn from it to the ob- is less pleasant to contemplate, as Goya
served appearances of nature. dissects the foibles of humanity with
The incidents of the Napoleonic oc- pitiless accuracy.

cupation of Spain gave him a perfect The French Academy naturally never
opportunity to dramatize the horrible. had the power in Spain that it wielded
The Execution of Madrilenos (fig.
373) in Paris. Hence, an independent spirit

depicts a military execution of those like Goya could arise in Spain at the
who resisted the French occupation. height of the Neoclassic movement. The
They say thatGoya came upon the rise of Romanticism in France comes a
scene the morning after, when the bod- little later. It is foretold in Baron An-
ies were still lying in the gutter, and toine Jean Gros, who in 1815 succeeded
dipped his handkerchief in blood to David as leader of the Academy when
make his first sketch of this composition David on the restoration of the Bour-
on a nearby wall. Whether this be true bons was exiled as a regicide to Brussels.

or not, it is just the sort of thing that Baron Gros concurred in the ideals of

Goya would do. A dramatic light brings historical painting set down by David,
into prominence the victims filled with but Gros had served with Napoleon
horror at impending death, and silhou- during the Egyptian campaign, and the
ettes the soldiers with their leveled military life of his own day interested
rifles in the foreground. Here Goya ex- him, not the wars of Hannibal or the
presses his interest in 'masses in light battles of Marathon and Thermopylae.
or in shadow.' None of these figures is Napoleon in the Pest House at Jaffa

delineated; that would have destroyed (fig.375) has first of all the interest of
the turbulence, and therefore the emo- an historical event known to Gros. The
tion of the scene. members of Napoleon's staff wear their
This macabre strain in Goya finds full military regalia. Nothing of the
496 ROMANTICISM

375. Antoine Jean Gros (1771-1835) Napoleon in the Pest House at Jaffa (1804) Louvre,
Paris. x 23'7".
17V

classic in subject matter belongs in such allowed to leave port in an unseaworthy

a scene. Perhaps the nude man in the condition and had foundered. After
foreground may recall the academic days of suffering on a raft in mid-ocean,
concentration on the figure, but a strong a few survivors were rescued and brought
natural light falls on the central group to port. Many had died of exposure and
and defines the planes of the distant starvation; others had gone insane. Their
buildings, quite different, for example, gruesome tales invoked a wave of sym-
from the cold lighting of the Death of pathy, and of criticism of the Govern-
Socrates (fig. 365). ment, which seemed partly responsible
Also transitional, but further along for the disaster. Gericault was among
on the road to Romanticism, is Theo- those who were stirred. He was accused
dore Gericault (1791-1824). Because of criticizing the Government; that such
of its military glory, the Academy might was his intention is not certain, but
condone the Napoleon at Jaffa, but the there can be no two opinions about the
Raft of the Medusa (fig. 376) came as dramatic horror of his painting. The
a grenade to the Salon of 1819. It hap- moment is that when a rescuing ship
pened that the ship Medusa had been has just been sighted, and the strongest
 gericault 497

376. Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) Raft of the Medusa (1819) Louvre, Paris. 16V x 2-$'$".

survivors struggle upward in hysterical demic standards. The emphasis on draw-

joy at the prospect of rescue. The old ing and the academic love of the figure
man at the left has lost all hope of de- are still present, as Gericault uses the
liverance, and perhaps all desire, as he opportunities afforded by his theme for
drops his hand in a protecting gesture a study of the nude. The contrasts of
over the corpse of his son. The survivors light and dark, however, are more dra-
have not strength enough to clear the matic than in Neoclassic paintings.
raft of their comrades who have died, With that exception, the technique re-
such as the body dragging through the mains conservative, but the spirit of
waves to the right. No one in 1819, with Romanticism is already rampant.
the tragedy still fresh in his mind, could Had Gericault lived, he might have
look at this painting unmoved. Its grue- led the Romantic rebels. His premature
some tale inspired pity in all who saw it. death allowed the torch to fall into the
No one feels emotionally stirred by hands of Ferdinand Eugene Delacroix
David's historical designs. This is why (1798-1863). A well-informed and in-

the conservatives of the Academy con- telligentman, Delacroix was anything

demned the Medusa. It is not foreign but revolutionary by nature. He had no
to their traditions in color; the prevail- desire to head a movement with whose
ing tonality is brown. The large size of excesses he had little sympathy, no mat-
the painting is not different from aca- ter how fully he might adhere to its less
49 3 ROMANTICISM

radical sides. Already in his Bark of Inferno, and with its horror paramount
Dante in 1822, Delacroix had pro- in the result. Nevertheless, the browns
claimed his willingness to paint a theme and the academic interest in the nude
of the Middle Ages drawn from the still remained, though with heavier

377. Ferdinand Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) Massacre of Scio (1824) Louvre, Paris. i3'io'
x n'6".
 DELACROIX
499
modeling of the figures. As in Gericault, though it did exist in paintings by the
the spirit, not the forms, had altered. Venetians, Rubens, and Watteau with
A few years later, partly under the in- whose works Delacroix was conversant,
fluence of Rubens, Delacroix's color and in Constable's contemporary Eng-
and forms began to change. The Mas- lish landscape paintings.
sacre of Scio (fig. 377), like the Raft of More riotous in color, with a strong
the Medusa, came from a contemporary dash of Rubens, is the Death of Sarda-
event. In this case, the source was the napalus. The subject of this sensational
Greek war of liberation from Turkey. canvas drawn from Byron, that is,
is

The prosperous island of Chios had not from English Romanticism. What an
joined that revolt, but a raid by the opportunity it affords Delacroix to study
rebels caused the Turkish governor to the female figure, as the eunuchs put to
lose his head and permit the Janissaries death the women of the harem lest they
to massacre thousands of civilians. Lib- fall into the hands of the king's ene-
eral sentiment in Western Europe was mies! The theme gives Delacroix a
appalled. Sympathy for the Greeks al- chance for action, rich contrasts of light

ready existed there, where it stimulated and shade, and sumptuousness of color.
the Greek revival; Delacroix's epic vision Delacroix returns to French life for
of the Greek war illustrated that sym- inspiration in Liberty Leading the Peo-
pathy. The painting is restrained; in the ple, a portrayal of an event that occurred
foreground, men and women wait their 28 July 1830 (fig. 378). In it he creates
turn for slaughter, helpless and hope- an apotheosis of the July revolution,
less. They do not even struggle against which ejected Charles X, of the older
the inevitable. The scenes of tumult branch of the Bourbon dynasty, from the
are relegated to the background. Nor throne of France and installed the
are the Janissaries more violent; their younger branch in its place in the person
mission, foreordained by Allah, is to of Louis Philippe, who promised to be
slay the Christian pigs; they complete favorable to the business classes. In the
contempt but with little
their task with center, the allegorical figure of France
more emotion than a butcher plying his bears the banner of the revolution. On
trade. Horrible as is the subject, the ex- the right is an irrepressible youth who,
pression seems controlled merely to like a western cowboy, strides over the
heighten its grimness through contrast. barricades with both guns swinging, a
No longer does delineation dominate; splendid interpretation of a type, to
the brownish tonality has been modi- whom the ends of the revolution appear
fied in favor of richer color. The use of to be subordinate to its excitement. The
complementary tones, such as violet lower-class support of this revolution in-
shadows on a yellow passage, or green spires the man at the extreme left, but
to serve as a foil to red, probably that figure is shadowed, while next to
came to Delacroix through observation, him is an eminently respectable busi-
500 ROMANTICISM

nessman. One expects sideburns, a frock During the 1830'$, France began to
coat, and a top hat on 'change; they expand into North Africa. The Moorish
look anachronous in the melee of street civilization there and the exotic wild
fighting. And yet the class he represents life of the region attracted Delacroix.
controls this political upset; they want As a member of a mission to the Sultan
a government favorable to them, but of Morocco, he had first-hand knowl-

they do not want a social upheaval like edge of this part of the world. Lion
the French Revolution; that would be hunts with turbaned and burnoosed
bad for trade. This solid businessman Bedouins provide Delacroix with an op-
seems to have picked down from his portunity to achieve the movement and
mantel an old fowling piece, as anti- color that he finds in Rubens. Here, too,
quated as he himself is unexpected in he begins to exploit the qualities of
these surroundings. The dramatic light- paint, and therefore his draftsmanship
ing, the color, the contemporary scene, becomes looser or, more precisely, free.

and the excitement in the painting make The old linearism is deserted. Nor does
it a landmark of Romanticism. he restrict his themes to animals and

378. Ferdinand Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) Liberty Leading the People (1830) Louvre,
Paris. 8'6" x io'8".
 DELACROIX - INGRES 01
5

379. Ferdinand Eugene Delacroix (171 •1863) Algerian Women (1834) Louvre, Paris. 5'n"
x 7 '6".

the hunt. The Algerian Women (fig. the Romantic point of view met the op-
379) is as exotic as his paintings of lions. position of Jean Auguste Dominique
The hot stillness of this inner room, its Ingres (1780-1867). Older than Dela-
Oriental color in the pink, orange, black, croix, Ingres had been a pupil of David;
and white tiled wall echoed in the cos- later he spent years in Florence and
tumes, and the life represented in this Rome, supporting himself in part by ex-

scene is foreign to life in France. Such quisite pencil portraits. These tight
a scene is alluring, when seen through drawings are sharp in detail around the
the medium of painting. It provides face, but sketchy in their indication of
those elements of romance that were costume. Essentially linear, Ingres sup-
fast disappearing from European civili- presses shadow. Small areas under the
zation. Moreover, such paintings attest chin or below the nose suffice to estab-
the European interest in colonial expan- lish the form of the head. The passages
sion under economic and imperialistic fade so subtly into white that the pencil
stimuli. strokes are imperceptible and suggest a
Delacroix's fight for recognition of waxy smoothness of surface. Such ele-
5
02 ROMANTICISM

gance and refinement recur from time type. The figure is not individualized;
to time in French art, in the paintings on the contrary, the form is generalized,
of the Clouets, and the drawings and the principal divisions of the body ac-
paintings of Watteau, as though they curate enough, but with all sensuous
were sympathetic to the French tem- details eliminated. His control of line
perament. These drawings testify to emphasizes delineation; we are first

Ingres'consummate skill as a drafts- aware of the outline of the figure devel-

man, and are often fresher than his oped with lyrical beauty and clarity.
paintings. The figure as such means nothing. It is
They suggest that draftsmanship lies an excuse for Ingres to display his drafts-

at the basis of his style. When Ingres manship. Such a nude may be posed in

became the leader of theAcademy, he many ways, though in fact the poses
modified its ideals and, even more than are normally quiet; it may be called
David, determined its character for the Truth or Venus, a Fountain or an
rest of the nineteenth century. By his Odalisque. The title changes but the
time, the spirit of the day had so essential figure does not. Through such
changed that the historical subjects of works as this, Ingres established the
David could no longer maintain their academic nude as the subject of official

dominance. Instead, Ingres substituted art for the rest of the century, and, by
the figure, sometimes male but more reason of his insistence upon delinea-
often female, as the prime requisite. His tion, draftsmanship became the pre-
Odalisque (fig. 380) represents the requisite for academic recognition. 'Any-

380. Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867) Odalisque (1814) Louvre, Paris. 3' x $'4".
 INGRES - CONSTABLE 5°3

thing that is well drawn is well enough nature, and though his finished compo-
painted/ he said. Therefore, color is an sitions, such as the Hay Wain (Plate
afterthought, and from then on the vm, facing p. 365), may have been ex-
Academy produced a series of coldly ecuted within his studio, they rejected
academic studies which, however ade- the traditional scheme of landscape
quate in draftsmanship, look like tinted painting. The dark foreground and
drawings. A man of less breadth of mind lighted distance and the brownish ton-
than Delacroix, Ingres' spirit restricted ality are tossed into the limbo of anti-
official art for generations. quated notions. Instead of areas of solid
The Romantic interest in nature, as color, Constable breaks up the masses
a palliative for urban conditions, was of foliage into sparkling green passages,
bound to have results in landscape broad and free in handling, and closer
painting. The new point of view went to the vibrancy of nature than are the

back into the eighteenth century to the traditional solutions.

work of the English watercolorists. Like the Dutch, he turns to the spe-
More important is Richard Wilson cific, not the general, in landscape; the
(1714-82) who, though he retained the Hay Wain represents a bit of his native
conventional dark foreground and Suffolk. In consequence, we are at first

brownish tonality of the French classic unaware of a deliberate scheme. The

school of Claude Lorrain, turned to painting appears to be well adjusted,
specific scenes like the Dutch landscape but the house and the group of trees
painters, to the rugged aspects of na- near the left foreground seem to be
ture, to Cader Idris and the Welsh there because in this particular scene
mountains. He substitutes the beauty that is where they happened to occur.
of the picturesque and the unexpected Though this casualness of arrangement
for the well-groomed, carefully con- may be, and in this instance is, more
structed landscapes, traditional in his apparent than real, such informality
day. Somewhat later, Thomas Gains- underscores Constable's acceptance of
borough, who preferred landscape to the actual scene. He so loves nature
portraiture, gave vent to his lyrical spirit that he clings to her not only in the
and his pictorial power in designs like structure of his trees, his clouds, and
the Market Wagon, not appreciated in all the other elements of landscape, but
his own time. even in their disposition. Therein lies

It remained for John Constable his strength and his weakness. Few bet-

(1776-1837) to effect the revolution in ter grasp and render the scenes before
landscape painting. He stated his aims, them, but at times his passion for actu-
which may be taken as the creed of ality leads him to forget that he is paint-

Romantic landscape painting, in saying, ing a picture, not creating a landscape.

There is room for a natural painter.' His scope is limited, through his very

His sketches were made directly from naturalism, to those scenes he had him-
5°4 ROMANTICISM

self observed, and since he seldom trav- but combined them with a Romantic
eled, the range of his material is narrow. view of nature. He bequeathed to the
Nevertheless, Constable does select his British nation several paintings by
subject and modify it to construct pic- Claude, on the condition that they be
tures without loss of naturalism, while displayed in conjunction with some of
his study of the structure of natural his own, to acknowledge his debt. Ad-
forms gives his work a solidity seldom mirable though they are, Turner's paint-
rivaledand never surpassed. ings rarely achieve the pictorial ability

Joseph Mallord William Turner so marked in the French artist, and

(1775-1851) was a more fluent drafts- want that lyric love of nature evident
man than Constable, but did not al- even through the conventions of
ways perceive the solid structure that Claude's paintings.
empowers all of Constable's paintings. As his style developed, Turner be-
Turner admired Claude Lorrain, and in came more and more absorbed in color,
his earlier work especially, for example, and, toward the end of his life, in at-

Crossing the Brook, he retained the mosphere, which he approached emo-

composition and something of the re- tionally with swirling masses of color
stricted palette of his great forebear, and pigment. The Fighting Temeraire

I
381.
3' x
J.
4'-
M. W. Turner (1775-1851) The Fighting Temeraire (1839) National Gallery, London.
 TURNER - ROUSSEAU 5°5

(fig. 381) appeals to sentiment; who tial and unscientific by comparison with
does not feel the tragedy when some later atmospheric studies by Claude
fine old ship, ennobled by its associ- Monet. However, these late paintings
ations, is towed away to destruction? of Turner play a historic role as an in-

That drama is heightened by the con- fluence on Impressionism a generation

trast of the picturesque man-of-war and later.

a most unromantic tug. Such an appeal On the other hand, Constable's in-

to sentiment is quite legitimate. The fluence, injected by his paintings into

ship has become a ghostly galleon, a the Salon of 1824, is profound on the
veritable Flying Dutchman, with little Barbizon school, a group of landscape
feeling for structure. The sun sets be- painters who in the 1830's sought refuge
low a dark red cloud. Turner has begun from the cost of living in Paris at Bar-

to dump his paint pot upside down for bizon on the outskirts of the forest of
the sheer sensuous excitement of sump- Fontainebleau. Theodore Rousseau
tuous color. (1812-67), called the eagle of the group
His celebrated canvas, Rain, Steam, because of his strength, turns to the
and Speed, shows a train crossing a via- pay sage intime, the same kind of pas-
duct in a fog. The tangible subject toral and intimate bits of landscape
dwindles to a mere excuse for a study of that Constable loves. He discards the
atmosphere, in which forms dissolve in picturesque and the scenic. The Oaks
a haze of smoke and mist, unsubstan- (fig. 382) occupy and block the center

382. Theodore Rousseau (1812-67) The Oaks. Louvre, Paris. 2V x 3Y

506 ROMANTICISM

;,-

MJBJJMJP^
*^

383. Jean Baptiste Camille Corot (1796-1875) La Matinee (1850) Luxembourg Museum, Pans.
3V '
x 4 3 ".

of the composition and so confine our long to the Barbizon school, though he
attention to the foreground. Such dis- sympathized with its members and
tance as may be necessary to establish helped them to the best of his ability.

this grove in space is relegated to the His own characteristic manner is easily

sides. The tufts of grass in the fore- recognized in La Matinee (fig. 383),
ground are more important to Rousseau sometimes called the Dance of the
than great distance, and the structure Nymphs. These idyllic figures might be
of the trees more significant than either. the dream children of the landscape it-
There is nothing epic in the scene, save self, with its unreal appearance. In actu-
its power of observation. This delight ality, Corot has an understanding of
in the smaller aspects of nature and this nature and its structure, a lyric love of
confidence in their pictorial sufficiency the country, pervading these songs in
did not meet the approval of the Acad- paint which are like odes in honor of
emy; so consistently were Rousseau's his goddess. His strict limitation of color
paintings rejected by the Salons that he and values avoids extreme lights and
was nicknamed 'le Grand Refuse.' darks, and vivid colors. Instead he pre-
Strictly speaking, Jean Baptiste Ca- ferred silvery grays or gray greens. An
mille Corot (1796-1875) does not be- occasional touch of stronger color serves
 COROT - MILLET 507
' ' * --•
I

"
:
! %
|

%
11 (

384. Jean Baptiste Camille Corot (1796-1875) Honfleur, Houses on the Quay (c. 1830) Mme
E. Staub-Terlinden, Mannedorf. i'j* x i'h".

to accent the quietness of the scene. fully understood the types that were to
These canvases, so characteristic of make his reputation. The Sower (fig.

Corot, contrast with his early work, such 385) pursues his vocation in the time-
as the Honfleurs (fig. 384), more archi- honored way, strewing the grain over
tectural scenes with planes of strong the fields by hand. The setting is re-

light and shade, blocked in with a struc- duced to a plane of brown to indicate
tural sense of pictorial possibilities. This the plowed earth, and a line for the
same sensitive construction marks his horizon. Against this background, Millet
few but powerful figure paintings. After creates a Michelangelesque type, a sym-
we have become sated with the repeti- bol of the farmer of all times and places,
tion of his better-known works, such de- in his constant struggle to wrest a liveli-
signs as these come as a surprise and a hood from the soil. This is no musical-
relief. comedy peasant with a picturesque cos-
The Barbizon group is primarily one tume; he is dressed in rough but service-
of landscape painters.With them, Jean able garments. The technique of paint-
Francois Millet (1814-75) allies him- ing is as rough as the costume and the
self, but applies their directness and figure, as though to insist on the bulk of
their unpretentious modesty to the fig- this monumental character.
ure. By birth a Norman peasant, Millet In these types, Millet created an
508 ROMANTICISM

apotheosis of the class he knew and ered in him their own attitude that the
loved. In his lifetime, he was accused underprivileged were oppressed by the
of social propaganda; later ages discov- exploitation of the upper classes. Such

4"
385. Jean Francois Millet (1814-75) The Sower (
l8 5°) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. J
x z'g".
 MILLET 509

interpretations were foreign to Millet. believed, the strength to bear it. His
He was amused that his own day could characters exult in the importance of

find propaganda in his paintings; he their calling; they are, in fact, the men
would be astonished that anyone should and women upon whom the strength of
think of his peasants as 'stolid and France is based, and their elemental
stunned, a brother to the ox/ as Edwin power lends them majesty. Theirs is no
Markham wrote. On the contrary, if the message of despair; it is a glowing tribute
peasant's lot was hard, he had, Millet to the people Millet knew so well.
XXIV The Later Nineteenth Century in Europe

As the nineteenth century progressed, pictorial possibilities in design, and al-

Paris became more and more the center though structural training existed in the
of the art world. There new ideas were curriculum, if one may call it that, and
born. Its atmosphere stimulated discus- was expected to appear in the drawings,

sion and the existence of a large group the position accorded it was apt to be
of artists in Paris drew still more artists insignificant. New materials, however
from all over the European world. Con- great their possibilities, had to over-
sequently, each new step in French art come academic prejudice based on the
was reflected in that of other countries. supposition that thev were ill-adapted
Of course, academic art continued in to monumental architecture.
Parisand elsewhere to supply an accom- This is a difficult era to discuss, be-
paniment and a foil to the new ideas, cause all manner of styles co-exist. Eclec-
each of which had to battle for recog- ticism is the guiding thread. The word
nition against the persistent conserva- means freedom of choice; as applied to
tism of official bodies. the arts, specifically freedom to select
The Academies in painting paralleled from among the styles of the past.
the Ecole des Beaux Arts in architecture. Either the architect or his client or both
This school laid stress on drawing and may decide in what historic style the
on the effectiveness of a design on paper. building shall be dressed. Eclecticism
Such an emphasis inevitably focused on did not really obtain during the earlier
 ECLECTICISM IN ARCHITECTURE 5
11

Greek and Gothic revivals, though its from English and French sources to
germs were present then. Many factors Italian or German Gothic. The archi-

mav influence the choice, some of them tects feel free to borrow details from
intelligent, others minor. The associa- where they will, and to mix elements
tion of a type of building with a given from one style with elements from an-
stvle, as for example, the identification other. Still underneath this veneer of
of church architecture with the Gothic, style can sometimes be found a funda-
may determine the selection. The sup- mental exploration of space problems
posed existence of a national historic for their own sake and in their relation

style is sometimes a governing factor. to function, together with experiments

The training of the architect selected, in new materials.

or his or his client's whims or tastes are From this unpromising ground sprang
frequently the only reasons for adopting a few distinguished architectural monu-
one style rather than another. All the ments. The Bibliotheque Ste. Gene-
styles tend to be crass, whether they be vieve (1843-50) by Henri Labrouste de-
some modification of the classic or the rives from the early Italian Renaissance,

Victorian Gothic, which often turns and owes some debt to Alberti's design

386. Henri Labrouste (1801-75) Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve, Paris (1843-50) Reading Room.
5
12 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

of the flank of San Francesco at Rimini. slender proportions were possible only
Severe arcades enclose the windows of in metal. As always when a new ma-
the second-floor reading room, and only terial is adopted, the design is conceived
small arched windows and a band of partly in terms of other materials. The
garlands break the plain stone wall of iron columns retain the details of the

the ground floor. These fifteenth-cen- Corinthian order. Moreover, the utili-

tury motives lead to nothing; more pro- tarian arches are disguised with waving
phetic is the reading room (fig. 386). foliate designs, as though Labrouste had
The nineteenth century fostered sci- not yet found a solution in design for

ence, a corollary to its materialism; this them as acceptable to the public as the

is reflected in the development of con- solutions so readily at hand with the

crete, the availability of glass in ever- older building materials. However, in

larger sheets, and especially in the in- the utilitarian stacks, the architect takes
creased use of metal as a structural ma- full advantage of iron. The open grilled

terial. Iron and bronze had been em- floors allow penetration of light and a

ployed from time immemorial for deco- frank expression of intersecting planes.
rative details, but the cost of metal had Architects arc often unjustly con-
hitherto prevented its structural use. demned for their conservatism, and dis-

During the eighteenth century, it began paraging comparisons are drawn between
to appear in bridges, for example the them and engineers. In that connection,
Severn Bridge, constructed in 1775-9, it is fair to remember that adequate de-
and from there it spread to utilitarian signs for the automobile were not im-
buildings. In 1801 it appeared in a cot- mediately discovered by the engineers,
ton mill in Manchester, and in 1824 in who at the outset shaped their cars in
the market hall of the Madeleine in terms of wagons; it took more than a
Paris. generation to reach the beauty of con-
Up to the middle of the century, how- temporary automobiles. Much the same
ever, tradition hampered its adoption can be said of the locomotive, the steam-
for monumental buildings, as did the ship, and the airplane. Moreover, the
Beaux Arts' emphasis on historic styles. architect experiments with his client's
Labrouste wanted his reading room to money, and the latter will usually pre-
be free of heavy interior supports. He vent any solution of a new problem that
might have vaulted it in stone, but to departs too radically from buildings
do so would have necessitated heavy known to him. One cannot test build-
walls, which would have curtailed the ings on a proving ground, since their
light. To cover this span with wooden cost forbids their immediate destruction
beams, even if it were possible, would and redesign, even when lines of im-
result in a lack of monumentality. provement become obvious. Such a
Therefore Labrouste chose iron in the scheme as Labrouste's, then, though it

form of arches and columns whose has some precedent in utilitarian build-
 LABROUSTE - GARNIER 5
X
3

387. Charles Gamier (1825-98) Opera House, Paris (1861-74) Facade c. 200' wide x 95' high.

ings and parallels contemporary expo- understandable since opera is a Baroque

sition architecture, such as the Crystal form, seemed to call for display. Gar-
Palace in London in 1851, represents a nier's success is tragically evident when
bold experiment with a material not yet contrasted with many an American
respectable in academic circles, whose theater, whose designers were tempted
perfected expressions, such as the Eiffel to walk in the paths of the mighty
Tower in Paris or the skyscrapers in without training for such an exercise.
America, could arise only later. It requires a thorough understanding of
If the Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve composition to master so rich a style.

derives from the Renaissance, the Paris The stairway of the Paris Opera (fig.
Opera House of 1861-74 (fig. 387) by 388), with its Baroque curves and bulg-
Charles Gamier stems from the Ba- ing balconies, not only communicates
roque. The well-organized plan testifies with the boxes and seats; even more it

to the thoroughness of the Beaux Arts affords a setting for the social display
training, as does the controlled richness opera inspires.
of the Baroque facade. Such opulence The church of the Sacre Coeur in
of arches and columns, cartouches and Paris, begun in 1873, is Romanesque in
sculpture creates a festive character. The style and the quintessence of Roman-
Baroque sumptuousness of opera, quite ticism in feeling. Its architect, Abadie,
514 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

remodeled the church of St. Front at crowned with five domes. No doubt this
Perigueux, an example of the half-By- suggested the new design of Sacre
zantine Romanesque of Aquitaine, Coeur, but Abadie has piled up turrets

388. Charles Gamier (1825-98) Stairway, Opera House, Paris (1861-74)

 CARPEAUX - DALOU 5*5

and dome in a picturesque manner, of these figures, even though they form
more extravagant in effect than the a ring, often leads the eye out of the cen-
medieval building. Crowning the heights tral mass. Thus the composition has the
of Montmartre, this church has a fairy- complexity of the Baroque, its openness,
tale unreality about it, something un- and its turbulence. Much pictorial de-
believable, like an illustration for the tail finds room here. The whole design,
Arabian Nights. though executed in marble, is in fact
The same eclecticism is prevalent in conceived for the plasticity of clay.
sculpture— at times, even the same styles Romanticism
Just as the painters of
that inspire the architects are used. turn to Rubens for inspiration, so do
Jean Baptiste Carpeaux's (1827-75) Carpeaux and, even more, Jules Dalou.
group of the Dance (fig. 389) on the In the latter's Silenus of the Luxem-
Paris Opera House is as Baroque as the bourg Gardens, the fleshy figure, the
building. The subject involves a mo- movement and abandon, the naturalism
ment of violent action. The movement of the modeling, and the pictorial ac-

cessories justify its description as a

modeler's version of a Rubens mythol-
ogy. Like all sculptors of their day, Car-
peaux and Dalou build up their compo-
sitions in clay, which may be molded
under their fingers into naturalistic de-

tails. The model can then be transcribed

into bronze or stone, and each modula-
tion of the surface preserved. To achieve
monumentality under these circum-
stances is all but impossible; effects ap-

propriate in clay are too readily at hand

to be avoided, even if the sculptor tries

to retain the qualities of the final ma-

terial.

These considerations go far to ex-

plain the style of Auguste Rodin (1840-

1917), the outstanding sculptor of the

later nineteenth century. He concludes
the development from the break-down
of Neoclassicism at the hands of Rude
and Barye through the pictorial model-
ing of Carpeaux and Dalou. That Rodin
is capable of amazing naturalism is ap-
389. Jean Baptiste Carpeaux (1827-75) Dance
parent in the Age of Bronze. This fig-
(1869) Opera, Facade, Paris. 15V x 8'6".
 i6 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE
5

this been carried out, the effect when

one encountered the group in a city
square would have been startling.
These works were cast in bronze, but
Rodin commonly chose marble, as in
The Kiss (fig. 390). The surfaces of
these intertwined figures undulate to
induce a play of light and shade over
them. These light effects parallel con-
temporary Impressionist painting, and
hence permit a description of Rodin as
the foremost Impressionist sculptor.
The fluid surface modulation is not so
broken as to violate naturalism; on the
contrary, it gives the stone the anima-
tion of living flesh. Rodin's love of the
body is sensuous, and often frankly
erotic, as these figures interlock in their

passionate embrace. The soft texture of

flesh contrasts with the rough stone on

which they sit, the marks of the chisel
390. Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) The Kiss
apparent on its surface. Often Rodin re-
(1898) Luxembourg, Paris. 6' high.
sorts to the device of allowing part of

ure of a young Belgian soldier caused his figures to emerge from an unfinished
Rodin to be attacked by his fellow sculp- block, as Michelangelo did. In the case

tors, who accused him of trying to palm of the Florentine, the lack of finish is

off a life cast as an independent work. probably due to pressure of other work;
Rodin was able to free himself from in Rodin's hand, it becomes a meretri-

this charge, but the accusation would cious trick. It does not even express a

never have been made had not his statue feeling for the material. The sensuous
been so like the human figure in every naturalism and his modeler's concep-
detail. The group called the Burghers of tion and methods make Rodin typical of
Calais is almost as naturalistic. These nineteenth-century sculptors.
five figures, who commemorate an in- When he was commissioned to do a

cident of local history, are each individ- portrait of Balzac (fig. 391), Rodin's
ualized, their faces stern if not haggard, patrons were outraged at the result and
their arms gaunt and sinewy, and their rejected it, though by then he had won
sackcloth pictorial. Rodin wanted to recognition. Rodin conceives Balzac
place them on a plinth only a few wrapped in his dressing gown and strid-

inches high instead of a pedestal. Had ing about the room in the throes of
 RODIN 5*7

comes amorphous. The interpretive por-

trait, with its beetling eyebrows and
heavy features, is intended to be lighted
from above to accentuate its sensational-
ism.
Whatever importance the architec-
tureand sculpture of the time may have,
the dominant art of the late nineteenth
century is painting. So pronounced is

this fact that many people today think

of art and painting as synonyms, and
thus fail to realize that art comprises
many other media. However, there is

something of the painter's attitude in

Rodin's pictorial interest in light and

shade, and many sculptors of his day
started as painters or practiced that art
in addition to their own. Perhaps even
in architecture, the eclectic tendency to
design for effect and to deny, conceal, or
at least minimize the importance of
structure may be traced to the same at-

titude. Possibly the methods of educa-

tion in all the arts by means of the
Academies produced this result. How-
ever that may be, the fact remains that
painting is pre-eminent in the arts dur-

ing the nineteenth century as sculpture

had been in Periclean Greece and archi-

tecture in medieval Europe.

1
Moreover, the Industrial Revolution,
391. Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) Balzac
(1892-97) Rodin Museum, Paris. 9'io" high. against whose effects Romanticism had
protested, called into being a crass ma-
literary composition. A powerful head terialism. Progress became identified
tops a chaotic mass. The bulk of the with bigger and better production, and
great body, though simple in its larger success was measured in terms of money.
outlines, like some outcropping of na- Whether or not such a scale of values
ture, fritters away its form in meaning- is desirable, it is impertinent to paint-
less bosses and hollows, rough and ing and sculpture, and hardly relevant
broken clay-like surfaces, until it be- in architecture. Thus the values that the
5
THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

artist recognized, the public rejected. quisites, if not a social requisite, of their
The success of a painting cannot be position. To whom should they turn for
measured by its dimensions or by the guidance if not to official art and the
quantity and cost of its pigment. There- Academies?
fore, the artist became separated from By reason of their control of the an-
the rest of the public in aims and ideals. nual salons, the Academies wielded tre-

If the notion that the artist is a queer mendous power. Their juries rejected
and impractical fellow did not originate not only the incompetent but also the
at this time, it did gain currency. new and original, and indeed anything
This separation of the artist, and his that failed to meet their conservative
consequent rebellious attitude, could not standards. By refusing to exhibit the
but affect his work. The fact that with- works of a painter, the Academy could
out a market for his paintings the artist deprive him of the opportunity to be-
might starve is in some respects a minor come known to that part of the public
matter, however vital to him. His en- interested in art; in other words, it con-
emies could retort that inability to earn trolled his most legitimate form of pub-
a livelihood in painting did not close licity. Through its awards, it set the
the door to gainful occupations, and if stamp of mastership where it chose, and
the artist chose to suffer in a garret by so doing increased the market for
rather than work in a factory, that was certain artists' work. The artists were
his affair. During earlier centuries, the aware of this and therefore tried to
upper class, either the aristocracy or the make sure that their canvases displayed
church, had cultivated an interest in on the walls of the annual salons would
the arts, and passed it on as a tradition catch the public eye. This they might
from generation to generation. Their accomplish by sensationalism in subject
ideals could be expressed in paint or or color, but sheer size of canvas was
stone with no loss of artistic integrity; the most direct means. No matter how
moreover, the artist's public sympathized irrelevant is size to quality, if a large
with and understood his products. With picture and others of medium or small
the materialism of the nineteenth cen- size are hung on a single wall, it is hu-
tury, the artist could not compromise man nature to examine the large one
without losing his integrity. Further- first. Also, the largest painting is inevit-

more, economic developments brought ably placed in the center; it can hardly
a new wealthy group to the fore. These be pushed into a corner. Irreverent art-

men had no inherited appreciation of ists nicknamed these great compositions

the arts. They lacked the background 'machines/ Aside from any other con-
and traditions that had sustained paint- sideration, their size made it certain
ing in earlier days. At the same time, that no private patron would buy them,
they realized, or some of them did, that since they required a palace for their
patronage of art was one of the per- display. They were painted to be sold
 SEPARATION OF ARTIST FROM PUBLIC 5*9

to the Government as 'great art' after turned to known artists; the wealthier
winning their medals and acclaim in the the individual, the more certainly would
salons. One example will suffice, the he patronize recognized masters. Al-
Romans of the Decadence, painted by though their portraits are tight, such
Thomas Couture in 1847, master of the men as Leon Bonnat are well trained.
Veil-painted bit/ The canvas measures The draftsmanship is precise, the pig-
15 feet 3 inches by 25 feet 5 inches. The ment applied as though figure and drap-
subject itself is sensational— an orgy, ery were waxen, and the personality and
whereon the statues of worthy ancestors likeness caught.

look down as with disgust. The work is However much they might covet the
facile and competent, but though in- security of academic success, a few
fluenced by Veronese in its architec- painters, and among them the most seri-

tural setting, its interest lies in its sub- ous of their generations, insisted that
ject. the goals of the Academy and of the
Through its ability to make reputa- public were insufficient, and that the
tions, the Academy could open the door expressive possibilities of painting as an
to portraiture, the one really lucrative interpretation of life were more signifi-

field in the arts. Those who could af- cant. Honore Daumier (1808-79)
ford to have their portraits painted stands alone in his day in his human

392. Honore Daumier (1! Gargantua (1831) Lithograph, SV2" x 12".

5
20 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

393- Honore Daumier (1808-79) Washwoman (c. 1863) Louvre, Paris. i'6" x 1
 DAUMIER - COURBET 5
21

sympathies. His professional activity lay pation with the general. His effort is

in the graphic arts, where his caricatures concentrated in simplified forms that
got him into trouble with the state. In transcend time and space to become
such a cartoon as Gargantua (fig. 392), types of humanity always recognizable
Daumier invited the hostility of the and understandable.
Government. The ministers of Louis In his day, Daumier was hardly known
Philippe collect taxes from the people in as a painter. Gustave Courbet (1819-
panniers, which they convey to the in- 77) took pains to reach notoriety. When
satiable maw of Gargantua, personified in the Exposition of 1855 his works

as the monarch. From under his chair were refused, he arranged his personal

issue privileges and monopolies for the exhibition opposite the Exposition
business classes in whose interests, un- grounds. He coined the term 'Realism'
der the laissez-faire theory of economics, to describe his style. Once he shouted at
his government was conducted. The a friend, who had urged him to paint
taunts of this satire were too sharp to from his imagination, 'If you show me
be forgiven. In lithographs and paint- an angel, I'll paint one!' In brief, Cour-
ings based upon his observations in the bet's interest lay in the visible world,
courts, Daumier dissects for all to see and he considered it his function to re-

the conduct of the legal profession, the cord it as it was. His style is not photo-
lawyer's impassioned pleas for unworthy graphic; it shows a keen sense of selec-

clients, or their hobnobbing around the tion of what to paint among the details
halls of justice. His representation is of nature to give the essentials of his
not flattering to them either as individ- subject.
uals or as a group, but his grasp of the Sentiment and idealism find no place
essentials of characterization is superb. in him. The Burial at Ornans (fig.

Perhaps his training as a caricaturist 394) is matter of fact, too much so for
gave him a feeling for the economy of the taste of his day, which was appalled
essentials and the elimination of the ac- at this unvarnished statement of reality.

cidental, and also a realization of the In this painting, Courbet said what
power inherent in values. The Wash- everyone knew to be true, that the priest

woman (fig. 393) is a monumental fig- was performing his routine duties in a

ure. The action and mass of the figure routine way, that the acolytes might
are fundamentals to which detail can be pay no heed to the funeral, and that the
sacrificed. Little is visible within the out- presence of friends and relatives was
lines of this dark figure silhouetted more socially expected than prompted
against the buildings opposite, as the by real and lasting grief. These matters
mother stoops over to help her child up were familiar, but no one liked to have
the steps. Here is nothing of narrative; the veils that society had hung around
no story is conveyed by these figures. No such events torn down. Mankind pre-

individualism mars Daumier's preoccu- ferred a sentimental view; Courbet gave

 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

394. Gustave Courbet (1819-77) Bund at Ornans (1849) Louvre, Paris, ic/3" x 2i'9".

his observations bald objectivity. He in figure composition, he could have no

neither condemned nor satirized, but reason to be less so in the field of land-

painted what he saw. scape. Sometimes his paintings repre-

In reality the Burial at Ornans is a sent deep woods, for he was an out-of-
great portrait group, its members indi- doors man. Other landscapes record the
vidualized and characterized. The forms shore around Ornans. The Wave (fig.

on close examination turn out to be 395) glances along the coast at an angle,
simplified in order to bring out what with a dory drawn up on the beach, and
Courbet believed to be essential; the a great comber about to break. The diag-
incidental or accidental is suppressed onal planes pursue each other with fine
despite an informality of pose. Such a consistency, to build up an asymmetrical
procedure prevents loss of monumental- composition whose accidental appear-
ity. The color creates a chord of gray, ance is belied by its underlying struc-
red, and violet against the gray blue of ture. In addition, a perception of the
the sky. The monumental composition forces of nature gives vitality to this

consists of verticals created by the group design. What Courbet does is to take
around the open grave, tied together by the modest accuracy of the Barbizon
the long horizontals of the cliffs and painters, their delight in the intimate
horizon. For emphasis, the one break in aspects of nature, and then to intensify
the cliffs occurs above the center of those aims. He gave to them monumen-
action, where the priest performs his tality, and stormed his way into public
office, and at the only point at which the recognition. The Barbizon school was
verticals carry upward in the crucifix winning its position slowly, but Cour-
outlined against the sky. bet's temperament was forceful and im-
If Courbet could be so matter of fact patient.
 COURBET - MANET 23
5

P^f^PF'-^

-'

>!
l^i^fe :

! v
".'
»J§2: .
:
%. :

395. Gustave Courbet (1819-77) The Wdve (1870) Louvre, Paris, 3'io" x 5'
3
".

Courbet's influence on Edouard Ma- result, not the cause. From this interest
net (1832-83) is profound. Especially in visual reality, it was an inevitable next
at the beginning of the latter's career, step to Impressionism, which became
his studies of form in light and shade more pronounced in Manet's later work.
show the same absorption in reality. The term Impressionism was coined
Manet went to Spain in 1865, but even by a journalist to deride the unconven-
before this he had come into contact work of a group of younger artists.
tional
with a group of Spanish dancers, some The manner of painting this described
of whom posed for him. Moreover, he has several related characteristics. It is

was enthusiastic about Goya and even important to observe that these qual-
more so about Velasquez. The 'men of ities occur in varying degrees in different
1870/ as they were called, admired the artists, and that not all need be found
Spaniards and also Frans Hals because in the painting of any one man for
they found in them the qualities toward him to belong in this group. Many of
which they were themselves working. them are landscape painters, but the
To say that the course of French paint- techniques and approach can be applied
ing was changed by the new familiarity to other fields as well. Beauty exists for
with Velasquez is incorrect; that is the these painters not in any particular sub-
5
24 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

ject, but in light as perceived by the be- know. A ball with some shadow on it we
holder. The subject in terms of form, say looks spherical to us. What we mean
space, and content ceases to be impor- is we know it
that to be spherical,
tant; a railroad station, coal barges, or though we see it as a circle with a pat-
the boulevards of Paris may be as worthy tern of light and shade upon it. What
of the artist's attention as a noble pano- the Impressionists try to do is to record

rama or a bucolic scene. Furthermore, what they see, where other painters
older renderings of landscape, even those alter the visual appearance by what they
of Constable, do not pretend to paint know about the objects. Their unbiased
the equivalent of sunlight. Their can- observation of fact parallels the imper-
vases tend to be dark when hung on a sonal objectivity of the scientist.
light wall. The Impressionists, for the Moreover, they represent in their

first time, take their easels out-of-doors. paintings just as much as the eye can
Other men had sketched from nature, take in at a glance and no more. If we
but the finished paintings had always look at a painting by David, the artist

been studio products; now the artists expects us to let our eyes wander over
complete their works before the scene the canvas, to examine each part of a
itself. This in turn stimulates a close ob- figure separately; we may see the paint-
servation of light and atmosphere. These ing as a whole, but we may also inspect
aspects of nature are anything but con- its details, and to do this the focus of

stant; they change every hour. There- our vision must change. When we look
fore, if the artist is to catch these fleet- at a figure, while our gaze is focused on
ing impressions, some method of quick the head, we are conscious of the cos-
notation has to be adopted, a sort of tume and of certain details, but we do
shorthand brush stroke that will tran- not perceive those details sharply until
scribe light and atmosphere quickly and we turn our eyes from the head to them.
accurately. Finally, the range of color The Impressionist summarizes the
in nature prompts experiments in the scene for us with shorthand brush
application of pigments, called broken strokes and a broad indication of detail.
color. When Velasquez painted Las Meninas
Most of these characteristics result (fig. 294), he suggested the flowers in
from the Impressionist desire to deal the hair of his lady-in-waiting, and ex-
objectively with the facts of vision. Con- pected the observer to be satisfied with
sequently, Impressionism has been de- their general appearance in form and
fined as the cult of the eye. Much was color but did not ask him to examine
said of the innocent eye, that is, of vision them. Seen at close range, those flowers
as nearly as possible divorced from mem- are blurs of pigment. Were this point of
ory. We have become accustomed by view carried to its conclusion, one should
experience since our cradle days to expect a center of interest where the
translate what we see into what we detail is sharp, surrounded by less pre-
 IMPRESSIONISM - MANET 5
25

cise zones, but in an Impressionist can- serves that under these conditions of
vas the painting is considered as a whole, light, the solid form appears to be al-

and the whole may therefore be painted most flat, and paints it that way.
with equal breadth. Taking all these fac- Through the influence of Courbet, Ve-
tors into consideration, Impressionism lasquez, and Hals, he became engrossed
may be described as optical realism car- in the possibilities of the brush and pig-

ried to its logical conclusion. ments. His flowing brush delights in the
Only one of these matters is clear in warm white tones of the flesh, the ivory
Manet's Olympia (fig. 396), namely the of the scarf beneath the figure, and the
respect for appearance under specific bluish white of the linen sheet. The tex-

conditions of light. This painting repre- tures of each part are suggested for their
sents a nude woman lying on a couch, general appearance, not to render each
her black cat at its foot, and her Negro thread in the material. Such clear, fresh,
servant behind, flowers in hand. The dif- and direct painting outraged the Acad-
fused light of the interior falls evenly on emy, partly because it was so close to a
the forms, and visually flattens them sketch.
out. Slight shadows under the breast Ostensibly, this masterpiece dealt
and along the edges of the figure hardly with a theme common in the Salons,

change it from a two-dimensional image the nude female figure. Manet was sur-

to a three-dimensional form. Manet ob- prised and a little hurt that so few peo-

396. Edouard Manet (1832-83) Olympia (1863) Louvre, Paris. 4'$" x 6'f.
526 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

397. Edouard Manet (1832-83) Bar of the Folies Bergere (1882) Courtauld Collection, Lon-
don. 3'i" x 4'3".

pie appreciated the brilliance of the figure some ideal explanation such as
painting. The conservative strictures were Truth or Spring or September Morn,
perhaps prompted by jealousy. How- Olympiad household connotes her pro-
ever, the similarity to the academic nude fession as an artist's model— the servant
ismore superficial than real. In spirit, with a bouquet from some admirer, or
Olympia contrasts at every point with the black cat associated with the sinis-

the vacuity of official art. Where their ter in womanhood. But the cat creates a
figures are soft and idealized, Manet's series of short verticals necessary to stop

is hard and realistic; his study of flesh is the compositional movement of the fig-

firm, while theirs look like skins stuffed ure from escaping at the right. There is

with cotton. Where the academic nude no comparison in strength between the
is no one in particular, Manet's figure Manet and the academic nudes; the
is individualized and recognizable, a por- former has an assurance and a visual in-

trait of a well-known model. While the tegrity which they lack.

academic nude is surrounded by objects Twenty years later, in the Bar of the
or by a setting purporting to give the Folies Bergere (fig. 397), Manet car-
 MANET - MONET 5
2
7

ries further his concern with the sum- course, the favorite entertainments of
mary indication of form. The bottles on the upper middle class, recurred in the
the bar are swept in with bold strokes of paintings of these men.
the brush; Manet deals only with essen- In his later years, Manet was influ-

tials. One might suppose that such op- enced by Claude Monet (1840-1926).
tical realism would approach the photo- Though he painted figures at times,
graphic. Actually, the selectivity of this Monet's primary concern was landscape.
technique, its very indication rather The scientific research of the nineteenth
than definition of detail, leaves a gulf century here impinged upon problems
between this and what we understand as of painting. Such physicists as Chevreul
the photographic. However much Manet and Helmholtz and Professor Rood of
may dwell upon the facts of vision, he Columbia University were experiment-
does not forget for one moment that he ing at this time with the natural laws of
is painting a picture, and is willing to color. They observed that disks, painted
sacrifice even the visually possible to alternately in red and yellow, when re-

better his design. Behind the barmaid, volved appeared to be orange. The orig-

a mirror reflects a throng in the dis- inal colors reflected to the eye in rapid

tance, and near at hand the barmaid succession could no longer be distin-
and her customer of the moment. But guished, but instead the two colors were
no possible arrangement of the mir- added together to produce a third quite
ror could produce these reflections seen different tone. A painter cannot use a
from a position in front of the girl. series of moving disks; but he can ob-
Manet arbitrarily moves his reflections tain a similar result from small touches
to one side for pictorial interest. of different colors placed side by side
The subjects of Impressionism may be on the canvas, since, from a short dis-
unimportant in themselves, but collec- tance, the eye fails to perceive the indi-
tively they suggest the influence of the vidual colors and blends them for itself.
upper middle class in Paris. Manet him- There is reason to believe that such
self was well-to-do, and, to judge by his artists as Claude Monet discovered the
paintings, one would say that urban en- technique of broken color independently
tertainment and a holiday had af-
spirit of the investigations of the physicists.
fected his selection of material. That Broken color permits more vibrancy of
point of view was common to the Im- tone and a greater freshness than can
pressionists. They sought in the coun- be obtained by a mechanical mixture
try what delighted a city dweller on va- of the same pigments upon the palette.
cation, a stream on whose banks one However, this technique entails some
might while away an afternoon, a boat- sacrifice. The beauties of brushwork
ing party, yachting, or fields that prom- must be abandoned, and the surface be-
ised repose. In the city, the theater, the comes rough in appearance. Thick
boulevard, the dance hall, and the race- strokes of pigment may project so far
 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

398. Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) Moulin de la Galette (1876) Louvre, Paris, q'q" x 5*10'

from the surface as to cast their own within which the sea and rocks are seen.
shadows on the painting, and thus make The subject remains important to the
it necessary to regulate the direction of artist only in so far as it provides a back-
light relative to the canvas. ground for his main purpose. As those
Coupled with this new technique, conditions of light change, Monet
which is partly anticipated in the work changes his canvas, painting many ver-
of Constable and Delacroix, is a more or sions of the same scene, each with all

less scientific approach toward the phe- his remarkable accuracy of observation.
nomena of light and atmosphere. Where A contemporary painter said that Monet
Turner had painted atmosphere from was only an eye, and added, but what
the emotional Romantic point of view, an eye! Degas, on looking at an exhibi-
Monet was absorbed in rendering the tion of Monet's paintings, turned up
subtlest changes in weather conditions his coat collar in mute tribute to the
with scientific realism. To that end, he artist's success in rendering the weather.
took to the site half a dozen or more And yet for all their accuracy, Monet's
canvases. Then he begins to paint Etre- landscapes are full of lyrical beauty. A
tat (Plate x, facing p.
557), or more ex- profound love of nature permeates his
actly the light, color, and atmosphere work and transcends its scientific aspect.
 MONET - RENOIR - DEGAS 29
5

The composition is so informal as to sionists but used that technique for its

seem accidental; coupled with the brush- brilliance of tone, in touches of vivid
work, it gives these canvases the casual reds, yellows, violets, and blues. Instead
quality of sketches. His color scheme be- of a two-dimensional image, he stressed
comes lighter in tonality than that of volume more and more as time went on.
any previous school. In many museums, Though and well clothed
simplified in
the visitor may look from a room where flesh, the structure and movement of
older paintings are exhibited into one his figures remain basic. Something of
devoted to the Impressionists and mark Rubens reappears, but bathed in the
this contrast, that where the older land- deep well of Renoir's imagination to
scapes make dark spots against the light emerge more delicate and unmistakably
background of the wall, Impressionist French. Though Renoir must be classed
paintings bring light into their surround- with the Impressionists, more than
ings. Though not necessarily brilliant in most of them he retains elements of the
color, their effect is that of cheerfulness. French tradition that link him in spirit
Not many Impressionists carry their to the great painters of the past, to Dela-
study of light as far as does Monet. croix, to Fragonard, and to Boucher.
Pierre Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) Nor is Edgar Hilaire Germain Degas
paints landscapes in broken color, but (1834-1917) fully in accord with the
he seems less absorbed in the problems new movement. The exquisite drafts-
of atmosphere and light. His primary manship of Ingres, even in its linearism,
concern is more specifi-
with the figure, lies at the basis of Degas' work. A man
cally with Parisian womanhood, the of independent means, Degas painted to
forms well rounded and feminine. The satisfy his own taste, which disdained
Moulin de la Gallette (fig. 398), a gay anything pictorially vulgar, and instead
scene in an open-air dance hall, shows sought the unusual and the dissonant in
a moderate use of broken color for its color and composition. The tones of
own sake. The Impressionist study of some of his ballet scenes, or his bath-
light is prominent as sunlight filters ing women, startle the observer if they
through leafy trees and flecks the blue do not shock him. He may select a
dresses of the ladies, or their features. vivid arsenic green and combine it with
These very French men and women tend touches of brick red and of lavender,
to be flattened out by scattered and dif- colors that ought to clash but that in
fused light as it sifts through the foliage. fact add zest to his paintings. These
As Renoir developed, he studied light dissonant colors seemed perverse dis-

less and buxom form more zealously, as cords to his day, but now our eyes have
in the Seated Bather (fig. 399), one of become accustomed to such effects, as
his many versions of that subject. To our ears have become attuned to the
the end of his long life, Renoir pre- music of Wagner, which sounded dis-
served the broken color of the Impres- cordant to Degas' day.
 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE
53°
'

I
iii l:Ai:,

2*2'
399. Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) Seated Bather (1914) Durand-Ruel Collection. 2'8" x

That zest for the unusual marks both Ballet Dancer on the Stage (fig. 400)

his compositions and his choice of mod- embodies the fleeting beauty of such
els. In feature and in pose, he avoids entertainment too well to be typical.
the pretty and prefers the awkward. The When one examines this composition,
 DEGAS 531

400. Edgar Hilaire Germain Degas (1834-1917) age 1 c. 10

Paris, l'n" x 1*5*.
53 2 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

one realizes that the dancer is far off he may omit part of an object, even
to the right of the picture, and yet the what might be considered the most im-
painting is balanced. We are at first per- portant part, if the remainder provides
plexed at this, until we notice that Degas the shape he needs. The ballet master,
has introduced the dark blur of the as we have observed, produces the dark
ballet master in the wings, just impor- accent needed for asymmetrical balance,
tant enough to re-establish the balance. but his head would add nothing; there-
Such a design builds up from a number fore, Degas allows the scenery to con-
of spots or areas, carefully chosen in ceal it. His painting seizes upon the
size and shape and precisely placed in unexpected, and is, consequently, re-

relation to each other. Almost all West- freshing to the eye.

ern painting has relied upon leading Instead of arranging his subject in
lines or mo\ ements to earn- the eye from normal perspective, he prefers to see it

one point to another, and to tie the from an abnormal point of view. At
forms together in compositional unity. times, he seems to look down upon his

Whether the basis of the design was subject; elsewhere, the figures act upon
geometrical as in the High Renaissance a stage and arc rendered as though per-
paintings of Italy, or informal as among ceived from below. This selection of the
the works of the Dutch masters, some unusual angle of vision admits a new
yisual connection of the parts had been range of pictorial effects, such as are
established. In the art of the Far East, exploited in modern photography. De-
on the other hand, a tendency to build gas has not the popular appeal that has
the design of well-chosen, perfectly ad- made Renoir beloved. He would have
justed accents is traditional. The Ori- avoided such popularity, had it seemed
entals recognize the positiye yalue of imminent, as unworthy of his aristo-

open space and take advantage of it; cratic and esoteric nature. Our taste
they are content to arrange a few flow- grows up to his paintings; we learn to
ers within a rectangle, and rely on their expect the unexpected, and to love the
placement to complete the design (fig. spicy dissonances of his color.

597)- Neither Renoir with his interest in

The generation of the Impressionists form nor, still less, Degas' exquisite
discovered the Japanese print as they draftsmanship and subtle compositions
had discovered Velasquez, because they fit neatly into the pattern of Impression-
were ready for it, and more directly be- ism. It was not long before progressive
cause of an exhibition of Japanese prints painters toward the end of the century
in Paris in the 'sixties. Degas borrows began to contradict the very premises of
none of the superficial motives of Ori- Impressionism. Was the sole purpose of
ental art, but his own compositions be- painting to record the fleeting aspect of
tray its influence, so absorbed as to be- the moment, an ever-changing atmos-
come part of his own style. To that end, phere, or transient, if not accidental,
 DEGAS - SEURAT 533

401. Georges Seurat (1859-91) Sunday on the Grande Jatte (1884-86) Art Institute, Chicago.
6'9" x 10'.

conditions of light and shade? Should larity as each dot, like a piece of con-
not the painter attempt greater perma- fetti, is placed in position, and graded in
nence? Above all, should he not concen- intensity to create space organization in
trate on structure and form rather than depth. Monet's method had none of this
on appearance? Some Post-Impressionist calculated quality, but Seurat carries

painters, at least, began to think so, and the technique even into his picture
among them was Georges Seurat (1859— frames.

91). His painting of Sunday on the Still more significant is the insistence
Grande Jatte (fig. 401) corresponds to on form, so highly simplified as to ap-

Impressionism in subject matter. This proach abstraction. All accidentals of

Parisian resort on a sunny afternoon is shape and costume are swept into the
visited by respectable people with their discard. In their place is an austere pre-
pets, and its waters are alive with pleas- occupation with simplified outline and
ure craft. In technique, also, broken with the geometrical mass it contains.
color persists, but with a basic change. These forms are not chosen as a setting

Seurat's technique, called pointillisme, for light and shade; in so far as the lat-

reduces broken color to a formula, and ter play a part at all, it is to mold
gives it an almost mathematical regu- those forms into solids and to establish
534
THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

successive planes in space. Movement like stained glass, may be called expres-
is abandoned in favor of nearly static sionistic or symbolic. The white-linen
shapes, like the monumental figures of headdresses of the women provide an
Piero della Francesca (fig. 210), as arabesque of flat shapes, each outline
though permanence and solidity were filled with a single tone.
of the greatest artistic value. Their func- But Brittany proved to be only a step-

tion as forms is dual: to state the essen- ping stone in Gauguin's return to the
tial and timeless elements in the objects primitive. A trip to Martinique in the

themselves, conceived with sculptur- West Indies confirmed his bent, and led
esque simplicity, and to assist in con- to longer sojourns in Polynesia. His es-

structing the picture. The apparently ac- cape from civilization becomes com-
cidental arrangements of the Impres- plete in Manao Tupapau (fig. 402). In
sionists give way to a design wherein subject matter he rebels against Impres-
each shape is calculated with regard to sionism, to exploit the exotic because
every other shape in size, in location of its strangeness and mystery. Realism
within the frame, and in color. The de- ceases to be an end. In place of plastic
sign is as carefully constructed as a Pous- solids, Gauguin returns to a two-dimen-
sin, and as formal. sional scheme. Each shape and area is

In spite of Seurat's premature death, outlined and painted with a flat tone of
his work formed one of the pillars of strong color, without modeling. For ex-
modern art. Another was Paul Gauguin pression or for decorative effect, Gau-
(1848-1903), who turned to painting guin is willing to distort the proportions
comparatively late in life after some of his figures, to modify perspective, or
success as a banker in Paris. This son to sacrifice representation for local color.
of a French father and a Peruvian His sonorous tones have often been
mother rebelled against the mores of likened to medieval stained glass; a bet-
his day, both in life and in painting. ter analogy would be late-medieval
Though influenced by the heightened tapestry. Intense as his tones are, their
color of the Impressionists, his instinct prevailing value is not high; their rich-

sought those primitive cultures as yet ness is increased by their depth. Through
but little affected by contact with West- his personal arrangement of these
ern sophistication. In Brittany, the shapes, as in Mahana No Atua (Plate xi,
childlike faith of the peasant women facing p. 588), Gauguin achieves the
prompted such a composition as the fullest decorative expression.
Yellow Christ, where the form of the One debatable question concerning
Crucified is as distorted as the twelfth- Gauguin arises in regard to the extent
and thirteenth-century crucifixes of the and honesty of his return to the primi-
early Italian painters. Gauguin makes no tive as an escape from the oversophisti-
attempt to render Christ realistically; cation of modern life. The linearism of
his version in line and areas of flat color, native arts and their lack of perspective
 SEURAT - GAUGUIN

402. Paul Gauguin 1848-1903) Manao Tupapau (1892) A. Conger Goodyear Collection, New
York. 2 '4" x 3'.

are due partly to their indifference to but he cannot be said to imitate primi-
realism, and partly to their identifica- tive art. For all their unreality, his are

tion of forms and shapes with religious not the forms of Polynesian art. Even
purposes. For a Parisian of the 'nineties, the subjects are often Occidental, and
is there not an element of affectation in merely expressed in terms of native
Gauguin's return to the primitive? Is models. In spite of the apparent simpli-
not Gauguin deliberately sensational? fication, Gauguin's paintings betray a
In his life the answer must be in the sophisticated amalgam of the decorative
affirmative. He craved adulation and and non-representational attitude of
would sacrifice anything, do anything, semi-civilized peoples with the spirit of
to become the lion of the hour. Never- own day.
the Paris of his
theless, so far as his painting goes, the The inspired zealot, Vincent van
affectation is less apparent, if it exists Gogh (1853-90), threw himself with
at all. Gauguin accepts from the primi- uncontrolled energy into every field that
tive whatever suits his pictorial purpose, caught his attention. Like Gauguin,
536 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

Van Gogh did not at once begin to tastes upon prospective purchasers. He
paint. As a clerk in the shop of an art turned thence to religion, and served
dealer, Goupil, he proved unsatisfactory with missionary zeal, first in the degrad-

because of his attempts to force his ing slums of Whitechapel in London,

403. Vincent van Gogh (1853-90) La Berceuse (1889) Art Institute, Chicago. 3' x 2'^".
 VAN GOGH - CEZANNE 53-7

and then among the miners of Le vivid thev mav be. His incandescent en-

Borinage in Belgium. It was typical of ergy activates his Landscape at Auvers

Van Gogh that he should feel it neces- (fig. 404) to such an extent that even in-

sary to live under worse conditions than vitality. The pig-

animate objects acquire
those to whom he would minister. ment was slapped on and around these
When in the last five years of his life he things in streaks, perhaps applied with a
turned his full attention to painting, he brush, but often smeared on with a

threw himself into that pursuit with the palette knife, and, to judge from the
same unnatural energy; he painted furi- intensity of color, he used paints as they
ouslv, as though he had to get these came from their tubes with no mixing
records on canvas before death or in- of tones on his palette. The landscape
sanity interfered. itself has become emotionally excited;
At one time, he came into contact the trees flicker in green flames, the
with Gauguin, who claimed to have in- ground undulates, and the skv and sun
fluenced him. The method of line and are tormented in swirls of line and color.
flat tone that Gauguin uses is approxi- No normal mind could have imagined
mated in La Berceuse (fig. 403), though such an ensemble, but neither could
there is more feeling for mass than in such a mind have achieved the visual
most Gauguins. The color somewhat
is
excitement or the frenzied brilliance of
lighter in value, and much more in-
his paintings.
tense. Above all, Van Gogh, creates a If Gauguin's foremost quality is deco-
fiery and passionate portrait, expressive
rative, and Van Gogh's expressive, Paul
of the subject filtered through the
Cezanne's is structural. At the outset,
screen of his own personality. He is not
Cezanne (1839-1906), who was older
concerned with abstract beauty, but with
than the other two but developed slowly
emphasizing what, to him, is significant
to his maturity, exhibited with the Im-
about his subject. The primarv impor-
pressionists, though he had none of the
tance of woman is her role as mother
fluencv, the virtuosity of brushwork,
of the race; hence, the deliberate en-
that Manet commanded. In fact, Manet
largement of the breasts and hips. The
described Cezanne's early work as 'foul
neck offers few possibilities of expres-
sion, and therefore Van Gogh allows painting.' At that time, he loaded his

the large head to rest directly on the pigment on the canvas in patches. But
shoulders, with a heavy and rather coarse Cezanne, though he admitted the value
indication of the features. The eyes and of some of the Impressionist contribu-

mouth are magnified as centers of ex- tions, such as their feeling for color, re-

pression, but other parts of the face are jected the transient nature of their con-

comparatively neglected. ceptions. His goal, unappreciated in his

Van Gogh does not always paint in lifetime, was to combine their ideas

such an arabesque of tones, however with the firm picture construction he

538 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

404. Vincent van Gogh (1853-90) Landscape at Auvers (1890) Museum, Munich. 3' x 2'^".

noticed in the 'old masters' in the mu- offers the opportunity for prolonged
seums. analysis. Cezanne, like Chardin, con-
A Still Life (Plate xn, facing p. 589) structs the composition in an architec-
 CEZANNE 539

tonic vein. The front of the table par- doubt remains that Cezanne was right
allels the picture plane, the drawer of tomake such modifications.
the table is pulled out to repeat that Mere visual appearance seemed to
plane, the objects on the table recall it Cezanne negligible. However pretty may
again, and in the background a chest be the texture of an apple, or the tem-
of drawers finally stops the series. porary play of light and shade over it,

Horizontal planes separate these verti- such matters are insignificant in com-
cal planes one from another and cre- parison with the fundamental nature of
ate the necessary recession. Such a the fruit and its pictorial possibilities.
system requires the implied perma- Apples in general approach a spherical
nence of geometric forms. The apples shape, though in any individual apple
are in essence spheres; to insist upon accidents may have injured the perfec-
that shape, several concentric strokes of tion of the form. Cezanne disregarded
the brush may repeat its circular silhou- these accidents; he sought its permanent
ette. Conservatives accuse Cezanne of and universal aspects. The creation of
bad drawing, and point to the top of solid form on a two-dimensional surface
the vase in proof. That aperture is, of of panel or canvas had been a common
course, a circle, and everyone knows that aim of Western art from the time of
a circle seen in perspective is an ellipse. Giotto. But Cezanne wanted to encom-
But Cezanne does not draw it so; he pass this form, not so much by model-
squares the circle. The oval shape in ing in light and shade as by means of
itself lacks the architectonic character color. He realized that some colors seem
of the rest of his design. Therefore, to cause surfaces to project, others by
Cezanne modifies that ellipse, flattens comparison to recede; through this vis-

its upper and lower edges, and even ual phenomenon, he could model his
straightens out its sides until it becomes forms solidly by color and establish

a rectangle with rounded corners. It is successive planes by tone. In this at-

absurd to suppose that this can be tempt, Cezanne surveyed a new path.
owing to inability; the veriest tyro can He has often been compared to Giotto,
sketch a better oval than Cezanne has and in this respect with justice; Ce-
painted. We must conclude, then, that zanne is a 'primitive' in the sense that

the artist has done this deliberately, for he has a conception, an aim, a petite

the sake of his composition. Whether sensation as he himself says, to which

the result justifies that modification may the road has not yet been explored. That
be another question; whether the com- Cezanne sometimes failed to reach his
position is improved by it can, dialec- goal is to be expected. He fumbled his

tically at least, be challenged. To most way forward, and often sacrificed to his
people of his day, the shock was too main purpose other matters of less con-
great to be condoned on these or any sequence to him; but in the best of his
other grounds; to most people today, no still lifes, Cezanne succeeded, as Giotto
54o THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

405. Paul Cezanne (1839-1906) Mt. Ste. Victoire (1 1-87) Phillips Memorial Gallery, Wash-
ington. 2' x 2'$".

had succeeded in the Arena Chapel in sites in and around Aix en Provence
Padua. found in Cezanne's paintings. These are
This concentration on structure and more detailed than his canvases, but
modeling in pure color lies at the basis the important point is that every form
of Cezanne's painting and of his impor- in these landscapes existed in the scene
tance in the history of art. The same before him. His method is the same as
approach dominates his landscape paint- in his still lifes; he analyzes the scene
ing. Mt. Ste. Victoire (fig. 405) is typi- before him with the utmost care to ex-
cal. The landscape is analyzed into tract from it those elements susceptible
planes, each with its appointed role in to pictorial and architectonic composi-
the picture. At first, the observer is in- tion, and omits the rest. The branch of
clined to feel that these landscapes can- the pine in the foreground, which re-

not have much contact with reality. peats the profile of the mountain and
But photographs have been made of the the horizon, is a case in point. We have
 CEZANNE 54 1

every reason to believe that such a par- animate nature. An apple will pose mo-
allelism existed, and that Cezanne seized tionless, and will remain so for any
upon it to help unify the design by tying length of time, until he is satisfied with
together the foreground and the back- his painting. So will a landscape. But
ground. As in hisCezanne
still lifes, human beings cannot be static indefi-
prefers the general to the particular; he nitely. Even a quietly posed model must
emphasizes the cylindrical mass of the be permitted to relax and can seldom
tree trunk and the characteristic silhou- return to the identical position. If this
ette of the mountain as essentials of the complicates the artist's problem, the
objects before him. distortion of the figure is even more
IfCezanne applies these principles in difficult for the public to accept than a
stilllife and landscape, it would be corresponding departure from appear-
strange for him to depart from them in ance in landscape or still life. This dis-

figure composition. His problem in deal- tortion Cezanne sometimes results

in

ing with figures is complicated by their from selection and simplification, in

}W"
-a, Wemm . Wm ..*.

406. Paul Cezanne (1839-1906) Bathers (1! 5-1905) Museum of Art, Philadelphia. 6'g"
x 8'i".
54 2
THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

which case, however unnatural in ap- sent perfect pictures. All artists have
pearance, it is not strictly distortion; distorted to a greater or lesser degree,
but elsewhere he alters the size and pro- even the most naturalistic of them.
portions of the parts of the human body. Thus, such a charge leveled at Cezanne
An extreme example of this is the Bath- means nothing.
ers (fig. 406). One of Cezanne's ideals However, the debatable question
was 'to do a Poussin before nature/ arises as to how far the artist ought to
that is, to regain the pictorial structure contradict appearances. Dialectically
of the old master and combine it with speaking, the artist may depart just as
the color of the Impressionists. The far as he sees fit in order to increase his

composition here is geometric. The trees compositional unity, his decorative re-

tip inward to establish an equilateral sult, or his expressive power. If this be

triangle with the group. Its sides are re- true, we may then ask whether the re-
peated in the forms of the nude women. sult in one or more of these directions

Anatomical accuracy is insignificant in justifies the means in any particular

comparison to the requirements of the case. Of course it does, if improvement

pictorial scheme. Moreover, these figures is effected thereby. In El Greco's case,

begin to be analyzed into geometric or in that of many non-realistic painters,
forms, just as in landscape the tree such as Duccio, the expression and the
trunk becomes cylindrical, or in still life decorative brilliance is undoubtedly en-
the apple becomes spherical. But the ge- hanced by their unreality. On the other
ometry of the human figure is complex, hand, many of the greatest painters,
and to reduce the head or the breast to such as Titian, Michelangelo, Rem-
spheres, the arm or the thigh to cylin- brandt, and Rubens, distort only to a
ders, violates the usual notions of the minor extent. Have their works less com-
figure. positional integrity, less expression, or
The charge of distortion, leveled less decorative value than those of more
against Cezanne as though it were a recent artists, who carry distortion to
crime against art, is absurd. Art always such a point that it calls attention to
involves distortion; the range of color itself? Have not the 'old masters' reached
in pigments does not equal that in na- as fine pictorial qualities as the mod-
ture; forms are three dimensional and erns? Indeed, have they not outstripped
the painter must translate them on a the moderns in these very respects by
flat surface, and present them in some so restricting their departure from ap-
pictorial medium. Even more impor- pearances that those departures, by not
tant, the artist is not a divinity who can calling attention to themselves, leave
create nature, or even a human being the observer free to enjoy more impor-
who copies nature. He is first and fore- tant pictorial matters? To these ques-
most creating a picture, and, in spite tions no categorical answer can be given.
of the old cliche, nature does not pre- Conservatives will reply in one way; en-
 CEZANNE 543

407. William Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) Birth of Venus (1879) Luxembourg, Paris.
9'io" x 7'i".
544 THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

thusiastic modernists in another. Prob- has been called the bar-room nude, the
ably no sweeping answer will ever be ideal of high art held by a stockbroker

satisfactory. Each painting must be con- of the black-walnut generation. These

sidered on its own merits. slick, soft, and spineless figures are well
If the choice were confined to Ce- drawn from the academic point of view.
zanne and to the contemporary aca- The linearism of Ingres persists with
demicians, there could be only one in- faint eclectic traces of Botticelli and
telligent selection. Although Cezanne Raphael. By its lights, the painting is

longed to be recognized by the Acad- competent— but its lights are a little

emy, he could not but feel contempt for dim. A less critical and less pictorially

its leaders. His paintings protest against conscious generation, with some literarv

the non-intellectual and non-structural but little artistic background, accepted it

approach of the Impressionists, and the because of its superficiality, its pretti-

vacuities of academicians such as Bou- ness, and its high finish. The more pow-

guereau. Just how static academic paint- erful paintings of Cezanne have none of
ing had become during the nineteenth these qualities. The difference is that Ce-
century, and how much ground it had zanne's paintings are loaded with pic-
lost to progressive art is obvious if we torial consequence, whereas Bougue-
compare characteristic canvases of Ce- reau's have nothing to say. They are

zanne and Bouguereau. The latter's pretty enough, but they are artistically
Birth of Venus (fig. 407) typifies what dumb.
XXV The Art of Primitive Peoples

The primitive peoples of tropical Africa plexity and the facets stressed varied
and the islands of the South Seas de- from place to place. Authority, vested
veloped an extensive art based on aes- in an elder, chief, priest, or selected
thetic principles unlike those of the high council, a role sometimes hereditarily
civilizations of the Western and East- determined, controlled the temporal
ern worlds. This art should not, there- and spiritual aspects of life and main-
fore, be considered comparatively with tained the traditional institutions, cus-
those of the high civilizations, but must toms, and beliefs.
be evaluated independently to be un- Life was largely sustained by the
derstood and must be placed within its farming of community gardens, supple-
own cultural setting. mented in many areas by fishing and
There were evolved over countless hunting; while the domestication of
centuries in these two vast areas many food animals, usually the pig and
small, mostly tribal societies on a non- chicken, was widespread. Ceremonies,
scientific, non-mechanical basis. Each ritual, and taboos were enacted fre-

tribal society was unique in the specific quently to ensure food sufficient to
character of its institutions, although meet the demands of the population
these were often basically similar. A of a village or area, a concern often up-
compact, sometimes complex organiza- permost in the thoughts of these peo-
tion knit closely together the major ple. Cause and effect were, as a rule,

facets of life, religious, social, political, unrelated on a scientific or pragmatic

and economic, but the degree of com- level and various practices were devised

545
 54 6
THE ART OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

to explain the cause of such happenings facts' from the far reaches of Empire
as death. Similarly, the unknown forces were romantically exhibited in special

of the physical and spiritual worlds were pavilions. Frequently included in these

considered the concern of particular exhibitions were art objects collected by

deities or spirits to whom rituals were explorers, missionaries, traders, and gov-
addressed for their control. ernment officials, that often reveal a
Typical of primitive peoples were the knowledge of the aesthetic qualities of

creation of carved, painted, and fabri- this primitive art. These were later, to-

cated art objects, such as masks and ward the end of the nineteenth cen-
figures to be used in the religious and tury, to serve as nuclei for the founding
secular ceremonies relative to so many of great ethnographical museums.
phases of human activity. The art forms, The current widespread interest in

made bv highly trained professional this art had its beginnings in 1904-5
. artists, were of traditionally prescribed when young painters in Paris and
designs, each with its own meaning Munich 'discovered' its aesthetic merits.
when used in the appropriate ceremon- Historically, the 'discovery' could only
ials. To appreciate primitive art fully have been made at a time when young
it is therefore necessary to know why artists had renounced the academic or
certain forms were required for certain Classical-Renaissance scientific render-
ceremonies. It is possible to evaluate ing of reality, a dominant Western tra-

this art, as all art, for its aesthetic char- dition that had become stifling to ar-
acter alone; but that is always only the tistic creativity. They recognized in

empty shell, and to fill it in one must Primitive art, at first particularly in

understand the motivation behind the Negro African sculpture, a vigorous ex-
forms and their content or meaning. pressive statement based on a sensitive
Many areas of primitive Africa and perception of natural forms that was
the South Sea Islands were not known not a copy of nature. This form state-

until the age of Empire building in the ment, rendered in purely creative sculp-
nineteenth century. Initial contacts with tural terms, did not depend upon an
both areas, however, began as early as ideal or accurate mensuration of propor-
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, tions and shapes but, rather, upon a
and a greater knowledge was acquired rhythmical structural interpretation of
during the era of exploration in the the expressive, functional interrelation-
eighteenth century, when some valuable ships of human shapes. At the time, the
descriptions of objects
and ceremonies painters knew little or nothing of the
were recorded, but few examples were content or meaning of this art, nor of
brought back to substantiate these ac- the setting within which it developed;
counts. At the great World Fairs in the but they readily and enthusiastically ac-
latter part of the nineteenth
century cepted it as a further substantiation of
the 'exotic' products, peoples, and 'arti- the aims and experiments of their own
 AFRICA
547
painting. African Negro sculpture was, maintenance of traditional customs, and
therefore, a sustaining and contributing economic balance were all in the hands
factor in the development of modern of the head of a family.
art. Village, tribal, and inter-tribal organi-
The art-producing cultures of Negro zations were comparable to those of the
Africa evolved during many centuries in family, with the head-man, the chief,
a belt extending across West Africa and the king respectively functioning in
south of the Sahara Desert, and across the precise role of the head of a family.
Central Africa from the Atlantic Ocean A considerable number of sculptures
on the west to the Great Lakes on the were therefore required for ritual and
east,and from the Egyptian Sudan in social purposes by all of these larger
the north into Angola and the Rho- groups.
desias in the south. It was the heart of The sculptor throughout a long ap-
'Darkest Africa/ an area vast in extent prenticeship was carefully instructed in
and almost entirely within the tropics. the traditionally established form pat-
Here innumerable large and small Negro terns of his village or group, forms he
tribal groups established an economy could not substantially modify without
based on the small-garden variety of incurring the unmitigated criticism or
agriculture, supplemented by some fish- even wrath of the leader of his village
ing and hunting. Although their cul- or tribe. But this adherence to tradition
tures were varied, many elements were did not impose an insuperable restric-

shared in common; and it is essential to tion on the artist; rather, it freedhim

know these elements in order to under- from the necessity to invent and made
stand the art within its cultural context. it possible for him, if a perceptive and
The family, the basic and smallest sensitive artist, to give to the traditional
unit of African life, served as the model forms an expressive and structural inter-

for all of the larger and more compre- pretation that was truly creative. It is

hensive groupings. It was structured as for this reason that in African Negro art,

a pyramid, with the head of the family as in all art, there are genuine master-
at the apex, his wives and children at pieces, and mediocre and poor works.
a lower level, and the retainers or slaves Specific religious, philosophical, and
serving as the base. As head of the fam- social concepts served as the motivation
ily, a man was in absolute control of for the greater part of this art. The belief
the religious, social, and economic as- that ancestors when ritually appealed to
pects of family life. Revered ancestors would intercede in behalf of their de-

and spirits or deities were worshiped scendants was universal, and figures and
within the privacy of the group, and to masks were carved as residing places or

consummate these rites figures and as temporary abodes for the ancestor
other ritual carvings were often required spirit so that it could be petitioned di-

from the sculptor. Social stability, the rectly. Ancestor sculptures were generic
548 THE ART OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

not individualized representations; thus inanimate objects. It is substantially a

they largely functioned symbolically. In life essence, and is both actively and
some areas of Negro Africa, where a potentially dynamic. This power perme-
pantheon of gods had control of all hu- ates all matter and may be construed as
man activities, figures or masks some- serving as liaison between the super-
times denoted the deities, since it was natural or spirit and the natural worlds.
believed that when properly requested, Some of it can, by formulas and pre-
their spirits would enter the carvings scribed and secret procedures, be local-

and could thus be conveniently and ized in various objects, including carv-
satisfactorily evoked. Thus, these sculp- ings, and when certain rituals are per-

tures, too, were largely symbolic spirit formed can be marshaled in the cause of
containers, although in some instances mankind. Sculptured figures and masks,
iconographic details identified the god. both sometimes called 'fetishes,' amu-
Throughout the greater part of Africa lets, and charms, are tangible agencies
the secret society existed as an impor- through which this power or force is

tant and often dominant institution. manifested and manipulated. When

The secret society may be defined as a evoked properly, it is believed that the
group of men and sometimes of women power in these sculptures will cure the
who banded together to perform pre- ill and protect against both known and
scribed ceremonies more or less in secret unknown dangers. To a large extent
for the purpose of achieving a desired this category of beliefs embraces all of
end. The society might have religious, those loosely designated as magical.
social, economic, or political signifi- Ceremonial objects, needed in prac-
cance; but in many areas it existed tically all rituals, were usually given ar-

largely for the purpose of initiating ado- tistic treatment; while articles of every-
lescent youth into the traditional be- day utility, such as drinking cups and
liefs and customs of the tribe preparatory stools, were often enriched with deco-
to acceptance as adults within the group. rative carvings that served no other pur-
Secret society rites, it was believed, were pose.
celebrated under the aegis of ancestor, Sculpture is the principal art of Negro
mythological, or deity spirits, and since Africa. Whether figures, masks, cere-

their presence was essential to the per- monial or utilitarian objects, the sculp-

formance of the ceremonies, they were tures were usually carved in wood, oc-
usually represented or symbolized by casionally in ivory, or cast in bronze or
figures or masks. These societies were brass, and at times were decorated with
therefore important patrons of the artist, paint, shells, beads, or fibre. This sculp-
In certain regions of Africa a funda- ture, often small, sometimes sizable,

mental and basically religious concept conveyed ideas and a significance of

postulates the active presence of an am- forms and designs that were largely un-
bient force or power in all animate and derstood by the people of a village or
 AFRICA 549

tribe as a whole. The art was therefore

to a remarkable degree a familiar ad-
junct to life.

While 2 considerable number of styles

can be characterized in this art, the
basic forms are in every instance de-
rived from nature, whether human, as is

usually the case, or animal beings. Each

tribe and often each village had by vir-

tue of its cultural heritage its own style,

although neighboring tribes may show

in their art a shared tradition. On the
basis of broad stylistic similarities, it is

possible to characterize five major divi-

sions or areas of African art: the Sudan,
the Guinea Coast, Nigeria, and the
Cameroons, all in West Africa; and
Central Africa to the south.
The Sudan peoples, living between
the Sahara and the tropical rain-forest
to the south, created a sculpture marked
by a formalistic, almost mathematical
character, in which human and animal
subjects were given an abstract and at
times geometrical interpretation (fig.

408). Emphasis is upon a Gothic-like

verticality and hieratic expressiveness.
Both human figures and animal masks
are used in Sudan religious rites asso-

ciated with ancestor-protective or ani-

mal-fertility concepts. Black is in many
examples the only color found in this

strongly sculptural art.

The Guinea Coast, extending around
the southern part of West Africa, sup-
ported numerous tribes and tribal

groups. The art here is strongly inter-

pretive of natural forms, but an element
of abstraction in certain shapes sug- 408. Figure, Dogon, West Africa (19th cent.)
The University Museum, University of Penn-
gests influence from the Sudan. The sylvania, Philadelphia. Wood, 23" high.
550 THE ART OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

ticulated; while identifying details, such

as hairdresses and scarification marks,

are emphasized to denote specific an-
cestors or deities. Among the Ashanti
peoples of the Gold Coast (Ghana),
small cast bronze forms used for weigh-
ing gold dust were modeled in an im-
pressionistic manner, the subject matter
often being of a purely genre origin.
In Nigeria, particularly among the
Yoruba tribes, forms, often moderately

West Africa (19th cent.)

409. Figure, Baoule,
Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. Wood,
18VV high.

Baoule tribes of the Ivory Coast carved

masks and figures with a balanced and
controlled reality in the creative han-
dling of human form, achieving a style
characterized by the elegant and pre-
cise rendering of surface planes and de-
tails (fig. 409). In this style component 410. Figure, Yoruba, West Africa (19th cent.)
shapes are sculpturally defined and ar- British Museum, London. Wood, 14V2" high.
 AFRICA 551
small but of monumental scale, are
sculptured in a vigorous naturalistic
style (fig. 410), stressing volume and
roundness of shapes; and although sub-
ject matter and detail interpret life pro-
totypes, they are conveyed within the
non-representational sculptural idiom
traditional to the area. A heaviness of
form, with a profusion of descriptive de-
tail, characterizes the famous Benin
bronzes; while the wood carvings of the
Ibo and Ibibio tribes in southeastern

412. Mask, Cameroons, West Africa ( 19th

cent.) Linden Museum, Stuttgart. Wood, 20"
high.

Nigeria (fig. 411) evidence a consider-

able variety of designs, notable for their
intense dramatic expressiveness.
The art of the Cameroons combines
the naturalistic vigor of Yoruba sculp-
ture with the dramatic intensity of that
of southeast Nigeria (figs. 412, 413).
Forms, composed of expanding volumes,
are often rhythmically arranged around
a vertical axis to describe a dancing or
moving figure. On numerous examples
the sculptor's tool marks remain to give
the surfaces a rough, textural finish and
to contribute to the vitality in the reali-
zation of form.
Many strong and unique tribal styles
developed in the extensive area of Cen-
411. Mask, Ibo, West Africa (19th cent.) tral Africa; but certain elements may be
Museum of Primitive Art, New York. Wood,
i7 3/4" high. singled out as distinctive of the sculp-
55 2
THE ART OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

The varied traditional style patterns

in African sculpture were maintained
by a strong conservatism common to all

aspects of tribal culture. On the basis of

our present knowledge, it is impossible
to determine why in certain areas shapes

were compressed to emphasize the ver-

tically of the human form, and why in

other regions they were expanded to ex-

press the bulk and volume of various
shapes; or why in some styles an angu-
laritv of outline is stressed, and in others

413. Mask, Cameroons, West Africa ( 19th

cent.) Linden Museum, Stuttgart. Wood, c.
22" high.

ture of the entire region. With the ex-

ception of the abstract brass and copper
covered figures of the Bakota peoples in
Gabun (fig. 414), the conspicuous ex-
pressive elements in this art are derived
from a bold stylization of selective hu-
man shapes and descriptive details (fig.

415). While this often appears in the

rendering of the enlarged head and facial
features, it is also frequently found in
the pose, proportions, and inter-relation-
ships of body forms (fig. 416). In many
of these styles, figures and especially
polychromed masks are given a dramatic
and sometimes fantastic appearance
(Plate xiii, facing p. 620), which, al-

though it may permeate the work as a

whole, is often concentrated in the head
414. Metal-Covered Figure, Bakota, Gabun,
or in certain of the facial features. Central Africa (19th cent.) c. 22" high.
 AFRICA 553
a fluidity of curving lines and surfaces.
The so-called 'distortions' in African art

are established by local traditional style

patterns; but to view them as distortions

is to deny the fundamental Negro con-

cept of art: for the African sculptor the .
proportioning and shaping of figures and
masks do not follow mathematically or

416. Figure, Western Congo, Central Africa

(19th cent.) The Brooklyn Museum. Wood,
io 3/4" high.

visually mensurated calculations; rather,

they evolved from the intention to cre-
ate sculptural forms expressive of the
active force or growth of natural forms.
The functional character of the human
body is in almost every style stressed,
such as the short, heavy legs as supports,

and the enlarged head as the major

415. Figure, Fang, Gabun, Central Africa center of expression. Selective details, as
(19th cent.) Museum of Primitive Art, New
York. Wood, 22" high.
scarification marks and hairdresses, are
554
THE ART OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

emphasized as identifying village or ments contributory to the motivation,

tribal characteristics. Since the artist character, and content of the art. But a
worked without benefit of any model or few elements are basic to the area as a

example before him, Negro sculpture whole. Life is largely sustained by agri-

may be typified as a conceptual and culture and fishing; east of Indonesia

creative synthesis of life forms. metal was unknown before European
contact, and both tools and weapons
The primitive peoples of the South were made of a variety of stone, shell,

Pacific inhabit some thirty thousand and fish or rats' teeth. In most of the
islands and the sub-continent of Aus- islands art occupied as important a place

tralia. Within this enormous area an in the lives of the people as it did
almost limitless variety of art forms de- among the Negroes of Africa. Although
veloped as a concomitant part of the preponderantly sculpture, it also in-

many amazingly varied and rich cul- cluded architecture, painting, and many
tures. By comparison, the art and cul- of the so-called minor arts and crafts.

tures of Africa are relatively homogene- The Oceanic artist, a trained crafts-

ous, and those of the South Pacific man esteemed for his skill, utilized a

islands greatly diversified. wide variety of materials. At times he

The vast Oceanic world may be di- combined these materials in various
vided into five large areas: from west to ways, to represent as preferred subject
east, Indonesia, Melanesia, and Poly- matter the human figure or aspects of

nesia, with Australia south and Micro- it, such as the head or face. While all

nesia north of Melanesia. Although forms were rendered independently of a

these lie with few exceptions within the visual model, few western Pacific sculp-
them differs considerably,
tropics, life in tures are expressive of physically experi-
depending upon the natural resources enced reality; instead, they usually de-
at hand. The people themselves repre- note the appearance, idea, or symbol of
sent three of the major groups of man: an unseen supernatural spirit. They are
Caucasoid or white, Negroid or black, therefore supercharged with an emo-
and Mongoloid or yellow. In many tional content. Animal forms, including
areas these groups have to some extent birds, fish, crocodiles, snakes, and the
intermingled; but Micronesia and Indo- pig, provided the artist with additional
nesia are largely Mongoloid; Melanesia, subjects, while floral motives were used
Negroid; Australia, a specialized dark- largely in Indonesia. Geometric designs
skinned Caucasoid people; and Poly- appear frequently as an enrichment of
nesia, a substantially Caucasoid stock surfaces or with symbolic meaning.
with various admixtures. The region is The peopling of this vast island world
therefore ethnically heterogeneous. and the establishing of its cultural roots
It is not possible to single out, as it were the consequence of waves of migra-
was in Africa, the common cultural ele- tions from west to east extending over
 MELANESIA 555

thousands of years. This is evident from New Hebrides groups. Melanesian art

the similarity of physical types and styles are as varied as its islands and
many cultural elements with those of cultures are numerous. Cultural diver-
the Indonesia islands of Southeast Asia, sity resulted from the isolation of the
where the five basic types of design, groups who originally migrated into
fundamental to all Oceanic art styles, these islands, an isolation sometimes
almost certainly had their origin. imposed by physical barriers, such as
Sculptured, painted, and fabricated expanses of open sea or lofty mountain
forms from Melanesia and Polynesia ranges, and sometimes self-imposed for

best represent the art of the South Pa- protective reasons. Such elements as
cific peoples. In both areas the five basic inter-tribal or inter-island warfare, head-
types of design are interpreted in a va- hunting, cannibalism, and language dif-

riety of ways to convey subject matter ferences tended to isolate further one
in conformity with the style traditional area or even one village from another.
to a village or tribe. These design types In Melanesia active volcanoes, fre-

are: a three-dimensional sculptural state- quent hurricanes, and tidal waves give
ment stressing planes and volumes; a the islands a quality of violence that is

polychrome painting of surfaces or de- often reflected in their cultures, and

tails to represent ideas and relationships thus in their art. Religious beliefs in
other than those of the carved forms; many islands center in supernatural
a compositional arrangement of several spirits, frequently of fearsome character,
figures oriented either vertically or hori- in mythological beings, the power of an-
zontally; a two-dimensional incised or cestors, and in magical practices. Char-
low-relief carving or painting on a flat acteristically, spectacular dramatic cere-
surface; and an aerial design with forms, monies, lasting for days or months or
often pierced, having an existence and even years, are enacted as part of the

sometimes movement in light and space. communal religious and social life. In

Although these designs are the common some areas secret societies build large
denominators of Oceanic art, they are men's clubhouses within which sacred
very diverse in appearance, since they objects are seen and rites performed only
are always rendered within the style by members. Throughout Melanesia an
traditional to a particular region. abundance of art is required for use in
The Melanesian ('black') islands, so almost all religious and secular cere-

named because of their Negroid inhabi- monies.

tants, extend for almost three thousand Of the many varied art styles devel-
miles into the southwestern Pacific. The oped on the island of New Guinea that
area contains both large and small of the Sepik River area, in the north-
islands, including New Guinea, over central part, is one of the most astound-
thirteen hundred miles long, New Brit- ing in the entire primitive world. Al-
ain, New Ireland, and the Solomon and though the polychrome tradition domi-
556 THE ART OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

expressive elements of masks and fig-

ures, producing an intense, startling,

and emotionally charged effect (fig.

417). Fantastic creative shapes and pro-

portions are freely employed, while
elaborate symbolic and decorative de-
signs are often painted on carved fig-

ures, masks, drums, sacred flutes, and

many other ceremonial objects as cir-

cular patches or sinuous curvilinear sur-

face patterns. Whether simple or com-
plex, the rhythmic interplay or the op-
position of curved surfaces and flowing
lines in Sepik River art excites the eye
and stimulates the imagination, an ef-

fect furthered by the use of light and

evanescent colors, or stolid and heavy
ones.
In many parts of the primitive world
a parchment-like cloth was made by
soaking and pounding the thin inner
bark of certain trees. The Polynesian
word for this fabric cloth is tapa. In
Melanesia bark-cloth was used as cloth-
ing and in New Britain and elsewhere
as a covering for palmwood frames in

the fabrication of masks. Vividly painted

green, red, yellow, black, and white,
New Britain masks (fig. 418) represent
417. Mask, Sepik River, New Guinea ( lgth- supernatural spirits of the jungle and
20th cent.) American Museum of Natural were often worn in brutal initiation
History, New York. Wood, 22" high.
ceremonies. They are generally based on
nates, all of the basic design types are conical, columnar, or circular geometric
represented in this art. The strongest of shapes on the surface of which are
the many motivations were derived from painted fantastic, quasi-human facial

the socio-religious ceremonies and those features in bold two-dimensional de-

of the men's societies, with supernatural, signs of concentric circles and curving
legendary, and ancestor spirits providing lines.

the subject matter. Large eyes, accentu- The particular character of New Ire-

ated by concentric circles, serve as focal land art derives from a combination of
 MELANESIA 557

418. Mask, New Britain (19th cent.) The 419. Superposed Figures, New Ireland (19th
Denver Art Museum. Palmwood frame, pith cent.) Private Collection, New York. Wood,
covering, 42" high. 66" high.
553 THE ART OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

style is the visual dissolution of sculp-

tured forms achieved by painting their
surfaces in small repeat linear designs
in red, white, and black.
The strong purely sculptural style

evolved in the Solomon Islands is best

represented by modest-size but large-
scale carvings mounted just above the
water-line on the prows of head-hunting
canoes (fig. 420). Heavy volumes de-
scribed by contrasting rounded and flat-

tened surfaces dramatically combine

with large and intense facial features,
particularly the eyes and mouth. Also
characteristic of Solomon Islands art
is the use of a fine and delicate mother-
of-pearl shell inlay to define such details
as the eyes, eyebrows, and the lines of

the jaws. The iridescent shell designs

stress the bold monochrome black sur-
face planes of these aggressive heads
representative of powerful protective
spirits essential to success on such highly
dangerous excursions as head-hunting.
Ancestor figures and masks, and vari-

.420. Canoe-prow Figure, Solomon Islands ous ceremonial objects, richly poly-
(19th cent.) Museum fur Volkerkunde, Ham-
chromed in brilliant earth pigments, are
burg. Wood, shell inlay, Wi" high.
typical of sculpture in the New Heb-
polychromed forms with pierced aerial rides Islands (Plate xm, facing p. 620).
forms (fig. 419). A variety of masks, They are used to represent the alert
single figures, columnar carvings of su- and dynamic guardianship of the an-
perposed forms, and other objects were cestors in the numerous religious and
made anew for use in lengthy mortuary secular graded societies so dominant in
ceremonies performed periodically to New Hebrides life. This was achieved
honor the recent dead and the mytho- symbolically in the sculptures by huge,
logical and legendary ancestors. It is a long oval heads and enormous circular
complex and spectacular art consisting eyes, both intensified by vivid colors. In
of fantastic human and animal forms many respects, New Hebrides art is the
composed to produce an intense, fierce climax of the spectacular so prominent
appearance. A unique feature of the in the art of Melanesia.
 MELANESIA - POLYNESIA 559

To the east of Melanesia the less cestor being worshiped and revered as

numerous Polynesian islands are spaced a 'deity/ Even the esteemed gods of
over an immense area of the central and various crafts were usually deified early
south Pacific. It is believed that the in- craftsmen. Society was stratified accord-
habitants of these islands migrated from ing to seniority of birth, the highest
the west into the central Pacific, pos- rank claimed by those who could trace
sibly about the beginning of the Chris- descent back through a line of first-born
tian era. Later, perhaps in the 10th and to an early ancestor. Such a system of
i4th-i5th centuries, the more remote rank had therefore religious sanction;
islands of Hawaii, Marquesas, New
Zealand, and Easter Island were colo-
nized. The Polynesian groups are linguis-
tically and culturally related to one
another and to Southeast Asia. Since
they are therefore a fairly homogeneous
people, it is possible to characterize the
basic beliefs and practices they shared
in common. After the period of coloni-
zation, however, cultural variations, par-
ticularly in the art styles, developed
among the widely separated groups.
Polynesian art, too, consists largely of

sculpture in wood, while in some areas

stone, bone, and whale ivory were used.
Bark-cloth or tapa was a major art, often
richly decorated with stamped or free-

hand painted geometric designs in vari-

ous colors. On some islands a cloak,

cape, or helmet was decorated with

feathers attached to a net or basketry
background. With the exception of its

use on tapa, color was a minor element

in this area.
Form in Polynesian sculpture was
clearly derived from physically experi-

enced natural form, and the motivations

back of it stemmed from the importance
of rank and ancestry, often traced back
through long remembered genealogies 421. Fly-whisk Handle, Tahiti (19th cent.)
Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. Wood,
to legendary times, the legendary an- -jVi" high.
560 THE ART OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

mana; while the presence and potency

of it was revealed by the skill and suc-

cess of a man, weapon, or tool. Since

persons and objects of great mana were
dangerous to those with less, taboos
were established to protect against con-
tact; and to break a taboo was fatal, as

persons with great mana could lose a

bit by meeting those with less.

Specialization was as marked a fea-

ture of Polynesian culture as was rank.
All activities were under the control of
specialists instructed in the appropriate

knowledge and skills through long ap-

prenticeship, such as all artists, canoe
makers, tattooers, priests, and so forth.
Persons of rank in Tahiti used fly-

whisks as functional and prestige ob-

jects. The handles of these fly-whisks are
often carved with the highly conven-
tionalized human figure type found in

central Polynesian art (fig. 421). The

Hawaii 19th small seated figures are rendered in a
422. Figure, (late i8th-early
cent.) Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 43V2" high. few sharply separated geometric forms,
the body parts sharp and stocky, and
and the dominant and all-important the heads long spherical triangles with
feature of life may be considered a protruding 'bug-like' eyes. No color sup-
tightly ingrown ancestor worship. plements the sculptural statement of
Fundamental to an understanding of alertness and tension.
the culture and art of Polynesia were In Hawaii a strong sculpture style

the concepts of mana and its corollary appears in both the very large and small
taboo. These were as culturally perva- carved wooden figures depicting the
sive as ancestor worship with which great public gods, who controlled such
they were closely associated and sup- activities as war and agriculture, and
ported. Mana was the thought that a the innumerable small household deities
portion of an ambient universal power (fig. 422). Hawaiian sculpture expresses
was contained in varying degrees in all bulk, volume, aggression, and defiance.
animate and inanimate objects. A per- The actively posed heavy forms are com-
son of high birth, for example, had be- pletely set in space, a quality furthered
cause of his rank a great deal of potent by the contained and negative spaces
 POLYNESIA 56:

423. Relief, House Panel, Maori, New Zealand (1842-43) Dominion Museum, Wellington,
New Zealand. Wood, 6'6" high.

between the separate parts of the forms. that was reserved for the bright red, yel-
Sharp angles and planes contrast with low, and black feather-work and the dec-
flowing curved surfaces and outlines to oration of the very fine tapa produced
create a tension of pose and an organic on these islands.
unity of form; while the enlarged heads The Polynesian tribes of New Zea-
and the aggressive expression of facial land are known as the Maori. Their art
features are correlated with the almost is elaborate and complex, the primary
universal Polynesian concept of vigor forces behind it being closely related to
and defiance as narcissistic qualities of the war-like proclivities of the people
both their ancestors and deities. No and to the importance of rank and an-
color appears in Hawaiian sculpture; cestry. Sculptural decorations in the
5 6z
THE ART OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

round and in relief for special houses

and canoes and on weapons symbolize

legendary and recent ancestors. Figures
are large headed, heavily proportioned,
and with an aggressive, almost menacing
expression, the tongue often protruding
from a snarling figure-eight mouth (fig.

423). In the majority of Maori sculp-

tures, the forms are usually given a rich

over-all surface design, most frequently

425. Wooden Ancestor Figure, Easter Island

(late i8th-early 19th cent.) c. 16" high.

composed of geometric curvilinear ele-

ments and painted a monochrome red
or black. It is a technically accomplished
art and is lavish in the intricacy of its

design elements.
On the Marquesas Islands the human
figure was interpreted in heavy, com-
pact, full-volumed forms carved in vol-
canic stone or wood and ranging from a
few inches to 10 feet high. Whether
large or small, the figures are massive
in scale, with large heads set on a very
424. Stone Figure, Marquesas (early 19th short neck to overhang the body below.
cent.) The University Museum, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 8" high. Facial features, delineated in very low
 POLYNESIA
5%
relief, consist of large oval or round ures, while a further descriptive note is

eyes, wide nostrils, and a wide narrow often added by inlaying the eyes with
oval mouth (fig. 424). Sculptured hu- obsidian set in a ring of fish bone.
man figures were used as symbols in an- Oceanic and African art consisted pre-
cestor rites, as implements in the prac- dominantly of wood sculpture, although
tice of sorcery, and as decorations— in Oceania painting and impressive
when the body shapes are covered with decorated architecture were produced.
wide parallel grooves arranged vertically, In Polynesia and in Africa sculpture
diagonally, or horizontally. Although was usually given a monochrome color-
Marquesan art has a static, convention- ation and depended largely for its aes-
alized quality, a significant tension is thetic effects upon the inter-relation-
conveyed through the interaction of ships of plastic forms and details; but in
tightly compressed large and various Melanesia prescribed color and an array
shaped forms. of various materials, such as shells,

Easter Island art also included forms feathers, seeds, and grasses, had to be
sculptured in volcanic stone and wood. added to the carving to achieve full con-

The stone carvings represent large half- tent-meaning and artistic expression.

figures and brooding heads, some of To be more fully appreciated, this art

them 20 feet high, apparently made to must not only be understood within its
commemorate an ancestor, the forms cultural context, but must also be visu-

defined by a few simple shapes and alized in bright tropical sunshine or in

planes arranged to emphasize depth. the flickering firelight at nocturnal cere-

The smaller wood carvings depict emaci- monies, when changing patterns of
ated and skeletalized male and female strong light and deep shadows gave it

figures (fig. 425), and grotesque com- an aliveness and a further dramatic in-

binations of human, bird, and lizard tensity. Although the aesthetic impact
forms. A careful and precise technique of primitive art is direct and immediate,
is employed to give descriptive detail it must be seen again and again for a
and smooth and polished surfaces to comprehension of its stature as one of

these ancestor and fantastic hybrid fig- the significant arts of man.
XXVI The Growth of American Art

If American art through the Federal revolt against Turkey, a sentiment also
period was provincial English art, its felt by liberal thinkers of Western Eu-
subsequent growth also has often been rope, but the keener in this country be-
influenced by European civilization. cause the United States was a young re-

Each major movement on the other public and to some degree considered
side of the Atlantic has found its echo the ancient Greek republics as its pro-
on this side, though the source is no totypes. One can trace the settlement
longer predominantly English. However,
7
of the country from 1800 to 1850 by the
the inspiration is not always foreign. classical place names. Athens, Ithaca,
At times, a local spirit wells up to hide Sparta, Ypsilanti, and hundreds of other
the imported factors. These local de- frontier or near frontier towns thus sig-

velopments can be called American in nified their admiration for the Greeks.
the fullest sense of the word, but it The contrast between such settlements
does not follow that the derivative art and Periclean Athens might be star-

is un-American. The art of our civiliza- tling, but who could tell how these rude
tion has been neither more nor less in- villages might grow? Classical allusions
digenous than our culture as a whole. and quotations stud the political ora-
Neoclassicism, and especially the tions of the time, and the almost exclu-
Greek revival, took firm root in this sively classical curricula of the colleges
country. The latter movement, extend- point in the same direction. Both in date
ing in America from 1825 to 1850, ac- and in spirit, the development links
companied our sympathy for the Greek with the rise and power of Jacksonian

564
 GREEK REVIVAL 565

426. Thomas U. Walter (1804-88) Andalusia, Pa. (1836).

democracy. The older styles of architec- requirements of a house into the form
ture and painting of English origin were of a Greek temple. The very perfection
tinged with aristocracy; the Greek was of that form for its original purpose im-
believed to be democratic in back- plies its imperfection for other purposes.
ground. The windows, especially those on the
Andalusia (fig. 426), on the banks of second floor, lose much of their effec-
the Delaware in Bucks County, Penn- tiveness when thus hidden under the
sylvania, was the estate of Nicholas Bid- portico. Through the influence of car-
die, the first American to travel in penters' handbooks, detail was simpli-
Greece. Under his instructions, Thomas fied. Greek architecture had been
U. Walter, later to become famous for adapted to stone; its members were,
his completion of the United States therefore, bold. In order to translate
Capitol in Washington, in 1836 dressed these forms into wood, the exquisite
one wing projecting toward the river in Federal detail yielded to simplification.
a Greek Doric portico, with a full en- During the early part of the Greek re-

tablature and pediment, derived in vival, craftsmanship remained at a high

proportions from the Parthenon. Tall level. Nevertheless, the demands for
windows testify to the increased story simplicity made upon the woodworkers,
heights. The walls become simple planes and the pressure upon them to give to
with plaster or smooth boarding; such theirwork not the forms appropriate to
un-Greek devices as shingles or clap- wood, but those suited to stone, helped
boards are avoided in the purest exam- to undermine the native traditions in the
The portico is designed for effect.
ples. former material.
Some sacrifice must be made to force the But even if these charges are just,
5
66 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

much may be said in praise of the Greek attempts to be, the more indigenous the
revival. Great mansions like Andalusia style becomes.
undoubtedly do what they set out to do; The same can be said of sculpture.
thev are imposing, even magnificent Ships' figureheads and local crafts are
in their way. We sing of our 'templed purely native, but formal sculptors imi-
hills/ and the phrase is no empty figure tated their European colleagues and
of speech, as witness the Lee Mansion went to Italy, where the techniques of
in Arlington, across the river from sculpture still lived. Horatio Greenough
Washington. Andalusia is stately with (1805-52) of Boston was commissioned
lawns that slope down to the river bank; to create a monumental statue of Wash-
the Lee Mansion crowns the hill it is ington, intended to be displayed under
built on. Nor do most of these houses the dome of the Capitol. When the
slavishly follow the temple form. Both statue arrived in Washington, it proved
these examples have wings that break to be too large to pass through the Cap-
the usual lines of the temple. These ex- itol doors; they had to be enlarged to
tensions are not emphasized from the admit the figure. Then it became clear
front; they may even be concealed, but that its weight endangered the floor, and
they add to the commodity and flexi-
it was moved outside the building, where
bility of the house.
it sat for many years facing the east
Still more important, the bulk of the
front of the Capitol. Finally, in 1908, it
work in this period is less archaeolog-
was transferred to the Smithsonian In-
ical than these famous houses. The best
stitution to protect it from further
architects and the builders throughout
weathering. So large a figure needs room
the country adapted the stvle to local
around it. In its present cramped quar-
conditions and problems, except when
ters, it looks as out of scale as a giant
forced to do otherwise by the client.
in a baby carriage. The statue (fig. 427)
They retained its simplicity, its repose,
is pompous to the point of absurdity.
its dignity, but they so far modified its
The idea of Washington, that Virginia
vocabulary as to make it American
gentleman, tricked out as an Olympian
Greek. In time, this simplified version
came Zeus seems incongruous to the present-
very close indeed to becoming a
vernacular. A Phidias or an Ictinus
dav generation, and did to some men
might no longer recognize it; it might even in Greenough's time. The trite

be naive, even provincial, but these man- gesture accords with the fulsome ora-

ifestations of the Greek manner, still ex- tions of the time. Nevertheless, it is

tant in every village from Maine to Flor- only fair to remember that the dry ex-

ida and west to the Mississippi, have a ecution and the dull over-generalization
better claim to being American than of the form are defects of the day and
much that we have built since that time. are not peculiar to Greenough. He is no
Generally speaking, the less elaborate it rival of Canova, but he is no worse than
 GREEK REVIVAL - NEOCLASSIC SCULPTURE 567

exhibition of casts of Greek sculpture,

as to a Sola Porno graphica. The Greek
Slave is a better than average version of
the figure sculpture of its generation,
graceful in pose and slick in surface, but
lifeless. It owes its fame more to its sub-
ject than to its quality.
During this period, painting concen-
trated on portraits by late followers of
the school of Benjamin West. These
continued to respect the Federal tra-

ditions, which faded away as the influ-

ence of the cultivated class waned. Lit-

tle true Neoclassic painting was done,

427. Horatio Greenough (1805-52) Washing-
ton (1832-42) Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington. 11 '4" high.
most sculptors of European Neoclassi-
save perhaps for the heavy pomposities
of Washington Allston. This worthy
gentleman had unbounded enthusiasm
for Michelangelo,whence came the
grandiose scale of his canvases and the
bulk of his characters; but most of his
paintings were as drab in color and as
dull in execution as the mediocre work

cism. of David's followers in France.

Nor was the academic admiration for The foundation of the National Acad-
the figure without its exponent among emy of the Arts of Design in 1826, with
American sculptors. Hiram Powers won the first important attempt to write the
notoriety by his statue of the Greek annals of American art, namely the
Slave. It says much about America in History of the Rise and Progress of the
the 1830^ that before the statue was Arts of Design in the United States, by
exhibited, a committee of clergymen in William Dunlap, published in 1834, and
Cincinnati visited it to pass on its pos- countless articles in magazines testify

sible on public morals. (Purity

effect to the enthusiasm for the arts in eastern

Leagues and Watch and Ward Socie- centers. Nevertheless, the spirit of the

ties are not twentieth-century inventions country, thanks to the influence of the
in America.) The gentlemen concluded frontier, was hostile to painting. Art
that since her hands were chained, her was a useless occupation in a frontier

undraped condition was beyond her con- community, and therefore pressure de-
trol, and she would not endanger pub- veloped during the expansion of the
lic virtue. In another case, men and country to divert men from it to prac-
women were admitted separately to an tical activities, such as mechanical in-
 68 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART
5

vention. Robert Fulton is known to all admirable. At only one point does
every school child in America, however the church contradict the spirit of its

wrongly, as the inventor of the steam- style: the vaulted roof is not built in
boat; Samuel F. B. Morse as the in- the stone its forms postulate. Evidence
ventor of the telegraph; but few realize exists, however, to show that the archi-
that both men had been successful tect would have preferred a structural

painters before their energy was di- wooden trussed roof; this was supplanted
verted to channels congenial to the by the sham vaults because of pressure
tastes, and perhaps to the needs, of their from the building committee. Elsewhere
day. the church respects its material.
At least by the 'forties, the universality Not many other buildings of the
of the Greek revival was challenged by Gothic revival in America reach the
the Gothic revival, which had left some point of monumentality achieved in

examples even of its earlier phase in Trinity Church. Many of Richard Up-
America. Bulfinch, in the Federal Street john's other churches reveal less of
Church in Boston in 1809, tried his archaeology but more sympathy with
hand at Gothic with results marked by the demands of construction in either
as complete a misunderstanding of the wood or stone; these are usually parish
style as the faddish stage of the move- churches, smaller and simpler than Trin-
ment in England. The real change in ity. The Perpendicular style of Trinity
spirit to the mature Gothic revival, with Church, like the same style in the
its archaeology and its revival of a Houses of Parliament, was abandoned
liturgical style, occurs in the Episcopal as improper after the completion of
churches of Richard Upjohn. Trinity Trinity; instead, the Early English or
Church, New York, 1839-46 (fig. 428), the Decorated styles served as inspira-
marks the turning point. Though not tion. As in the Greek revival, the coun-
copied from any known building, it is try builder simplified the Gothic so far
sympathetic to the spirit of an English as to approach a vernacular. Even Rich-
parish church. Its deep chancel, the first ard Upjohn's design for a country church
in America, proves the influence in the in wood bears only a remote resem-
Episcopal Church of the Oxford Move- blance to his larger work, though in fact
ment, which compelled a form closer its straightforward carpentry and ad-
to the medieval and better adapted to herence to the needs of a church have
the ritual of the high-church party. a Gothic directness. His design for a
Richard Upjohn, English-born and Eng- wooden Gothic church, published in
lish-trained, knew well the architectural 1852, can be recognized with local mod-
character appropriate to an Episcopal ifications in hundreds of towns scat-

church. The nave and aisles, the piers tered through every state admitted to
and Gothic arches, the traceried win- the Union before 1870.
dows, the tower and soaring spire are On the whole, houses and other types
 GOTHIC REVIVAL 569

lis 8

428. Richard Upjohn (1802-78) Trinity Church, New York (1839-46) 136' x 72'; 264' high.
57 o
THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

of buildings are less affected by the

Gothic revival than churches, partly be-
cause the prototypes are less well known,
and partly because the leader of the
new style, Richard Upjohn, identified
it with the new movement in the Epis-

copal Church and refused to profane it

by turning it to secular use. Neverthe-

less, the Gothic Villa, of which Alexan-
der J.
Davis designed many notable ex-
amples, is an application of pseudo-
Gothic detail to plans of great complex-
ity. The motive in such designs is less

archaeological than imaginative, a deco-

rative exploitation of a style that once
was structural. Fifty vears ago, at least

one example might be found in every

village up and down the Hudson Val-

ley; today, so many of them have been
destroyed that this type is approaching
extinction. A pilgrimage to Sunnyside, 429. Henry Kirke Brown (1814-86) Wash-
Washington home near Tarry-
Irving's ington, Union Square, New York (1853).
town, will reward anyone who wants to
see how picturesque this type can be. that greeted it— Congress more than
As the architects turned away from doubled the amount of the sculptor's
the Greek revival, so also the sculptors commission— testifies to the uneducated
rejected Neoclassic formulas in favor of taste of the country, and perhaps to its
a fresh naturalism. The Wash-
statue of new-found self-confidence. Brown's
ington (fig. 429) by Henry Kirke Brown Washington is more monumental.
(1814-86) is not the first equestrian Though indebted to Verrocchio and
portrait in American sculpture. That Donatello, it is not a copy of either the
distinction goes to Clark Mills's portrait Gattamelata or the Colleoni. Clad as a
of Jackson in front of the White House general of the colonial army, Washing-
in Washington, finished in 1853, a ton commands his troops. The selection
month before Brown's monument. In of historical costume, instead of the
this laughable rendering, the great dem- Greek garb that Greenough chose, re-
ocrat raises his hat to a cheering throng, calls a similar decision by Benjamin

while the horse rears on its hind legs. West in painting, and by Francois Rude
One can hardly admit Mills's monument for the Marshal Ney (fig. 370). The
as serious sculpture, but the enthusiasm strongly modeled horse remains subor-
 MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY SCULPTURE 57 1

they reflect the growth of a national

spirit in this country, a supreme faith
in its destiny, a new pride in themselves
and, at times, an unwarranted confi-

dence in their ability to solve any prob-

lem. They form a counterpart to the
literary development that flowered in
New England in the days of clipper
ships, when the American merchant
marine reached its height. The spirit

continued in the decades after the Civil

War, until other conditions compelled
a change. In minor works, and even in
important productions, sentiment plays
a role. John Rogers (1829-1904) be-
came famous for his groups, reproduced
in plaster or bronze and sold everywhere.

430. John Rogers (1829-1904) Coming to Some of the subjects commemorated the
the Parson (1870) 1*5" wide, i'io" high. Civil War; others are sentimental genre
scenes, like Checkers Down at the Farm,
dinate to its rider. In technique, Brown
or Coming to the Parson (fig. 430),
is competent but not facile; his surfaces
which might be an illustration for Low-
lack the vitality of cosmopolitan sculp-
ell's poem, The Courtin. The use of
tors, but they have not the dullness of
dialect in verse and of episodic detail in
Neoclassic productions. Brown turns to
these figures reveals an appreciation, not
nature for his model, but by no means
unmixed with humor, of the country for
sacrifices the sculpturesque to it. Sober,
itself.
unpretentious, and dignified, his statue Painting, meanwhile, though it did
has in it much of which to be proud and not neglect the possibilities of genre, for
nothing that is unworthy. Somewhat example, the canvases of William S.
later, John Quincy Adams Ward (1830- Mount (1807-68), more often turned
1910) continued in this vein, with to landscape, just as did Romanticism in
greater precision in his statue of Wash- France and England. However, the cult
ington on the steps of the Subtreasury of the wilderness finds no parallel in Eu-
Building in New York. The emphasis rope; it must be traced to the proximity

here rests on Washington's civilian of the frontier and its effect on Amer-
achievements, but as in the equestrian ican life. Virgin land had long since
portrait, no affectation mars the effort to vanished in Europe, but it lay at the

convey the grandeur of his personality. back door of America. Its influence on
These sculptors reject the European; the poetry of Bryant and on Cooper's
57 :
THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

431. Asher Brown Durand (1796-1886) In the Woods (1885) Metropolitan Museum, New
York. 4'io" x 3'n".

Leatherstocking Tales is obvious. So, found the lure of the wild. In the
too, in William Doughty, at times even Woods 431) is a glimpse into the
(fig.

inThomas Cole, and especially in Asher depth of a primeval forest. Man h&s not
Brown Durand (1796-1886) can be left his mark anywhere. Each tree and
 DURAND - INNESS - HOMER Cjy^

-
:^m

....

432. George Inness (1825-94) Autumn Oaks, Metropolitan Museum, New York. i'8" x 2'6'

branch, each rotting log half damming spacious country. His concern with at-

the brook, is naturalistic, studied with mosphere increased as his style matured;
crystal clarity, but with little regard for thus his first paintings correspond to the
pictorial structure. The scene details the Barbizon school, while his later work
deep woods. Elsewhere, these painters parallels the Impressionists, but is less

select panoramic views up and down the scientific in approach.

Hudson Valley, allied to the cult of the Somewhat different and a little

wilderness in a topographical attitude younger is Winslow Homer (1836-

but based upon settled regions. 1910), who served as a correspondent
The early landscape school culmi- Harper s Weekly during
illustrator for

nated George Inness (1825-94),

in the Civil War, but settled at Prout's
whose youthful work retained much nat- Neck on the Maine coast. A native prod-
uralism and topographic quality, but uct, he was not affected by European
who developed toward greater breadth. art. From this fact came both his
Autumn Oaks (fig. 432), rich in color, strength and his weakness. He had little
shows him aware of the need of picture feeling for texture; in All's Well, a look-

construction. These sturdy trees pro- out aboard ship, the sou'wester is as

duce a sweeping curve in silhouette to metallic as the ship's bell. On the other
draw the eye into the distance over the hand, those qualities that spring from
574
THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

a study of nature, his realism and his curate to the last detail. Several of his
frank observation, empower such can- paintings, such as Between Rounds, are
vases as Northeaster (fig. 433). The based on prize fights in the old arena in
strong color, the sense of the surging Philadelphia; the pugilists offered Ea-
sea, and the broken rocks of the coast kins an opportunity to exploit his knowl-

attest his love of the shore. Though edge of the figure, and yet they are
informal, the composition is well or- more than anatomical studies. The
ganized, with an effective use of re- forms throughout are solid and struc-
peated diagonals. tural. His serious nature leads Eakins
Homer's contemporary and counter- to the heart of his subject, nowhere more
part in figure painting was Thomas so than in The Thinker, a portrait of
Eakins (1844-1916) of Philadelphia, his brother-in-law, so absorbed that his
who took the regular medical courses in awkward pose with hands thrust deep
anatomy at the Jefferson Medical Col- in his pockets is indifferent to super-
lege to perfect his knowledge of the ficial grace.
body. Such a painting as the Gross The native qualities of this era were
Clinic, an actual operation, is a docu- soon submerged by a new wave of for-

mentary record of medical practice, eign influence. In fact, Homer and Ea-
strange to modern surgeons but ac- kins, both of whom lived on through

433. Winslow Homer (1836-1910) Northeaster (1895) Metropolitan Museum, New York.
2'io" x 4V.
 EAKINS - VICTORIAN ARCHITECTURE - RICHARDSON 575

this later period, gained in stature by houses mechanical advances like central
their independence from it. The climax heating and bathrooms helped to com-
of the Gothic revival in America, as in pensate for the lush opulence of over-
England, was short-lived. After the Civil stuffed rooms. During this heydav of the
War, the full blast of later nineteenth- pressed flower, the stuffed bird under a
century eclecticism shattered any con- glass canopy, the gas chandelier, and the
sistency of style. The Gothic revival whatnot, high-ceilinged rooms were
turned into Victorian Gothic, some- disorderly with excessive furniture. With
times restrained, sometimes extravagant, luck, one might escape the obtrusive
as in the Hartford Capitol, by Richard points of the central marble-topped
M. Upjohn, son of the architect of Trin- table, only to trip over the bear-skin
ity Church, New York. The uninspired hearth rug, and fall into a Morris chair,
Baroque descendant of the Paris Opera the one comfortable piece of furniture
head in the old State, War,
rears its ugly in the house.

and Navy Department Building in From this chaos, Henry Hobson

Washington by the Government archi- Richardson took steps to free us. One
tect Mullet, who had his foot in many of the first Americans to study in the
another government design, such as the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, Richard-
old Post Office in New York. Tallmadge son returned to this country shortly after
describes this time as the Parvenu pe- the Civil War. His won the architec-
riod, when ignorance was bliss. The vul- tural competition for Trinitv Church,
garity of many buildings in the Phila- Boston (fig. 434), in 1872 and thereby

delphia Centennial Exposition of 1876 gained a national reputation. To Rich-

suggests the unschooled desires of men ardson, the rough strength of the Ro-
whose fortunes piled up in the unbri- manesque styles expressed a young and
dled expansion of the country after the growing America better than any other
war. Many of these men rose from the style. He Church ele-
fuses in Trinity
ranks, with no tradition behind them to ments borrowed from the Romanesque
help them distinguish richness from glit- of Auvergne, of Provence, especially in
ter and sham. They confused size with the porch, and of Spain. In particular,
scale, novelty with originality, and de- the source of his tower or lantern is that
manded a crass ostentation in their sur- of the old cathedral of Salamanca. These
roundings. The flashy landscapes of Al- imply that Richardson is merely dis-

bert Bierstadt and Frederick Church tinguished by the style he selects and by
won acclaim, not through their quality the genius with which he handles it.

as paintings but because of their sub- But Trinity is more than another mon-
jects, such as Niagara Falls, Cotopaxi, ument of eclecticism. Its rusticated ma-
or the Yosemite Vallev. Cast-iron In- sonry is not characteristic of the Ro-
dians began to hunt the stag through the manesque; it is personal, and reveals
shrubbery on lawns, while within the Richardson's feeling for the rugged
576 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

434. Henry Hobson Richardson (1838-86) Trinity Church, Boston (1872-77). Length 160'
x width across transepts 121' x height 150'.

power of stone. But rarely in the nine- only the externals of the master's man-
teenth century has material played so ner, the contrast of granite and sand-
important a part in design, or its qual- stone, without his ability in composi-
ities received such sympathy. The super- tion.While they became Romanesque-
ficial style of the Beaux Arts is sloughed minded, Richardson himself grew away
off, but its valuable contribution, namely from that style. His eclecticism, even in

training in composition, remains. This Trinity Church, is minor; the Marshall

design is conceived in mass and de- Field Warehouse in Chicago (fig. 435) ?

veloped in three dimensions, not the of 1885-7, rejected it. This design was
two dimensions of the drafting board. thought out in architectural terms, a
One great bulk leads to another, to pile frank use of materials as a skeleton of
up with monumental concentration. masonry piers and arches, an effective
The success of Trinity Church, Bos- search for the character of the building,
ton, took the country by storm. It gave and a composition that relied on mass
birth to the Richardsonian Romanesque and on a vertical sequence in the fenes-
with its progeny in every city of the tration. The number of windows in each
country. But the followers could grasp bav increases from bottom to top, but
 RICHARDSON 577

the size decreases. Such designs as this tricious ornament in a time when both
earn Richardson the proud title of were rife.

pioneer of modern architecture. Nor is The World's Columbian Exposition

his contribution restricted to stone. The in Chicago in 1893 put an end to the
day of metal construction began just Richardsonian Romanesque. Although
after his death, but in wood he worked Daniel H. Burnham of Chicago, an able
wonders. His shingled houses have the administrator, was a perfect selection
same basic qualities, the same grasp of for architect in charge, he was awed, in

the fundamentals of architecture that matters of design by Charles Follen

distinguish the Field Warehouse. The McKim from New York, who, like many
Stoughton House in Cambridge, Massa- other architects of his generation on
chusetts, creates a vernacular in shin- the East Coast, had been trained in
gles, founded upon volume and propor- Paris. McKim's silver tongue and his
tion, with no historic precedent or mere- taste, his sense of proportion, organiza-

435. Henry Hobson Richardson (1838-86) Marshall Field Warehouse, Chicago (1885-87) 325'
x 190' x 125' high.
578 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

436. McKim, Mead, and White, Agricultural Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago
(1893) 8°°' long.

tion, and style dictated first that a uni- classicism in that it rejects the fetish of

formity of style be mandatory for all archaeology; correct and academic

buildings on the Court of Honor; sec- though its elements are, they are adapted
ond, that that style should be 'Modern- with sympathy and freedom. The de-
ized Classic'; and third, that external sign is admirably proportioned and
color should be expunged. The result marked throughout by good taste.
was the 'White City/ that so impressed The Modernized Classic, derived
America and so depressed foreign vis- from the architecture of imperial Rome,
itors, who looked to the new country reflects the imperialism of business en-
for something original. There was rea- terprise. The same wide extent, thesame
son for both reactions. Few Americans power, the same ramifications, and the
had ever seen so large a group co-ordi- same colossal wealth typified the busi-
nated in design and dominated by a ness empires of the end of the century
sense of order. A uniform cornice line, that marked the centralized government
sixty feet high for buildings on the cen- of the Roman Empire. The success of
tral court, helped to tie them together the style in expressing the ideals of one
as parts of a larger whole, and the total of the largest contemporarv forces is the
effectmust have been imposing. Its real reason for the influence of the Chi-
was timid, but at least it
virginal purity cago Fair. upon America for a
It fixed

had not the blatancy of bad Victorian generation the Modernized Classic as
color.The Agricultural Building (fig. the only style for civic and commercial
436) by McKim, Mead, and White buildings. State capitols, court houses,
illustrates the style. It differs from Neo- memorials, banks, department stores, and
 WORLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 579
even skyscrapers fell under its spell. The ized Classic. Sullivan announced his
memory of its beauty that America car- creed that in architecture 'form fol-

ried away from the Fair and its lessons in lows function,' that each problem, large
the possibilities of planning and of con- or small, contained the germ of its own
sistency of style were lasting. Austere crit- solution, and that the task of the archi-
ics of the twentieth century deplore the tect was to uncover this solution. Like
falsity of the Fair, its monumental archi- the others, his building at the Fair was
tecture designed for stone but built of constructed in wood and plaster, but,
wood and plaster, and its arctic whiteness unlike the rest, it was made to look so.
splashed on with a squirt gun. That the This did not imply something shoddy,
Fair was designed for effect is indispu- but rather that its design should be ex-
table; but at least it was effective, and, if pressive of its materials. If a projection
it had something of stage scenery about over the entrance was desirable, the
it, an exposition may be theatrical. It wooden rafters might extend beyond the
was probably for the best that America face of the wall. In a stone architecture,
should undergo another generation of bed moldings must be present to sup-
disciplined academic study. Not so much port the overhanging blocks that make
the architects, though even they could the cornice; these were unnecessary in
profit, but especially the public needed wood and were therefore omitted. Plas-
this further experience of architecture, ter, decorative and not structural in ap-
-even if it was an architecture of taste, pearance, encased the rafters. The en-
lest in a premature attempt to fly, the trance needed dramatization; concen-
American Icarus should fall into a sea tric arches rich with sumptuous surface
of undisciplined novelty. It does not ornament forced the eye down to the
follow that this influence should con- portals. These must be wide to allow
tinue today. Now we have had our pe- circulation, but they did not need to be
riod of training, and are better prepared high. They were proportioned to the
to stand on our own feet in architec- human scale, but brought into relation
ture. to the scale of the building by the arches
Even before 1893, a few were ready to above. The originality of Sullivan's de-

abandon eclecticism, and to design sign and its lessons in the principles of
architecture instead of styles. European architecture were lost on America in

visitors to the Fair recognized in the 1893, but not on Europe. The path he
Transportation Building (fig. 437) the helped to cut has been the path of archi-
Tiand of an original genius, Louis Sul- tectural development, and justifies his

livan, of the firm of Adler and Sullivan. title as prophet of modern architecture.
Its golden door contrasted to the white- For a generation, his was to be a
ness of the main buildings. Though in- voice crying in the wilderness. Appar-
fluenced by Richardson, the building ently eclecticism won the day. Modern
was neither Romanesque nor Modern- eclecticism differs from that of the nine-
5 8o
THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

^p^iii
%!*»i|r^i!' ,

5jtir

Vv^P'R:
k r!

437. Louis Sullivan (1856-1924) Transportation Building, Golden Door, World's Columbian
Exposition, Chicago (1893). Total building 960' long.

teenth century not in point of view, but gravings, accurate but metallic and lin-

in results. The scholarship in historic ear in effect; these qualities reappear in

styles is sounder, the possibilities of nineteenth-century eclecticism. Only a
adaptation better understood. The best few photographs brighten the pages of
of our twentieth-century eclectics do architectural periodicals before 1900,
not copy any specific building. They but later they flood in, less to supplant
write their architectural essays in the the information that engravings and
language of the past with a facile under- measured drawings must provide than to
standing of its grammar and rhetoric. supplement it by complete and plastic
The best buildings replace with vitality illustrations of historic buildings. Today
the dullness of much nineteenth-cen- hardly a cottage exists in the countries
tury work; in the better examples, fine of Western Europe that has not been
craftsmanship supplants mechanical de- photographed from all angles.
tail. Perhaps the spread of photography A consequence of this fund of infor-
is responsible for this. The nineteenth- mation is great diversity of style. Even
century designers had to depend on en- before the Chicago Fair, McKim, Mead,
 ECLECTICISM 581

and White designed the Public Library Goodhue, and Ferguson at almost ex-

in Boston in the Italian Renaissance actly the time of the World's Colum-
manner, with a strong influence from bian Exposition. Bertram Grosvenor
the Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve in Goodhue especially, in the Chapel of
Paris. They adapted the composition of the Intercession and in St. Bartholo-
Labrouste's exterior, but refined it and mew's, both in New York, showed a
perfected its proportions. More recently, freedom based upon profound under-
in 1923, the Lincoln Memorial in Wash- standing of the past, whose suggestions
ington (fig. 438) by Henry Bacon turned he so modified as to approach a modern
to the Greek, but the design does not style. That tendency to simplification
copy a Greek temple. Bacon was the he carried further in the Nebraska State
master of the style, not its servant, and Capitol at Lincoln, begun in 1920, one
he modified it, for example, in the en- of his latest works, which has thrown
tablature. He made the short axis of the overboard the baggage of eclecticism.
building primary, and substituted an For better or worse, eclectic design
attic story for the sloping roof and pedi- dominated the 'nineties and the early

ments of the Parthenon. Adaptation twentieth century in America. A genera-

likewise transformed the modern version tionwhose cultural leaders turned to
of medieval styles at the hands of such London and Paris for guidance would
men as Henry Vaughan and Cram, borrow in the other arts as well. That

Ww

438. Henry Bacon (1866-1924) Lincoln Memorial, Washington (1923) 189' x 119' x
80' high.
 82 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART
5

generation was still going to school in pertinence about sculpture. While the
the old world. Today, to attack eclecti- architects were going to the Beaux Arts,
cism is fashionable. It can be done easily the sculptors also turned to the Paris
and sometimes with justice. In fairness ateliers. Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1848-
to the past we should examine the 1907) dominated his generation in
charges leveled at any eclectic building, America. He was a modeler, like his Eu-
and test them narrowly to be certain ropean contemporaries, but he was an
they apply. The Orientals have a proverb expert with fine taste and, at best, a
to the effect that when you stand on a sculpturesque power of conception. The
man's shoulders, you should try not to monument to Admiral Farragut in New
spit on his head. To say that eclecticism York 439) he designed in collabora-
(fig.

sacrifices convenience and practicality tion with Stanford White, of the firm
to historic style is easy and often cor- of McKim, Mead, and White. The
rect. Perhaps it is alwavs true to some pedestal is flanked by curved benches
extent, but in the better examples any in stone, with allegorical figures in low
sacrifice of convenience to style is negli- relief. These young women who look
gible. Nor does the statement that so frank and healthy represent the ideal

eclectic buildings cost more than com- of his generation. Irregular slashes in

parable structures in a modern style al- the stone suggest water and seaweed, ap-
ways hold true, even if expense were propriate enough to the subject, who
pertinent in aesthetic criticism. In stands with legs apart, as though on the
truth, up to the present time, the advan- deck of his flagship. Though the figure
tage here has rested more with the con- is not remarkable for its mass, it is not
servatives than with the progressives. devoid of sculptural plasticity. Farragut
One may urge that the traditional activ- looks capable of movement, but his ac-

ities of our lives may as reasonably tion stays within the composition. More
claim expression as those parts of life sophisticated and less direct than por-
where we differ from our ancestors. traits by Brown or Ward, the surfaces
Nevertheless, the trend of architecture are marked by greater vitality. Saint-

is away from eclecticism. That is well, Gaudens does not attempt the undula-
since there is reason to hope that the tions of surface that we find in Rodin,
change is based on principles of architec- but he introduces enough variety to
ture, not on style. The substitution of a give interest to his modeling. The kind
'modernistic style' would bring little or of sculpture for which he stands is

no improvement. Let us avoid that by wholly that of his generation. Daniel

concentrating on architecture that bears Chester French, Frederick MacMonnies,
directly on our and not on 'style/
lives, Lorado Taft, and many others worked
ancient or modern, which touches us along the same lines without Saint-

not at all. Gaudens' taste or his sculptural quality.

Most of this could be said with equal The painters, too, went to school in
 SAINT GAUDENS - WHISTLER 583

'
-•.
439. Augustus Saint Gaudens (1848-1907) Admiral Farragut Monument (1880) Madison
Square, New York

Paris.James McNeill Whistler (1834- Whistler in his famous lawsuit with

1903), though American-born, spent Ruskin. The critic referred to the artist
most of his professional life in London. as an impudent coxcomb who flung a
The Japanese influence, found in Im- paint pot in the face of the public, and
pressionism, is strong in him. Many ex- Whistler sued for heavy damages. He
ternals of costume and still life in his won his case, but the damages awarded
paintings are Oriental, but more impor- to him— one farthing— exactly expressed
tant is the delicacy and the sense of se- the injury to his reputation. At his best,
lection that strips each canvas down to his paintings are fantasies, so balanced
a few perfectly arranged accents. The that each accent, even to his butterfly
pier and roadway of Old Battersea signature, must remain as he placed it.

Bridge (fig. 440) at twilight create Nevertheless, this conscious aesthete,

within the frame a pattern relieved by like his friend Oscar Wilde, sometimes
twinkling lights reflected in the river. allowed cleverness to beguile him into
Such extreme simplification outraged mistaking shadow for substance.
the public in England and embroiled The most popular painter of his day
5
84 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

440. James McNeill Whistler (1834-1903) Old Battersea Bridge (c. 1872) Tate Gallery, Lon-
don, i'i" x i'8". ' '
 WHISTLER - SARGENT
585

441. John Singer Sargent (1856-1925) Daughters of Asher Wertheimer (1901) Tate
Gallery, London. 6'i" x q'^".
586 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN AK

was John Singer Sargent (1856-1925), elevators began to be introduced in

a society portraitist. The techniques of hotels, and later in office buildings. The
painting came easily to him; he relied early elevators were slow, but when they
upon dash and verve for facile effects. were sufficiently improved to make ac-

The temptation to snap out flashy like- cess to the tenth floor, for example, as

nesses, flattering to his sitters, must easy as to the second floor, the tall

have been great, since they accepted building could and did appear. Each in-

them so eagerly, and not all sitters would crease in height of skyscrapers coincides

stimulate him enough to compel a with an improvement in elevator de-

studv of structure and character. Some sign.

of his earlier portraits, like those of the But if the elevator made the sky-
Wertheimer family, are among his best. scraper practical, metal construction
The Daughters of Asher Wertheimer made it possible. As already noted, the
(fig. 441 ) are characterized with satirical nineteenth century explored the struc-
bitterness. Sargent's fame during his tural possibilities of metal. It remained
lifetime was inflated, but modern critics for Leroy S. Buffington of Minneapolis
have gone to the opposite extreme. He to design a multi-story building with a
is not a great painter, but his best can- masonry wall supported on iron. He
vases, whereon the future will base its thereby transformed the building from
estimate of him, have some structure one in which the walls held at least

and decorative value as well as the flu- their own weight, if not also the floors

ency of their technique to recommend within, to one in which a framework of

them. metal beams and columns carried the
The most unique American contribu- entire load of floors and outer walls as
tion to the history of art in the World's well. Buffington claimed that he de-
Fair generation is the skyscraper. This vised a braced metal frame with iron
problem originates in the desire of shelves to hold the masonry as early as
American businessmen engaged in the 1882. His claim is supported by draw-
same field of enterprise to be as near ings, but the dates on them have been
one another as possible. It is not due to questioned. In any case, some buildings,
scarcity of land, nor to high land values, both in Europe and America, had al-

of which it is the cause rather than the ready grasped this principle in part, no-
result. The skyscraper was born in the tably the Menier Chocolate Works at
Middle West, not in New York. Two Noisiel-sur-Marne in France in 1871-2,
developments had to take place to make but none realized the possibility of great
skyscrapers possible. First of all, some height inherent in this method. On the
means of vertical transportation was es- basis of this idea, Buffington designed a
sential, before the economic limits even twenty-eight story building (fig. 442) to
of stone construction could be reached. elucidate his principle and its possibil-

By the middle of the century, passenger ities. His design is remarkable for its
 THE SKYSCRAPER 587
'

ney of the firm of Jenney and Mundie

of Chicago. His Home Life Insurance
Building was designed in 1883 and oc-
cupied in 1885. Granite walls in the
two lower floors carry the external
weight, but iron beams bolted to cast-
iron columns support the walls at the
fourth, sixth, ninth, and tenth floors.

However, the brick wall has still to be

substantial, since no other provision is

made for lateral bracing. Jenney hardly

realized at the time the advantages of
light, speedy, and flexible construction
implicit in the new method, nor did he
grasp its Not for
possibilities in design.

nothing were the early skyscrapers ridi-

culed as packing boxes on end. Jenney

piled his stories, with two more
ten
added on top of one another, some
later,

of them grouped in pairs or threes, but

each unit as distinct as a part in a sec-

tional bookcase. He nodded to the archi-

tectural amenities with an occasional
442. Leroy S. Buffington (1847-1931) Cloud-
scraper Project (1887-88).
pilaster, molding, or cornice, eclectic fea-

tures that could have been omitted with-

grasp of the aesthetic opportunities of out damage to the design.
the form. Though details bear the im- Perhaps Jenney was more engineer
print of the Richardsonian Roman- than architect, but even those who
esque, such as the round arched en- claimed to be designers failed. In an
trances and the heavy rustication, and eclectic age, a proper solution for a new
though the pointed roof seems archaic problem was not obvious. Burnham and
today, Buffington's design is far ahead of Root designed the Masonic Temple in
his time. He places the piers slightly in Chicago in 1892, a twenty-two-story edi-

front of the plane of the windows and fice, the half-dozen upper floors con-
makes them continuous to bind the ceived as a German medieval town hall

whole design into a vertical unity. with steep roof and small windows.
Buffmgton never had an opportunity These stories, considered by themselves
to build a skyscraper, since his project and placed on the ground, would make a
remained unexecuted. The honor of first decent if not distinguished eclectic de-
doing so belongs to William L. B. Jen- sign. They seem preposterous perched
5
88 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

atop this mass as though a gigantic ogy, that it may be a 'proud and soaring
flower stalkhad germinated under them. thing/ The mass of the skyscraper can
After 1893, the Modernized Classic pre- be dramatized, and its height stressed
vailed. A skyscraper might confess its to create a composition. The piers, un-
architectural allegiance by columns or interrupted from basement to roof,

pilasters, arches, and entablatures should be so devised as to look continu-

draped around the upper floors, and a ous. The wall, whose only function is to
similar scheme around the ground exclude the weather, must not counter-
stories, with a plain shaft in between, feit a supporting member; between the
the only successful part in such a build- windows in each vertical band, the wall
ing. is treated decoratively to deny any struc-
One man alone perceived the possi- tural significance in it. The cornice pro-
bilities of the new problem, and ac- jects abruptly to reveal the flat roof, but
cepted its challenge. In the Wainwright with no trace of historic precedent to
Building in St. Louis (fig. 443), dated interfere with a demonstration of the
1890, Louis Sullivan vindicates his be- new material and the new method of
lief that the skyscraper needs no apol- construction. Floors that serve a sim-
ilar purpose are identical in design, but
contrast with floors that have different
functions. Therefore the bulk of this
building, devoted to office space, is uni-
form; but the ground floors allotted to
shops, and the top floor to services com-
mon to the whole, are distinct. Sullivan
is too much of an artist to idolize con-
sistency; in the Wainwright Building,
the supporting steel rises only in every
other pier. That is clear at the bottom,
since the intermediate supports do not
descend through the windows of the
ground floor, but in the mass of the
building nothing distinguishes one pier
from another. This inconsistency is in-

significant in view of the fact that the

Wainwright Building, unlike most sky-

scrapers for the next twenty-five years, is

a co-ordinated and expressive design.

That the verticality of the skyscraper
443. Louis Sullivan (1856-1924) Wainwright should not have turned more eclectics
Building, St. Louis (1890-91) 127' x 114' x
135' high. to the one historic style that had stressed
 THE SKYSCRAPER 589

Gothic is misleading; its effectiveness

comes not from its Gothic tracery, its

canopies, and its pointed arches in terra

cotta, but in spite of them. The one
Gothic feature that helps the design is

the verticality. Large and small piers

rise in rhythms, as they could hardly do
in the classic styles, and reveal the loca-
tion of the principal supports. The
tower with its successive stages creates
an effective silhouette against the sky.
But the over-all result comes more from
the mass than from the Gothic details.
By this time, it had become evident
to the public that the skyscraper had
brought with it many civic problems,
especially a chaotic effect on land values.
Moreover, the difficulty of the traffic
problem, attributed to it somewhat un-
justly, the building's obstruction of
light and air, and its conversion of the
streets into canyons made regulation in-

evitable. The New York Zoning Law

of 1916 provided a model that spread
throughout the country, its principles
sometimes accepted with little change,
though at other times different methods
444. Cass Gilbert (1859-1934) Woohvorth
of control were preferred. In addition to
Building, New York (1913) 800' high.
restricting certain activities to specified

the vertical, the Gothic, is curious. It parts of the city, the zoning law pre-
must be attributed partly to the hypno- scribed partial height limitations. The
tism of the Chicago Fair, and partly to city was divided into districts, each with
the opinion that Gothic was not appro- a number to describe it, ranging from
priate for business buildings. A few ex- one half to three and one half. This fig-

amples do exist, and among them the ure signified that on any piece of prop-
most distinguished eclectic skyscraper erty in a 'iVi-times' district, for exam-
prior to 1916. The Woolworth Building ple, the owner might build a wall to a
in New York (fig. 444), completed by height 1V2 times the width of the street.
Cass Gilbert in 191 3, was for years the A building could rise beyond that
tallest building in the world. To call it height, but only if its upper part were
5Q0 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

445. Hugh Ferriss(1889- ) Zoning Law

Diagram, New York (1916)

contained within a line drawn from the

center of the street through the top of
the wall. These factors operated to pro-
duce what the law described as the mass
envelop, the legal maximum of building
on any given site. A number of excep-
tions in detail complicated the law, but
none of them need be mentioned ex-

cept that a tower of unlimited height

might be added, its area not to exceed
one fourth of the area of the plot. Hugh
Ferriss illustrated the provisions of the
446. Eliel Saarinen (1873- ) Chicago
law on a theoretical city block in four Tribune Tower, Competition, Second Prize
drawings; the first showed the mass en- (1922).

velop 445), the second the excision

(fig. walls of each story within the crown-
of light courts in that mass, next the ing pyramid made vertical, and finally
 THE SKYSCRAPER 59 1

these set-back stories grouped for simpli-

fication of construction. In spite of its

restrictions on property rights, the law

was accepted with little criticism, a
proof of its soundness, though it was
later simplified in some respects. The
architectural world soon realized that
the law contained and in large part
compelled a satisfactory solution of the
aesthetic problem of the skyscraper.
Consequently, its principles were in-
corporated in almost all skyscrapers, even
in cities where they were not yet com-
pulsory. However, our entry into the
First World War, and the minor de-
pression after it, prevented much build-
ing prior to 1922. That year saw the next
milestone in the story of the skyscraper,
an open competition for the Chicago
447. Holabird and Root, Chicago Daily News
Tribune Building. Many of the foremost Building (1928).

architects of the country, and indeed

of the world, entered. From the date the Saarinen, overshadowed it. Developed
competition was announced, the Tri- in terms of mass and vertically, with no
bune illustrated the masterpieces of correspondence to any historic style,

world architecture, each with the cap- Saarinen's design soared aloft, while its

tion, 'Will the new Tribune Building rhythmic piers and corner accents
look like this?' Had the publishers been flowered into admirably proportioned
able to foresee the results of the com- setbacks at the top.
petition, they might well have asked The solution exemplified here set the
that question. The most amazing range type for the skyscrapers of the 'twen-
of designs were submitted, borrowed ties, for example, the Chicago Daily
blatantly from all styles of the European News Building447) by Holabird
(fig.

tradition. The winning design by How- and Root, or the Barclay- Vesey Tele-
ells and Hood was a sensitive piece of phone Building in New York (fig. 448)
eclecticism, influenced by the Tour de by McKenzie, Voorhees, and Gmelin.
Beurre of Rouen Cathedral, but well By then, had realized that
architects
composed and in no sense a copy. It was their buildings were so enormous that
obsolete before the building was fin- the older architectural elements, like

ished. The second prize design (fig. doors and windows, no longer counted
446) by the Finnish architect, Eliel in the result. Instead, they must rely
59 2
THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART
—
I

448. McKenzie, Voorhees, and Gmelin, Barclay-Vesey Telephone Building New York (1924-
26) 29 stories high.
 THE SKYSCRAPER
593

upon masses, each as large as entire converted to windows stretched from

buildings of the past. The blocks, pro- corner to corner, and even around the
jected above the main mass to form the corners. The result is that this face of
buttresses and foundations of the tower, the building becomes a series of bands,
would each, if placed on the ground, be alternately light and dark. The elimina-
a structure of considerable dimensions. tion of the wall as a structural feature
As it is, they form mere units of the produces this change in the conception;
whole. Detail, as it had been conceived the wall and windows together become
through the centuries, could no longer a skin drawn over a frame with onlv the
tell. The decorative conclusion of the slightest projections and recessions. The
building at the top must be designed thin wall is made to look so by the ab-
on bolder lines. Moreover, the increas- sence of any shadows that might create
ing cost of skilled labor made the tra- an impression of its thickness and so of
ditional types of decoration prohibitive. its weight. Such a design expresses the
Ornament was forced to become repeti- structure of the building, betrays the
tive, and thus capable of being pro- existence of each separate floor through
duced in part at least by machine. The its bands of windows, and utilizes the

result is magnificent in mass, over- possibilities of steel construction on the

whelming in scale, and stronglv vertical cantilever principle. On the Twelfth
in consequence of the projection of each Street side, however, the vertical col-

pier in front of the windows. Skyscrap- umns are visible.

ers of this type adorn all the large cities Rockefeller Center in New York,
of the country, and testify to the popu- built between 1931 and 1939, is less
larity of the skyscraper idea and to the radical in style. So large a project called
success of this solution. for collaboration in design; its archi-

A few buildings under the influence tects included Corbett, Harrison, and

of European modernism and of what MacMurray, Hood and Fouilhoux, and

has been called the International style Reinhard and Hofmeister. They devel-
have rejected this solution. One is the oped a group of tall buildings related
Philadelphia Savings Fund Societv to one another. Generally, it is difficult

Building by Howe and Lescaze. Where to see a skvscraper in its entirety, be-

the designers of the standard skyscraper cause it is surrounded by other buildings

have not availed themselves of the can- that partly conceal many of the lower
tilever principle, these architects ex- floors and tend to minimize its height.
ploit it. On the main front, the wall In Rockefeller Center, low and high
projects beyond the last supporting blocks are so disposed that each shall
piers, and each floor overhangs the col- admit to the group as much light, air,
umns it rests on. Therefore, since the and visibility as possible. The open
supports are withdrawn from the face space in front of the seventy-story RCA
of the building, the wall plane can be Building allows dramatic expression of
594 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

449. Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill, Lever House, New York (1952) 3o6'6" high.
 THE SKYSCRAPER 595

the height of this climax of the en- within the curtain walls. Not only have
semble. Its thin book-like mass is based those walls become a skin of glass and
on the satisfactory depth of an office colored plastics, but most of the ground
and the access to it; as each bank of floor is open to the sidewalk, its lobby
elevators rises to its limit, the space it sheathed in plate glass. Hence one looks
occupied is no longer valuable and a through the building under its tower, as
setback occurs; thus, Rockefeller Center though it floated in space. The under-
represents as nearly scientific an ap- cutting of the shape of the tower in-
proach as is possible in the art of build- creases its appearance of lightness. The
ing. clean precision of all surfaces, their pol-

Since the end of the Second World ished textures reflecting light, suggest
War, the International style has domi- the impact of the machine on the aes-
nated skyscraper design. Where some thetics of building.

of the walls in the Philadelphia Savings But while eclecticism was continuing
Fund Society Building had been canti- even in a few skyscrapers, and com-
levered, they are all so treated in Lever monly in other buildings, some archi-

House, New York

449). Skidmore,
(fig. tects were pursuing their personal ideals.

Owings, and Merrill have here carried, Frank Lloyd Wright, who calls Sullivan
perhaps to its ultimate conclusion, the his lieber meister, is the greatest archi-
Internationalist concept of volume, with tect of the twentieth century. While
its emphasis on the space contained the rest of the country was building its

450. Frank Lloyd Wright (1869- Unity Church, Oak Park, 111. (1903) 66' x 66' x 45'
high.
596 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

Gothic churches and Modernized Clas- bers as well, grasp the true nature of

sicbanks, Wright designed the Unity concrete. The medium is often called
Church in Oak Park, Illinois (fig. 450), plastic, because of its fluid state while
just after 1900. Considering the prob- being mixed. However, since it must be
lem on its own merits, Wright backed poured into rigid forms to hold it in
the auditorium against the main street place until it sets, rectilinear shapes ex-

and raised its windows high in the wall press the substance better than curved

to avoid noise and interruption from surfaces. Of course, concrete can be

heavy traffic. The chief source of light poured into a form of any shape, such
is a skylight, invisible from the ground, as the weird curves of the Einstein
that bathes the interior with adequate Tower in Potsdam, by Erich Mendels-
illumination. Partly under pressure of sohn, but the prohibitive expense of
economy, Wright chose concrete, and such plastic forms compelled a substi-
evolved a design in that material proper tution of plaster for concrete. The solu-

to it. Up to this time, concrete had not tion hit upon in the Unity Church is

been admitted to the Social Register of earlier, simpler, and more direct.

architecture as a monumental building The so-called Prairie House, like the

material. Wright won it that standing. Coonley House of 1908 in Riverside,

The rectangular forms, not only of the Illinois (fig. 451), comes as a relief

chief masses but of the smaller mem- from the usual residence of its day. Its

451. Frank Lloyd Wright (1869- ) Coonley House, Riverside, 111. (1908).
 WRIGHT 597

452. Frank Lloyd Wright (1869- ) Kaufmann House, Bear Run, Pa. (1937-39) c - 64' deep
x 62' wide.

horizontality conveys repose instead of cubical volumes called rooms; instead,

the restlessness of its contemporaries. by eliminating partitions wherever pri-

The complex plan is difficult to read, vacy was unnecessary, he allowed his en-
even for those who have had wide ex- closed space to flow from one area to
perience in architecture. This rambling another, and from inside the house to
house throws forward a room here into the outside and back.
the lawns and gardens, or draws one The low-pitched roof overhangs the
back there, as though to pull the ex- wall so that it shades the windows. Its

terior within the house. The inside and long horizontals echo those of the pro-
outside fuse so that it is difficult to say jecting balconies, or of window boxes
where one begins and the other stops. shaggy with growth. His multiple win-
To union of the house and its set-
this dows give an openness to the house, and
ting must be credited the charm of yet the roofs curtail much of the light
Wright's buildings. He abandoned the that might come through them, even
idea that the house must consist of when the undersides of these projec-
59§ THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

tions are treated in some light-toned The Barnsdall Residence in Hollywood,

material. The picturesqneness of these California, is no modern version of
houses is romantic in spirit, as is their adobe architecture in poured concrete,
emphasis on individualism, Wright's but its blocky masses and bold scale
outstanding personal characteristic. seem sympathetic to the older architec-

Many of Wright's admirers praise the ture of southern California. It is closer

logic of his work, and try to adduce to the past in spirit than the twentieth-
practical explanations for every peculi- century versions of Spanish mission
arity. Such an attempt is not only hope- architecture. Or again, Wright injected
less, since his designs are not always an Oriental tinge into the Imperial
logical, but is quite unnecessary. Wright Hotel in Tokyo without contradiction
is too much of an artist not to be ready of his own Occidental background.
to depart from, or to contradict, logic Wright is not a 'modern' architect,
for architectural effect, or even for some as that nebulous term is used today. He
jolly architectonic joke. does not subscribe to the International
Since the early years of the century, style, but expresses his opinion of it in

he has continued to work in his own caustic terms. Indeed, his underlying
individual vein. The Millard Residence romanticism compels hostility to that
in Pasadena, California, built in the style. But some of his work appears to
'twenties, gives a decorative expression have developed along similar lines. The
to precast concrete blocks, an ordinarily Kaufmann House at Bear Run, Pennsyl-
drab material. In each block, he casts a vania (fig. 452), built 1937-9, exploits
pattern, one for the wall units and an- concrete and the cantilever, but com-
other for the narrow supporting mem- bines them in a design appropriate to
bers. He adapts his solutions to the its romantic site overhanging a roaring
spirit and traditions of a particular re- brook.
gion, without resorting to historic styles. More recently, in 1945, Wright de-

453. Frank Lloyd Wright (1869- Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (1957
design, work begun 1956).
 WRIGHT 599

signed the Solomon R. Guggenheim the other hand, his portrait of his in-
Museum (fig. 453). The exhibition fant daughter, marble enframed in

space consists of a spiral ramp lighted wood, reverts to the Italian Renaissance.

from a court covered by a dome of glass We must admire the delicacy of these
tubing supported on stainless steel. No works, slight in dimensions and small in
such museum has ever been built— but scale, like table ornaments, or fail to
neither was there precedent for the recognize the linear design on which
Unity Church, the Millard Residence, they rely.

or the Imperial Hotel. However extrava- More progressive sculptors deny the
gant Wright's projects may seem, his
completed buildings have always ful-

filled his expectations and confounded

his critics; we must learn to expect origi-
nality from genius. Until recently,
America has ignored Wright; he has
had but little influence here. But in

Europe, especially in Holland, his gen-

ius has long been acclaimed. The open-
ness of his plans, the originality of his
houses, his sense of materials, and his
avoidance of eclecticism helped to

formulate the architecture of the past

five decades in Europe. If its course has
turned away from him in certain mat-
ters, he has not been forgotten or left

without honor.
Eclecticism, so dominant in architec-

ture during the early decades of the

century but declining in recent years,
pursues a similar course in sculpture.
Conservatives, like Paul Manship, born
in 1885, continue to design with ex-
quisite craftsmanship in the older, more
or less archaeological styles. His small
bronze Centaur and Dryad in the Metro-
politan Museum has borrowed the deco-
rative patterns of archaic Greece. The
Dancer and Gazelles of the Corcoran
Gallery in Washington has something 454. Gaston Lachaise (1882-1936) Statue of
a Woman (1912-27) John A. Dunbar Coll.,
of the East Indian in its stylization. On New York. Bronze, 5'8" high.
6oo THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

legitimacy of eclecticism as a goal. Like

contemporary Europeans, they turn to
a direct study of their materials, and re-
examine the basic elements of sculpture.
Gaston Lachaise (1882-1935) was born
in Paris, worked for Rene Lalique, a
designer of exquisite decorative pieces
in glass, and after his migration to

America in 1906, became Manship's as-

sistant from 1913. Perhaps it was from

Lalique that Lachaise got the admirable
feeling for movement and for design in

simplified curving volumes in his Dol-

phins. He felt that such decorative
work was secondary in importance. The
expressive sculptural volumes of his

Standing Woman (fig. 454) create a

glorification and amplification of the
human body utterly in contrast to the
facile grace of academic nudes. Large
as its mass is, this figure standing on
tiptoe and with its arms poised is pecul-
iarly light in appearance, and yet with 455. William Zorach (1887- ) Mother
and Child (1927-30) Spanish marble, 5'6"
a masculine strength and musculature high.
like Michelangelo's Night (fig. 234).
The sex characteristics of the woman are professional bronze casters or stone cut-
emphasized for expression, as in Van ters for execution in the final material.
Gogh's La Berceuse (fig. 403), only While they might add the finishing
much more so, carried to an almost psy- touches themselves to the bronze or
chopathic extreme. Lincoln Kirstein de- marble, their concepts were not shaped
scribes his conception of woman as 'a by direct handling of the final material.

calmly savage figure, an idea of the Some modern sculptors prefer taille
feminine that has a serenity more domi- directe; that is, they choose to do their
nating than tender/ own stone cutting. Thus, the Lithua-
Part of the twentieth-century re-ex- nian-born William Zorach (b. 1887)
amination of the basis of sculpture lay carved his Mother and Child (fig. 455)
in the field of technique. The sculptors directly in pink marble with only a
of the World's Fair generation and their small model to guide him. Even then,
European counterparts thought in terms he departed from his sketch as the con-
of clay, of models to be turned over to ception grew in stone under his hand.
 RECENT SCULPTURE 6oi

The design of such a statue as this is

calculated from all points of view,

though in this instance some views of
the back are less interesting than others.
On the whole, each part in the mass is

sculpturally related to every other part.

The compact enclosed design marks
and echoes the limits of the block
whence these figures have been released.
It dramatizes the weight and massive-
ness of stone in volumes sufficiently

similar to the human body to be self-

explanatory, and yet simplified and ab-

stract enough to yield a sculpturesque
treatment. Zorach is neither eclectic nor
academic, nor does he move far in the

direction of abstraction. He appears to

walk in the middle of the road in his

search for the possibilities of his ma-

terial and of sculpturesque monumen-
tality through working directly in stone,
without a complete sacrifice of recog-
nizable forms. John B. Flannagan
(1895-1942) carried taille directe even
farther. He said, 'I would like my sculp-
ture to appear as rocks, left quite un-
touched and natural/ His Triumph of
the Egg in its extreme reduction to ele-

mentary forms shows how nearly he

reached this goal.
456. Isamu Noguchi ( 1904— Kouros
Though the work of these sculptors
)

Georgia Pink marble, 9'9"

(1945) Coll. Artist.
is hardly realistic, it certainly is not ab- high.

stract or non-representational. One of

the first Americans to experiment complete abstraction. His mobiles con-
with abstraction was Alexander Calder sist of metal rods with shapes suspended
(b. 1898), who studied with George from them on swivel joints, delicately
Luks and John Sloan. Late in the 'twen- balanced and capable of revolving. A
ties, Calder produced a number of amus- motor, a touch of a finger, or even a
ing caricatures in wire. Through the in- breeze may set these shapes in motion
fluence of Piet Mondrian, he turned to so that the forms describe patterns in
602 Till . GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

many contemporary sculptors. For ex-

ample, Isamu Noguchi (b. 1904) says,

The essence of sculpture is for me the
perception of space, the continuum of
our existence.' His Kouros (fig. 456) in
Georgia pink marble is monumental in

scale, its biomorphic forms of vaguely

organic origin interpenetrating one an-
other like the planes in cubist paintings
or the masses in the Kaufman House.
Like the latter in particular, the voids
here seem as important as the solids.
Even more recently, Richard Lippold
(b. 1915) claims that space is his ma-
terial. His New Moonlight 457) (fig.

through its geometric spirals captures a

segment of space and retains its open
form. Other sculptors turn to irregular-
shaped forms in dynamic and emotion-
ally suggestive relationships, or like

Theodore J.
Roszak (b. 1907), to or-

ganic forms shaped in metal at white

heat. One can hardly imagine a more
complete revolution within the short
span of half a century than that between
the ideals of a Manship and those of the
current generation. Perhaps a Roszak
would deny the name of sculpture to
Manship's work, as Manship would
probably refuse to admit as sculpture
the wire constructions of Lippold.
A similar revolution has obtained in
457. Richard Lippold (1915- New American painting. At the turn of the
Moonlight ( 1947). century, a few artists like Arthur B.
space. These open compositions and Davies (1862-1928) withdrew into a

Calder's use of unorthodox materials world of dreams as though in protest

link him with the Russian constructiv- against the materialism of their times.
ists. The rhythmic spotting of the lonely
The relation of forms in space is a figures in his Unicorns (1906) stands
problem that absorbs the attention of out against the clear blue of the glassy
 RECENT SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 603

458. John Sloan (1871-1951) Backyard, Greenwich Village (1914) Whitney Museum, New
York. 2V
x 2'8".

sea and the brown of distant mountains. standards of the beautiful in subject
It is a fusion of the tangible and the matter. Living in New York, they turned
intangible, an imaginative vision of to the commonplace, often to the
lyric beauty. More important historically seamier, aspects of the city and its peo-
as the spearhead of the revolt in sub- ple. They were in consequence ridiculed
ject matter was the group known as by conservatives as the Revolutionary
The Eight including, among others, Gang, the Black School, or the Ashcan
Davies, William Glackens, Robert School, and at the same time they were
Henri, George Luks, and John Sloan. applauded by progressives for creating
In 1908, they exhibited together at the a natural art.
MacBeth Gallery, New York. Though Of them, Robert Henri (1865-1929)
by no means homogeneous in style, as preached direct painting in a dark Im-
a group they presented a common front pressionistmanner without preliminary
against the traditional and academic drawing. His best portraits have a warm-
604 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

blooded realism that testifies to his keen wash hanging on the line, children
interest in life. A product of the Penn- building a snow man, and a lean and
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts, he be- mangy cat. Not decorative, perhaps not

came enthusiastic over the paintings of beautiful, it is powerful through its

Courbet and Manet that he discovered truth; nothing shows better his intense

in Paris, and as an inspiring teacher left interest in the life around him and his

his mark on many younger men. His hatred of affectation.

close friend, John Sloan (1871-1951), Though not strictly one of The Eight,
also studied at the Pennsylvania Acad- George Bellows (1882-1925) was simi-

emv, under Thomas Anschutz, a col- them in his early work. The Cross
lar to

league of Eakins. Perhaps he was the Eyed Boy in its dark Impressionist type,

most complete exemplar of the Ashcan its bold modeling, and its dashing direct
School. His Backyards, Greenwich Vil- drawing with the brush betray his ar-

lage (fig. 458), is reminiscent of the tistic lineage in Henri. As he matured,

view from his own back windows, with Bellows simplified his realistic forms.

459. George Bellows (1882-1925) Dempsey and Firpo (1924) Whitney Museum, New York.
4'3" * 5'4"-
 RECENT PAINTING 605

His large canvas of Dempsey and Firpo These helped to acquaint some painters
459) selects the dramatic moment
(fig. and a few New Yorkers of the avant-
when the 'wild bull of the pampas/ as garde with the new ferment of ideas
the sports writers called Firpo, knocked emanating from Paris. It remained, how-
Dempsey out of the ring. The exciting ever, for the Armory Show of 1913 to
action of the figures builds up to Firpo, introduce these movements to the pub-

whose wide-spread legs complete a lic at large. This historic exhibition or-

pyramidal composition. The individual ganized by Arthur B. Da vies and Walt

forms are highly simplified. Bellows does Kuhn, with the active support in Paris
not stress details of anatomy; rather he of Walter Pach, won notoriety through
prefers the semi-abstract geometric its cubist and other near-abstract works,
shapes into which the body and the particularly Marcel Duchamp's paint-
parts thereof can be reduced. The heads ing, the Nude Descending the Stairs.
of the spectators and officials in the The public flocked in to admire or to
foreground are almost ovoid, and firmly ridicule, but at least they came— 100,000
modeled as such. Both color and value in New York and even larger numbers
are strong and fresh, but handled with in Chicago when the exhibition moved
the same stringent selection and the there. Celebrated as the foreign works
same simplification as the forms them-
the bulk of the painting and
were,
selves. Such painting as this is certainly
sculpture was American; almost every
not conservative or academic, nor is it
key figure in American art for the first
representative of the more extreme
quarter of the present century was rep-
movements toward abstraction that play
resented there.
so obtrusive a part in any panorama of
Among them, Stanton MacDonald-
twentieth-century painting.
Wright (b. 1890) and Morgan Russell
But America has not been unaware
(b. 1886), while in Paris, had developed
of those movements. Even in Bellows,
Synchromism (1912-14), a minor off-
the tendency to simplification testifies
shoot of cubism and a rival to De-
to their influence. Prior to 1913, a num-
launay's Orphism of the same date.
ber of progressive American artists had
More completely abstract than cubism,
kept abreast of Fauvism, early Cubism,
it emphasized advancing or recessive
and Futurism through study in Paris.
color. Arthur G. Dove (1880-1946),
Moreover, the distinguished photogra-
pher, Alfred Stieglitz, in his Photo-Se-
who began his abstractions at least as

Gallery at Fifth Avenue, early as 1911, may have been the first
cession 291
American to turn to cubism. Marsden
New York, presented an exhibition of
Matisse in 1908, and followed it with Hartley (1877-1943) and Max Weber
exhibits of African sculpture and chil- (b. 1881) passed through cubist phases

dren's drawings, as well as the work of during the years of the First World
a number of younger American artists. War. The former's Portrait of a German
6o6 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

460. Marsden Hartley (1877-1943) Portrait of a German Officer (1914) Sticglitz

Coll., Metropolitan Museum, New York. 5'8" x 3' 5".
 RECENT PAINTING 607

Officer (fig. 460) combines such recog- Italian Futurism, was thrilled by the
nizable symbols as the flag and the iron dynamic confusion of city life, its pace
cross into a rhythmical pattern in strong and rhythm. Allied movements
to these
colors with little depth. Joseph Stella but not of them is John Marin (1870-
(1877-1946), under the influence of 1953), perhaps the foremost American

m^-

^s4M
r

461. John Marin (1870-1953) Woolworth Building, No. 31 (1912) Private Coll., Mt. Kisco,
New York. Watercolor, i'8" x i'^".
6o8 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

462. Charles Demuth (1883-1935) My Egypt (1927) Whitney Museum, New York. 3' x 2'6".

painter of his day. His explosive com- do pile themselves up there so beautiful,
positions like the Woolworth Building, so fantastic.' Marin really belongs to
No. 31 (fig. 461) owe something to no school; he is so individual, so per-
cubism and futurism. In 1911, he said sonal, as to defy classification. Neither
he wanted 'to pile these great houses a romanticist nor a naturalist, his appar-
one upon another with paint as they ently unstudied watercolors have an as-
 RECENT PAINTING 609

surance highly expressive of natural toward representation. The Museum of

forces. Modern Art describes her work as 'nat-

Some of these artists, like Dove and uralistic geometric' in that her flower
Russell, continued to avoid the repre- studies are based on natural forms, but
sentational in painting after 1918. With the geometric shapes inherent in those
the return of peace and during the forms and in their relation to other
prosperity of the 'twenties, others re- objects are made dominant.
verted to objective painting, modified The prosperous decade of the 'twen-
in certain ways by the lessons of ab- ties ended with the stock market crash
straction. Among them MacDonald- are of 1929, followed by years of economic
Wright, Hartley, and Weber. The dislocation. No longer was it so easy to
group of painters known as the Immac- trot off for a summer or a year in Paris
ulates apply the sharp lines and smooth or London. Perhaps that tended to force
precise surfaces of engineering to their American painters to find their inspira-
paintings whether or not their subjects tion at home, as the rise of totalitarian
are based on industry. Thus Charles states in Russia, Italy, and Germany
Demuth (1883-1935) chose the austere with their avowed hatred of the demo-
cylinders of the cement mills in Egypt, cratic way of life tended to confirm
Pennsylvania, as theme for My
the American isolationism. In any case, a
Egypt (fig. 462). These clear, clean large group of painters turned to the
forms are overlaid with a cubist pattern American scene in all its aspects, some-
of diagonal shafts of light. Like De- forms they ob-
times simplifying the
muth, Charles Sheeler (b. 1883) was
served, but often portraying them with
trained at the Pennsylvania Academy,
forthright realism. Like the Dutch Little
that breeding ground for a generation
Masters, they are often identifiable by
or more of outstanding artists. His paint-
the type of subject they choose, as well
ing Pertaining to Yachts and Yachting
as by the way they handle it. Thus Ken-
discovers a rhythmic linear pattern in
neth Hayes Miller (1876-1952) has
the and masts, a pattern that is an
sails
painted the ample forms of women on
abstraction drawn from actuality. His
the street, carrying umbrellas, in the
Upper Deck (1929) offered him the
fitting room of a dress shop, somewhat
chance to weld the machined shapes of
vulgar of face and figure but full of
motors, ventilators, and rigging into a
vitality and reinforced by resonant gar-
design reminiscent of modern photog-
a distinguished
ish color. He approached these subjects
raphy of which Sheeler is

with impersonal detachment, content

exponent. With men we may
these
to paint the lower-middle-class women
group Georgia O'Keeffe (b. 1887), who
during the years of the First World War of Fourteenth Street, New York. Their
forms he deliberately simplified with a
produced such complete abstractions as
Blue and Green Music, but later turned disdain for naturalistic light and a Ren-
6io THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

463. Edward Hopper (1882- ) Lighthouse at Two Lights (1929) Private Coll., New York.
2'5" x 3'y".

aissance admiration for sculpturesque its famous monuments but through its

mass that gives his designs a classic bal- quite commonplace buildings. His ap-
ance and repose. His pupil Reginald proach to these subjects is analogous to
Marsh (1898-1954), who had studied the literary realism of Theodore Dreiser
earlierunder John Sloan, was fascinated and Sinclair Lewis. These scenes are
by the people of the city as they flowed not satirical, nor are they made vehi-
before him on the Bowery, at Coney cles of social protest; they are simply
Island, in the burlesque or the subway, there. His Lighthouse at Two Lights
or walking the streets of Harlem. His (fig.463) shows his love of clear-cut
High Yaller, a garishly fashionable shapes in strong color powerfully mod-
Negress, is characteristic of Harlem in eled in the sun. Similar to Hopper in
subject and in spirit. his choice of architecture as a vehicle
While human beings attracted Miller is Charles Burchfield (b. 1893). Even
and Marsh, Edward Hopper (b. 1882) more than Hopper does Burchfield pre-
and Charles Burchfield prefer land- fer the shabbiness of neglected Victorian
scape.The former, a pupil of Henri, houses. In contrast to Hopper's objec-
commonly presents the character of the tivity, Burchfield seems to work emo-
city not in terms of its dynamic life or tionally. His buildings fit perfectly with
 RECENT PAINTING 6ll

the somber color scheme and dull umes; they are stylized in undulating
weather that envelop and express them. shapes animated with restless energy.
These painters have dealt with those Mention should be made of Grant
limited parts of this country that they Wood (1892-1942), whose American
happened to know best, with New York, Gothic and Daughters of Revolution
or in the case of Burchfield, with Buf- attained their notoriety perhaps more
falo. In so far as they are concerned through their satire than their pictorial
only with the people or landscape of a qualities.

limited area, they could probably be Though less sensational, John Steuart
called regionalists, but that term is usu- Curry (1897-1946) may prove to be
ally attached to painters who, perhaps more important in the long run than
consciously, try to express the peculiar either Benton or Wood. His incidents
flavor of certain larger parts of the coun- of life in his native state, like Baptism
try such as the Middle West. Thus, in Kansas, or The Tornado, grow out
Thomas H. Benton (b. 1899), in his of the specific into the general, and are
Arts of the West, combines figures and sympathetic to the sturdy character of
scenes whose associations create a sort the people, or to man's impotence when
of composite picture of that region. faced with the fearful manifestations
Cowboys, sharpshooters, horseshoe of nature. The epic figure of John
pitching, gamblers, oil wells, and In- Brown, fanatic, martyr, or traitor, domi-
dians succeed one another in rapid nates his mural The Tragic Prelude (fig.

and bewildering succession. The forms 464) for the State Capitol, Topeka,
are not simplified into geometric vol- Kansas. This figure of fiery intensity car-

464. John Steuart Curry (1897-1946) The Tragic Prelude (1938-40) State Capitol, Topeka,
Kansas. 11 '6" x 31'.
6l2 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

465. Jose Clemente Orozco (1883-1949) Christ and His Cross (1932-34) Baker Library, Dart-
mouth College, Hanover, N. H. Fresco.

ries the scriptures in his left hand and grandeur of Stephen Vincent Benet's
in his right 'Beecher's Bible/ a rifle, em- John Browns Body.
blematic of those turbulent days. The Curry's murals are painted in oil on
soldiers, flags, and dead of the North canvas. A return to true fresco painting
and South surround him, while behind by certain Mexican artists, notably Diego
this compact group plods a stream of Rivera (b. 1886) and Jose Clemente
emigrants to the great plains, despite Orozco (1883-1949), lends their work
tornado and prairie fire, symbols of the a mural quality, not more perhaps than
destruction of the Civil War. This Curry's, but certainly greater than most
painting has much of the sweep and nineteenth-century wall paintings. Much
 RECENT PAINTING 613

of Rivera's wide notoriety is due to his ists have accepted a more or less ab-

leftist political views, and their promi- stract point of view since 1935, and
nence in his paintings, which led to the many older artists have turned or re-
destruction of his murals in Rockefeller turned in that direction too. So many
Center, New York. Regardless of the have come into prominence that it is

merits or defects of his cause, such prop- possible to mention only a few as illus-

aganda is not pertinent to the success trations of tendencies.Some have relied

of his works as paintings. In all aesthetic on purely geometric forms, stemming
matters, Orozco seems superior to Ri- from cubism, de Stijl, and the Bauhaus
vera. His cycle of frescoes in the Baker group. I. Rice Pereira (b. 1907) has
Library of Dartmouth College shows, made some striking compositions
among other things, The Coming of through her varied and original use of
Quetzalcoatl, a devastating satire on such materials as resin, varnish, lacquer,

higher education in America, and a mica, and gold leaf. Her Transversion
blistering attack on American Imperial- (fig. 466) in oil and ceramic fluid has

ism. The cycle culminates in Christ and superimposed three layers of cubist de-
His Cross (fig. 465), a terrific concep- signs on successive sheets of glass so that

tion of the Prince of Peace returned to you literally see one system of lines be-

earth to destroy His cross because of hind another. Texture, vibrancy, trans-

mankind's reliance on warfare, symbol- parency result without the slightest con-
ized by the mountain of military equip- cession to representation. Stuart Davis
ment behind Him. Through its simplifi- (b. 1894), a pupil °f Henri, who was
cation, and especially through its com- represented in the Armory Show, is one
position, the design fits the wall without of the few who have rather consistently
any sacrifice of the modern brilliance maintained an interest in abstraction
of color. since that time. In his work, the influ-

The Immaculates during the 'twen- ence of cubism and expressionism min-
ties, and the painters of the American gle with the precision of the Immacu-
scene in the early 'thirties, supplanted lates to produce a highly personal style.

our first experiments with abstraction, His forms, often in brilliant color, un-
but increasingly from 1935 on have we like Pereira's rectilinear lines, are cur-

turned to non-objective painting. Per- vilinear in dynamic relationships and

haps this is attributable to the arrival sometimes identifiable with familiar

in America of such painters as Leger shapes. The Museum of Modern Art

and Mondrian. Perhaps the emotional classifies Jackson Pollack (1912-56) as
tensions arising from the international 'expressionist biomorphic,' related to ex-

situation just before, during, and since pressionism and dadaism. The calli-

the Second World War may be behind graphic lines and irregular dribbles of
it. In any case, most of the younger art- pigment that compose his canvases sug-
614 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

466. I. Rice Pereira (1907- ) Transverse Parallels (1946) Durlacher Bros., New York. 2' x
i'io".

gest an origin in doodling. The birds of a changing language of symbols, a lan-

Morris Graves (b. 1910) seem to be the guage with which to remark upon the
romantic visions of his subconscious qualities of our mysterious capacities
mind. Part of the canvas in his Blind which direct us toward ultimate reality/
Bird (fig. 467) is overlaid with an These and many other painters testify

ectoplasmic scribble, related to the white to the range and the extraordinary vital-
writing of Mark Tobey, whom he ad- ity of American art in the middle of
mired. Graves has said, 'I paint to evolve the twentieth century.
 RECENT PAINTING 6l

The question is bound to arise how would expect. Our civilization is bound
justly we may call our arts 'American/ to be European; we are not descended
Even a cursory survey makes it clear from the American Indian, but from
that each European movement from the stocks of all European countries,

1700 to the present day finds its faithful and particularly of Great Britain. As
reflection in America. Much of it is dis- each has left its strain in our cultural
tinguished by a provincial flavor, as one life, so each is bound to be represented

/«

467. Morris Graves (1910- ) Blind Bird (1940) Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Gouache, 2'6" x 2' 3".
6i6 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN ART

in the arts. But in so far as we have which is twisted the pattern of our
created a civilization that is distinguish- painting and sculpture.
able from the European, exactly so far What if the American past has been
have we expressed that difference in provincial? We have no more reason to
our architecture, sculpture, and paint- be ashamed of or to apologize for this

ing. We tend to be a sentimental peo- background than for the traditional

ple, and hence produce a John Rogers career of the farmer's boy or backwoods-
and our painters and sculptors of the man risen to wealth and power. On the
World's Fair generation, as well as the contrary, we may look on what we have
Longfellows, Whittiers, and Lowells. accomplished with satisfaction, and feel

We have not been much attracted to no need to measure it with a European

theory or, until recently, to the abstract, yardstick. If we can preserve this

preferring in all lines some more con- straightforward attitude and the open-
crete outlet for our energies. We like to ness of mind that goes with it, we may

think of ourselves, deservedly or not, as expect our art to grow more and more
a practical people. The formative influ- distinct from the European. Let us not
ence of the frontier in American life, disregard what others have done and are
where practical results were vital, has doing; they may offer us valuable help
colored our whole outlook. Affectation in solving our own problems. However,
may have some place in a cosmopolitan a weak strain in our art has appeared
society, but it has none in a pioneering whenever and wherever we have con-
community. The result is that the most sciously tried to be European. For all

purely American artists have been char- his brilliance, Stuart lacks the home-
acterized by sober honesty, an utter free- spun strength of Copley; the American
dom from pretense, which one finds in Homer is more powerful than the cos-
Copley and Bellows, in Hopper and In- mopolitan Sargent. In short, we have
ness, Brown and Zorach, Homer and Ea- been at our best when we have been
kins. So recurrent a quality we have most native, most completely ourselves.
every right to call American. That does So long as we continue to adhere to
not mean that it cannot be found else- these traditional American traits— not
where, or that other elements may not to external forms, for that would in
be present in American art; but this itself be false to this spirit— we need not
seems to be the central thread around fear for the future of American art.
XXVII Twentieth-Century Art

It is unfortunate that many writers on problems with which he was concerned.

the art of the present centurv still find it All art, but particularly that of painting,
necessary, although the century is now consists of a dual set of visual experi-
past its halfway mark, to 'defend' and ences, that of the artist as the work takes
'explain' in pompous, confusing, if not shape under his hand, and that of the
omniscient terms, the character of this spectator who views it. But visual ex-
art.Such authors or critics fall into two periences are the sum total of one's life
main groups: one, the prejudiced tradi- experiences; and in front of a painting
tionalists who try to ally modern art all of these contribute to a personal un-
with some aspect of the Graeco-Renais- derstanding and an artistic evaluation of
sance; and the enthusiasts who attempt the work. It may be said that to each
to find in it the full range of modern person a painting has a unique and
psychological and metaphysical con- highly personal significance.
cepts. In either case the approach is an In every era art is expressive of the
emotional one and the results all too culture of which it is one of the major
often forced, confusing, and ambivalent. components. The twentieth century can
To understand the historical as well as be characterized as a highly diversified
the artistic significance of twentieth- period dominated by industrial and
century art it is essential to turn di- scientific achievements. In most parts

rectly to the art itself and to discover of the world the tempo has been quick;
how the artist has solved the artistic while aggression and competition have
617
6i8 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

led us into two disastrous world wars and Munch. By returning to basic prob-
and have produced a restlessness, uncer- lems of form, design, color, and tech-
tainty, and tension that have increas- nique, they began a 'reformation'
ingly permeated our lives. Decade by within the art of painting. The innova-
decade inventions and discoveries, such tions and point of view introduced by
as the automobile, aviation, radio, tele- them led to the formation of new styles
vision, and finallv atomic energy, have by several groups of young artists shortly

further accelerated the pace of life and after the beginning of the century.
reduced the barriers of time and space. In 1905 in the Salon d'Automne in
With the ever-increasing shrinkage of Paris, the young painters Vlaminck
spatial barriers, new problems and anxi- (Plate x, facing p. 557), Rouault, De-
eties have arisen. It has often been said rain, Dufy, and the somewhat older
that this is a chaotic period, but it seems Henri Matisse, exhibited together for
more accurate to say that it is a period the first time. The critic Louis Vaucelles
fragmented by highlv competitive spe- in reviewing this exhibition derisively
cialization within even a limited field of called them Les Fauves or The Wild
endeavor. Beasts, a characterization provoked by
Within the complexity of this mate- the non-representational rendering of
rialistic age, the art of painting has nature, the use of foreshortening instead
nevertheless maintained its position as of perspective to describe depth, and,
an integral cultural element. Twentieth- especially, the emotional shock induced
century painters may be classified, as in by violent color. Vaucelles did not rec-

all eras of world art, in two groups: ognize that the vigorous, almost fren-
those who adhere to the accepted tradi- zied Fauve style was largely an unin-
tional styles of their time; and those who hibited overstatement, overemphasis of
strive to create new artistic forms from a number of styles and ideas of the pre-
the essential fabric of contemporary ceding twenty years, with the deliberate
life and thought. Whether these two use of bright, raw color to visually and
groups be called conservative and pro- psychologically shock the viewer.
gressive, or by any other antithetical The major elements of Fauvist paint-
terms, it is in the latter group that the ing, however emphasized, may in part
historically and aesthetically important be traced back to the reformation group
achievements are to be found. of the late nineteenth century. The large
The background for creative paint- canvas by Matisse (b. 1869), The Dance
ing in the present century was postulated (fig. 468), of late Fauve date, 1910, re-

in the re-evaluations of the nature, pos- veals the basic elements of the style.

sibilities, and potentialities of the art Bright red figures are delineated against
by a group of painters in the last decade a bright green ground and a saturated
of the nineteenth century, notably by blue sky as vivid primary contrasts;
Cezanne, Gauguin, Van Gogh, Ensor, forms are segmented into their various
 LES FAUVES 619

468. Henri Matisse (1869- The Dance (1910) Museum of Modern Western Art, Mos-
cow. 8'6" x i2'io".

anatomical parts, with the points of Fauve style persisted for only a few
articulation stressed, a style element in- years, through its use of line, color,
dicating a familiarity with African Negro and pattern as dynamic pictorially ex-
sculpture 'discovered' by artists a few pressive elements, not as means of de-
years earlier; while rhythmic lines dy- scribing reality, it marked a further de-
namically reassemble these marked-off parture of painting from the imitation
partsand establish important tensions of nature.
between them. In Fauve painting, the Contemporary with Les Fauves, the
raw, pure color advocated by Gauguin German Expressionist painters Kirch-
was literally fulfilled; compositionally ner, Heckel, and Schmidt-Rottluff,
the depiction of only a portion of a joined a bit later by Nolde, Pechstein,
larger scene, with parts of figures and and Muller, formally organized in Dres-
details cut off by the frame, recalls var- den in 1904 as Die Briicke or The Bridge
ious late nineteenth-century styles, par- Group. The sources of this style were
ticularly the Impressionism of Monet the paintings of Van Gogh and of the
and Degas; and the enigmatical and Norwegian Edvard Munch, who por-
provocative nature of the subject matter trayed in emotive colors and strongly
is in a way comparable to that of Gau- knit designs such basic human emotions
guin and the Symbolists. Although as jealousy, fear, and loneliness. The
620 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

Bridge painters stressed, as did Munch, century, 1901-6, he became established

the oneness of emotion between human in Paris as an artist of considerable stat-
forms and nature, and hence their en- ure. The work of this early period,
tire canvases, figure and setting, are per- which coincides with the beginnings of
meated by a single strongly unified emo- Les Fauves and Die Briicke experiments,
tion. This is conveyed through the use is largely a romantic, emotional ren-
of pure raw colors; freely expressive, dering in a sensitive, even tender man-
non-realistic shapes and outlines; and ner of the lives of beggars, mountebanks,
a dynamic rhythmic design. Perspective and circus performers, subject matter
is replaced in the spatial organization of handled with a comparable degree of
elements by the relationships of brilliant tenderness and pathos by Daumier half
color shapes which pictorially suggest a century earlier. Two periods are evi-
depth and roundness. In this style, dent in this early work of Picasso, an
bright color is an agent used to convey earlier Blue Period, from 1901 to 1904,
a personal and emotional expression and during which he restricted his palette to
to elicit a like response from the spec- one color; followed by a Rose, or Pink,
tator. The Bridge painting, like Fauve, Period, when he again used a single
received considerable adverse publicity, color, although his pink palette gave to
and both styles were of relatively short like subject matter a more delicate and
duration, the Bridge Group being for- sensitive and less tragic interpretation.
mally dissolved in 1913, after, as with The forms he painted during his Blue
the Fauve painters, the various artists and Pink periods are not realistic repre-

began to develop in different ways. sentations, but generic symbols of hu-

It is important to note that about man emotion although the visual real-

1904-5 Vlaminck of Les Fauves and ity of natural shapes is not abandoned.
Kirchner of Die Briicke independently By 1906 Picasso had become dissatisfied

'discovered' African Negro sculpture. In with the expression of sentiment and

both styles some influences from Negro emotion and a personal rendering of
art may be detected, although they are subject matter; but he was opposed to
less clearly marked or important than in the intuitive freedom of design and color
other styles which were developing in advanced as major aesthetic elements by
France and Germany at this time. the Fauve and Bridge groups.
The career of Pablo Picasso (b. 1881), Between 1906 and 1908, a series of ex-
one of the most important modern art- periments led Picasso and the French
ists, began in Paris during the forma- artist Georges Braque (b. 1882) to a
tive years of Fauve painting. Born in new concept of painting from which
Malaga, Spain, in 1881, Picasso proved ultimately developed Cubism, one of
a prodigy who at seventeen had achieved the most important and influential
an amazing technical facility as a styles of modern art. The influences and
painter. During the early years of this ideas provocative of these experiments
 PICASSO 621

came from many sources, some very dis- of several of the figures recall like ele-
tant in time and space. From the 1890's ments in African sculpture and are usu-
photography had increasingly provided ally considered distortions; but, since
the artist with a greater familiarity with they are, as in Negro sculpture, geo-
the art of all countries and eras; and of metric shapes created and arranged to
particular interest to these young paint- interpret not imitate the human form,
ers were illustrations of styles not intent there is not any distortion involved. The
on Graeco-Renaissance representation forms are, in fact, new and personal pic-
of nature. In 1907 a large comprehen- torial interpretations of reality, created

sive show of the paintings of Cezanne entirely within the medium of painting.
was held in Paris; and in the same year a By 1908 the experiments of Picasso
letter from Cezanne to the painter Em- and those of Braque had produced a
ile Bernard was published, a letter con- kind of painting which was to be named
taining the now famous dictum, 'You Cubism. This style persisted from about
must see in nature the cylinder, the 1908 to 1925, and its influence con-
sphere, and the cone/ Earlier, possibly tinued for many years longer. Cubism
in 1905-6, Picasso had been introduced, was consistently concerned with the
probably by Matisse, to African Negro structuring of form in space on a two-
sculpture. Many other influences were dimensional surface. The name given
operative on the artist at this period, to this style was entirely reasonable,
such as the very early Medieval sculp- since shortly after the earliest experi-
ture of Spain; but the most important ments spheres, cylinders, and cones
sources of influence were the paintings gave way to cubical shapes and faceted
and the published letter by Cezanne, planes, as in Fernande, a portrait of
and the sculpture of the African Negro. Picasso's model and mistress, dating
During the years 1906-8 Picasso be- from 1908 (fig. 469). In this painting,
came increasingly absorbed in the prob- form is represented by monochrome
lem of forms set in space without benefit planes, derived from cubes and spheres,
of perspective. The interest in form first that tilt and round out from the back-
appears in his portrait of Gertrude Stein ground to produce three-dimensional
of 1906 and reaches a climax during this volumes. The hatched painting of these
period in the famous Young Ladies of planes is analogous to the rendering of
Avignon of 1906-7 now in the New color planes by Cezanne; while the
York Museum of Modern Art. In this rhythmic relationships between them
painting much of the coloration of the and the isolation of a few expressive ele-

Pink Period still survives; but the fig- ments indicate a knowledge of African
ures are described by semi-geometric sculpture. The earlier phase of this style

overlapping shapes that project and ex- has been called 'Analytical Cubism/
press volumes set in an abstract space. since it was a breaking down or analysis
The angular rhythmic shapes and heads of form into such geometric shapes as
622 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

'"-.;

469. Pablo Picasso (1881- ) Fernande (1909) Museum of Modern Art, New York. 2' x 1*5'
 cubism 623

cubes, spheres, and planes, or usually the objects existed as geometrical shapes
fragments of them. Subject matter con- in a time-capsule.

sisted of landscapes, figures, and still- By 1911, Braque and Picasso began
lifes composed of objects of everyday to introduce into their paintings letters

use, such as bottles, glasses, musical in- of the alphabet and numerals as cryptic

struments. In the earliest phase of facet documentation of the object and where
Cubism, a visual approach to the ob- they had often encountered
it (fig. 470).

ject obtained, but very shortly there- This was followed by pasting on their
after, as in the Still-life, the visual image paintings pieces of textured colored
gave way to the mental or conceptual paper, and shortly afterwards by the use

image, and some of the most important of fragments of such actual materials

contributions of Cubism resulted. as bits of newspaper, a calling card, a

In Analytical Cubism, simple out- cigarette, labels from bottles, and play-

lines and thin planes, often transparent, ing cards pasted in a compositional ar-

tilted, juxtaposed or overlapping, were rangement on a background. Experi-

used to give every remembered aspect ments of this sort are known as 'col-

lage/ a term derived from the French

of an object. Since the mind remembers
these not as isolated facts but kaleido-
word for paste. They are among the
earliest examples of the use of new ma-
scopically as a series of fragmentary
terials, an important feature of modern
views of such distinctive essentials as
art. The materials employed have no in-
shape, details, exterior and interior
trinsic aesthetic quality but through
forms seen from all angles, Picasso and
their arrangement produce an artistic
Braque represented these various aspects
effect. The artists felt, moreover, that
simultaneously on canvas as an organi-
since these materials were fragments of
zation of broken-up geometric shapes.
common objects closely and constantly
This concept introduced into painting
associated with life, the collage was
a fourth-dimension, that of time. Not composed of fragmentary elements sym-
only was the three-dimensional volume
bolic of life— in fact, the entire iconog-
presented, but also the time intervals rendered Cubist was
raphy in art
necessary to comprehend the object looked upon largely in this light.
from various views were conveyed by Before the First World War, Cubism
simultaneously rendering such an anal- developed, partly out of the collage ex-
ysis of form. The success of this in- periments, in another direction. This
tention depended to a large extent upon phase, commonly called Synthetic Cub-
the discarding of depth and perspective ism, differed in many respects from
and the creation of a pictorial space, as that of the earlier period. Geometric
Cezanne had done, by connecting the shapes were now not derived from re-

front and background planes by angled, membered objects, but were invented or
curving broken planes, a space in which created to build up a design with ele-
624 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

ments recognizably related to the world In Synthetic Cubist style, volumed

of reality, although they are unlike those shapes were abandoned for flat planes,
of natural appearances. often arranged vertically with varying

.' v .-*-"
;..

470. Pablo Picasso (1881- ) Still Life (1911) Coll. Henry Clifford, Radnor, Pa. 2' x i'8".
 PICASSO 625

degrees of projection into space; the the importance of the sensuous element
planes are frequently segmented into in art.
bright color areas and given a textured At various times throughout his ca-
surface (Plate xn, facing p. 589); and reer, Picasso has turned from an ex-
a single point of view, rather than the perimental, exploratory type of paint-
multiple aspects of the object, brought ing to a more traditional rendering of
painting back to a three-dimensional the structural character of the human
from a four-dimensional realm. Paint- figure. During his so-called Classical Pe-

ings were now decorative, often with a riod of the logo's, while engaged in the

rich variety of shapes and objects, and form construction of later Cubism, he
in some examples, as Picasso's Three painted a number of sculpturesque fig-

Musicians in the New York Museum of ures, such as The Spring (fig. 471). In
Modern Art, the expression and the paintings of this kind emphasis is given
activity of the human figure became the to a simplified interpretation of mass
subject matter of the painting. Al- and to an impersonality of characteriza-
though there was no reversion to repre- tion comparable to that of classical

sentationalism, this style doesmark a sculpture.

return to content and meaning and to In Italy before the First World War,

471. Pablo Picasso (1881- ) The Spring (1921) Private Coll. 2V x 3'
626 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

a group of artists, known as the Futur- and logical that the twentieth-century
ists, worked for a few years with the experiments and concepts of the avant-
problem of the expression of the dy- garde of young artists would lead to a
namics of movement in space. The de- purely abstract painting, an art with no
velopment of the cinema played no elements based on or derived from the
small role in the experiments of these world of natural appearances.
artists, to which the Analytical Cubist Between 1912 and 1914, the Blue
concepts also contributed considerably. Rider group in Munich carried the ex-
The painter Balla, for example, painted pressionism of the German Die Briicke
a Dog on a Leash, with movement be- group toward abstraction. The group
ing represented by a sequence of mul- included Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and
tiple positions of the moving forms; Wassily Kandinsky, a Russian painter
while others, like Russolo, expressed the who was living at that time in Ger-
force, and the direction of the force, of many. The published intention of these
the rapid movement of a train or an artists was to create an abstract expres-
automobile by a more abstract fragmen- sionism in which the inner spiritual es-

tation of the speeding forms. Although sence of expression would be sponta-

the time-space experiments of the Fu- neously and intuitionally conveyed in
turists also employed the device of si- emotionally stirring colors and designs.
multaneity, unlike those of the Ana- The fulfillment of the aims of this group
lytical Cubists, they recorded simul- were to appear in the painting of Kan-
taneously the various aspects of a mov- dinsky before, and that of Paul Klee
ing object, not those of a static object after, the group had been dispersed by
seen by various shifts of the artist. the war in 1914.
Although in the various styles of Kandinsky (1866-1944) developed
modern painting so far considered there the concepts of the Blue Rider pro-
has been an approach toward abstrac- nouncements beyond the realm of vis-

tion, in no case has the object been ible nature into that of an abstract ex-

completely abandoned, but rather it has pressionism in which color, lines, and
assumed a new significance. During the form have no connotation of natural
nineteenth century, with the decrease of shapes (Plate xiv, facing p. 621).
commissioned subject pictures, painters Through his writings he has made clear
began to select subjects they believed his ideas on painting. He considered that
would appeal to the public, or those art lives as a 'spiritual activity' that
which would allow them to concentrate transcends the objective material world
on some particular problem. As already as does music; and that the artist will

mentioned, the latter became the pre- create 'within himself, out of his emo-
ferred choice toward the end of the tion and his spiritual perception and his
century and in much of the painting of inner imagining power . . . the form that
the present century. It was inevitable is externalized in color, line, and mass
 FUTURISM - NEO-PLASTICISM 627

on canvas.' Although this was a highly A movement somewhat comparable

personal, intuitional, and mystical atti- to Suprematism developed in Holland
tude, many of his abstract canvases in- in 1917. Known as Neo-Plasticism or as

duce a vivid visual and emotional re- De Stijl, from the name of the publica-
sponse, independent of any remembered tion in which its ideas and theories were
visual image. presented, the basic elements in this
Paul Klee (1879-1940), a Swiss art- painting were the rectangular plane of
ist while living in Munich, shared many pure color, red, blue, or yellow, with
of the ideas of Kandinsky, but evolved a some black and white. These color
highly individual art in which line and planes were distributed and juxtaposed
fantasy combine with a sensitive color to give a plastic organization and mean-

palette to effect a lyrical, original style. ing as 'pure art.' A typical De Stijl

For Klee, the painting 'grew' under his painting by Piet Mondrian (1872-
brush in a somewhat automatic, sub- 1944) (fig. 472) is divided into white
conscious manner until the lines, colors, rectangles by narrow red and black
and shapes were arranged in striking,

often delicate harmonies. His paintings

frequently relate fantastic with abstract
forms, or are composed of completely
abstract elements, his invented subjec-
tive forms often suggesting a sponta-
neous growth or creation.
In Moscow in 1913, Kasimir Male-
vich (1878-1935) founded a completely
abstract movement which he termed
'Suprematism,' explaining it as 'the su-

premacy of pure feeling or perception

in the pictorial arts.' The Suprematists
were not concerned with the emotional, """
1

L_ ...

spiritual expression of Kandinsky and

472. Piet Mondrian (1872-1944) Composi-
Klee, but rather with the formal, per-
tion in White, Black, and Red (1936) Mu-
ceptual relationships of visual geometric seum of Modern Art, New York. -$'4" x 3' 5".

shapes. At first, simple squares were

used, such as by Malevich in Black and lines, so as to establish a number of

Red, a painting in which a black and formal relationships through the careful
a smaller red square are juxtaposed proportioning and distribution of the
within the vertical of the canvas. Later, lines and rectangles. Mondrian and
circles and lines were added, the com- other artists of this movement were later

position frequently arranged along a di- allied to the Bauhaus group in Germany,
agonal axis. where an association of painters, archi-
628 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

tects, creative designers and craftsmen for its unrealistic depiction of life forms.

were working in close collaboration. The These paintings have, in fact, the char-

De Stijl concepts, as those of the earlier acter of dreams of familar phantoms of

Cubists, have contributed considerably life, and it was for this reason that a

to architectural forms and details and contemporary critic described them as

to the higher standards of design in the 'surnaturel/ The fantasy of content, the
applied arts today. rich lyrical color, and the unsophisti-
During the early Cubist period in cated rendering of his forms reveal the
Paris, two young artists developed highly influence and inspiration derived from
original styles, subsequently influential Russian folk art (Plate xiv, facing p.
in the formation of later styles. Both 621). In his later paintings, the pictorial
artists, Marc Chagall (b. 1887) from equivalents of dream experiences be-
Russia and Giorgio de Chirico (b. 1888) come richer in color and are more often
from Italy, combined real and unreal symbols from the deep subconscious
elements to produce pictoriallv arrest- realm of repressions and frustrations.
ing and emotionally provocative can- An international nihilist movement,
vases. De Chirico composed deep city known as 'Dadaism,' was founded in
landscapes stretching back toward in- 1916 in Zurich, Switzerland, a move-
finity, with arcaded buildings, statuary, ment of sociological significance and of
a figure or two representationally ren- importance as an influence on later

dered but given a distorted scale and modern art styles. The Dadaist move-
set within deep airless space described ment grew up partly out of the bitter
by an accentuated perspective. Weird disillusionment of war, at a time when
shadows cast by clearly delineated mun- it had been believed that civilized man

dane objects create disturbing effects had 'progressed' too far for war, and
in a spatial vacuum, suggesting the un- partly out of a satirical negation of all
reality of dreams. This is, moreover, recognized values in art and literature,
intensified by the clarity of design and which the Dadaists considered products
the soft colors in these aesthetically ap- of a decadent culture. To a large extent,
pealing paintings. their aesthetic ideas and expressions
In contrast, Chagall painted nostalgic were borrowed from contemporary art
memories of his early years in a small and exploited by banter or satire to ne-
Russian village. These are rendered as gate the validity of this The Dada-
art.

a kaleidoscopic succession of discon- ists included the Roumanian Tristan

nected and incoherent memories by Tzara and the German Hugo Ball, both
images freed of all constraint of reason poets and critics, and the artists Hans
and appear as visions of forms with- (Jean) Arp, an Alsatian, Max Ernst, a
out the density, opacity, and gravity of German, and Man Ray, American-born.
objects of the physical world. The color Important forerunners and later mem-
is startling, both for its brilliance and bers of the group were the French
 DADAISM 62Q

painter Marcel Duchamp (b. 1883) and set out deliberately to shock in a bla-

the Spanish-born French artist Francis tant, extravagant manner. A representa-

Picabia (b. 1878), both of whom were tive example of Dada painting is Max
originally Cubists. Ernst's (b. 1891) The Little Tear
As early as 1912, Duchamp had Gland that says Tic-Tac, now in the
painted his famous series of pictures en- New York Museum of Modern Art, a
titled Nude Descending the Staircase. ready-made consisting of stamped strips

These are basically Cubist paintings of of metal painted in space as a solid wall,
a moving figure represented by a series while below a stream flows out from
of many juxtaposed and broken aspects, a narrow tunnel, the stream and the
rendered in a manner comparable to the tunnel giving monstrous scale to the
contemporary Futurist style. In these canvas. At first, Dadaist pronounce-
pictures, the forms have a somewhat ments were of interest to Picasso and
mechanical appearance but are given a the Cubists, but they were later strongly
naturalistic animation. A few years opposed to them; and by 1920, the
later, in his so-called 'ready-mades' pe- movement had largely disintegrated as
riod, Duchamp composed his paintings the various artists began to move in
of prefabricated industrial objects and other more positive directions. Mean-
gave them such titles as The Bachelors. while, Dada exhibitions had been held
In these satirical paintings he appears in New York, Barcelona, Paris, Cologne,
as a precursor of Dadaism. At the same and Berlin. The name of the movement
time, Picabia was progressing along is of some interest and significance:

similar lines; while in Italy, de Chirico, Dada was selected by opening a French
who had returned from Paris in 1915, dictionary at random and pointing to a
modified his style to represent human word— it means a 'cock-horse' or a
figures in mechanical forms. The French 'hobby-horse.'
Cubist painter Fernand Leger was also In the final analysis, Dada must be
using mechanical shapes to build up his considered a negative propaganda move-
forms; but neither de Chirico nor Leger ment which sought by ridicule and satire

had the satirical negativism of approach to effect drastic changes in the art and
of Duchamp and Picabia, both of whom aesthetics of that time. Immediately
contributed to the formation of Dada- after the FirstWorld War, a more posi-
ist painting. tive propaganda movement appeared in

The many Dadaist manifestoes pro- German painting, which was sometime
claimed the absolute spontaneity, free- later given the name Neue Sachlichkeit

dom, and license of the artist and con- or the New Objectivity. This movement
sidered free invention, the laws of demanded, through powerful and bitter

chance, and the interchange of anthro- satirical paintings, a reformation in the

pomorphic and inanimate forms as im- chaotic, degenerate, and oppressive so-

portant approaches of the artist. They cial and political life of postwar Ger-
630 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

many. In style, the art ranged from an creation were attempts to block out
exaggerated, caricature-like statement to the control of reason or thought and to
a searching, meticulous, and hard real- release the creative impulses residing in

ism; but, regardless of presentation, the the subconscious. Both Freud in his

subjects were explicit documents of psychoanalysis and Bergson in his phi-

the objective material world. Impor- losophy stressed the relative insignifi-

tant members of this group included cance of the sentient, practical, con-
George Grosz and Otto Dix. scious mind as compared to the depth

It should be noted that propaganda of and hidden riches in the subconscious

in art, often of a nationalist-historical mind. The initial concerns of the Sur-
character, has existed almost throughout realists were, therefore, to release the
the history of art. In the twentieth cen- subconscious, where they felt that the
tury, other important manifestations of 'marvelous' experiences resided— that
it appear after the revolutions in Russia is, anything experienced outside the
in 1917, and in Mexico in 1925. Al- realm of controlled reason. Various
though substantially of documentary, methods, including that of hypnotism,
historical importance, propaganda paint- were used to 'free' the subconscious.
ing often has strong artistic merits and A little later the Surrealists strove to
aesthetic value, as in the German and merge the conscious with the subcon-
Mexican painting of this century.
scious and the real with the unreal into
In 1924, Surrealism was founded in
a super-reality. The art of this phase is
Paris by the first manifesto by Andre
perhaps best seen in the painting of the
Breton. It began as a literary movement,
Spanish-born artist Salvador Dali (b.
but shortly afterward included the visual
1904). Among others, he realized that
arts. Breton, a trained psychiatrist, in-
for Surrealism to be an intelligible art,
troduced to, or crystallized for, many
the images 'experienced' would have to
artists a new source of creativity, the
be explicitly communicated to have sub-
realm of the subconscious; although
ject appeal. Dali, therefore, developed
Kandinsky had explained his aesthetic
concept of 'timelessness' in somewhat a descriptive, representational technique

comparable terms. Two aspects of Sur- comparable to that of the Dutch Little

realism developed historically: the first,

Masters of the seventeenth century, who
one of automatic creative experiments; gave a complete reality to each texture
and the second, the turning to a dream- and every detail, to the objects in a
like subject matter or to the actual con- painting. The subject matter was at first

tents of dreams or dream states. In the based on the dream-like or nightmarish-

earlier phase, the emphasis was on a like images and symbols recorded in
free creativity; and in the later, on a psychiatric case studies, and then on a
new romantic, emotional vein. creation or invention of comparable
The early experiments in automatic images. In either case, the emphasis was
 SURREALISM 631

473. Salvador Dali (1904- Persistence of Memory (1931) Museum of Modern Art, New
York. 10" x 14".

upon a realistic rendering of subject The main motives, the four watches, are
matter. represented as eroded by rust and as
The Persistence of Memory (fig. limp pliable forms over the platform, a
473) well represents the style and sub- branch of the tree, and the back of the
ject matter of Dali. The theme of the nightmare-form in the middle fore-
painting is the relativity, flexibility, and ground. They have a psychological and
destructibility of time. The painting de- disturbing relationship with the limit-
scribes meticulously a variety of forms less depth of space and the eroding
and textures; at the left, a platform sup- rocky cliffs at the right background. The
porting a dead tree trunk; diagonally entire painting is given a descriptive
back of this a flat table-like plane; in luminous color and a clear definition of
the center of the canvas a monstrous, all objects and details; but an abstrac-
amorphous, nightmare-like shape; and a tion of space and an isolation and stark-

background of nebulous vagueness, lim- ness of each object differentiates this

ited at the right by seemingly suspended painting from a realistic imitation of ob-
floating headlands of corroded rocks. served reality. Real objects have strange,
6^2 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

enigmatical associations and are pre- construed as a Freudian 'dream picture';

sented with a dream-like unreality. rather it is composed of tangibly clear
A somewhat later and perhaps more forms which represent simultaneously
characteristic example of Surrealism is two images inquite weird manner.
a

Dali's Apparition of Face and Fruit-dish This is emphasized by the disturbing

on a Beach (Plate xv, facing p. 652). unreality of the realistically devised
Two dream-like almost amorphous dou- spatial settingand by the equally dis-
ble images fuse in part to represent the turbing strange combination of care-
main theme. Ostensibly a fruit-dish, this fully delineated details. The canvas has
is also the head of a girl, with deep a clarity and descriptive richness of
shell-like eyes and with unpleasant hairy, color essential to the realistic painting
semi-amorphous gourd or pear-shaped of forms and details. Such a painting is

forms (the fruit in the dish) on the top not a rendering of anything seen or
of her head. The image is set deep physically experienced, but rather it

within the side of the body of a dog, stems from a vivid imagination which
whose broken form extends, with its fuses dream images with carefully ob-
head at the right middle distance, served objects into a pictorially rich and
diagonally toward the left foreground. highly arousing picture.
The head of the dog is at the same In many respects Surrealism can be
time the headlands of a bay, and considered a synthesis of the elements
its collar a viaduct around these head- of modern painting. Practically all of
lands. Below the head of the dog, the problems of major concern to artists
vague, eroded and decayed or frag- from the latter part of the nineteenth

mentary forms are painted, such as de- century on were handled in one way or
caying vegetation and a broken brick another by the Surrealists. The concep-
wall with grass growing from its top. In tion of subject matter and the essen-
front of the wall there is a small replica tial elements of their style have exerted
of the monumental fruit-dish. A crum- considerable influence on recent art. A
pled cloth and a meticulously rendered new group, the Neo-Romantics, for ex-
length of rope hang over a table-like ample, developed in Paris almost con-
plane in the right middle distance; while temporaneously with the Surrealists,
at the left an amorphous shell-like from whom they largely derive. They too
form marks a grooved disturbance in the stressed subject matter and the signifi-

sand created by the movement of the cance of forms in their paintings, the
hind legs of the dog. Limitless space forms very often combining the real
stretches back of these apparitions, in- with the fantastic and apparently un-
terrupted in the left center by floating real; but the difference between this art
rocky hills; while a moon or sun nebu- and that of the Surrealists is that every
lously appears in the sky above. object depicted by the Neo-Romantics
This painting or any like it cannot be is real or a fragment of reality, which
 SURREALISM - SCULPTURE 633

assumes a strange appearance due to its is no wonder, therefore, that by the be-
deep spatial setting and its relationships ginning of the century sculpture had to
with other objects. The Normandy sea- a large extent lost its way and that the
scapes by Leonid are good examples of fundamental elements of the art had
this style. Expansive beaches, dotted been forgotten. The exception was Ro-
with human figures and nets, marked din, who must be considered both as a
with weird shadows, and set in a deep product of nineteenth-century preoccu-
perspective of shoreline and sea, give pation with the technique of modeling
these paintings a stirring and romantic, and with literary content, and as a con-

if sometimes a strange and enigmatical tributor in his expressionistic experi-

appearance. ments in these two categories to the
Throughout the twentieth century development of twentieth-century sculp-
painters have been concerned with var- ture.

ious problems of the medium, such as The sculptor, as the painter, is con-
form, design, delineation, and subject cerned with the organization of forms
matter. In every case the inventive, or shapes in space, but with this differ-
creative artist accepted, often uncon- ence: the painter must create both his
sciously, one or other of these prob- forms and his space, while the sculptor
lems as his own and worked out an creates his forms in an actual, tangible
unique, personal solution. From the ear- space. The painter works with volatile
liest years of the century, the non-aca- shapeless substances, such as pigments,
demic painter had little interest in rep- which he applies to a fixed ground, can-

resentational or anecdotal elements; in vas, board, or plaster; whereas the sculp-

fact, the young artist often based his tor works with materials, such as wood,
paintings on a personal or enigmatical stone, clay, or metal, which have in-
theme. The enrichment of and the bal- herent properties, as heaviness, bulk,

ance given to our culture by these art- density, volume, pliability, or fluidity.

ists is at the present incalculable, but A basic problem of the sculptor, there-

has clearly been very great. fore, is the rendering of his subject mat-
Sculpture of the present century has ter spatially in forms meaningful both
followed a line of development compar- of it and of the innate nature of the ma-
able to that of painting. In the nine- terial he is working with. During the
teenth century sculptors, even more than twentieth century, the non-academic
painters, suffered from the dictates of sculptors have, in their determination
the academicians, with their insistence to return to the bases of the art, con-

on verisimilitude and on the use of centrated on one or more of three as-

classical figures to convey an effete, pects of their medium: (1) the render-
allegorical subject matter. If the artist ing of the essential or simplified struc-

did not subscribe to these requirements, ture of the human form in an imperson-

he usually received no commissions. It alized manner, so arranged and shaped

634 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

as to bring out the nature of the ma- a sensitive Gothic-like manner, the fun-
terial; (2) the use of forms either de- damental spirituality or inner meaning
rived from human shapes or invented of life, that is, the generic expression of

to stress a plastic architectural-like con- the soul of man. His figures, composed

struction; and (3) the experimentation of slender attenuated shapes, stress ver-

with a variety of materials to determine ticalitv by a rhythmic nervous upward

the shapes and techniques proper to movement of profiles; while sensitive re-

them. In every case there has been a lationships between forms, such as the

direct working in and with the material. space between the hand and the thigh
The Seated Woman (fig. 474) by and the long narrow openings between
Aristide Maillol (1861-1944) isan ex- the arms and the body, contribute to an
cellent example of the first of these emotional expression.
three aspects of twentieth-century sculp- Cubism in sculpture best exemplifies

ture. Simplified massive forms, defined the second aspect of twentieth-century

by smooth planes and continuous out- sculpture— the plastic architecture of
lines, translate the essential volumes and forms. Unlike Maillol and Lehmbruck,
structure of the human figure in terms the shapes created by the Cubist sculp-
of the hardnessand heaviness of stone. tors had less and less the appearance of
Each shape, given a full and distinct natural forms, although in many cases
plastic statement, approaches a geo-
they were clearly derived from nature.
metric solid: the breasts as heavy low
Those artists were familiar with Cubist
cones and the arms and legs as cylinders
painting, and their sculpture shows
of varying and changing diameters; all
within the medium similar interest and
of the shapes arranged in a static har-
aims. In 1912, The Dance by Alexander
mony and equilibrium to express the
Archipenko (b. 1887), Russian-born,
stolid and inert nature of stone. No
but then living in Paris and now an
mood or emotional element appears in
American citizen, reveals an early phase
the sculpture of Maillol, which has the
impersonality of Greek sculpture. Sub-
of his style when the forms were the

matter has, in
consequence of an analysis of two fig-
ject fact, been abandoned
in favor of a basic sculptural organiza- ures to determine the fundamental geo-
tion of shapes in stone in space. metric shapes, their defining planes, and

A younger contemporary of Maillol, inherent mass and volume. Of particular

the German Wilhelm Lehmbruck interest to modern sculptors have been

(1881-1919), also departed from a per- the problems of statics and dynamics
sonalized representation of a model and and the interrelationships of shapes in

returned to the statement of essential space. In The Dance a continuous, cur-

simplified structure of form, but with vilinear plastic rhythm moving freely in

a difference in intent: Lehmbruck space relates the two figures and con-
sought to express through his forms, in tributes, together with the broken angu-
 SCULPTURE 635

474. Aristide Maillol (1861-1944) Seated Woman (c. 1901) Tuileries, Paris. Marble, over life-

lar poses of the separate parts, to con- serve to completely depersonalize the
vey sculpturally the dynamics of the group.
dance. The heads of both figures are A few years later in the work of Arch-
unimportant bosses of conical form, and ipenko and other Cubist sculptors the
6 36 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

analysis of form became more complete

and the resulting figures somewhat more
abstract in appearance. The interior, as

well as the exterior, character of forms

were often expressed, even in the same
shape, such as the thigh, by presenting
one side of the shape as a rounded con-
vex surface and the other as a concave
plane that exposes the volume and den-
sity of the shape. The French sculptor,
Jacques Lipchitz (b. 1891), now an
American citizen, and the Russian art-

ist Ossip Zadkine (b. 1890), both ex-

perimented in comparable manner in

the analysis of solids, and combined

geometric semi-abstract elements with
shapes of more complete naturalistic
implications. This phase, as in painting,
was soon replaced by a Synthetic Cub-
ism, in which abstract sculptural shapes
were invented or created and were com-
posed to express a human figure, as in
Lipchitz's figure The Bather. While the
shapes are not derived from natural 475. Alexander Archipenko (1887- ) Me-
forms, they an drano (1912) Wood, glass, and metal, 2'8"
present unmistakable
high.
image of a human figure.

The Cubist sculptors' interest in ments thrusting upward in a diagonal

movement and dynamics appears in the direction. A marked feature of twen-
works of a number of artists during the tieth-century sculpture, evident in The
period just before World War I. A good Horse, was the interpretation of life

example is The Horse by Raymond forms by shapes analogous to mechani-

Duchamp- Villon (1876-1918), the cal or machine-like parts, a new vocabu-
brother of the painter Marcel Duchamp, lary of forms compatible with modern
a work termed by some contemporary industrial elements.
critics 'horsepower/ The movement and About the time Cubist painters were
power of the horse are interpreted by a experimenting with collage, the sculp-
disintegration of the natural forms of tors began to construct their figures of
the horse into semi-organic and me- nontraditional materials, such as glass,
chanical elements, so arranged as to celluloid, tin and other metals, materials
suggest a synthesis of successive move- of an industrial nature. From about the
 SCULPTURE 637

beginning of the First World War until stract, often mechanical shapes of the
the present time, the sculptors' interest Synthetic phase were combined to cre-
in the possibilities of such materials and ate the image of a human figure. A
the technologies proper to them have nearer approach to the abstract, how-
been of major importance, and consti- ever, was achieved by the Roumanian-
tute the third aspect of modern sculp- born artist Constantin Brancusi (b.

ture. The circus figure, Medrano (fig. 1876), one of the most widely known
475) by Archipenko, in wood, glass, and influential of contemporary sculp-
and metal, is an early example; and it tors. Brancusi has lived in Paris since
also represents the use of polychromy, an 1904, where he assisted in Rodin's
element often used in modern sculp- studio for a short time and began to
ture. develop his own style about 1908. Al-
As in painting, Cubist sculpture ap- most from the beginning his sculpture

proaches the abstract, sometimes closely, has had as its starting point the nature

but it does not mark a complete break of the material itself and not forms de-

with anthropomorphism. Even the ab- rived from or used to create the human

i
1

476. Constantin Brancusi (1876- ) Leda (1920) Coll. Miss Katherine S. Dreier, New York.
Marble, 2' high.
638 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

figure. He has said that 'sculpture is a is worked out with great mastery. The
human expression of nature's actions' ideas and works of Brancusi have ex-
and that its intent should be 'to give erted a world-wide influence on sculptors

the sensation of reality, as nature gives for almost fifty years.

it to us, without reproducing or imita- During the early Cubist period, when
tion/ The true character of stone, for Brancusi was formulating his ideas and
example, can best be found in the shape his style, Anton Pevsner (b. 1886), a
of pebbles and boulders as they have young Russian artist, worked in Paris
been formed by the movement of water, for a time with Archipenko. Later, be-
glacial ice, or earth over them. Whether tween 1917 and 1921, in Moscow, to-

he was working in stone, wood, or brass, gether with his brother Gabo, Pevsner
Brancusi has always sought after the formulated the principles of the Con-
shapes natural to the material. He felt structivist movement in sculpture, a
that the material should itself suggest movement of far-reaching influence
the subject and forms, and that these even to the present time. The ideas be-
should not be forced upon it from with- hind it seem certainly to have been
out. suggested to Pevsner during his years
Leda, or Bird at Rest (fig. 476) well in Paris by the Cubist experiments in
exemplifies Brancusi's sculpture. It is new materials. He considered the es-

composed of two carefully balanced geo- sence of contemporary civilization to be

metric shapes, an irregular ovoid as a its industrial content, an outgrowth of
base, and, rising diagonally above it, an the sciences of physics and mechanics,
expanding ovoid-rectangular shape. and the development of new industrial
Brancusi considered the ovoid the es- materials and the technologies devised
sential shape most natural to stone and for their use. It is a civilization of dy-
to other hard materials, that is, the 'in- namic content, one in which the space-
evitable character' which he had found time factors are of paramount impor-
in these inorganic substances. In Leda tance in contemporary life. Sculpture,
he has created a work in keeping with he promulgated, should be a part, as
his aim to purify sculpture of all 'asso- well as an expression of present-day
ciative distractions' so that it may exist culture, and this may be achieved
as an art of forms true and natural to through the use of new industrial ma-
the material. He believed that sculptural terials and techniques, and by basing
shapes should express organic growth sculpture on new motives derived from
and should suggest or combine to sug- this culture. At first a semi-abstract
gest human or other naturalistic forms. movement, it later became as completely
In Leda the surfaces are meticulously abstract, as the then contemporary
finished to achieve a smoothness and Suprematist painting of Malevich.
high polish 'natural' to the character of In Pevsner's Abstract Portrait of Mar-
stone,and the refinement of the shapes cel Duchamp of about 1926 (fig. 477),
 SCULPTURE 639
::m:m wmp terior aspects of the forms. To a large
extent this is comparable to the Cubist
concept of simultaneity, in a like ren-

dering of the concave and convex char-

acter of a form same time. But
at the

the important difference here is the com-

plete abandonment of the sculptural
elements of volume and mass. In later
work of Pevsner and the Constructiv-
ists, and that of many other sculptors
under their influence, the constructions
are completely abstract in content, and
a wide variety of materials, such as plas-

tics, welded steel, soldered wire, have

been used in their creation.

The Constructivists, therefore, set up

as their special sculptural problem not
that of form, but rather that of the or-
ganization of shapes and planes in space;

Anton Pevsner (1886- Abstract

and to this they added the techniques
477. )

Portrait of Marcel Duchamp (1926) Collec- for working the new materials, and prin-
tion Societe Anonyme, Yale University Art
ciples derived from the sciences of
Gallery, New Haven. Celluloid and zinc, ^'iVz"
x i'iVi". physics and mechanics. The funda-
mental aim of both Pevsner and Gabo
a number of Constructivist sculptural was to create a plastic art of 'pure real-

ideas are apparent. Volume and mass as ity/ dependent upon no object as sub-

plastic elements are abandoned and are ject matter, an art of space and kinetics,

replaced by depth and space. The head of engineering and mechanics, which
is built out from a background with a was both a 'pure' plastic creation and a

number of metal plates or planes of symbol of the mechanical image of

various sizes and shapes placed at such present-day life.

angles to each other as not to enclose In the work of Brancusi and Pevsner,
space but to present in mechanistic the human element in art has all but
terms both the outer structure and inner disappeared, so far as any relationship
volume of the portrait-head at the same to human form is concerned. With a
time. Thus, the shapes exist dynamically Brancusi-like attitude toward form as

in space through the interaction of determined by the nature of the ma-

plane with plane in the construction of terial, the English sculptor Henry Moore
the subject, and through the simultane- (b. 1898) has developed an art that ex-
ous presentation of the exterior and in- presses the forms and even the emotions
640 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

478. Henry Moore ) Recumbent Figure (1938) Tate Gallery, London. Stone c. 4'6''
long.

of life through the 'free' creative han- female figure which has the impersonal
dling of materials. In the Recumbent timelessness of both humanity and of
Figure (fig. 478), Moore has not 'freed' the material, since in such a work the
a figure from the stone, but has created two are inseparable. Moore has created
a stone shape as a figure. The simple, comparable figures in wood, concrete,
heavy rounded shapes are those of stone and lead, but the forms always grow out
formed by natural forces; the solidity of the nature of the properties peculiar
and heaviness is clearly expressed; while to the material.
the open spaces within the forms reveal A somewhat similar attitude toward
both the density and the tensile strength materials was basic in the sculpture of the
of the stone, the massive arms and Italian Giacometti and of the German-
shoulders being analogous to 'bridges' born artist Hans (Jean) Arp, now an
of living rock formed in the geological American citizen; but in such examples
past; thus, all of the shapes in this fig- as Human Concretion (fig. 479), Arp
ure are those 'natural' to stone. One has merely suggested the human or or-
could say that this is the primary sub- ganic element, and the work remains a
ject matter of this work; but these semi-abstract rendering of balanced simi-
shapes are used to create a recumbent lar 'stony' shapes.
 SCULPTURE - ARCHITECTURE 641

thing new, it alone would not have been

enough. No great style in architecture
has ever been born of a deliberate search
for novelty. Architectural styles result
from one or more of three factors: first,

the emergence of new problems, which

includes not only railway stations, air-

ports, and power plants, different from

any problems hitherto faced by archi-
tecture, but also an altered spirit de-
manding a fresh form of expression.
479. Hans Arp (1888- ) Human Concre- Second, new materials, if basic and
tion (1935) Museum of Modern Art, New widely enough used in architecture, can
York. i'8" high.
create a new style as appropriate solu-

In sculpture and in painting, the tions are discovered for them. Today
twentieth-century artists have sought as steel and reinforced concrete, sheet
have artists of all ages to solve anew the metal, plywood, and plastics, not to
problems of their medium in order to mention glass in large sheets or in the

create an original and freshly perceptive form of translucent bricks, offer count-
work. The new approach to the prob- less new effects. Fi-
opportunities for
lem he set for himself is not funda- nally,new methods of construction play
mentally one of personal choice but is their part. The cantilever principle has

the consequence of the complex of the been known and used for centuries, but
culture within which the artist is nur- its application in stone and wood is

tured. That there have been so many limited. On the other hand, its possi-

special problems set for themselves by bilities in steel or reinforced concrete

the more progressive and creative artists can be astonishing. Moreover, the sub-
of our times is to a very large extent a stitution of machinery for handwork in

direct result of their lack of commissions the production of building materials

and patronage. The pressure to invent and, to a lesser extent as yet, in the pre-
or to develop a new 'style' in order to fabrication of the building as a whole
attract public attention has led many or in parts has led to the adoption of
artists into abortive ways; but the artists repetitive designs of clean-cut units, de-

of stature have withstood this and have pendent for their effect upon precision
enriched the twentieth century by their instead of upon the subtleties of crafts-

creative efforts. manship. Therefore, the proportion of

The rejection of eclecticism in archi- manual labor in building has declined,

tecture corresponds to the rejection of a change accelerated by the constantly

realism in painting and sculpture. rising cost of skilled labor. The emer-
Though this prepared the way for some- gence of all three of these conditions
642 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

since the late nineteenth century was Savings Bank in Vienna by Otto Wag-
bound to give birth to a new style. ner, built in 1905. Not only has it dis-

A gradual desertion of eclecticism by carded eclecticism but, equally signifi-

progressive architects in all countries cant the facade no longer looks like a
opened the way. The steps taken by heavy wall. Its decorative diaper pat-
Richardson, Sullivan, and Wright in terns bespeak a light substance enclos-
America are the same as those taken by ing space, as the silk of a balloon con-
their leading contemporaries in Europe. fines its gas. Moreover, the windows are
Some of the houses bv Sir Edwin almost flush with the wall surface. The
Lutvens in show the same
England band shadow at the top and side of
of
frank acceptance of materials, the same the window, which in masonry expressed
informality, and the same direct solu- the thickness and therefore the firmness
tion, for example in the size and loca- of the wall, no longer exists, and its ab-
tion of windows, that characterized late sence furthers the impression of light-
Gothic architecture such as Compton ness. On the other hand, these windows
Wynyates, and vet without the archi- are still vertical rectangles, taller than
tectural vocabulary of that style. In such they arc wide, a shape inherent in stone
a house as Deanery Gardens at Sonning, architecture. Thus the full implications
at the very start of the century, Lutvens' of the new conditions are not yet ap-
first thought was about the needs of the parent.
house, practically and as they pertain None of these buildings, most of
to expression, but not at all in terms of which were designed before the emer-
historic style. If the small building has gence of cubism in 1909, is more than
a traditional relation of solids and voids, transitional. Just as pure abstraction was
it comes more from the use of tradi- reached slowlv in sculpture and paint-
tional materials than from subservience ing, the full change to the modern point
to the past. The northern European of view gradually became apparent in
countries in particular were active in architecture. The Bauhaus at Dessau
stripping away eclecticism. The City (fig. 480), designed by Walter Gropius
Hall in Stockholm, begun in 1912 by in 1925, demonstrates the new style in
Ragnar Ostberg, and the Gruntvig all its scientific rationalism. Glass en-
Church in 1927, in Copenhagen, by cases the workshop above the ground
Jensen-Klint, borrow freely from the floor, and the whole exterior surface of
architecture of the Baltic region but the building on this side is cantilevered,
with a fresh interpretation. The wide- overhanging the ground story by several
spread ignorance in America of Scandi- feet. We can see some of the concrete
navian architectural history makes these columns and floors through this screen
and other similar buildings seem less of glass. The maximum of light thereby
eclectic than they really are. admitted is less important than the
More advanced in style is the Postal demonstration of the new principles of
 ARCHITECTURE 643

883- ) Bauhaus, Dessau (1925-26) Main block 167' x 49'

structure and the dramatization of light- signed in 1930 by Mies van der Rohe,
ness in construction. The wall looks like betrays its light construction. Compared
a skin drawn over a frame, as thin as with masonry buildings, this plan seems
possible both in appearance and in actu- to have no supports at all. A very slen-
ality. The fundamental concept of the der metal column or two, and strips of
building has changed from that of a thin wall here and there are sufficient
mass to that of an enclosed volume. The to carry the light flat roof. No partitions
elimination of the wall as a weight-bear- divide the living quarters into rooms;
ing member in itself has lightened the screens, some of them movable, indi-

building and permitted an additional cate that a given area is intended pri-

lightening of its component parts. More- marily for one purpose but is not re-

over, the rectangles, as units of this de- stricted to that purpose. The interior
sign, are the horizontal shapes of steel space flows from one part to another
or concrete construction. Finally, the with a minimum of interruption. This
severe cubical shape parallels and is sense of openness and of flowing vol-
allied to the Neo-Plasticist compositions umes stems ultimately from the work of
of Mondrian (fig. 472). Frank Lloyd Wright, who exerts pro-
The plan (fig. 481) of the Tugendhat found influence on European architec-
House at Brno in Czechoslovakia, de- ture.
644 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

481. Tugendhat House, Brno (1930-31) 53' x 115'.

The house turns its back on the street. the maximum advantage to be taken-
An overhanging slab shelters the en- of the view. This window, if we may
trance, with broad sheets of translucent call it that, extends around the corner,
but not transparent glass to admit light and a porch and steps lead down to the
but to preserve privacy. On that side of lawn. The flat roof exploits the canti-
the house are the necessary services. The lever principle. Thus the house seems
owner may drive his car into the garage composed of block-like horizontal rec-
without that tedious process of backing tangles, easier to see than in the Bau-
and turning so often necessary in su- haus. These are asymmetrically disposed
burban homes in America where the from the standpoint of utility and in-

garage is placed at the back. Here, these terior convenience.

occupants are less concerned with the This arrangement is dictated by a
street, its noise and public character, careful, almost scientific exploration of
than with the magnificent view behind, the purposes of the house and its sev-
where the land falls away and where is eral parts. In designing a modern house r
found most of the property belonging the architect considers the probable
to the house. If all is utility on the routes of its occupants pursuing their
street front, the back (fig. 482) is a de- daily occupations, in order to arrange
light. A wall of glass hardly separates the house so that these paths shall in-
the interior from the exterior and allows tersect as little as possible. The idea
 ARCHITECTURE 645

applies on a small scale the principles resulting from the Second World War.
that govern modern highway design to Most of this building, however, has been
minimize friction and interference. To so hurried and under such pressure for
this end, the open interior (fig. 483) economy as to have only moderate im-
greatly assists. This openness also offers portance. The poverty of many coun-
communion with nature. The owner or tries has compelled a preference of con-
his guests may be in the open air under crete to steel as the primary structural
partial shelter in the porch, or on cooler material, except perhaps in England
days may enjoy from within the beauty and Germany. Furthermore, a growing
of the outdoors. So large a glass area social consciousness has prompted ex-
admits the maximum amount of natural tensive housing projects forlow income
light when that is wanted; when it is families in all Western Eu-
countries of
not, movable draperies control its quan- rope. In the realm of monumental archi-

tity. Modern materials, modern methods tecture, the strip windows and glass

of construction, and a rational determi- wall of the Termini Station in Rome,

nation of as many factors in the problem designed in 1947 by Montuori and
as possible have produced here a charm- Callini, and others, are qualities of the

ing house of great flexibility in its adap- International style that combine effec-

tation to its purposes. tively with an old Roman wall. The

Since 1946 extensive reconstruction Royal Festival Hall in London, com-
has been carried on to replace the losses pleted in 1951 by Matthew and Martin,

482. Mies van der Rohe (

Tugendhat House, Brno (1930-31'
646 TWENTIETH-CENTURY ART

483. Mies van der Rohe (1886- ) Tugendhat House, Brno (1930-31) Interior.

demonstrates the connection of func- arts of our own times, as these same
tionalism and appearance. Foyers, forces have been modifying our lives.

lounges, and restaurants, afford fine No one can predict the future in the

views of the city across the Thames, and arts any more than in other fields. In-

completely encase the large auditorium deed, dependent as the arts are upon
to preserve its admirable acoustics from civilization,we would have to know
disturbance by noises from without. what the future will demand from life
The arts from the days of Egypt on in order to imagine what its art may be.
down have always written a faithful and We can be sure of only one thing: since
tangible record of their civilizations. humanity demands the arts for enjoy-

They still do so in the twentieth cen- ment and expression, if not for exist-

tury. The adoption of modern materials ence, they will continue to live and to
in sculpture and architecture in itself change as long asman continues to exist
has created forms of expression open to and to change. As man alters his needs,
no previous generation. The searching real or imagined, so too will the arts
and turmoil of modern life, the impact develop, and continue to reflect in the
of the machine and of science, and the future as they have in the past whatever
willingness to experiment in every di- manner of culture man may shape for
rection have left their imprint on the himself.
XXVIII Persia

THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

In the land lying between the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers, and to the east of
it, in the plateaus and sandy valleys of
Iran, or Persia, archaeologists have un-
earthed pottery that dates back into
the prehistoric period, about 4000 to
3000 b.c. From Samarra, Susa, and other
sites they have taken vessels fashioned
by the hands of early inhabitants which
are so homogeneous that they indicate
a civilization opposed to that of nearby
Babylonia. Swastika and lozenge pat-
terns, the ibex (fig. 484), and the ser-
484. Painted Jar with Conventionalized Ibex
pent are popular, as are life-giving water (c. 3500 b.c.) Oriental Institute, Chicago.
(indicated by waving lines) and hills of Pottery.

patterned triangles. Trees in that arid

land are already an important motif, as gods and goddesses, especially those lat-

are birds, bulls, and sheep. Man plays ter who might grant children, were
a somewhat minor role, often reduced modeled in the round, and were found
to geometric forms portrayed by simple with the usual weapons and instruments
angular or curving lines. Cult figures of of flint, stone, and clay. Fine craftsman-

647
 PERSIA

and Susa, showing a technical skill and

artistic talent unsurpassed in the an-
cient Near East.
Gilgamesh, hero of the epic poem, is

a frequent subject, a symbol of man

the powerful hunter, the ideal of these
and later generations; composite ani-
mals, winged or horned, confront each
other (fig. 485), or pursue each other
in the eternal combat that seemed as
inevitable as day following night, and,

1 indeed, became the symbol

vouring darkness. Even Luristan weap-
of day de-

ons were ornamented with these vigor-

ous and expressive animals, and their
bowls and cups, dating as late as the

ninth century, have similar designs in

repousse. Lithe, elegant, and spirited,

filled with life though simplified to pat-

tern, they give a hint of the particular

genius that will always illumine Persian

art.

THE ART OF THE MIGRATORY PEOPLES:

485. Finial (c. 2700 B.C.) Museum of Fine
STEPPE ART
Arts, Boston. Bronze, 6V4" high.

Iranian metalwork, with its emphasis

ship and artistry of a high order are evi- on balance and stylization, differs from
dent, marked by clarity of design and a the art of the migratory peoples who
wonderful sensitiveness in stylizing ranged from the eastern part of Siberia
forms derived from the world around to the steppes of the Black Sea area in
them. Russia. Nomads and hunters, shifting
By the bronze age, about 2700 B.C., from place to place with their tents,
many of the same motifs were adapted carts, and possessions, swooping down
by metalworkers for cheek plaques, on their more settled neighbors, left no
bridle ornaments, weapons, and jewelry records other than the metal objects
made in Luristan. Using a technique placed in their tombs or dropped in
that may have had its origin in Armenia combat. Weapons, tools, and bits of
as early as 3000 b.c, they fashioned all ornament must serve instead of books
kinds of trappings and gear for the Lur to give us some idea of their culture.
horsebreeders who lived east of Samarra In the proto-historic period, an Indo-
 STEPPE ART 649
European group of Iranian race, called Locked in combat or intent on pursuit,
Scyths by Greek historians and Saka they were ever alert to danger. Even on
by the Indian, occupied the lands north awakening a stag glances backward,
of the Black Sea; while other nomadic feet drawn up under him, ready to
groups penetrated Central Asia. From spring to safety (fig. 486).
about the beginning of the Christian
era the movement was reversed, chang-
ing from east to west, as the Hsiung-nu
(Huns) pushed from the borders of
China into south Russia and Hungary,
followed in the sixth century of the
Christian era by the Mongol Avars, and
successive waves of Turks and Mongols
through the thirteenth century. 486. Pectoral of Lioness from Kelermes (c.
500 b.c.) Hermitage, Moscow. Gold, inlaid
Between 750 and 700 b.c. the Scyths
with amber.
had dispossessed the Cimmerians north
of the Black Sea, retaining mastery un- Modeled with skill, vigor, and sim-
til the fourth century b.c, when the plicity, this art is often referred to as
Sarmatians in turn conquered them. Animal-Style Art to distinguish its dy-
Though classed as Indo-Europeans in namic and imaginative character from
race, their customs resembled those of realistic Greek objects found in the
East Asiatic tribes in their predatory same tombs. Its influence has been
existence, their killing of sacrificial vic- widespread; in the Far East, it was
tims, their burying alive of serving peo- copied by less expert craftsmen in bronze
ple and horses around the body of the and wood in the Ordos on the borders
chieftain. According to Herodotus, who of China and in Siberian settlements,
wrote in the fifth century b.c, to express while in Central Europe and Scandi-
grief they slashed their own arms, fore- navia it was to enrich the repertory of
heads, and noses and they drank the artists for generations to come. Tex-
blood of their victims; they were under- tiles from graves of Hsiung-nu of the
standably classed by the Greeks as Altai region and Mongolia, dating from
complete barbarians. about 200 b.c, and Persian carpets of
Near Maikop on the southern steppe the sixteenth century have similar pat-
in the Kuban area, and in the Ukraine, terns of combat. Twisting, interlacing
graves of chieftains have yielded up forms— sometimes of the whole animal,
magnificent jewelry, weapons, orna- sometimes of a part of an animal— de-
ments, and plaques in gold and bronze. tached and woven into compact de-

The most striking designs were of birds signs, drawn directly from nature or ex-

and animals common to that part of the aggerated into the grotesque, they are
world— creatures of the herd and hunt. to be found alike in the jades and
650 PERSIA

bronzes of China and on the manuscript eluding the Chaldean or Babylonian

pages and church facades of medieval Empire with its Syrian dependencies on
Europe, a legacy from the folklore of the Mediterranean. They organized and
the moving hordes. welded together peoples of divergent
The Scythians wore peaked caps with tongues and religious practices, holding
ear flaps, and leather tunics and trousers, them under a humane despotism.
appropriate clothing for a horse-riding Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes
people who lived on the windy steppes. were the conquerors and builders of that
We see them thus as they are repre- empire, failing only in the conquest of
sented in the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, Greece in the fifth century. Their tombs,
among tribute bearers to the Achae- palaces, rich robes, and jewels were the
menid kings of the fifth centurv b.c. wonders of their time and set a stand-

ard of splendor that still colors our im-

THE ARYAN INVASION AND
agination when we think of the Orien-
HISTORIC PERSIA
tal potentate. Out of the cliffs rising
By 900 b.c. an invasion had taken above the sandy Iranian plains they had
place on the Iranian plateau by Arvan tomb chambers the Egyptians
cut, as
people who came from the vast plains
had, so that the body of the emperor
of the Oxus and Iaxartes, westward to
would lie inviolate. The tomb of Xerxes
the area south of the Caspian Sea. Their
at Naqsh-i-Rustam near Persepolis (fig.
language was one branch of the Indo-
487) consists of a facade ornamented
European family, and developed into
with relief sculpture of the ruler stand-
Old Iranian and Sanskrit. Thev came
ing before a fire altar, supported by men
with new gods and new ideas of a so-
from thirty nations of the empire, rep-
ciety divided into caste groups, which
resenting but not portraying their real
left their mark on Persian culture as on
appearance, for they look like a string of
that of north India, where some of them
identical paper dolls pasted upon the
settled. The first Iranians to be of im-
face of the rock. Inside the rectangular
portance historically were the Medes;
chamber the body of the king was laid
in 612 their king Cyaxares took Nineveh
in state, clad in magnificent garments,
and destroyed the Assyrian Empire, as
turn was conquered in protected by his weapons, but without
his in 550 by
Cyrus, the Achaemenid. From that time the food, utensils, and favorite furni-

until the conquest of Alexander the ture that would have been buried with
Great (334-327 b.c), the Achaemenids an Egyptian king, for he did not expect
ruled over an empire unrivaled in size to return to the tomb. He was a mono-
and importance in the ancient world, theist, a follower of the god Ahura
from Lydia south of the Black Sea to Mazda who, as the wise lord/ was recog-
the Oxus on the east, the Indus border- nized by the ruling house as the great-
ing India, and the Nile of Egypt, in- est of the gods, and was worshiped to
 ACHAEMENID ART 651

487. Tomb of Xerxes, Naqsh-i-Rustam, Near Persepolis (c. 465 B.C.). Stone.

the exclusion of all others. The deity is elaborate rituals of their contemporaries
shown in sculpture as a human figure the Egyptians; for these makers of the
emerging from a disk that forms the Persian empire, their altars, palaces, and
center of a bird's body, similar to the tombs sufficed.

winged sun-disk of Egypt, and he holds Differing from the rock-cut tomb, the
a circlet, symbol of power, in his hand. free-standing sarcophagus of Cyrus (fig.

As the principle of Light, or Goodness, 488), ancestor of Darius, is built of

he was also represented by fire, so the stone blocks. Like a small, compact
fire altar is another important element gabled house set upon a platform of
of Achaemenid culture in architecture six steps, the rectangular chamber is,

and sculpture. It takes the place of therefore, at the seventh level. It was a
spacious temples necessary in the more treasure house as well as a mausoleum,
65 2 PERSIA

for Cyrus had been buried with pomp tem of conduits and drains hewn in the

and magnificence. rock platform, the initial plan of halls

More sumptuous than the tombs were and dwelling quarters must have been
the palaces, especially those of Persepolis made in the sixth century and fol-

and Susa, built by the hands of the lowed by later architects.

conquered people, using materials A stairway of 106 steps, low enough

brought from all corners of the Empire. for horses to walk up, led to the Gate-
Until they were burned by Alexander way of the World
(fig. 490) of Xerxes,

the Great, the palaces of Persepolis were through which passed the bearers of
among the most stately ever erected by gifts at the New Year festival. On the
man, with tall, slim columns (fig. 489) gate were outer and inner doors, faced
that are even today fitting monuments with bronze, about 30 feet high. These
to the 'King of Kings' who ordered them were flanked by winged guardians, bulls
built. Under Darius about 520 b.c. work with human faces like the Assyrian
was started, destined to continue for monsters, but carved with a grace and
150 years. Judging by the elaborate sys- purity missing in the Assyrian proto-

Tomb of Cyrus, Pasargadae (c. 530 b.c.) Stone, interior 10' long x 7' wide.
 ACHAEMENID ART

489. Apadana of Xerxes with Palace of Darius in the Distance, Persepolis (c. 465 b.c.) Stone.

types, and without the fifth leg favored space and height was increased by the
by the older artists. clever use of open stairways outside of
Beyond were the royal buildings based most of the halls, which added to the
on the old Iranian hypostyle house. The impressiveness of processions at audi-
principal facade consisted of an open ence time. The Apadana (audience
portico, the side walls were of brick, and hall) of Xerxes 489) must have
(fig.

the interior supports were limestone or been the scene of many such pageants;
wooden columns. These halls follow the it was a square hall, with walls of sun-
same orientation, with spacious court- dried brick 15 feet thick, a ceiling 60
yards between them, formerly planted feet high supported by slim columns,
with trees and shrubs. The effect of and a great throne room which could
 PERSIA
654

hold ten thousand people. There were with sculpture of tribute bearers, the fig-

flights of steps on the north and east ures done in three registers, each meas-
sides, and both stairs were adorned uring about 270 feet in length. The

HI
i it?

w
JPh

#>

490. Gate 0/ Xerxes, Persepolis (486-465 B.C.) Stone.

 ACHAEMENID ART 655

Medes in conical caps and the Persians without any indication of bodily mo-
wearing crowns brought lotus blossoms; tion. In contrast to Egyptian sculpture,
the Syrians brought gold vessels and a however, the arms and torsos are seen
chariot drawn by Arabian horses; the from the side, so that there is an in-

Bactrians (fig. 491), coming in from creasing realism; the sculptors were care-
the eastern deserts, led a two-humped ful, too, in observing individual racial

camel. These and the others of the types and costumes of the gift bearers,
twenty-five nations are shown facing the but they are types, not individuals. The
stair, each group separated from the details of headdresses, hair, weapons,
next by a cedar tree, the ancient Tree and garments are done as meticulously

of Life, here shown as though split as in Assyrian art, and they are as pat-

through the middle, with trunk and terned, but there is no emphasis here
branches visible from the top to the on brutality, on bulging muscles, or on
bottom and as symmetrical and elegant constant combat; the sculptors achieved
as an ancient bronze. All faces, hands, an ordered purity and clarity, a stability

and feet are directed toward the focal that may reflect the stability of the Em-
doorway, suggesting the procession, but pire. The figures project at the same

the figures are as rigid as those of Egypt, level from a background that is kept

491. Bactrian Leading Camel, Stairway, Palace of Xerxes, Persepolis (486-465 b.c.) Stone, 3'

high.
6;6 PERSIA

492. Lion Attacking Bull, Stairway, Palace of Xerxes, Persepolis (486-465 b.c.) Stone.

bare. There is no attempt to indicate which by contrast bring out the subtle
locale or to suggest space; the carvers and simple planes in the head of the bull.

respected the wall as a limiting mem- Though the same theme of attack was
ber, primarily architectural. In the bril- used so often by the creators of the An-
liant sunlight of Persepolis, every clearly imal Art of the steppe country, the
cut line and every shadow form effective stylization of hair and muscle as seen
parts of the dignified, majestic pattern. here at Persepolis marks a difference in
In contrast to the men, who stand ex- concept. The registers are separated by
pressionless in their frozen world, the bands of rosettes repeated horizontally,
animals are endowed with emotion and each one a perfect copy of the other,
personality. In the angle of the stairs, clear and pure in contour, and interest-
flanking the spear-holders, are two ing because of repetition rather than
scenes of a lion attacking a bull (fig. because of variety, such as one would
492 ) Though the effect from a distance
. find in the medieval carving of Europe.
is one of heraldic grandeur, on close in- Another decorative motif is the zig-
spection one sees the fury in the lion's gurat, the stepped pyramid, here used as
face and claws, made more dramatic by a crowning member on stairs and plat-
linear patterns cut sharply in the stone, forms.
 ACHAEMENID ART 657
The living quarters, like the audience
halls, emphasized spaciousness and
beauty of detail. The Tachara (winter
house) of Darius, which was also raised
on a platform, had doors, windows, and
niches of stone which survived the burn-
ing of Alexander, though the walls of
brick have disappeared. The Egyptian
influence is so strong here as to suggest
that the architects were Egyptian. The
Hadish (men's quarters) of Xerxes was
placed on the highest level of the ter-
race, from which stairs led down into
the nearby dark rooms of the Harem
(women's quarters). In all of the build-
ings the dark limestone was polished
with great care, giving it a uniform
493. Double Bull Capital, Palace of Artaxerxes smoothness, clarity, and grace.
II, Susa (404-358 b.c.) Louvre, Paris. Stone,
10' high. Within the walls of brilliantlv col-
ored brick there must have been splen-
Within the halls, columns of wood
or stone broke the space into small
units. Some of the capitals and imposts,
consisting of young bulls placed back
to back, carried the beams that upheld
the flat ceilings. These bicephalic im-
post blocks (fig. 493) are carved with
the same precision, love of pattern, and
symmetry that marked the relief sculp-

ture. The shafts of the stone columns

are relatively taller than those of Greece,
some 60 feet high, and are cut by more
flutes; the shaft is separated from the
capital by an intervening member orna-
mented with volutes and rosettes. These
elements, combining with a high base
(fig. 494), are so characteristic that
they are referred to as the Persepolitan
Column, a unique development in Ach- 494. Column Base, Palace of Artaxerxes II,
Susa (404-358 b.c) Louvre, Paris. Stone.
aemenid art. Base, 2' high.
658 PERSIA

did feasts and gatherings. The metal dynasty came to power, the Sassanian,
bowls, pitchers, drinking horns, and which lasted from a.d. 226 to 642. Arda-
cups give evidence of the same love of shir, Shapur, Bahrain, and Chosroes are
beauty that marked the arts of building among the illustrious names of the Sas-
and stone carving. This was an aesthet- sanian rulers who sought to encourage
ically consistent part of the world de- a flowering-again of the arts practiced by
stroyed by Alexander the Great, in the the Achaemenids. Like their forebears,
fourth century B.C., as he swept through they became world famous for their
on his conquest to India and reduced sculpture, metalwork, textile weaving,
the Achaemenids and their monuments and architecture.

to ruins. Unlike the flat-roofed palaces at Per-

That conquest left an impression of scpolis and Susa, the Sassanian edi-

Hellenism on Iran through the succeed- fices were domed and vaulted, which
ing period, the Seleucid, 323-250 b.c, made for a great uncluttered interior
but it did not smother the flame of space. A typical palace built for the Sas-

creative Iranian spirit. After the inter- sanian kings is the one called Taq-i-
vening rule by the Parthians, 250 b.c- Kisra (Arch of Chosroes) at Ctesiphon
a.d. 226, who were the 'middlemen' in (fig. 495). In the mild climate of Meso-
the profitable silk trade between the potamia, on a site chosen by the first

Romans and the Chinese, a new Persian of the line, Ardashir, this winter resi-

495. Taq-i-Kisra, Ctesiphon (a.d. 242-72) Brick, 312' wide x 112' high.
 SASSANIAN ART 6 59

dence was erected by Shapur (a.d. 242- same respect for the past and eagerness
72) after his defeat of the Roman em- for the novel. Like the Achaemenids,
peror Valerian. A barrel vault with a the Sassanian rulers had huge images
span of 84 feet runs through the center carved in the cliffs. These serve as mon-
of the building; smaller rooms and uments to the glory of the kings, but
chambers are placed on either side, with not as part of tomb ornament, rather
thick outer walls in which arcades are as independent works of art commem-
the ornamental feature. Among them orating investiture, victory, or the king
are pointed arches, an innovation at this supreme in combat and the hunt. The
early date. We have to imagine the brick investiture of Ardashir I (fig. 496) em-
and rubble walls as they once looked, phasizes the relation between god and
covered with smooth stucco and relief emperor as Ardashir receives the dia-
sculpture painted in gay colors. Since dem from Hormuzd (Ahura Mazda).
the native mortar contained a large The two face each other in a composi-
quantity of gypsum, which sets quickly, tion as symmetrical in plan as that of
the huge central vault was made en- an ancient bronze from Luristan. The
tirely without centering; it was classed heads, shoulders, waists, knees, and feet
as one of the wonders of the world. Be- of the men are at the same level, as are

neath its majestic curve the kings held the heads, bodies, and feet of the horses.
audience with a splendor rivaling that That love of symmetry inherited from
of Darius and Xerxes; even the carpet the past and the profile head and full-

on the floor, called the Springtime of front torso technique are in contrast to
Chosroes, was famous. the new elements— a soft modeling in

Another of the palaces, at Firuzabad, surface modulation in which there is

demonstrates the ingenious use of great variety in projection from the back-
squinches, which were built out in ra- ground, the use of flying ribbons, the
diating arches from the angles of the hanging foot, and the mobility of facial
square central chamber to meet the cir- expression.
cle of the dome that topped it. They Even more vigorous is the carving of
were used here for the first time and Bahrain II, a.d. 276-93, in combat. Rid-
were to become an integral part of Mos- ing full tilt at his opponent, in the
lem architecture later on, as well as an flying gallop, he unseats his adversary

important contribution to the art of as easily as a great monarch should,

building in Europe. In the same audi- showing a third-century version of a

ence hall the traditional Egyptian cor- technique that will sweep over Europe
nice was placed over the doorways, a thousand years later in the Age of
showing the Sassanians' pride in their Chivalry. Antedating the use of chain
past and their skill in working out new mail in Europe, this flexible, protective

solutions. armor made of rings of metal joined to-

In their sculpture they showed the gether was worn by the kings of the
66o PERSIA

496. Investiture of Ardashlr I, Naqsh-i-Rustam, near Persepolis (a.d. 224-41) Stone.

Sassanian period. It is to be seen in the setting, in which light and shade play
large portrait of Chosroes II at Taq-i- an important part, though perspective
Bustan. There, deep in the Garden and focus in the Western sense are
Arch carved in a cliff that rises above lacking. They are charged with emotion,
an artificial lake on the royal hunting full of tumult and excitement. The an-
preserve, he is shown in high relief in imal forms, especially, are done with
full armor, with helmet, lance, and sensitiveness and understanding: the
shield, seated upon his richly capari- heavy elephants moving through the
soned horse. On either side of this eques- underbrush, which they trample with
trian, on the inner surface of the arch, their big feet; wild boar racing across
some hunting scenes were carved, show- the compound; deer in the flying gallop,
ing him in action and giving us a good heads held high, or crumpling as the ar-

idea of the royal sport as practiced in rows of the king find their mark; all

the seventh century. These scenes, are remarkable studies of individual an-
smaller in scale than the Persepolis imal forms and all are a part, too, of dra-
carvings, are considerably broader in matic narrative.
scope. Men, women, animals, and veg- Roman influence had left its mark in
etation are suggested in an atmospheric the same site. The large arch of the
 SASSANIAN ART 66l

497. Peroz I Hunting (457-63) Metropolitan Museum, New York. Silver, 8V2" high.

Grotto is not unlike a triumphal arch dent in the more careful modeling of
in size, though it is carved in living rock, the body beneath the drapery, a more
not free-standing. In the spandrels were realistic anatomical study. Flanking the
angels of victory, the winged Nikes in- arch are panels of foliate ornament, the
herited from Greece, Western-looking leaves resembling prickly acanthus but
goddesses with curly hair and flowing adapted to a symmetrical tree-of-life

classical robes, who hold a cup of pearls pattern, which shows the ancient Ira-

and a circlet of sovereignty. As in much nian love of the motif.

of the other Sassanian sculpture, the Many of these designs cut into the
change from Achaemenid times is evi- cliffs as monumental sculpture were
662 PERSIA

adapted by metalworkers in the gold silken wrappings made for the bodies
and silver bowls and the cnps and pitch- of early Christian martyrs, which were
ers designed for Sassanian feasts. The placed in the church treasuries and un-
figures are raised from the background til recent times were shown as wonders
in various levels of projection, as in the from the Holy Land. Among the pat-
sculpture, and show the same interest terns of these ancient textiles are the

in surface modulation. The contrast of senmurv and cocks, horses, hunting

human and animal forms; the excite- scenes, the tree of life, the rose, the
ment of the 497); the calm
hunt (fig. pearl, all done in heraldic splendor.
majestv of the ruler enthroned, 'assail- Having revived the glory of the Achaem-
ing the onlooker by his glance' and sur- enids in an art that touched all of the

rounded bv his nobles; moon symbols civilized world, the Sassanian princes
and sun symbols; natural animals and weakened, then crumbled, before the
composite creatures; all were pictured onslaught of Islam in the seventh cen-
by the craftsmen, often in conjunction tury.

with leaf and flower patterns, and pearls.

ISLAMIC PERSIA
One of their favorite motifs was the
senmurv, or si-murgh, a fabulous an- Mohammed was born in Mecca, Ara-
imal who sometimes had the head of bia, about a.d. 570, and began his teach-

a dog, a fox, or even a camel, the claws ing in his early manhood, urging his fel-

of a beast of prey, the tail of a peacock low Arabians to follow his leadership
or rooster, and the wings of a barnyard toward an inspired monotheism. This
fowl, the whole generally framed by a offended the pagan aristocracy, who
circlet of pearls or leaves. sensed a threat in his desire for change,
These designs were used also as archi- and he was forced to flee to Medina in

tectural ornaments, judging by the 622, which marks the beginning of the
stucco reliefs once placed over the bricks Moslem calendar— the year of the He-
and rubble of palace walls. They in- gira. He built a house that was also used
vaded the field of textiles, too. We can as a mosque in Medina, and set about
imagine how dearly these fabrics were the political reform of the rest of Ara-
prized when we find that some were bia, coupling it with his religious fervor
preserved in the sands of the desert in winning converts to his belief in
along the Trade Routes, that others Allah, the One God; in ten years of
served as inspiration for Chinese tex- struggle and warfare he accomplished
tiles, and that now in the
still others are his task. Arabia was unified politically,
museums and churches of Europe— all and the majority of the population were
monuments to the Sassanids as much as followers of the Prophet, fired with en-
were the great domes and arches and thusiasm to bring the rich neighboring
rock carvings. The fragments now in Eu- countries under the domination of the.

ropean collections are bits from fine Arabs and Islam.

 ISLAMIC ART 663

sisted of four porticoes (liwan), each

covered with a flat roof supported by
columns and arches, which enclosed a
courtyard in which there was a fountain
for purification. On the side toward
Mecca the liwan was more impressive
than the others, for it contained the
mihrab, the prayer niche marking the
direction of Mecca, and the preacher's
pulpit, the mimbar. Towers, called min-
arets, or minora, were erected beside the
large rectangle so that the muezzin
could call the faithful to prayer (fig.

V /
498. Detail of Frieze, Mschatta (743-44)
Staatliche Museum, Berlin. Stone.

The first caliphs lived simply as Bed-

ouins, but, as the northern countries
were brought under their sway, the By-
zantine ideas that permeated Syria be-
gan to influence the internal organiza-
tion of the Mohammedans and there
was an increasing splendor surrounding
the leader, who was established at Da-
mascus. Finally, in the eighth century,
the capital was moved to Baghdad, and
a rich material civilization came into
being.
Even when the court was in Damas-
cus, the caliphs had wished to rival By-

zantium, and had instructed the archi-

who were brought in to build their
tects,

mosques, to make them on a scale com-

parable to Christian churches, in rich-
ness if not in size. The mosque (Masjid 499. Interior of North Dome, Congregational
or Jami) was their first concern; it con- Mosque, Isfahan (1088) Brick.
664 PERSIA

507). As in Byzantine and Syrian

churches, the ornament usually con-
sisted of intricate surface decoration in

mosaic, colored marbles, metalwork, and

carved wood (fig. 498).
As Sassanian power was overthrown
in the seventh century, Islam spread
throughout the land and Iran became a
501. King Hunting and Holding Audience,
stronghold of Mohammedanism. By Detail of Silver Ewer (1232) British Museum,
London. Inlaid, medallions 1Y2" high.
747 a princely Arab family, the 'Ab-
basids, revolted against the caliphs of
Damascus (the Ommayads or Umay- Under the caliphs and their Turkish

yads) and set up the 'Abbasid Dynasty,

sultans the mosques (figs. 499, 500) de-

which marked a triumph of the Persian veloped into splendid monuments which
element, for they considered themselves
combined some of the features of old

'Moslem Sassanian architecture, adapted to the

Sassanids.' Like the line of
kings before them, these caliphs became needs of the Mohammedan congrega-

enthusiastic patrons of the arts.

tion, with new motifs. Structurally, the
builders used the pointed arch, the
dome, and the squinch. Over these were
placed stucco ornaments, glazed tile,

and brick. Honeycomb elements of in-

creasing complexity were developed in
the squinches, breaking the vaulted sur-
faces with pockets of light and dark.
The use of columns and arches in the

interior gave an impression of shadowy

coolness, kept from seeming overpower-
ing and aloof by ornamental patterns
and inscriptions. In both Persia and
Turkestan the ceramic artist and the
architect worked together to create mag-
nificent structures, arched and domed,
gleaming in various shades of blue, yel-

low, and rose under the clear blue skies.

Ceramic arts flourished. Some pottery
was made to imitate metalwork in a less

costly medium. Lusterware gave the ef-

fect of gold or silver, while other pot-

500. Northwest hvan, Congregational Mosque,
Isfahan (12th cent.) Brick. teries made full use of blue, green, yel-
 ISLAMIC ART 665

Persia, and fused them into one of the

world's great epics. It marks the begin-
ning of a rich literature and serves as a
favorite text for calligraphers and
painters in succeeding centuries.
The practice of making fine books
went well back into the past. One of
the most renowned artists of the book
was Mani, leader of the religious sect
of the Manichaeans, who lived in the
third century of the Christian era in
Persia. Influenced by both Christianity
and Mazdaism, filled with religious fer-

vor, and inspired by a vision of a heav-

502. Bowl with Polychrome Painting (1242)
Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Pot-
enly messenger who bade him proclaim
tery, 8" diam. his teaching, he tried to win converts at
Ctesiphon but met with little success.
low, and other strong colors. In both He was regarded by both Christians
pottery and metalwork old Sassanian and orthodox Zoroastrians as a heretic,
motifs persisted (figs. 501, 502), no- and was forced to go east into the desert
tably of the king hunting and holding and oasis settlements to spread his gos-
audience, though in later examples he pel. There he met with great success.
began to have a very Turkish cast of Being a gifted painter, he illuminated
face, with slanting eyes and long black his scriptures with brilliantly colored fig-

hair. Writing done by master calligra- ures of the men and women of the con-
phers was considered a handsome orna- gregations, of the heaven they would
ment on plates, and on the mihrab and reach by right living, of the demons of
walls of the mosque. Thus old Persian the world of darkness, and of flowers,
elements were combined with Arabic fruits, and other lovely things on this

and Turkish ideas under the influence earth. This attractive way of recording
of Islam to form a rich and decorative and spreading his teaching infuriated his

art. opponents as much as did his doctine,

Literature, too, flowered under this so the Manichaean books were burned
patronage. In the eleventh century, in whenever they were found. Modern
Afghanistan, FirdausI wrote the Shah- scholarship knew of them only by repu-
namah, the Book of Kings, which he tation and hearsay until the German ex-

dedicated to his patron, the Sultan pedition of Griinwedel and Von Le

Mahmud, in a.d. 1010. He had gathered Coq to Chinese Turkestan in the early
together fragments of truth and legend twentieth century. There, in the dry
about the ancient rulers and heroes of sands of the desert, they found a num-
666 PERSIA

ber of fragments of the precious texts,

written in flowing script and still glow-
ing with color. They had probably been
made for the Uighur Turks, ardent fol-

lowers of Mani who had established

houses of worship not only in the oasis
cities but also in China, when they were
staunch allies of the Chinese in the
eighth and ninth centuries. These texts
date from before the tenth century, and
bespeak the long tradition of miniature
illumination encouraged by the follow-
ers of the first teacher.
503. Physicians Cutting Plant, from Materia
Turkish in type, with slanting eyes Medica of Dioscorides (1224) Freer Gallery,
and straight black hair, the figures are Washington. Opaque color and gold on paper,
5" x 7".
very much like those painted on pot-
tery in the twelfth and thirteenth cen- on a Sassanian textile. The balanced ar-

turies in Persia, especially at Raiy rangement of men and plant reminds

(Rhages) (fig. 502). The heads are big us, too, of the Luristan bronzes, almost
and the hands very expressive, costumes as old as art itself in Persia. The faces,

are painted in great detail; but the set- hands, and feet of the men are shown
ting is often ignored. These two creative in profile, as they were at Persepolis,
streams— of painting on pottery and of and their garments are as rich in pat-
illustrating religious texts— seem to have tern as those of Chosroes at Taq-i-Bus-
nourished the ground from which grew tan; they even have floating scarves like

the superb art of book illumination in the Sassanian kings, and they exist in
Persia. space untouched by cloud or shadow.
Under the 'Abbasids many treatises Only the eyes and hands give some in-

were translated on natural history and dication of Near Eastern vivaciousness,

mechanical wonders. They were illus- and bring life to a composition that
trated in a style similar to Syrian work might otherwise be too static for illus-

derived from Greek and Byzantine art, tration. Primary colors were favored, as
as well as to the pottery and manuscript direct as folk embroidery. Not all of the
painting of Central Asia and Persia. The Dioscorides illuminations are as simple
early thirteenth-century Dioscorides as this one, but it is quite typical of the
manuscript (fig. 503) shows two phy- figures scattered through the text; the
sicians cutting a plant. The men face miniature does not occupy a page by
each other, separated by a large plant itself— it is incidental to the writing,
as symmetrical in form as the ancient and fitted into whatever place was left

tree of life portrayed at Persepolis or for it by the calligrapher. It differs from

 ISLAMIC ART 667

Greek manuscript illumination in that a genius for organization that rivaled the

much of it seems to have been painted ancient Persians, these nomads held
for the sheer pleasure of having it there, their wide territory together and opened
since the illustrations are not very ex- trade routes that allowed much freer

plicit as diagrams to be used by doctors. traveling between eastern and western

Another text illustrated several times Asia. Culturally it brought together the
in the thirteenth century was the Ma- two important civilizations of the East
qamat written by al-Hariri, a kind of and West, the Chinese and the Arabo-
Canterbury Tales of the Arabs, done in Persian. Men from each section were
rhyming prose. In his illuminations, sent to the other by the ruling khans
which are gaily colored and lively, the whenever they were needed to assist in

painter al-Wasiti brings a freshness and warfare and administration or to bring

boldness to the tale that is quite appro- pleasure to the palaces. The Mongol
priate to the adventurous hero. Even khans soon learned to live as patrons of
when he is painting camels, and not the arts, and began to have books illu-

some fabulous creature, he lets his imag- minated as had the caliphs and their

ination play and sets down colors that courtiers.

are delightful and quite unrelated to The ManafT al-Hayawan (a natural

nature — pink and mauve as well as tan, history describing the characteristics of

vibrant tones that give as much life to animals and their properties useful to
the camels as the lines of their bodies. mankind) was painted under the Mon-
He states already one of the purposes gols in the last decade of the thirteenth
of the Persian illustrator: though not century, and shows the mingling of
bound by the appearance of things as Chinese and Persian methods. The stag
he sees them, to give them such beauty
of form and color that they seem more
vivid to the beholder than do the nat-
ural objects from which they were de-
rived.

In the thirteenth century a political

change came, with the Mongol invasion
of Jenghis Khan and his followers,

which was bound to affect the arts pro-

foundly. Baghdad escaped until 1258,

but eastern Iran was overrun in 1220
in an appalling destruction, and welded
into the Mongol Empire, which
stretched from the seacoast of China
504. Stag and Doe, from Klanafi al-Hayawan
through most of Asia (except India)
(1297) Morgan Library, New York. Painting
into Russia and eastern Europe. With on paper.
668 PERSIA

and doe (fig. 504) are not placed sym- sian. Another illustration is of the sen-
metrically within the border of the min- murv, which looks much more like the

iature, but diagonally; the tree, instead pheasant of Chinese art than the com-
of being in the exact center, with an posite creature on Sassanian silks and
even number of leaves and flowers or metalwork. A critic was prompted to
fruit growing to the right and to the write on the margin, Thou fool, since

left, is also diagonal and to one side, thou hast never seen the senmurv, how
like a Chinese plum in a Sung painting. canst thou portray it?'

Above and to the left is a Chinese cloud In the early fourteenth century,
scroll— one of the first cloud and shadow painters were still trying to combine
effects to be used in a thirteenth-century Chinese and Persian ideas in their illus-

painting— which does not, to the West- trations. In Rashld-al-Dln's History of

ern eye, suggest much space, but it is the World, written for the Mongols,
an attempt on the part of the artist to the illuminators had a wonderful op-
deal with atmospheric effects. The portunity to let their fancy rove, for the
ground plane is more of a suggestion history dealt with India, China, the
than a real description of locale, but, Near East (including Bible stories), and
thanks to the graded tone and shading the other countries brought under Mon-
and to the Chinese hills on the right, it gol suzerainty. As David is summoned
gives an impression of a foreground on to be king (fig. 505), we note the Ara-
which the deer stand. The love of sur- bian costumes, the checkered carpet
face decoration on the bodies of the that extends vertically up the page, the
animals, the patterned treatment of detailed painting of fruit and leaves on
legs and heads, and the careful delinea- the trees, and the use of the architec-
tion of little plants are typically Per- tural arch with its floral ornamentation,

505. David Summoned To Be King, from MS. of Rashld-al-Dln (1307) University Library,
Edinburgh. Painting on paper.
 ISLAMIC ART 669

506. Bihzad, Sultan Hussein Mirza Revelling, from a Bustan MS. (1488) Royal Egyptian Li-
brary, Cairo. Painting on paper, 12" x 8V2".
670 PERSIA

placed next to two trees that are quite the most dynamic effect, and color of
Chinese in their irregular form. All are the most precious and exquisite tones.
done by a painter trained in the Chi- The subjects illustrated lent themselves

nese method of handling a brush, mak- to this kind of interpretation: the

ing lines thick or thin to suggest vol- Shdh-ndmah, the great epic based on
Persian history, was still popular, and
the poems of Sa'di, Nizami, and others,
dealing with rose gardens, nightingales,
mournful lovers, the wine cup, the ex-

citement of victory, and speculation

upon life and death, could be illumi-

nated by the painters in an art intoxicat-

ing to the senses.

It;

sin
507. The Old Court (15th cent.) and Minaret
(c. 1730) Shrine of Imam Rida, Meshed.

ume or shadow. Here, line rather than

color is dominant in most of the illus-

trations.

Gradually, as the conquerors took on

more and more Iranian characteristics,
the painters allowed Persian elements to
overshadow Chinese, and by the fif-

teenth century the most accomplished

and splendid miniatures came into be-
ing. The word miniature describes them

properly, for the ideal was one of in-

508. Tahmina Visiting Rustam, from a Shah-
finite care, painstaking detail, composi-
namah MS. (15th cent) Fogg Museum, Cam-
tions planned with exactitude to give bridge, Mass. Painting on paper, S lA" x 4V2".
 ISLAMIC ART 671

S
'^W'':%:'M
:
!
t'

509. Bihzad, King Darius and Herdsman, from a Bustan MS. (1488) Royal Egyptian Library,
Cairo. Painting on paper, 12" x SY2"
'.
672 PERSIA

Though political change and de- as brilliant in design and color as the

struction had come with the second architecture of the mosques

507), (fig.

great conquest by a Turkic horde (that allows one to step into a scene of feast-
of Tlmur or Tamerlane in 1369), one of ing and drinking inside a garden wall.
Iran's most renowned artists flourished Surrounded by a flaming plane tree and
in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries: a poplar, and with the sound of music
Bihzad. This master of the miniature in the distance, the sultan and his

lived first in the eastern center of Herat, friends are partaking of food and wine
and later moved to Tabriz. Both there so freely that one member has to be
and in Samarkand beyond the Oxus assisted out. When we see Tahmina
there was a ferment of artistic produc- entering the chamber of Rustam at

tion under royal patronage. night (fig. 508), we are so intrigued by

Bihzad and his contemporaries patterns, colors, and the appointments
painted the courtly, poetic, or mystic of the room, by the shy tilt of her head,
scenes suggested by legends of the past, the dramatic gesture of the attendant
or revels (fig. 506) of their time. Faith- as he lifts the curtain and holds the
fully portraying the costumes, carpets, candle for her (the only indication that
flowers, wine bottles, and intricate archi- it is night, for the painter would not be
tectural ornaments, they may serve as so foolish as to darken his singing col-
records of that society, but they exist ors by making the room black), and by
in a world of the imagination more the interested expression of Rustam as

vivid than what the mortal eye sees. An he turns in bed to see who his unex-

entrance door, encased in enamel tiles pected caller may be, that we are trans-

— ' ' " am tmmmmmtmmmmmKmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm j m i

510. Queen of Sheba, School of Bokhara (16th cent.) Anet Collection, Paris. Ink on paper.
 ISLAMIC ART 673
ported into the realm of poetry. Even that they were on a level with the callig-
when out-of-doors is painted fantasy rapher, and were allowed a whole page
enters in. Darius, when out hunting, for the miniature, not just a random
almost injures one of his herdsmen corner unoccupied by the writing. Line
(fig. 509), who walks up to the King and color were used to create composi-
of Kings, and reproves him for not tions so vibrant and clear that sheer
being better acquainted with a faith- realism was unwanted (Plate xvi, fac-
ful servitor. Bihzad, like the makers ing p. 653).
of neolithic pottery and Luristan As conditions changed in the Safawid
bronzes, uses trees, mountains, running period, the patrons could not always af-
water, and animals as his motifs, but he ford such luxuries, and the tendency in
paints trees more exquisite than those
the late sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
one would see on a day's outing, and turies was to concentrate on single fig-
flowers scattered through the grass as
ures (fig. 510) or on brush sketches left
though they were on a carpet, each one
uncolored. Again Persian art came close
displayed so that the beholder gets the
to Chinese, but the idiom was quite
full impact of form and color. Rocks
strongly Iranian by that time. Much of
(still a bit Chinese) are like the inside
the old power was gone; the taste seemed
of a shell, all opalescent hues of mother-
to be for languid men or women deli-
of-pearl; horses are pink, lavender,
cately posed. It was not illustration of
maroon, and even sky-blue; the stream
epic or the glorification of kings: the
was once silver, but is now black owing
lyric, poetic character and the effete re-
to oxidation, the only pigment that has
finement of a civilization nearly stag-
suffered with the passage of time; the
nant were reflected by the painters. The
men, dressed in garments of many col-

ors, are not entirely natural in pose,

makers of textiles and carpets, however,

but their expressions are drawn from were more faithful to the old themes,

the horses are done by a man borrowed from the earlier, brilliant min-
life; of
acute observation. The flowers and trees iatures. They had not lost the glory, nor

are based on things Bihzad had seen, was it dead in painting and architecture;

but he has chosen to arrange and color it was transplanted into India by the
them to suit his needs in the picture. descendants of Tamerlane, the Moghuls
He and his fellow painters had elevated (Mughals), after their conquest in the

the art of illustration to such a degree sixteenth century.

XXIX India and Southeast Asia

EARLY INDIA prevailing winds which swept and ven-

In the Neolithic
tilated it. Houses were made of burnt
period, 3000 B.C.,
brick of a quality superior to that used
people in India were busy making pot-
tery and weapons. Excavations at the
in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Some of the
buildings on the streets were designed
sites of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
with rounded corners so that pack an-
in the Indus Valley have thrown much
imals could pass without dislodging
light on the way men lived in the re-

gion some five thousand years ago, and

their loads. The dwelling places and
shops seem to have been spacious but
show that there was actual contact be-
of a moderate size, and uniform to the
tween them and their neighbors in Mes-
opotamia. Seals discovered at Tel As-
extent that no palaces or homes of no-

mar, near Baghdad, show elephants and

bles are indicated. Within were pleas-

humpbacked bulls of India like those

ant rooms, open courts, and separate
from Mohen]o-Daro. The dating of the bathrooms which were connected with
Tel Asmar finds at about 2800 b.c. is
sewers— as tall as a man— in the side

the key to the chronology of the Indus streets. We may deduce from this their

Valley cultures. emphasis on cleanliness, and picture a

The thirty acres of ruins at Mohenjo- society so well organized that commu-
Daro have yielded rich materials from nity plans could be carried out.
those early days. It proved to be a The largest edifice in the center of
planned city with streets laid out north the city isbathing pool, 39 feet by 25
a
and south, east and west, to catch the feet, with an outer wall 8 feet thick,
674
 MOHENJODARO 6 7>

circular yoni, which in Neolithic years

mark a phallus-worshiping people. The

power of male and female, of generative
force, already is evident in the art of
India.
Among the human and
figures carved

modeled by the some

early people are

very striking examples of men and

women that have a particularly Hindu

,,.._ ,,;;.^..,,,-u.2~~^ „„_„..

511. Torso from Harappa (c. 3000 B.C.)

Archaeological Museum, Mohenjo-Daro. Sand-
stone.

and a row of chambers on the east side.

Since other temples and sanctuaries are

lacking, it is probable that this pool, fed
by a well, was the gathering place for

purification and healing, even as the

Ganges is today.
Water, which cleanses and makes
512. Dancing Girl, from Mohenjo-Daro (c.
growth possible, is still associated with
3000 b.c.) Archaeological Museum, Mohenjc-
the conoid vertical linga stones and the Daro. Bronze.
 67 6 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

character: a sandstone torso from Ha- probably early in the second millen-
rappa 511) which has an
(fig. inflated nium b.c. They brought their own reli-

look and stresses plumpness as a mark gious ideas with them, but also gained
of beauty; a slim dancing girl (fig. 512), much from their predecessors, the Dra-
nonchalant, angular, and bejeweled, who had a highly developed cul-
vidians,

from Mohenjo-Daro; and the count- ture. It was the fusion of these two ele-

less mother goddesses, begirdled and ments that was to produce the basic In-

coiffed. There is already in Indian sculp- dian culture. Society had been divided
ture a sensitive awareness of plastic form in pre-Aryan days into three castes, the
and a gift for endowing form with life. Brahmans who served as priests, the war-
Typical of India, too, is the love of riors, and the husbandmen. To these

animals displayed in the clay toys and the Indo-Aryans added a fourth, the
in the seals. In contrast to the Near serfs. The priests officiated at the cere-

. East, where combat and pursuit were so monies to their many gods by chanting
often shown, the feeling here is of af- and singing hymns, the Vedas. These
fection. There are no evidences that probably came into being about 1500
these people admired war-like traits; in- b.c, and were followed, about 1000 b.c,
stead, their energies went into the do- by the Brahmanas, which set forth
mestication of animals, for ponderous rules for ritual and sacrifice, and later by
elephants are shown before mangers the Upanishads, which were speculative
for the first time in either history or philosophical treatises. In these works,
iconography. Men subdued animals by and in the later mythological texts, the
an inner spiritual force, it would seem, Puranas, are the roots of all Indian re-

as the beasts bow down before man, ligion, Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist. We
their lord, or serve as vehicles for gods have little to guide us in imagining any
and goddesses. Rhinoceros, tiger, ele- of their visual arts, but the poetry of
phant, and humped bull are carved with the Vedas is magnificent. Their hymns
unequaled beauty on the steatite seals, to the Dawn, to Surya (the sun), to
and done with a skill quite lacking in storm and wind and cosmic order, even
thehuman figures and trees, though the to the fire of sacrifice, are among the
men bow before the tree and the tree most moving that the mind and heart
spirit. Here, as in the Near East, there of man have ever conceived.
is tree and serpent worship, and here, In the sixth century b.c, India pro-
too, composite animals are symbols of duced some great thinkers and masters.
power. So compelling were these ideas The two most important were Maha-
that they survived the Aryan invasion vlra, founder of the Jain sect, and Gau-
and flowered again in popular Hindu tama, who was to become the Buddha.
imagination much later, in the medieval The latter was born Prince Siddhartha,
period. The Aryans had come down to heir to a noble family of Kapilavastu,
the Indo-Gangetic plain from Iran, Nepal. His mother had a dream in which
 BUDDHISM 677

a white elephant descended and entered would waken to stop him. Safely out-
her body, and this was interpreted as side, he took off his princely robes, cut
meaning that she would have a child his long hair, and began his life of
who would be either a world ruler or a asceticism. Six years of it convinced him
Buddha. At the time of his birth she that he was still far from illumination,
went into a garden and when she that he must find it by meditation.
touched a tree with her right hand the Later, when he feltthat the moment
child issued from her side. All the world was near, he sat down beneath a fig
rejoiced: other young things were born, tree, where he was tempted by the de-

flowers appeared miraculously, the air mon Mara, whose evil cohorts and beau-
was scented with fragrance, and all the tiful daughters could not shake him
birds sang. Siddhartha was received by from his contemplation. Mara offered
the ancient Vedic gods, India and him temporal power, but he remained
Brahma, and was given his first bath.
He took steps in the four directions,
symbolizing his universal sovereignty,
and lotus flowers sprang up beneath his

feet.

From this auspicious birth, his life

was protected and fortunate. He mar-

ried a beautiful girl when he was six-

teen, winning her hand by proving his

prowess in many contests. His life in the

palace was one of ease and pleasure.
Though his father deliberately screened
him from a knowledge of human suffer-
ing, he did finally become aware of it

through three sights: when driving out

through the streets he saw an aged man;
then, later, a diseased man; and, still

later, a corpse. The realization that old

age, sickness, and death existed made

him impatient of the life of pleasure.
He resolved, when he saw a mendicant
friar, to renounce the world.
He stole out of his palace at night
assisted by his grooms and by dwarf
513. Asokan Capital (322-185 b.c.) Archaeo-
earth-spirits (Yakshas), who upheld
logical Museum, Sarnath. Sandstone, 7' x 2'

the hoofs of his horse so that no one 10".

67 8 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

unmoved; falsely accused, Siddhartha In the year 483 b.c, when he was
touched the earth, calling it to witness eighty, he felt that death was near, and
in his behalf. Then, having resisted called his favorite disciples around him.
temptation, the moment of enlighten- After giving them final instructions, he
ment, Bodhi, came, and thenceforth he passed into Nirvana. His body was cre-
was a Buddha. mated as the nations of the earth
At Benares, in a deer park, he mourned, and the relics were distributed,
preached his first sermon, expounding some to be placed beneath earth
the Four Noble Truths: that suffering mounds, or stupas, as he had directed.
must come to all living things; that its As the years passed, there were more
cause is desire; to eliminate suffering, and more adherents to the doctrine he
one must eliminate desire; to achieve had preached. Asoka (264-c. 227 b.c),
that, one must have good thoughts, good one of the kings of the Maurya Dynasty,
words, good deeds. That was the begin- urged all his subjects to become follow-
ning of a long life of preaching over ers of the Compassionate One. His
most of northern India, where he urged edictsrecommending the teachings of
compassion and performed many mir- the Buddha were inscribed on tall pil-
acles. He established monastic founda- lars similar to those of Persepolis. The
tions for men and women, insisting that pillar at Sarnath (fig. 513) was topped
they take the vows of poverty, chastity, by four lions, symbol of the Buddha as
and obedience, and go, like him, out leader of the Sakya clan, and on the
into the world with only a begging abacus below were carved wheels, sym-
bowl. bols of his teaching when he set the

W%^^*

^
"

*ii-J£ £.-

514. Stupa No. 1, Sanchi (70-25 b.c.) Stone, 54' high, 120' diam.
 EARLY INDIA 679

515. Yakshl, East Gate, Stupa No. 1, Sanchi (70-25 b.c.) Stone.

Wheels of the Law in motion, and the To the faithful these edict pillars had
lion, elephant, horse, and humped bull, a holy significance, for merit was to be
symbols of the great rivers of India, the gained by walking around them. As in
whole representing the Law as spread- the Indus Valley sculpture, the animal
ing in all directions in time and space. figures display unusual technical skill
68o INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

and a profound understanding of the ancient tradition of the ideal feminine

forms. form, the dancing girl adorned with
Asoka sent missionaries to Ceylon, bracelets, lithe, sinuous, full-blown. In
Burma, and the East Indies, and often contrast the male Yaksha is ponderous
they carried with them the first civiliz- and earthy, conforming to the male
ing forces known to those countries. ideal of the Harappa torso, having the
Symbolic art, in that it could teach un- same 'inflated' look. Persian art glorified

lettered tribesmen about the Buddha, kingship, but these slabs show com-
was one of the powerful agents in con- moner and king, man and animal, for
version and worship, and so from all were beloved bv the Buddha.
Mother India spread ideas and formulas At SanchI, and earlier at Bharhut,
for building monuments and making there are stories in stone of previous ex-
images that gave rise to some of the istences of Gautama, the jatakas 7
which
most beautiful and the most significant tell wonderful talcs of the Buddha when
art in all the Eastern world. he was king of the monkevs, or a six-

In the Ganges Valley, stupa no. 1 at tusked elephant, rescuing his friends
SanchI is well preserved (fig. 514). It and repaying evil with good, done with
consists of an outer stone railing pierced a narrative gift that seems particularly
by four gateways at the cardinal points
of the compass. Within is a terrace,

then the hemisphere of earth and stone,

and the crowning member, a platform

and parasol stand, which was both axis

and symbol of kingship. The gateways,

done in the first century B.C., are
crowded with narratives and symbols
related to the Buddha in relief that re-

minds us of ivory caning, as well it

might, for a guild of the workers in ivory

probably had a hand in it. In all the
richness and profusion Buddha is never
shown in human form, though he is

symbolized by the wheel, lotus, lion,

empty throne, Bodhi tree, and by his
footprint. His followers are there, as
well as animals, and the spirits of air,
earth, and water who had come into
Buddhism from Vedic days. Swinging
out from the East Gate is a YakshI (tree
516. Surra, Buddhist Railing, Bodhgava (185—
spirit) (fig. 515), who embodies the 80 b.c.) Stone.
 EARLY INDIA 68l

517. Chaitya Hall, Karll (185-80 B.C.) Interior. Stone, 124' long x 45' high.

Indian. At Bodhgaya, there are spirits, The believers worshiped in temples

symbols, and the ancient gods, includ- carved into the living rock, the Chaitya
ing Surya, god of the sun, driving his Halls, found in western India at Karll
chariot across the sky (fig. 516). The (fig. 517), and elsewhere near Bombay.
railing marked the path of the walk Though no structural wassupport
taken by the Buddha when he rose from needed, beams were chiseled out of
beneath the sacred fig tree after the stone like wooden ribs, and columns
Illumination. spaced along the sides. Light was ad-
682 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

mitted through a clearstory window in rise in time to strange and wonderful

the facade, set under a double-curved creations in Central Asia, China, and
arch, one of the most characteristic fea- Japan. Here, and at Mathura in the
tures of early Indian architecture. Inside, Ganges Valley, Buddha and Bodhisattva
the focal point for the worshiper was the were carved in stone as majestic men,
stupa carved in stone at the far end of no longer simply suggested by symbol.
the sanctuary— a smaller version in

sculpture of the great mounds of Sanchi

and Bharhut. Here, too, merit was
gained by walking around it in a sun-

wise direction.
Out in the border province of Gan-
dhara, beyond the Indus, the Good Law
spread. Monasteries had been estab-
lished, stone carvers were busy. The rul-

ing house, the Kushans, an Indo-Scyth-

ian or Saka people who dwelt there
from c. a.d. 50-320, were ardent Bud-
dhists. On the coin of King Kanishka
(died a.d. 160) the Buddha is shown
as a standing figure wearing a flowing
robe, more like a Roman orator than an
Indian mystic. Graeco-Roman influence
here went back to the conquest of Alex-
ander the Great and was strengthened
by the Bactrian heirs of Alexander, who,
in turn, left a Hellenistic legacy to the

Kushans. Up in the foothills of the

Pamirs, in the Punjab, and down the
518. Casket of Kanishka (a.d. 2nd cent.) Pro-
Indus Valley, these men of Greek heri-
Museum, Peshawar. Gilded metal, 8"
vincial
tage brought new forms and ideas to high.
the service of Buddhism. Tritons, At-
lantids, Herculean men with bulging On the Casket of Kanishka (fig. 518),
muscles, women as wise as Athena and as well as on his coin, and on votive stele

as ample as Demeter, cupbearers— even (stone memorials dedicated by the

the Trojan horse— appear now associ- faithful) and among the figures in the
ated with the Buddhist hierarchy. round found in ruins of monasteries,
It is a hybrid art, a late flowering of the Buddha is a sturdy figure, clad in a
the Hellenistic seed, infused with a flowing robe (fig. 519). His features re-

spiritual power born of India, giving semble Apollo of the Praxitelean type,
 EARLY INDIA 683

when he, like other princes, wore heavy

earrings.

Even more Indian in form are the

Bodhisattvas (fig. 520), those beings
who had attained the essence of wis-
dom but not full Buddhahood; Gau-
tama had been one before he sat be-
neath the sacred tree and received en-
lightenment. Instead of the robe cover-
ing the whole body, they wear the dhoti
cloth wrapped around the waist, leaving
the torso bare, as was natural in a hot
country. Jeweled turbans, bracelets, ear-
rings, and beads are among the 'thirteen

precious objects' that distinguish them.

Heavy lids droop over languid eyes, a

Sic). Buddha ( 1st- 5th cent.) Guides' Mess,

Hoti-Mardan. Stone.

his hair curls back in waves from his

forehead and the body under the dra-
pery is carvedin the Graeco-Roman

tradition. But the mark between the

eyes, the urnd, is Indian, as is the pro-
tuberance on the top of his head, the
ushnisha, for both are marks peculiar to
the Buddha indicating especial virtue.
The long ear lobes remind us of his days

in the palace before the Renunciation, 520. Bodhisattva, from Sahri Bahlol. Stone.
68 4 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

small mustache often shadows the full

lips, and a fold of flesh rolls above the
dhoti. These are princely beings, not
monastic followers of rule and disci-
pline.

The hands Buddha and Bodhisatt-

of
vas are often shown in particular ges-
tures, mudra, which have an especial

significance. These mudra were used by

the sculptors to indicate various atti-

tudes, and were recognized by the be-
holders at once; they go with Buddhism
into Greater India, Central Asia, China,
and Japan. The hand up, palm out,
meant 'Do not fear'; the hand pendant,
palm out, was extended in charity; one
hand laid upon the other, palms up,
was the mudra of contemplation; in

discussion one hand was raised, thumb

touching second finger; and when the
Buddha was seated yoga fashion, legs
crossed and soles of his feet turned up
as he sat under the Bodhi tree, he
touched the earth with his hand ex-

tended, palm in, calling the earth to

witness when he resisted Mara the de- 521. Mara, from Hadda (5th cent.) Musee
mon and thus symbolizing resistance of Guimet, Paris. Stucco, 1' high.
all temptation.
Some of the most beautiful Buddhist characters are done as portrait studies.
figures were made in stucco, in molds, There are Apollonian youths, angelic
discovered by members of the French beings who might have come from a
Delegation to Afghanistan when they French Gothic cathedral, and diabolic
dug in the ruins of Hadda. Dating prob- ones who might be ancestors of gar-

ably from before the fifth century of the goyles. There is a tribesman in a long
Christian era, when the invasion of the coat (fig. 521), a Mongoloid person
Epthalite Huns left destruction in its sometimes called Mara, and there are
wake, they show an expressive power languid, graceful people who are purely
and a love of individuality quite rare in Hindu; it was a meeting place of many
an art that tended to become stylized types, all brought to the service of the
in Gandhara. All the minor deities and Buddha, fashioned by the hands of
 EARLY INDIA 68:

On such a huge scale, the work is im-

pressive rather than beautiful, and bears
witness to the enthusiasm of the dev-
otees who came there. In the photo-
graph, we can see the damage done by

522. Colossal Buddha, Bamiyan, Afghanistan

(
5th cent.) Stone, 175' high.

sculptors known to us only by fragments

that remain.
The French Delegation unearthed
Syrianglass, metalwork from Rome,

ivory from India, and Sassanian works

from Persia. Throughout the country-
side there are abundant proofs of the

international quality of the art of the

area, which was largely due to caravan
trade and to pilgrimages made by the
Buddhists. In Bamiyan, the faithful had
carved two colossal Buddhas (fig. 522)
523. Bodhisattva, dedicated by Friar Bala
in stone cliffs overlooking the valley, one (a.d. 131-32) Archaeological Museum, Sarn-
ath. Sandstone, 8'2" high.
175 feet high, the other 120 feet high.
686 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

the Moslems who were offended by dhoti, low girdle, and scarf thrown over
these images and destroyed their faces one arm, leaving one shoulder bare, all

in target practice from across the val- of a light transparent material, rather

ley. We should suppose that carving than of the heavier cloth that made
the enormous figures in the living rock,
and attaching folds of drapery to

wooden pegs set in holes drilled in the

rock, would be task enough for the

makers, but Chinese pilgrims of the
fourth and seventh centuries speak of
the great statues gleaming in the sun,
so metal must have been used as well.

The niches were covered bv layers of

plaster and frescoes were painted there,
Buddhist in inspiration but interna-
tional in style, Sassanian, Hindu, and
Hellenistic motifs predominating.
Down in the Ganges Valley parallel

developments were taking place. At

Mathura (Muttra) another great cen-
ter of religious sculpture had been
flourishing, probably from pre-Buddhist
times, in a place now holy to Hindus,
Buddhists, and Jains. The stupa art must
have been contemporarv with that of
Sanchl, while the practice of making
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in monu-
mental forms was as common there
under the Kushans as it was in Gan-
dhara. One of the most important of
these is a standing Bodhisattva dedi-
cated by Friar Bala (fig. 523) in the
third year of Kanishka, or a.d. 131-2, a
figure 8 feet high, which was the ideal
according to the Indian canon of pro-
portion. In every respect the Indian
ideal is followed; it has the torso of a
lion, the arms of a hunter, the long
524. Heracles and the Nemean Lion (a.d. 50-
supple legs of a deer. The drapery, too,
Indian Museum, Calcutta. Stone, 2'6'
320)
is of the native type, consisting of the high.
 EARLY INDIA 687

such prominent folds in the Hoti-Mar- the carver's needs, perhaps because it

dan Buddha. The relatively small head, was farther away from foreign invasion,
with its round, wide-open eyes, and its it is in many respects the most beauti-
smooth hair brushed back from a slop- ful of all. Slabs once used on stupas,
ing forehead, has none of the Greek- since burned and looted, suggest that
god softness noted in the Gandharan the southern sculptor portrayed with an
type. There was Graeco-Roman influ- effortless ease the whole panorama of
ence in Mathura, to be sure, in Olym- life: crowded streets, palace interiors,

pian heroes (fig. 524), but they are ex- even the realms of the Tushita heavens
pressed in an Indian idiom, in the local whence came the white elephant to
red sandstone. Maya, the mother of Buddha. Bodily
Far to the south, on the east coast, tensions and movement, utter relaxa-
another fine group of Buddhist sculp- tion, drama and calmness are there

tures were found at AmaravatI, on the (fig. 526). Compositions are sometimes
Kistna River. Perhaps because the unbearably crowded, sometimes done
greenish marble was better adapted to with an almost mathematical precision.

525. Representation of a Stupa, from AmaravatI (a.d. 150-300) Government Museum, Madras.
Marble, 6y high.
688 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

and later showing him in his monk's

robe. The evolution at Amaravati from
the Age of Symbol to the Age of Repre-
sentation is so gradual that we are
hardly aware of it, just as we feel no
shock of transition from this art of the

Andhra period (220 b.c.-c. a.d. 300) to

the classical art of the Gupta (a.d. 320-

600).
The Gupta kings, natives of Bihar
who extended their rule throughout the
Aryan north, though not Buddhists, en-
couraged arts of all sects. Gupta images

526. Buddhaand the Elephant, Nalagiri,

Stupa No. Amaravati (a.d. 150-300) Gov-
1,

ernment Museum, Madras. Stone, 3'8" high.

Lithe and energetic, the men and wom-

en seem to pulsate with life, a splendid
expression of an Indian ideal, which
was able to show in sculpture the dif-

ference between a dead man and a

sleeping one. The relief is generally high
and well-rounded, designed by artists

who had an excellent understanding of

light and dark values in expressive
sculpture. Gradations are more subtle
than at Sanchi, indicating a more ma-
ture approach on the part of the carvers.
In architecture, too, there is a marked
originality. The stupa, as we see it in
the small slabs of relief sculpture (fig.

525), was surrounded by a railing, but

there were no gateways as at Sanchi. A
moonstone was placed at the entrance,
and five slender columns were set inside
at the terrace level, both features we
527. Buddha Preaching in the Deer Park
shall see in Ceylon. Sculpture was used
(320-600) Archaeological Museum, Sarnath.
lavishly, at first symbolizing the Buddha, Sandstone, 5' 3" high.
 EARLY INDIA
689

528. Cave XIX, Ajanta (320-600) Facade. Stone, 38' high x 32' wide.

J
690 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

became models for later generations in is now the perfect vehicle for her aes-
India and in faraway lands. The Preach- thetic ideal.

ing Buddha of Sarnath (fig. 527) is a Out in the western regions, inland
superb example of the ideal as it had from Bombay at Ajanta, some mendi-
become crystallized. The seated figure cants had taken shelter in caves above
is finished with a smooth perfection, the Waghora River. A religious commu-
and the spiritual expression reveals the nity had been established gradually in

attitude of the Indian sculptor toward the jungle country. In the solid rock
his art, that of making God manifest in above the bend of the river twenty-nine
stone, present in all things, as the num- halls of worship (chaitya) and monastic
ber one is present in all numbers. The quarters had been hollowed out and
crisply carved features have a grace and adorned with painting and sculpture
tenderness of form that seem almost from c. 200 b.c. to c. a.d. 500, some of

paradoxical. The whole figure is ma- the best work having been done in the

jestic, aloof, but not haughty or arro- Gupta period. The facade of cave xix

gant; compassion is there, and serene (fig. 528) shows the rough stone in

wisdom. Just as there is the Indian em- which so many intricate figures were

phasis on the spirit, so the very propor- carved, and also that the chaitya win-

tions are Indian, based on other natural

dow still dominates the architectural

forms; the head

design. Beautiful as the architecture and
is oval as an egg, the
sculpture are, it is the paintings that
shoulders strong as a lion's, the waist
cause unbounded admiration. In caves
slim as a wasp's, and the lotus pose is
1 and 11, especially, the walls are covered
one taken bv followers of voga as they
with such a variety of forms, so vibrant
seek to free the mind for contemplation.
with life, that the earliest Europeans
The hair is a series of tight snail-shell
who saw them could not believe that
motifs, the ear lobes are extended, and
they were religious. In glowing browns
the drapery is so light that we have to
set off by lapis blue, pearly white, crim-
look closely to become aware of it at all.
son, and green, men, spirits, and animals
Behind the subtle curves of head and
crowd about the walls in great rhythmic
shoulders a great halo is placed, orna-
patterns. In cave 1 the central chamber
mented with floral and leaf patterns,
is64 feet square, a huge space to hol-
beads, and, at the edge, a minute scal-
low out of solid rock, and contains
lop design that had been used at Ma- countless figures, the most famous being
thura. The smaller attendants, flying the Beautiful Bodhisattva (fig. 529),
above, or kneeling below at the turning which is 5 feet 9V2 inches from the
wheel, are similar to the lithe Amaravati crown of the head to the knees. He is
men and women. Whatever had come the lotus holder, who dwells now on
to India from other lands has been ab- earth, performing the functions of Gau-
sorbed and changed so that the result tama until the Buddha of the Future
 EARLY INDIA 691

had come. He is a prince of noble birth crowd around him seeking salvation. As
and breeding, wearing jewels, aloof but in the Sarnath sculpture, the ideal of
not detached from the beings who manly beauty has been followed, strong,

529. The Beautiful Bodhisattva, Cave I, Ajanta (320-600) Fresco, 5'io" high.
692 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

graceful, and supple. Highlights are violent than those approved by the fol-
brought out in skillful gradations of lowers of the Compassionate One.
tone, giving volume by shading from
MEDIEVAL INDIA
dark to light within the limited color
range. As we have noted, the Gupta kings
In the narratives that relate to the were not Buddhists but Brahmanists, in

life of the Buddha or his previous ex- whose reigns there was a revival of the
istence there are rich panoramas and in- old Vedic worship, bringing a need for
cidents of many kinds, separated by new temples, and new tasks for the ar-

cleft rocks and architectural motifs into tists who must give form to a new pan-
horizontal units. Rocks and architecture theon. No longer were the forces of na-
seem to come forth from the walls to- ture thought of as impersonal phe-
ward the beholder in a perspective that nomena to be addressed by priests in

is quite startling to the Western eye, ritual; now became gods who dwelt
they
accustomed to a convention that pre- in their temples, who had to be anointed

tends to penetrate the wall. Up on the with oil and cared for, who delighted in
ceiling are lovely patterns fitted into gifts, and who had to be propitiated, so

carefully regulated spaces, all showing that they would not bring evil into the
the vitality, grace, and imagination that lives of their followers. Brahma, soul

characterize the art of the anonymous and creator of the universe, was rarely
painters who worked on the plaster of represented, but in traditional iconog-
these walls. Perhaps they followed the raphy has four heads and four arms
scheme of a master, for transfers were (which hold the four books of the
used, the outlines pricked to allow red Vedas), and is accompanied by his con-

or black chalk rubbed over them to sort, SarasvatI, goddess of eloquence and
cling to the rough plaster beneath the music.
finely burnished surface in which the More popular with the masses were
pigment was incorporated. Working in the two other members of the Trimurti,
the large, dark chamber bv torchlight or Vishnu and Siva. Vishnu, known also
light reflected from the doorway by as Hari, was the great hero who appeared
holding a white sheet there, these men in ten incarnations (avatars) to save
expressed the ideas and methods, handed the day for fellow gods and humans. He
down from generation to generation in had been an ancient deity of the sun,
their guilds, with such success that and his color, blue, still suggests his

Ajanta became the mother school for heavenly association, as does his vehi-
Central Asia, Ceylon, China, and Japan. cle, the Garuda bird. He is generally
It is almost the last great moment be- represented with four arms, the hands
fore a rising tide of popular Hinduism holding a mace, conch shell, lotus, and
will engulf most of India in forms more disk. In his heroic avatars his form
 MEDIEVAL INDIA 693

varies according to iconography based

on legends; as Rama and Krishna he is

the central figure in poetry, dance,

drama, music, and representational art.

Laksmi, goddess of beauty and fortune,

and Bhumi-devi, goddess of earth, are
his consorts.

Siva, developed from the ancient

storm-god Rudra, had to be placated
by sacrifice, for he was a destroyer; at
the same time, he was god of generative
force, represented by the linga stone,
and was shown associated with the bull.

In making this complete cycle he was

the ideal of many Hindus. He was also
lord of beasts,and dwelt upon Mt.
Kailasa, sometimes as an ascetic, his
emaciated body covered with ashes, or,

at other times, as a consort of Parvati,

protecting her tenderly. His power is

shown, too, as the dancer, Nataraja, per-

530. Dancing Siva (13th cent.) Government 531. Parvati (nth-i2th cent.) Freer Gallery,
Museum, Madras. Bronze, 3'n" high. Washington. Bronze, ^'^" high.
694 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

in himself, bringing release and free-

dom.
Siva's consort is as full of contradic-

tions as he is. As ParvatI, she is the

daughter of the mountain, wild and
gracious (fig. 531). She is the mother of
the god of war, and of Ganesa, the ele-

phant-headed god of mischief and good

luck, familiar to all travelers in the
Orient. As Kali (fig. 532), she is blood-
thirsty and insatiable, wearing a neck-
lace of skulls, devouring men. She is at-

tended by seven goddesses who spread

disease. But with her powers as a de-

stroyer, she can also destroy demons,

and rescue her followers from care and
want, and so she is hailed as a savior.

Among the early medieval monu-

ments inspired by these gods of popular
Hinduism are the monolithic raths' at
Mamallapuram down on the southeast-
ern coast near Madras, and the famous
532. Kail, Nelson Gallery, Kansas City. Bronze. relief of the Descent of the Ganges
carved on a cliff near by (fig. 533). This
forming his divine dance of creation is 30 feet long and 23 feet high, filled

and destruction (fig. 530). His wild with figures of gods and men and ani-

locks swing out in the dance, and on his mals. It is a seventh-century rendering
head are a skull, a crescent moon, and of a legend that explains how the river
the goddess Ganga. In one of his four goddess Ganga came to water the dry
hands he holds a drum (the first sound plains of north India in response to the
in the universe), in another the flame prayers of a pious king who had sub-
of destruction. One hand is raised in jected himself to austerities for a thou-
the mudra 'Do not fear,' with a serpent sand years. Siva, realizing that the shock
wrapped like a bracelet on the arm; the of the descending torrent might destroy
other hand points down to the dwarf on the earth, stood to receive it on his

whom he dances, one of the many en- head, allowing the water to trickle

emies overcome by this lord of death. through his locks, and so to come gently
Energy is represented by a third vertical to the parched earth. Magnificent ele-
eye in the middle of his forehead. To phants stand below divinities of the sky
the devotee, the dance took place with- who fly above; all manner of birds and
 MEDIEVAL INDIA 695

533. Descent of the Ganges, Mamallapuram (600-850) Stone,

beasts are gathered there, even an ascetic markable Kailasa Temple (fig.534) is
cat, aping the good king who stood for a representation in solid rock of the

so long with his arms raised above his great peak atop the Himalayas which
head! Mystics and genii cluster around the demon Ravana tried to take from
the stream (which is an outlet for a Siva. Note the small figure mounting
reservoir above), while the Naga sover- steps near the center of the picture for
eigns of the water accept their homage a true idea of the scale of this tremen-
with calm majesty. In scale, in breadth dous shrine, cut 150 feet deep into nat-
of conception, as well as in beauty of ural rock. Tons of stone were quarried
detail, it is one of the most impressive and carted away in creating the whole
of early medieval monuments. complex of sanctuaries, leaving vast
At Elura in the Ajanta area, in the shafts to be shaped into halls and por-
seventh and eighth centuries, a series of ticos.

rock-cut cave temples and monolithic Sculpture and architecture form a

carvings were made for the three sects, harmonious unit. Ravana, shaking the
Buddhist, Jain, and Brahman. The re- mountain, trying to dislodge Siva and
696 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

*af$$l^i

534. Kailasa Temple, Elura (600-850) Stone, 200' deep x 100' wide x 100' high.

Parvatl (fig. 535), is seen in the half- centurv Elephanta. In subterranean

gloom of a subterranean grotto, a many- caverns on an island in Bombay harbor
headed demon brandishing his arms in the worshipers of Siva could approach
a powerful representation of an ener- the inner sanctum by torchlight. Deep
getic figure in motion impelled by envy in a niche the three-headed one looms
and fury. Sure of his eminence, Siva sits (fig. 536), becrowned and bejeweled,
above, languid and graceful, while Par- symbol of manifold powers. Nearby, in
vati leans upon him, frightened, cling- its own chapel, the linga stone (gener-
ing to her lord. All the forms are ative force) is venerated by those pray-
rounded, cut out in high relief, and show ing for children, while wall surfaces
a singular understanding of the dra- everywhere are adorned with sculpture
matic possibilities of light and shade. in high relief of narrative sequences.
Mystery and power are suggested in For the evolution of the structural
another early medieval temple, eighth- temple, we return to the Ganges Valley,
 MEDIEVAL INDIA 697

before they go within the flat-roofed

cella to the sanctuary where the god
lived. By the eighth century the tower
becomes increasingly important (fig.

540), and begins to curve near the top

in a melon shape, while its mushroom-
shaped finial is a flat support for the
bronze symbol of the god to whom the
i
: temple is dedicated. The emphasis is

still on mass, but the surface is cut hori-

zontally by countless sculptured reliefs.
The cella seems almost an afterthought
attached to the tower. By the tenth cen-
tury, as the Lingaraja Temple at Bhu-
vanesvara demonstrates (fig. 541), the
melon-shaped tower becomes the domi-
nant feature, adorned with myriads of

Tem- small sculptured ornaments; the cella

535 Rdvana under Mt. Kailasa, Kailasa
pie, Elura (600-850) Stone. beneath is 19 feet square. Together they
represent the cosmos in miniature, as
to the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya,
does the contemporary Jaganatha at
which may have been built first as early
Purl, a pligrimage center. There, for the
as the fourth century of the Christian
annual festival, a model of the tower is
era, though in its present state of resto-
made of bamboo (suggesting a possible
ration 537) it looks much later. It
(fig.
origin of the shape, as the poles were
consists of a foursided tower set upon
bent in long ellipses), placed on a heavy
a high base, flanked by smaller towers
wooden cart, and drawn through the
at the angles of the platform, all care-
streets by devotees. Excitement runs so
fully oriented, and symbolic of the word
high that some have thrown themselves
of the Buddha spreading in all direc-

surface
beneath the huge wheels of this Jugger-
tions. Sculpture gives a fine

decoration to the pyramidal mass of the

naut, which is a symbol, even in West-

tower, which is topped by a curving ern thought, of crushing fate.

finial. Early Hindu temples show a The temple as a cart was translated
tendency to combine the tower with a into stone in the thirteenth-century

rectangular hall of the type found at Black Pagoda of Konarak (fig. 542).
no. xvii at SanchI (fig. 538), as may be Only the cella remains of the group of
seen in the Durga Temple at Aihole buildings dedicated to the sun god,
(fig.539), which has an outer porch Surya, who drove his chariot across the
where the faithful may circumambulate sky. The giant wheels of the platform
69 8 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

536. Saixa Trinity, Hindu Temple, Elephanta (8th cent.) Stone, 12' high.

are ornamented with delicate surface eleventh-century tower to Siva rises 216
carving that suggests the ivory technique feet, built without mortar, crowned by
(fig. 543). Other noteworthy temples a stone weighing 80 tons that was pushed
are to be found at Khajuraho, where up a ramp 4 miles long by elephants
both sculpture and architecture reflect and men.
the peak of genius of Hindu medieval By the seventeenth century, at Ma-
art in the north. In southwest India, at dura and other pilgrimage shrines, the
Belur and Halebid, the twelfth-century South Indian Hindu temple attained
Hoysala kings developed a different its greatest size and complexity, con-
type, star-shaped in plan, compact, with sisting of sanctuaries, pavilions, private
strong horizontal moldings and friezes quarters, pools, and bazaars joined to-

of elephants and horses, and portals gether by corridors and courtyards. They
richly carved in intricate patterns of are dominated by high towers over the
foliage and figures. At Tanjore, the gates called gopura (fig. 544), four-
 MEDIEVAL INDIA 699

537. Mahdbodhi Temple, (restored) Bodhgaya (4th cent.) Brick, 180' high.
"OO INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

-«;,

538. Temple No. i~, Sanchi (320-600) Stone.

-r, mm

539. Durga Temple, Aihole (320-600) Stone, 84' long x 36' wide x 30' high.
 MEDIEVAL INDIA 701

irirrirw:*:;

540. Parasuramesvara Temple, Bhuvanesvara (8th cent.) Stone, 48' long 44' high.

sided pyramids so covered with sculp-

ture that no single form stands out.
Power is expressed by multiplicity rather
than by individual dynamism; lacking
the majestic serenity of the Gupta
period and the lithe grace of medieval
bronzes, they are impressive in number
rather than in quality, and were in-

tended to overwhelm the beholder by

sheer complexity.
Metal images, for processional use or
Pf§e w
worship in home or temple, such as the
I Dancing Siva, are noted for grace and
energy. Perfection of form, unblemished
by accidental defect, was essential; if

marred in the slightest way the figure

54 1 Lingaraja Temple, Bhuvanesvara
- (10th
cent ) Stone, c. 150' high. was discarded or recast.
702 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

t"f

&fc

Tjfk i ^Rjfifc

542. Black Pagoda, Surya Temple, Konarak (13th cent.) Stone, 100' long x 100' wide x 100'
high.

MUGHAL AND RAJPUT INDIA and color-

originally expressed in brick

The south, where Hindu art retained

ful and magnificence
faience. In scale
they outshone contemporary European
its classic form, had been spared the
structures, such as the palace of Ver-
frequent invasions that penetrated north
India from the eleventh century on. sailles. The arch and dome were used
extensively, particularly the bulbous,
Fortresses, built on every strategic hill,
were onion-shaped domes, which differed in
veritable walled cities; though
they seemed impregnable, they fell one
profile and construction from the spher-
by one before the Moslems, who estab-
ical Byzantine type. Columns and piers

lished themselves in Delhi. In the six-

used as supporting members broke up
teenth century the descendants of Timur the interior space into small units; they
took over north Pakistan; by the seven- were sometimes joined by curving brack-
teenth century, as the Mughals, they ets like those used in Jain temples on
controlled most of India. Mt. Abu (fig. 545), where white mar-
In the capital cities of Lahore, Delhi, ble had been used in the eleventh- and
and Agra they constructed palaces, gar- twelfth-century temples— a soft marble
dens, mosques, and tombs, adapting when first quarried, which allowed in-

marble and sandstone to Persian designs tricate and delicate carving.

 MUGHAL AND RAJPUT INDIA 703

-
-
'-.
J* **v : * %*

543. Wheel, Black Pagoda, Surya Temple, Konarak (13th cent.) Stone, 10' high.

J^L
Mjw JKgL JML JMKL jJJS&Ma

544. Gopuram, Great Temple, Madura (17th cent.) Brick, stucco, c. 200' high.
7°4 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

The tomb of Humayun in Old Delhi, topped by a dome of marble. It was the
built in the sixteenth century, stood on first to be enclosed in a park or garden,

an arched platform made of red sand- combining old Persian features with na-
stone inlaid with marble, and was tive Indian workmanship and materials.

545. Jain Temple, Mt. Abu (nth-i2th cent.) Marble.

 MUGHAL AND RAJPUT INDIA 705

::mm

546. Taj Mahall, Agra (17th cent.) Marble, 186' long x 186' wide x 187' high.

Akbar's tomb was equally splendid, and square, rising 187 feet above the plat-
the huge palaces built in Lahore, Agra, form. The entrance in each face is of
and Delhi stagger the imagination, so the usual recessed type, consisting of
vast and elegant are the halls, court- pointed arches set in square frames, and
yards, baths, gardens, and mosques. inside them pierced marble screens allow
Fine as they were, it is the seven- a dim and subdued light to reach the in-
teenth-century mausoleum erected by terior. The proportions of platform, en-
Shah Jahan in memory of his wife that trances, and dome are in perfect har-
still charms everyone by its matchless mony, as are the light and dark- areas of

beauty, the Taj Mahall (fig. 546). surface penetration. Equally lovely is

Placed between two red sandstone the contrast of white marble against
mosques, it gleams white and pure, re- the green of the formal gardens that sur-
flected in the Jumna River, which flows round it; the slim dark spears of cypress
beside it. Set on a platform 18 feet reaching toward the minarets; and the
high, with tall minarets flanking each low masses of the planting along the
angle, a great dome crowns the central shallow pool, reminding us of the old
706 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

Persian concept of the garden as a place (fig.547) is the most notable. Built in
for cool refreshment, wherein the sound the period from 1646 to 1653, it too is
of running water and welcome shade made of white marble. It is topped by
were more important than brightly col- three domes of equal importance, which
ored flowers. Only after we become fully rise above the entrance pierced by five

aware of the skillful design of the build- openings framed in cusped arches. The
ing and the excellence of its setting do emphasis is on beauty of proportion,
we begin to notice the exquisite detail fine spacing of light and dark areas, and
of the inlaid work. Inside and out there detail work showing great restraint and
are graceful patterns of flowers and cal- finesse. Though the first impression is

ligraphy, consisting of thousands of one of delicacy, the mosque is not small,

pieces of semi-precious stones fitted into for the court is 150 feet square, and the
the marble. Moslems, Hindus, and Eu- corridors inside are long and spacious.
ropeans joined together in designing and For their libraries, Mughal emperors
building this monument to Mumtaz maintained hundreds of calligraphers
Mahall, the 'Elect of the Palace/ who and painters; Hindus and Persians
was given immortality by her husband worked together as they copied scien-
Mughal
in this marvel of taste and skill. tific treatises, religious texts, court rec-
Of the mosques, The Pearl, in Agra ords, and poetry, or illumined them

547. Pearl Mosque, Agra (1646-53) Marble, court 150' square.

 MUGHAL AND RAJPUT INDIA 707

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Painting on

548. Rajput-Rajasthanl, Todi Raginl (17th cent.)

paper, 8" x 6".

708 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

with illustrations. Much of the inspira- emotion and sentimenc. They were ap-
tion for this was due to Humayun, who propriate to certain seasons and times
had spent a year in Persia with Shah of day or night; at the top of the page
Tahmasp, visiting art centers and watch- there was a strip of 'weather'— blue and
ing painters in the royal ateliers; he gray for a melancholy dark day, drops
even visited the ruins of Persepolis. of rain for the rainy season, clear yellow
When he returned from exile in 1555 for a bright day. A man or a woman
he brought some artists with him, and was often shown playing upon a musical

installed them in the palace. The role instrument (fig. 548). Sometimes the
of royal patron was continued by his mood is of utter despair, at other times
son, Akbar, though most of Akbar's of rejoicing, or even of the serene peace
life was devoted to military and admin- of yoga contemplation. Like the Jain
istrative problems. Nonetheless he col- manuscript figures of the fifteenth cen-
lected an enormous library and kept tury, the Rajputs are usually shown in
readers in constant attendance. He profile, with prominent noses, large
loved to discuss doctrine with Chris- eyes, and receding chins; their expressive
tians, Hindus, Moslems, and the Zoroas- hands are extended in significant ges-
trian Parsees; he worked out a mono- tures. They are symbols rather than
theism of his own and tried to establish flesh-and-blood men and women. The
it among his subjects. But he did not designs are splendid, stemming from the
force it upon them, and they, being mural tradition of Ajanta, though these
content with their many gods, did not paintings are page-size. The colors, too,

accept it. One of his wives was a Rajput remind us of wall painting, confined to
princess, from northwest India, and a palette of dark blue, olive green, lemon
their union brought together two tradi- yellow, tomato red, and chalk white. It

tions, the native and that of the con- is a folk art, handed down from genera-
queror. tion to generation in Rajasthan. In the
Rajput country had seen the continu- seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
ance of a vital development in building there are, besides the Ragmala, a great
and painting, dating from the time of many Rajput paintings dealing with
the glory of Ajanta. With some of the Hindu gods, myths, and legends.
fresco technique still in their memories, At court, however, the Persian arts of
as well as the narrative style used by calligraphy, illumination, leather tool-

Jains, local craftsmen had evolved ing, and bookmaking were the fashion,
a unique method of illustration— the as was Persian literature. When native
Ragmala form, which united a musical painters joined them a mingling of styles
mode, a poem, and a painting, all con- resulted. There was still the delicacy
veying the same mood. These were male of Persian line, the love of decorative
and female, Raga and Ragini, composed detail, the use of Chinese rock and cloud
to express the most delicate shadings of motifs— which had been used in Persia
 MUGHAL AND RAJPUT INDIA 709

since the Mongol invasion of the thir- color of the Safawid masters, all of
teenth century— the careful delineation which were tempered finally by their

of flowers and trees, and the radiant contact with the vigorous native style.

549. Illumination, from Hamza-namah (17th cent.) Metropolitan Museum, New York. Painting
on cotton.
710 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

The Hamza-namah (fig. 549), started

under Humayun and continued in Ak-
bar's reign, is more remarkable for power
than subtlety, and two new elements
are evident— interest in shading, and
perspective. Akbar not only encouraged
the native painters in a special effort
to honor the Rajputs; he also was inter-

ested in books and gifts brought from

Europe. He had received a Jesuit mis-
sion, and was delighted by the pictures
of the Virgin Mary, as well as bv Plan-
tyn's Royal Polyglot Bible, brought to
him in 1580, in which there were engrav-
ings by Flemish artists of the sixteenth
550. Jahangir (c. 1615) Museum of Fine Arts,
century. Boston. Painting on paper, \Vi" square.
This European element in Mughal
painting continued to be imporant un- 550), and Shah Jahan are such subjects
der Jahangir. He received Sir Thomas as Durbars (daily audiences of the
Roe as envoy from James I, and like his rulers), single portraits, equestrians,
father, welcomed the religious teachers sages and poets, even abnormal people
from Europe. Traders, especially Portu- like Inayat Khan the opium-taker, who
guese and Dutch, played their part in was sketched by order of the emperor
bringing Western methods and motifs just before he died (fig. 551). Rustic
to India, just as they carried tales of retreats and formal gardens were painted
India back to Europe. We know that in full color or in dim evening light;
Rembrandt saw and sketched from al- studies of birds, flowers, and animals
bum pages owned by the president of were portrayed so precisely that every
the Dutch East India Company as well detail could be studied. Al Mansur was
as from those own collection; and
in his noted for this type of work, as were Bis-
that ArchbishopLaud had put his name hendas and Govardhan for their scenes
and the date 1640 in a book of Indian of Indian life. Objectivity and purity
drawings now in the Bodleian Library. of form were their goal rather than fan-
Now, for the first time in India, there tasv or poetry, clarity rather than emo-
is an interest in the appearance of tional impact. Not until Aurangzib took
things, a searching for reality for its the throne in 1658 was there a falling
own sake, a desire to show shadow and off in power in this Mughal school, and
cloud, and objects diminishing in size then it was because he was a strict Mos-
and clarity in the distance. lem who thought that painting a por-
In the albums of Akbar, Jahangir (fig. trait was a sin and therefore withdrew
 MUGHAL AND RAJPUT INDIA
7 11

551. Inayat Khan (17th cent.) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Ink on paper, 3H" x z, A"
l

royal patronage. Artists then dispersed A high level of taste and beauty of work-
to the provinces to serve local princes manship serve as a hallmark of distinc-
in the foothills of the Himalayas (where tion for succeeding generations in Asia
the Kangra work of the eighteenth cen- and Europe.
tury reached a high point of excellence), India today is a land of renewed en-
or to the courts of the rajahs of Rajas- ergy where the arts reflect an awakened
than and the Deccan. A strong tradition nationalism. In painting, especially, she
was maintained from which the modern stands with other leaders of the twen-
revival of painting drew much inspira- tieth century.
tion.

Weaving GREATER INDIA

and metalwork, already
highly developed in India before the Ceylon: Close to the Indian subcon-
Mughals came, were encouraged by the tinent, Ceylon received direct influence
Moslems. Cottons, stamped or printed from the mainland. It became a strong-
with Hindu and Persian motifs, were ex- hold of Buddhism in the third century
ported in quantity; weapons and jewelry b.c. when Mahinda, son of the King
are still sought for museum collections. Asoka, was sent as a missionary bearing
 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

the Relic of the Tooth and other gifts, the steps. One of the largest dagoba
and it is still a predominantly Buddhist built about 100 B.C., the Ruwanveli, is

island. Fortunately Sinhalese monu- a mound 254 feet in diameter at the

ments and texts have been well pre- base and 270 feet high, set upon 3 cir-

served, and the course of history and cular terraces about 7 feet wide which
art is clear. It is the Hinayana (Lesser are raised on a platform extending 500

Vehicle), rather than the rich hier- feet on each side. The surface is plaster-

archy of northern Buddhism, that has smooth, uninterrupted by moldings or

been popular; emphasis has been cen- niches; it seems like a giant bubble float-

tered on the Buddha's precepts, his ing on a rim of the outer wall on which
community of monks, and symbols of life-sized elephants face outward.
his doctrine. The city of Anuradhapura, in which
As in the time of Asoka, the stiipa it was erected, was colossal, extending at
(dagoba) was an object of veneration, least eight miles in diameter, comparable
but the form and construction differ in its day to New York or London. It
from the north Indian type. Heeding was filled with imposing buildings,
the instructions of Gautama when he lovely pools, and the homes of all those
placed his begging bowl upside down who thronged the streets of the capital.
on his cloak and laid his staff beside
Recent excavations give evidence of a
them, the Sinhalese used a platform as
flourishing trade with Greece and Rome;
base for a great mound of earth, some-
perhaps the grandeur of Rome was chal-
times covered with brick and plaster,
lenged here, for architecture and sculp-
crowned by a smaller platform and
ture were conceived on a large scale.
topped by the parasol element con-
The most notable early painting is to
densed into a solid cone. The stupa was
be found at Sigirya, some twenty miles
a reliquary with all the qualities of di-
west of Polonnaruva, in a natural stone
vinity, a combination of a thing both
fortress rising about 600 feet above the
royal and divine. To worship it was to
tilled fields, which was used as a refuge
gain merit; to build it was even more
in the late fifth century, or early sixth,
virtuous. The location was determined
by magic formulas related to directions by the parricide king Kasyapa I. There

used by builders on the mainland, for are murals in two irregularly shaped

it was most important to place 'pockets' in the west cliff; one a little
it pro-
pitiously. The Sinhalese dagobas lack over 40 feet long, the other nearly 27

the sculptured railings and gatewavs feet long. In them there are processions

like those of SanchI and Bharhut; nar- of ladies and their serving maids, carry-

rative episodes were rarely used, but ing lotus flowers in their hands, who
there were many slim colonnettes of the are painted as if moving toward a Bud-
AmaravatI type placed near each en- dhist temple to the north of the hill.

trance, and curving balustrades enclosed They are sometimes compared to the
 CEYLON 7*3

frescoes of Ajanta, though they differ The capital was moved south to Pol-

in color and composition, red, yellow, onnaruva to escape a Tamil invasion

and green being the dominant colors in the eighth century; again on a vast

in Ceylon, where little blue or brown scale, palaces, council halls, temples,
are used. There is none of the tension and monasteries rose as, for five cen-
of forms, no narrative, no contrast of fig- turies, the jungle was pushed back.
ure and background, which marked the Trade with the Arabs, Chinese, and the
great wall decorations of the mainland. people of Southeast Asia enriched her
The women have the long oval faces culture and spread the influence of Cey-
and long noses of the south, and each lon beyond her island shores. The
stance and each gesture suggests the lan- unique dagoba form was used in Burma
guid tempo of the tropics. The gay and Tibet, and finally introduced into
colors in the striped gauze jackets and China by the Mongols and Manchus.
skirts lack the tonal intensity of the A forest of stone still gives mute evi-

Indian mother school, though both are dence of the former grandeur of shrines,
equally graceful and appealing. Sketch- both circular and rectangular. Moon-
ing freehand, the artists changed con- stones, balustrades, and stairs lead into
tours at will. columned halls, and records tell us of

552. Buddha Nirvana, Gal Vihara, Polonnaruva (13th cent.) Stone, 46' long.
7*4 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

Java: Further out in the East Indies

the island of Java had its own great art
based on that of India. Early records,
including the fifth-century diarv of the
Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien, indicate that
the people at first worshiped Brahman-
ical gods, then turned to Buddhism. By
the late seventh century the kingdom of
Srlvijaya had been established in Su-
matra, Java, and the Malay Peninsula
by the Sailendras, 'Kings of the Moun-
tains,' who seem to be descendants of

the Pallavas of south India; they were

Buddhists and encouraged the worship
of Buddha among their subjects. In
the late eighth century, in 778, the
Chandi Kalasan temple was dedicated
to Tara, female embodiment of the
ideal of compassion.
553. Buddha Nirvana with Ananda, Gal
Vihara, Polonnaruva (13th cent.) Granite, 23' Under these same kings a wonderful
high.
and unique monument was made on the
Dieng Plateau, the Barabudur (fig.
buildings twelve stories high, and of the
555). Among the palm groves and vol-
gardens and palace pools. Sculpture was
canic mountains it rises over 100 feet,
massive, usually of stone covered with
covered with sculpture— the most elab-
a plaster coating, such as the Buddha
orate expression of Buddhist doctrine
reclining at the moment of Nirvana,
made by the followers of the Compas-
guarded by his disciple (figs. 552, 553).
sionate One. It is perfectly orientated
Some notable figures were cast in copper
to the cardinal points of the compass,
and bronze in this medieval period, usu-
the east gate being the main entrance
ally of Siva 554) and Vishnu, for
(fig.

Hinduism had penetrated into 'Lanka.' for the worshiper, who could begin a

A small, precious-jeweled Buddha, con- circumambulation more extensive than

taining the Relic of the Tooth and any other in the Buddhist world. There
housed in the famous temple of that are six square terraces topped by three
name in Kandy, was taken there when circular ones, making nine in all. The
the last royal capital was established by lower levels consist of galleries lined

the Sinhalese kings in the mountain city with panels of relief sculpture, illustrat-

that is still the cultural and artistic cen- ing narratives inspired by Buddhist texts.
ter of Ceylon. The first once hidden, contains scenes
 CEYLON - JAVA 7*5

554. Dancing Siva, from Polonnaruva (13th cent.) Museum, Colombo. Copper.
716 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

555. Great Stupa, Barabudur (8th cent.) Stone, 100' high.

of violence and suffering, the hell of It has been estimated that if all the
torment, the earthly desires that must sculpture, nearly 1000 panels of reliefs,
be buried as the sculpture was buried; were placed end to end it would reach
then comes the life of Gautama, and three miles, and this does not include
higher up, miracles of the Bodhisattvas. some 432 niches containing images of
As the pilgrim ascends the sculpture the Buddha a little more than life-size
becomes less narrative. When he reaches (fig. 556). The dark gray, pitted vol-
the three circular terraces where there canic rock of that area was a most un-
are figures of the Dhyani Buddhas sympathetic material for the sculptor's
carved in the round he has left the world chisel. We do not know the name of
of action behind and has reached the the designer of this great symbol of the
world of the spirit. The Buddhas were Law— which has all the clarity of a holy
placed in small shrines perforated so chart, or Mandala— nor do we know
that they could be seen inside. The last the names of the countless carvers who
of the Buddhas was left unfinished by filled their panels (fig. 557) with gra-
the carver— purposely, no doubt, for the cious figures, tropical trees, flowers,
pilgrim who reached the highest stage birds, and animals. They are done with
needed no more than a suggestion to a tenderness and sweetness that sur-
spur his imagination. passes anything in India itself. Based
 JAVA - CAMBODIA J1J
from which fanciful cornices and mold-
ings emerge.

Cambodia: In the ninth century a

Sailendra princewent from Java into
the country of the Khmers, which we
call Cambodia, and established himself

as 'god-king/ Jayavarman II. The cult

he instituted to make himself stronger
was based on the principle that the king
is to his kingdom as God is to the world,
and he, by ceremony, allied himself with
Siva. He left Java for a country that
already had a splendid art tradition
based on that of Gupta India, brought
in by Buddhist missionaries and traders
over sea routes, or by land through
Burma. He found the Khmer people di-

;
vided into two kingdoms, which he
k-
united and welded into a strong state.
556. Dhyani Buddha, Barabudur (8th cent.)
Stone.
From the pre-Khmer art, which fol-

lowed the Indian rules so closely, there

upon the Gupta idealand canon of pro- developed new forms in architecture
portion, but less remote, they mark the and sculpture which still make the world
culmination of the Indian ability to marvel, the best known being the Ang-
produce spiritual qualities in sculptural kor Vat and the Angkor Thorn. In sculp-
forms. ture we can see the change taking place
From the eleventh century through as we look at the majestic Hari-Hara
the thirteenth both Buddhist and Hindu (fig. 558) . It is a combination of Vishnu
gods were worshiped. Temple art re- and Siva in one body, the Siva side dis-

flects the same violence that had marked tinguished by the 'wild locks' (reduced
medieval sculpture on the mainland. to waving lines on the tiara) and a trace

Even in Buddhist shrines there is a of the third vertical eye in the middle
tendency toward profusion: jewels are of the forehead. It might well be a por-
intricate; many deities have several arms, trait of a local chieftain, tall, poised,
and are surrounded by flowers and at- with head held high. He looks out with
tributes, though the faces have a seren- a steady gaze, eyes wide open, and with
ity reminiscent of Barabudur. The archi- his mouth set in a straight line under a
tectural mass serves as a compact core, light mustache. The several arms are
whether as rectangle or stepped pyramid, unfortunatelv broken, and we notice
7* INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

557. Bath of the Bodhisattva, Hlru Lands in Hiruka, Reliefs, First Gallery, Barabudur (8th
cent.) Stone.

the stumps with surprise, for the rest of compelling smile, was sharply and
the man looks so normal that the extra cleanly done. The lips, brows, and mus-
growths from the shoulder are almost tache were often outlined in two thin
shocking. His drapery is noteworthy, a lines. The Indian ideal of the oval head
very light loin cloth folded over to form and delicate nose has been influenced
a flap of crisply cut, flat pleats. by the racial characteristics of the local

The evolution from the ninth century people, who had wide, flat foreheads,
on is toward a heavier, more massive flat noses, and thick lips. In the eleventh
form. In the tenth century the hair was (fig. 559), twelfth, and thirteenth cen-
reduced to a pattern of snail-shell motifs turies the massiveness gives way to sup-
that fitted the head almost like a skull- pleness and grace, and in the Buddhist
cap, and met the forehead in a sharp images, to a more profound spirituality,
horizontal line. There was an equally particularly in the Buddhas in medita-
horizontal emphasis on brows and tion. One of the favorite themes is that
mouth. The cutting around the eyes, of the Buddha raised above a flood by
and on the mouth with its strangely the Naga king in the period following
 CAMBODIA 719

the Illumination; the body of the snake is completely oblivious of the world, and
is coiled beneath the Blessed One, who protected by the many cobra heads
forming a halo behind him. The smooth
volumes of the central figure and the
minute scales of the serpents' heads
form an interesting contrast of tex-

tures.

Worship of the Nagas dates far back

into the pasts of this country and of
Burma. Small wonder then that so
many snakes are used as sculptural and
architectural motifs. In both the Ang-

558. Hari-Hara ^th-yth cent.) Musee Albert 559. Head of Divinity (11th cent.) Sandstone,
Sarraut, Phnom-Penh. Stone, 6' 3" high. 11" high.
20 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

upon tower. Each of the 51 square

spiresis ornamented with masklike
faces, many of them 9 feet high, facing
the four directions (fig. 560). They
were Buddhist under Jayavarman VII
(c. 1182-1201), who had identified him-
self with the Bodhisattva of Mercy; un-
der the later kings they were dedicated
to Siva. They are completely Cambo-
dian, broad, flat, and smiling, with their

expressions of composure surviving the

damage of time and the cleavage of the
individual stones on which they were
carved.
A mile and a half south of the pres-
ent city a temple was started in the mid-
dle of the twelfth century— the Angkor
Vat, the last of the tremendous under-
takings of the Khmers and renowned
560. The Bayon, Angkor Thorn (1112-52)
Stone, face 9' high. all over the world (fig. 561). It is part
of a gradual growth in the art and sci-
kor Vat and the Angkor Thorn they are
ence of building, preceded by numerous
to be found as balustrades, fountain
smaller and less ambitious temples based
heads, and decorative finials. It is appro-
on Indian prototypes and thus not
priate that these monuments rising out
sprung miraculously in the jungle. An
of the jungle, reflected in countless
outer gate on the west side allowed en-
pools, should have so many reminders of
trance to the worshipers of Vishnu, for
the kings of the waters, who were the
this is Brahmanical, not Buddhist— it
legendary founders of the race.
was the home of the god and the tomb
The capital of Jayavarman's line was
the Angkor Thorn, the 'Great City,'
of the king. Down a spacious roadway,

220 yards long and over 25 feet wide,

started in the ninth century and used
until the wars with Annam and Siam bordered by a Naga balustrade, the vis-

brought ruin in the fourteenth. It was itor walks toward the finely propor-

planned as a huge square, surrounded tioned mass of the temple. Directly

by a moat and walls 192 yards long on ahead is the stately central tower, which
each side. In the exact center, in the rises 200 feet above the top step, with
late and thirteenth centuries,
twelfth smaller towers at each angle of the rec-
the great mass of the Bayon rose, a tangular central shrine, consisting of
world-mountain in stone, tower piled terraces and covered galleries and steps
 CAMBODIA 21

mmm*
n, lr

561. Angkor Vat (12th cent.) General View. Stone, central tower 200' high.

rising toward the tower, each level being knees wide apart and his ankles bent at
twice as high as the one below it. an unbelievable angle give the impres-
There is genius in the building, and sion of an elastic springiness character-
genius in the sculpture that lines the istic of many of the lesser figures.

corridors and graces the towers. The re- Whether they fly or tug they are pos-
liefs, miles of them, are cut so delicately sessed of enormous tension, suggested
into the stone that the effect is like an largely by the use of curving lines in all

embroidery or tapestry, but there is parts of the bodies and costumes, and
much energy in the figures. One of the by poses of extreme angularity, which
most impressive is the Churning of the were related to the dance.
Sea, the battle between the demons and In contrast to these beings of the
gods, who wrapped the world serpent spirit world, some slaves are shown in

around Mt. Mandala and had a tug of another section: thin, drooping, hardly
war, each side hoping to gain possession able to stand under the weight of the
of the amrita, sacred beverage, which yokes around their necks, they are
they intended to churn up. At one time driven mercilessly by guards, who hold
a terrible poison came up which would their whips high with an energy as ter-

have destroyed them, but Siva saved the rible as the gods'. Perhaps the stones
day by drinking it. Finally the amrita ap- used in building the temple were
peared and was snatched by the gods, brought through the steaming jungle by
thus giving them ascendancy forever. just such pitiful captives. Then there
Vishnu is present in his tortoise avatar are the kings riding on elephants, sur-

supporting the mountain, and in heroic rounded by men and women of the
form above. His arms, brandishing his court in magnificent processions, which,
attributes, seem almost to move; his seen here, can also be read about in the
 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
7 22

account of the Chinese traveler Chou reliefs of Persepolis than any of the me-
Ta-Kuan, who was there in 1296 and dieval Indian sculpture, which is closer

saw such pageantry as he had not in time and space to Cambodia, but this

dreamed of. has a sophistication and grace reminis-

Among the narrative reliefs the story cent of late Persian art.

of Rama is recorded in a peculiarly Cam- Facing one of the pools a frieze of

bodian way: though the Ramayama is dancing girls (fig. 562) was carved in

faithfully followed, the idiom used in a somewhat higher relief than the nar-
telling it is so different from that of the rative sculptures. Their supple bodies
mother country that we hardly recognize are lightly covered with transparent
it as the theme so popular among the dhotis, folded over flat girdles in the
Rajput painters. Rama, going out to crisp Cambodian fashion. Their head-
shoot the golden hind, stands with his dresses look like miniature versions of

knees wide apart and pulls his bow with the Angkor Vat, amazingly intricate

a magnificent gesture worthy of a dra- towers rising above their elaborate coif-

matic dancer; the trees show a finesse fures, which lend a vertical touch to
and grace reminiscent of Persian minia- their flat, horizontal faces, and are quite
tures, each leaf meticulously done. unrelated to their earth-bound feet.

Even in their dramatic episodes a very Again we are reminded of the time, eight
low relief is used, and the modeling is hundred years ago, when harem and
flattened within that slight projection. court existed in the present wilderness
The effect is more like the Achaemenid in a splendor and color that can only be

562. Dancing Girls, Angkor Vat (12th cent.) Stone.

 CAMBODIA - SIAM AND BURMA 72 3

hinted at in the red sandstone. This

great temple, and the Bayon, and some
lovely bronze figures were the last ex-
pressions of Khmer power in art, which
faded away, as did their political power,
before their conquerors, the Siamese.

Siam and Burma: Siam, like these

other neighboring nations, received its

early art impulse from India when Bud-

dhism was introduced. The first images
were of the Gupta type, having come di-

rectly from AmaravatI, and show the

power of the Gupta ideal in sculpture.
Then gradually local racial character-
istics alter the canon in Siam, and we
witness another variation from the In-
dian classic norm. The sculpture reflects
cultural and political changes to a re-

markable degree.
To the trained eye the changes may
be noted after the fifth century, when
Burmese characteristics appear; the
facesbecome rounder than the Indian
oval, the eyebrows are arched over a
long aquiline nose, and a smile, almost
of disdain, is given to the Buddha fig-

ures. From the seventh century through

the twelfth the Hindu-Javanese influ-

ence made itself felt, as the Sailendras

extended their power from Sumatra and
Java and finally became leaders of the
Khmers; from the tenth through the
thirteenth centuries, in the peak of
Khmer power, the broad, flat faces of
these Cambodians, the double line used
to define the mouth with its strange
smile, become a part of Siamese art;
some of these developments took place
563. Buddha 6th cent.) Museum of
in art centers quite close together, dif-
Fine Arts, Boston. Bronze.
724
INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

fering because of local religious tradi- smooth surfaces that catch the light, for

tion and trade affiliation. Finally, from the metal is highly polished, and all

the eleventh through the fourteenth textures— hair, skin, and cloth— gleam
centuries at Chiengsen and Suk'ot'ai, with equal brilliance.
a new group from southwest China, the In both Siam and Burma, architecture
Tai people, established themselves; then at first shows dependence upon India,
the true Siamese style emerges. Again and in both countries the Buddhist
the long nose is considered beautiful, as stupas resemble the dagobas of Ceylon;
it was in Ceylon, and, as in Ceylon, a in the temples (fig. 564), however, they
flame is added to the ushnisha mound, develop an exuberant style, using richly
making the face vertical in emphasis; ornamented wooden cornices, glass or
all that remains of the Khmer ideal of ceramic mosaics, and curving roof lines
beauty is the double line around the more fantastic even than those of China.
mouth. Bronze figures of the period (fig. There is a fancifulness and a gift of
563) are slim and burnished and have ornament, which have rightly made
an aristocratic aloofness bordering on Bangkok and Mandalay synonymous
hauteur. Drapery is shown clinging to with the color and romance of the East.
the body, defining curving volumes and Though the temple is still essentially

564. Palace Courtyard, Bangkok (19th cent.)

 SIAM AND BURMA - TIBET 72 5

a reconstruction of the cosmos in minia-

ture, as it was in India, the airy grace of

pinnacles and roofs show the mark of a

genius that is non-Indian and local. In
Pagan, the eleventh-century capital of
Burma, ruins extend for 25 miles into

the desert, crumbling brick remains of

palaces and 5000 temples. Of the un-
damaged shrines, the Ananda is most
venerated, as it rises white and gold to
dominate the plain. Frescoes, dating
from the eleventh century through the
eighteenth, reflect the life of court, vil-

lage, and monastery.

Tibet: In the highest country in the

world, Tibet, art and Buddhism come
together. The early native religionhad
been one of nature worship, with em-
phasis on sacrifice to demons, both hu-
man and animal sacrifice, made by sor-

cerer-priests. Two young princesses were

sent to Tibet in the seventh century of -tS**^5
the Christian era to be consorts of the
king— one from Nepal, and one from
China. Both were Buddhists. Together
they converted the king and persuaded
565. Jeweled Buddha (loth-nth cent.) Mu-
him to accept the Eight Fold Path. seum of Fine Arts, Boston. Stone.

Thanks to their success in that conver-

sion they were regarded as earthly in- sisters, even dual aspects. Tara was such
carnations of Buddhist deities. a female manifestation of the merciful

Even in northern India there had Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and was

been a certain emphasis on spells and much beloved by followers of this Tan-
charms in Buddhism; by means of a trie worship. In the Pala empire, which
repetition of formulas and the achieve- controlled northeast India from a.d.

ment of a meditative state through yoga, 750 to 1197, and in Nepal in the me-
the devotee sought union with deities dieval period, Buddhist sculpture and

of the Mahayana pantheon. There had painting of singular beauty had come
also been a belief, influenced by Hindu- into being (fig. 565). The figures were
ism, that male gods had female consorts, slim and elegant with the heads almost
726 INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

heart-shaped and gracefully tilted; like of the Yung-lo period summoned the
Hindu images, they frequently had four most noted Tibetan teacher, Tsong-
or more arms. This was the tvpe carried kha-pa, to discuss doctrine with him.
into nearby Tibet bv the missionaries, Tsong-kha-pa, too, was a reformer.
who went in to convert the mountain He monks,
instituted celibacy for the
people in the eleventh and twelfth cen- and founded the Church of the Yellow
turies. Caps in Lhasa, which had been the
In the eighth century a Nepalese home of the king of Tibet. The head of
monk Padma Sambhava, familiar with the church became chief of state, com-
summoned to the
Tantric formulas, was bining temporal and spiritual power.
court. He proceeded to subdue local He introduced the two-Lama system.
demons, perform miracles, and estab- The Dalai Lama (Great Lama), who
lish the system of Lamaism, the Lama was believed to be a reincarnation of
being a superior man, the leader in a Avalokitesvara, had a fortress palace in
monastery. He became so adept at Lhasa. The present one was built in
charms that, instead of dying, he disap- the seventeenth century. The second
peared into the air. In the temple ban- Lama, the Panchan Lama, had head-
ners he is painted wearing a flowing red quarters in Tashilhunpo.
robe and a peaked red cap. Since there was little carving on a
Though he came to Tibet to drive grand scale in the palaces, walls were
out magic practices, he had adopted covered with frescoes and painted ban-
quite a few himself, and the Buddhist ners, brilliant in color, rigidly conven-
church there had begun to sponsor devil tional in composition. It is difficult to

dancing, exorcising, and rituals un- date Tibetan paintings, because the
dreamed of by Gautama Buddha and his rules for making them were handed
orthodox followers. By the eleventh cen- down unchanged from generation to
tury much needed reforms were insti- generation; a nineteenth-century work
tuted by Atisa from Sumatra. Contact may look very much like a fifteenth-cen-

with the Mongols came in the twelfth tury one. Pounces (pricked patterns)
century, and through them, closer con- were used over and over again to trans-
tact with China. When the Mongols fer the designs to the silk or other cloth,
conquered China, Lamaism became pop- on which flat colors were then filled in

ular under Kubilai Khan, resulting in —strong blues, reds, greens, yellow, and
an interchange of art motifs between gold. Texts had to be carefully followed
the two countries, as well as a popular in narrative detail, and canons of pro-
acceptance of demons and spirits that portion set the figure types. Here, as we
still colors Chinese folklore and practice. might suppose, ideas from India and
Even when the Ming rulers came to China met. The form of the banners
power and had driven the Mongols out is Chinese— vertical wall hangings which

in the fourteenth century, the emperor can be rolled up— and they are often
 TIBET

mounted on Chinese brocades and silk. eleven-headed aspect; having promised

Details (which could be done with to heed all the cries of the distressed in
some freedom) were often Chinese, the world, his head split into many
especially flowers, cloud scrolls, and pieces, which were gathered together by
architectural motifs. The most usual Amitabha and assembled into ten
subjects were: the life of Gautama; de- heads, topped bv Amitabha's own
ities of the Mahayana pantheon (show- image. The Bodhisattva usually has
ing the tutelary god in the center, from many arms, which reach out to ca^rv
whom rainbow-hued lines radiated to souls to the Western Paradise, or hold
demi-gods in medallions); the eighty- symbols of mercy or chastisement.
four sorcerers, or church fathers, ranged Since even this gentlest of beings is

in a tree-of-life design; and the Wheel portrayed in an awe-inspiring way, we

of Life, a circular chart of man's exist- are not surprised to find demons and
ence divided into segments, each zone demon-quellers endowed with a fierce-

a world of reward or punishment. ness born of mountain winds and snows.

Ritual objects include the prayer Yamantaka (queller of Yama, king of
wheel (a cylinder containing rolls of hell) has many heads, the principal one
prayer sheets; at each revolution of the being of a bull or boar. He has 34 hands,
wheel the worshiper gained merit), the grasping various attributes, and holds
thunderbolt, bell, dagger, horn conch his female essence in a close embrace,
shell, and a drum made of a human being incomplete without her; like Siva,

skull with skin stretched over it. Human he tramples upon a dwarf. Indeed there
bones are used also for rosaries and orna- are so many Hindu elements in this art
ments of a religious nature, thus insur- it seems much more Saivite than Bud-
ing merit for the deceased. dhist, a weird step-cousin of the serene
In sculpture the Nepalese style was figures from Sarnath and Barabudur,
largely followed, especially in the cast- tempered by storms and fury, and the
ing of small gilt-bronze figurines, which ever-present threat of death. Out of the
were made in great numbers. They are compassionate teachings of the Buddha
notable for grace of form and contour, this Lamaistic, Tantric form has grown
for the heart-shaped faces of north In- and still flourishes in Tibet, while in the
dia, and for their elaborate jewels. Ganges Valley Gautama is almost for-

Avalokitesvara was often done in his gotten.

XXX China

ANCIENT CHINA show a number of similarities with early

The early Neolithic culture of China pottery from the Near East, though ac-

much like that of tual contact between the two regions is

is the same age in
America and Eurasia— men hunted and still a matter of conjecture. Of the many
shapes used, the hollow-legged tripod is
fished, raised grain, made tools and
peculiar to China and unknown in any
weapons of stone, used the bow and ar-
other culture area that flourished at the
row, made baskets and cloth and pot-
tery, and domesticated the pig and dog.
Pottery of those early days has been dis-

covered in sites widely distributed over

northern China. A great variety of clays
were used in the different localities to

produce wares that were either plain or

decorated with incised or painted de-
signs.

Among the most striking examples

are the large, thin, well-potted jars from
Kansu (fig. 566), painted with broad
swirling lines of black, red, and pur-
plish-chocolate brown on the reddish-
566. Painted Pot, from Kansu, Museum of Far
buff clay. The powerful sweeping curves
Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm. Pottery, 1*5*
and geometric patterns of this ware high.

728
 NEOLITHIC - SHANG DYNASTY 729
same time. The earliest examples of these
Chinese potteries probably date from
before 3000 B.C., and the Neolithic cul-
tures continued to flourish in the out-
lying regions until about 500 B.C., long
after the bronze age had come, and Chi-
nese civilization had been developing
for many centuries in the Yellow River
plain.

In the historic period called Shang-

Yin (c. 1766-1122 b.c), a white clay
was used to make handsome pieces with
designs carved on the surface. The pat-
terns were linear, geometric versions of
insect and animal forms, of which the
locust (symbol of immortality), birds,

and dragons were often used on the

body of the vessel, while masks suggest-
ing the heads of water buffalo, tigers,
567. Owl, from Anyang (1400-1100 B.C.)
and deer were raised in relief. The back- Academica Sinica, Nanking. Stone.
ground was filled with abstract fret

meanders called cloud-and-thunder. bronze fittings. The royal tombs had

Bone, ivory, jade, and marble (fig. 567) been carefully prepared down under the
were carved with the same intricate in- earth, and yielded every evidence of
cised lines, and bronze ritual vessels elaborate funeral ceremony and burial,
were cast from molds. including the sacrifice of human and
The Shang people had the highest animal victims. In these tombs, the ex-

standards of craftsmanship, great im- cavators found bronze vessels, pottery

aginative power, and a rich and com- fragments, shell, gold, jade, and silk.

plex symbolism. Their material culture These were products of a feudal society,
has been gradually revealed to us since in which the king and his nobles
1929, when systematic archaeological hunted, engaged in battle, held court,
excavations were started on the site of and performed sacrifices.

the last Shang capital (c. 1350-1122 From inscriptions on bones, which
b.c), at Anyang in Honan. The palace are the only historical records of the
of the king, houses for the nobility, and time, and from the Book of Poetry,
workmen's quarters were discovered. written down a little later, as well as

The walls of these buildings were made from a study of the tomb relics, we can
of pounded earth; in the finer structures, re-create a picture of the Shang people.
painted wooden beams were used, and They could already express ideas in a
730 CHINA
-
of silk robes of state, the fragrance of
sacrifice on the altars, formed an impor-
tant part of the basis of early Chinese
life.

On the altars were vessels made by

the bronze casters, who were the great-
est masters of the craft the world has
ever known. Chariot fittings, weapons,
personal ornaments, and household ob-
jects were made by them, as were also
the vessels of ceremonial usage. The
evolution of the different types of vessels
jPt -

i**
•
is a rewarding but intricate study, which

ft' 1
we can only touch upon here. In nearly
of the graves were found the ku
B all (fig.

%' 1 568 ) as a libation cup, and the chiieh (fig.

569), for heating liquid over the fire. A

M :
-
sturdier container for meat or cereal was
the ting (fig. 570) with its three legs
Jl body abrupt angles, and
-

joining the at

£
.

^Bf>
with a decoration called the t'ao-t'ieh
-

i
;-.-

568. Beaker, Type Ku (12th cent. B.C.) Nel-

son Gallery, Kansas City. Bronze, 11" x 6 1/4".

pictograph writing, so developed that it

gives evidence of having been started

long before, in the legendary times of
the Hsia. They asked advice of the
spirits of ancestors, who could bring
success, or could plague them with sick-

ness and misfortune. Therefore the liv-

ing served these spirits with food and

sacrifice, and consulted the diviners, who
wrote questions on the oracle bones and
interpreted the answers from the spirit
world. Ritual and ceremony, the music 569. Ceremonial Wine Vessel, Type Chiieh
(1400-900 B.C.) Freer Gallery, Washington.
of drums and 'sonorous jade/ the rustle Bronze, 10" x 9".
 SHANG DYNASTY - CHOU DYNASTY 73 1
art follows Shang models carefully, and
the Chou conquerors soon adopted the
laws, ceremonies, and precepts of the
more civilized inhabitants of the Yellow
River country. Chou bronzes are marked
with long inscriptions, which tell the
ancestors of their marriages, of honors
come to the family, and of all kinds of
events appropriate to these memorials
that were to last forever.
In the latter part of the Chou period,
texts were gathered together and writ-
ten down which, for more than two
thousand years, constituted the very
life blood of Chinese culture. The Book
of Changes was a record of divination
practices, telling about the use of mil-
570. Ceremonial Tripod Vessel, Type Ting foil in long and short pieces. The long
(1400-1100 b.c.) Art Institute, Chicago.
Bronze. pieces represented the male (Yang, the
active principle), and short ones the
on the body; this ornament consisted female (Yin, the passive principle). The
usually of arched eyebrows or horns, long, or Yang lines coupled with two
wide-open eyes, a nose and upper lip but short, or Yin, lines, could be arranged
with the lower lip omitted. The t'ao-t'ieh in eight sets of three. Another way of
was used on many objects, sometimes representing Yang and Yin is by a circle
in high relief, sometimes in low, and it divided into two parts by a waving line,
seems almost to change expression as the Yang part colored red, the Yin all

one looks at it. It was infused with the black. As in India, the Chinese thought
dynamic power that inspired all Shang the male incomplete without the fe-

design. male, and vice versa, but they chose ab-

Having reached a high degree of cul- stract linear symbols, not human beings
ture, devoted more to the cultivation of embracing, to suggest these dual modali-
the arts than to warfare, the Shang peo- ties.

ple were setupon by the Chou, who oc- The other classics of history, poetry,
cupied the western borders. Anyang was etiquette, and ceremony were recited
destroyed. The conquered people fled, and sung, learned by priests, politicians,

though some stayed to keep alive their and tutors. The king had to be well
traditions and to tutor the barbarians, versed in rites and ceremonies, for by
who established a dynasty that lasted acceptable sacrifice he could bring to all

from c. 1122 b.c. to 256 b.c. Early Chou his subjects good crops and favorable
73 2 CHINA

seasons. High-ranking nobles made sac-

rifices to mountains and rivers, and

heads of clans and families had their
ritual duties to perform. A large class

of men who assisted in these rites, per-

haps descendants of the Shang diviners,

went from place to place, but keeping
tradition pure.
Probably about the fourth century
b.c, one of China's greatest philoso-
phers, Lao-tzu, taught that men should
be humble, simple, close to nature, and
should avoid the distractions of public
office. His teaching of the Tao, or the
Way, was based on a retreat from life

to solitary places, where the individual

might discover himself akin to other
living beings, in harmony with the laws
of the universe. A somewhat earlier phi-
losopher, Confucius, believed the good 571. Bell, Type Chung (600-250 B.C.) A.
Stoclet Coll., Brussels. Bronze.
life would come only to those who ful-

filled all their moral obligations, i.e., to on the surfaces— intertwining dragons,
the state, the community, and the fam- serpents, and birds, twisting and turn-
ily. Confucius and his followers and ing with so much energy that parts of
opponents lived in a time of great liter- their bodies became detached and ap-
ary activity, the period of the Spring peared in unexpected places. The t'ao-

and Autumn Annals (722-481 B.C.), fieh still is used, with eyes popping out
after the Chou capital had been moved like a Pekinese dog's. Much of this

from Ch'ang-an to Lo-yang, a time dynamic design is contained within

that profoundly influenced Chinese life bands or registers, done in delicate sur-

for centuries to come. face patterns of knobs and dots. Bronze

In the ritual bronzes there had been bells and gongs of various sizes, often
a decline in technical ability and im- richly ornamented, were cast in great
aginative power. Toward the end of the numbers for ritual use. Circular mirrors
Chou period, as smaller states broke (fig. 572) were polished on one side
away, there was a renaissance, a new and adorned with designs in relief on
cycle of creative activity among the the other; some were carried by priests
bronze casters. New shapes became as part of their regalia; others were used
popular (fig. 571), as well as new ver- in everyday life. Jade was carved in de-
sions of the old; new patterns appeared signs similar to the bronzes and often
 CHOU DYNASTY - HAN DYNASTY 733

for the first time assumed the title of

emperor, Shih Huang-ti, and he used
every means possible to bring unity to
China. He joined together and built up
isolated local fortifications into the
Great Wall. He had canals built, roads
widened, better communication systems
established, and, for himself, a fabulous
palace erected. Though what he did was
for the power and unification of China,
he was not loved by the people. He
taxed them unmercifully for his great
projects; he offended them by burning
the books, which were their treasured
572. Mirror (600-250 B.C.) Art Institute, Chi- links with the past, and by throwing
cago. Bronze.
their ritual tripods into the river.

done in a circle, symbol of heaven and Later, when he wanted to consider him-

of the king, the holder of heaven's man- self one of the long line of hereditary

date on earth. Many small ornaments rulers rather than an innovator, he tried

were given to barbarian chieftains as to recover the bronze vessels so that he

marks of esteem, and by them were could perform the kingly sacrificial cere-

taken all over north Asia, and even into monies, but, according to legend, a

Europe when pressure drove them to dragon cut the cord being used to haul
the West. Certainly the animal forms, out the ting, and it dropped back into
the interlacing patterns, the delicate the river, safe from the hands of the
fancifulness of design, all of which re- usurper.

sulted from the fusion of Asiatic cul- Shih Huang-ti's vision of glory for
tures, seem to have inspired some of the China was passed on to the next dy-

medieval art of Europe. nasty, the Han (207 b.c.-a.d. 220), espe-
cially under the emperior Wu Ti (140-
IMPERIAL CHINA
87 B.C.), who extended the limits of
One of the warring states, the Ch'in, China west and south, sent his soldiers
absorbed weaker states and overthrew tosubdue the Turkic and other nomads
the last Chou king in 249 b.c. Again the of the Tarim basin, colonized Korea,
sturdier westerner conquered, and be- and attached Tongking near Cambodia.
gan a period of consolidation and re- The tomb of one of his generals, Ho
form (221-207 B c - tnat l a id the foun- Ch'ii-ping, is near Wu Ti's tomb in

dation for the Chinese economy and Shensi, and is an interesting combina-
administrative organization for centuries tion of Chinese and barbarian forms. It

to come. The head of the ruling house consists of an earth mound 50 feet high
734 CHINA

with great boulders at its base, some or Eastern Asia— for example, by the
carved, some water-worn and smooth, Sassanian Persians in their investiture
the largest weighing fifteen tons, all of scenes (fig. 496). The other carved
them brought from quite a distance. stones, suggestive of Turkic and Scythian
Originally they must have been placed ideas of combat and struggle, show ani-

in pairs to line a spirit path and guard mals with their feet drawn up under
the approach to the tomb, much as them and animals of totemic signifi-

sphinxes were in Egypt and Assyria; but cance. Since a bull and a rat are among
the forms are barbarian rather than them, they may have been related to the
Near Eastern. The most striking is that Duodenary cycle of the Huns, who di-

of a horse trampling a warrior beneath vided their days and nights into the
him (fig. 573), massive, heavy, quite hours of the horse, bull, rat, and so
unlike the fanciful and graceful figures forth, as the Chinese learned to do from
in other parts of China. Both man and them.
animal are of a Central Asiatic type. In western China, too, in Szechwan
The idea of a conquered person being province, a number of tombs and me-
trampled upon is more extensively used morials still survive from this period.
in Western Asiatic art than in Central The pillars of Shen are quite Chinese in

573. Horse Trampling Barbarian Warrior, Tomb of Ho Ch'ii-ping, Shcnsi (11- b.c.) Stone.
 IIAN DYNASTY 735
•;---" '--*,;
-1

md

574. Red Bird, Funerary Pillar of Shen, Ch'ii-hsien, Szechwan (2nd cent.) Stone.

form and decoration. The stone shafts symbolic creatures of the directions—
are carved to imitate the tile roof and the Red Bird (fig. 574) on the south,
wooden brackets normally used in the the Dragon on the east, and the Tiger
Han house: three sides are marked with on the west. The t'ao-t'ieh appears, and

pil
575. Visit of Mu Wang to Hsi Wang Mu, Tomb of Wn Liang Tzu, Shantung (2nd cent.)
Stone.
•736 CHINA

all manner of strange pixy people, fan- silhouettes, and the carvers are not in-

tastic birds, and animals. The inscrip- terested in spacious backgrounds, there
tions (done in beautiful Han calligra- is throughout a feeling of life, vitality,

phy, 'powerful as brandished lances, or and the tension of carefully related

waves of the sea blown by the wind') forms.
indicate that Shen was a prefect and The other famous Shantung slabs are
military governor of Tongking. from the Mount of the Hall of Filial
In the eastern peninsular province, Piety. They are also from an offering
Shantung, there are other famous mon- chamber, and are as flat in projection as

uments of this period. One, of Wu the Wu group, with figures incised into
Liang Tzu (fig. 575), is especially well the background. There, too, long-robed
known because of the many rubbings men bow to each other, or engage in
that have been taken from it. In registers very realistic warfare, hanging up the
that remind one of the late Chou severed heads of their enemies by the
bronzes, stories of all kinds are told with hair; or they go out to hunt with hounds
a wonderful animation and skill. Both at their heels. Again we have an excel-

Confucianism and Taoism are repre- lent record of dress, weapons, and prac-
sented by historical scenes, bv pictures tices.

of virtuous persons of the past, and by By this time burial customs called for
imaginative worlds of sky and water in- clay figurines, which were put into the
habited by deities who personify forces
of nature. In a very low relief that
projects less than half an inch from the
background, the men and women in

long robes bow ceremoniously to each

other, or attend banquets; one is such
a loyal son that, though he is in his six-
ties, he plays about on the floor like a
child to make his eighty-year-old pa-
rents feel young again. Hsi Wang Mu,
Queen Mother of the West, receives
the King of the East in her pavilion, or
watches her heavenly guardians, who #.»,. mX
protect the peach tree of Immortality.
Mortal men ride in chariots, pulled by
the famous horses of Han, heavy of
body, with delicate feet and arching
necks, while the immortals in their own
realms ride fantastic sky and sea crea-
576. House Model (2nd cent.) Nelson Gallery,
tures. Though the figures are as flat as Kansas City. Unbaked clay, 4' 4" high.
 HAN DYNASTY 737
tombs to represent the people and things That civilization was carried by Han
beloved by the departed spirits. Thus, public servants into distant lands. In
in miniature, we see the essentials of Korea, in the tomb of a Chinese gov-
Han life. The Chinese house (fig. 576) ernor and his wife, the excavators found
was a tiled-roof structure, consisting of beautiful lacquer boxes, toilet articles,
several pavilions or wings that formed a and ornaments, the lacquer work
compound and courtyards, set off from painted red, yellow, green, and black in
the street by a wall. The central build- patterns full of energy and fantasy. Out
ing, in which the head of the family on the trade routes of central Asia,
lived, faced south. It was approached other fragments of Han
life have come

by a ramp or steps, recalling the ancient to light, some woven tapes-

including
practice of building above flood level tries of complex colors and designs, as
in the Yellow River region. The sloping fanciful as Han sculpture and painting

roof was upheld by posts and brackets, and showing a fusion of forms derived
which became the essential feature of from the Near East with the purely
Chinese domestic and religious archi- Chinese dragons and spirits.

tecture. Inside the home of a well-to-do The Han men felt very close to the
Chinese, the rooms were spacious. Fur- world of spirits. Taoism, which had
niture consisted of chests, small tables, originated as a movement to simplify

or arm rests, and movable bedding the life of the individual, had now de-

rolls that were put away in the day- veloped into an elaborate cult involv-
time. The kitchen was below the first ing magic of all kinds and peopled with
floor or in a separate wing; the second a varietv of immortal beings with mirac-
floor seems to have been the women's ulous qualities. The Taoist priesthood
quarters. We know that the exposed sought immortality by compounding
wooden beams were gaily painted and drugs, and engaged in alchemy, as pop-
lacquered, and that pictures were painted ular then in China as it would be a
or hung on the walls, though no large thousand years later in Europe in the
Han paintings have survived to the Middle Ages. Magic writing and charts

present day. Bronze fittings were care- were in vogue, and had their influence

fully designed and made; even the small- on the patterns of bronze mirrors, espe-
est fragments are treasured still for their cially those carried by the priests and

beauty or humor. used in burial ceremonies. Even ritual

Out in the courtyard pigs, dogs, vessels were ornamented with fairy

chickens, and children added to the forms, clouds, and heavenly beings.

color of the household. The clay figu- Among the smaller bronze objects, con-
rines of the period and the stamped tiles tact with the 'barbarians' is reflected in

give such a lively picture of Chinese animal combat scenes similar to those
life two thousand years ago that they found in south Russia, Siberia, and the
are sought today as great works of art. Ordos area just north of the bend in
738 CHINA

the Yellow River. Animals common to nese soon after a.d. 150, but Buddhism
those places were woven into the intri- had not deeply touched the lives of the
cate patterns of belt hooks, incense average Chinese until the troubled times
burners, and weapons. of the Six Dynasties period (a.d. 317—

It was a time of political and creative 589), when all of northern China was
power, drawing from the past, enriched overrun by Tatar tribes. As the con-
by many contacts outside the Middle querors established themselves in this
Kingdom. Silk was carried halfway new territory, they brought in their own
across the world to Rome, Chinese beliefs.Wanderers though they were,
palaces were filled with beautiful ob- they had been converted to Buddhism
jects brought from far away, hands were by central Asiatic missionaries, who
busv making jade, bronzes, lacquers, taught them that they would gain merit
silks, potteries, pavilions, and gardens by making images and fashioning sanc-
unrivaled elsewhere— small wonder that tuaries in the name of the Buddha. One
a modern Chinese still calls himself a group, the Wei, were particularly active
Son of Han. in western and northern China.
The Han emperors had heard of the Up in the Shansi province, just south
teachings of the Buddha, and texts had of the Great Wall, the Wei began, in
been translated from Sanskrit into Chi- a.d. 414, to hollow out a sandstone cliff

577. Prince Meets a Sick Man, Shih Fo Ssu, Yun-kang (a.d. 5th cent.) Stone.
 HAN DYNASTY - WEI DYNASTY
739

578. Colossal Buddha, Yiin-kang, Shansi (a.d. 5th cent.) Sandstone, 3

at Yiin-kang, near Ta-t'ung, making had, as well, small bronze and clay im-
grottoes filled with sculpture which ages of Buddha, the Bodhisattva, the
were based on directions brought from and the stupa, all some-
lesser deities,

India over the central Asian tracks. They what changed when made by the oasis
740 CHINA

artist who had not seen the Indian

originals. As the Tatars and their Chi-

nese subjects attempted to follow

models and written rules, they pro-
duced results at first that were neither
Indian nor Chinese (fig. 577). All of
the essentials were there, but none of
the Indian fluidity of form infused with
life, nor the spirited energy of China.
They are simple, massive symbols of
ideas, with faces and drapery cut ac-

cording to formulas. There is a great

Buddha, 32 feet high, set in front of a
flaming mandorla (fig. 578), and there
are thousands of smaller ones in high
and low relief, all originally colored.
Gradually Chinese characteristics creep
into this sculpture: the eyes become
more slanting; in architecture the tile
roof replaces the Indian arch; and Chi-
nese dress is used instead of the dhoti
cloth, thus covering more of the body 579. Bodhisattva, from Lung-men (6th cent.)
in flat patterned folds. Metropolitan Museum, New York. Black
marble.
In the middle of the fifth century,
persecutions were ordered by an em- tions of heavenly beings ever carved
peror who was influenced against Bud- were made there (fig. 579), touched by
dhism by Confucianists, but toward a delicate, tender spirituality. It was
the end of the century there was a new estimated that nine out of ten families
burst of religious activity. The capital had been converted by that time. Em-
was moved south to Lo-Yang in Honan perors and empresses were donors to
province, and the caves of Lung-men Buddhist shrines too, appearing with
were started, the dark marble-like lime- their courtiers to inspect the work and
stone hollowed out into grottoes bring offerings (fig. 580), and they en-
adorned with all the gods of the couraged the study of the sutras at court.
Mahayana Buddhist hierarchy. As it The monk Fa-hsien was sent to India
was a better material to carve in than on a perilous journey that lasted fifteen
the sandstone of Yiin-kang, and the years. He returned with Sanskrit books,
ideas were not quite so strange by that which were translated into Chinese, and
time, the results were finer in quality. he told of the marvels of strange lands
Some of the most exquisite representa- in his diary. He was the first of many
 WEI AND SUI DYNASTIES
74 1

580. Empress as Donor, Pin Yang Cave, Lung-men (6th cent.) Stone.

monks who risked their lives to go to part. The first Sui emperor ordered the
India and to contribute to the Indian- construction of 3,792 temples, caused
ization of Chinese art, philosophy, and 1,508,904 images to be repaired, and
learning. 106,580 new ones, large and small, to be
Even in the south, where the Chinese made in various materials.

had established a capital at Nanking A lovely altar group in the Museum

and strove to preserve their ancient cul- of Fine Arts in Boston (fig. 581), cast
ture menaced by the barbarians in the in bronze in a.d. 593, shows the devel-
north, the worship of the Buddha opment in religious worship and artistic

spread, and great teachers were invited expression which took place as Bud-
to discuss the doctrine. Ideas were inter- dhism became more and more Chinese.
changed, and, by a.d. 500, the Wei em- It is Amitabha Buddha, who presides
of
peror issued an edict prohibiting the over the Western Paradise, receiving
use of the Tatar language, culture, and the souls of all who call upon him or
customs in favor of the Chinese. By 589 his attendant Bodhisattva. It was not
the country was united again under the necessary to be learned, or wealthy, or
Sui Dynasty (a.d. 589-618) and Bud- high-born to seek salvation through him;
dhism continued to play a dominant he heard the prayers of all sincere be-
 «
581. Tuan Fang Shrine of Amitabha Buddha and Attendants (593) Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Bronze.

lievers. No longer were the common tion and project their minds into the
people condemned to suffer the vicissi- realms of the infinite; even the ignorant
tudes of the Wheel of Existence; they could have faith and reach the Blessed
could now find release from it, even as Land. In this shrine, Amitabha sits ma-
monks and scholars had, who had been upon a lotus throne. He is at-
jestically
able to lose themselves in contempla- tended by monks who were mortal and
 SUI AND T ANG DYNASTIES

therefore conceived as realistic portraits,

and by his two Bodhisattva, who stand
worshipfully on lotus flowers. The In-

dian elements are still there— the yoga

pose, snail-shell hair, Hindu torso, and
hand gestures of Amitabha; but the
Chinese maker added pendants, a flam-
ing halo, and a winsome slimness of
figure. The Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara
(Kuan Yin in Chinese), and Mahastha-
maprapta wear the high jeweled crowns,
the necklaces and scarves of young rajas,

but they have none of the masculine

heaviness of their Gandharan proto-
types; they are sexless, with a feminine
daintiness of gesture, and show the Chi-
nese lack of interest in anatomical stud-
ies. This was now the proper shrine for
the family altar, taking the place of the
ritual vessels that held food for sacrifice
in the ancient days. Spirits of the de-

parted were still important, and Taoist

monks tried to rival the Buddhists in
influence; but most of the carving, cast-
ing, and painting was done in the serv-
ice of the Buddha (fig. 582).
Again the Chinese began to expand.
The Sui emperor was displaced by the
Duke of T'ang, who had equally am-
bitious ideas. The dynasty changed, but
Chinese conquest continued unabated,
and a new era rivaling the Han came
to the Middle Kingdom. As warriors,
diplomats, and patrons of the arts, the
T'ang rulers ushered in another epoch
of political and creative power, which
lasted from 618 to 907.
a.d.

One of the outstanding rulers, T'ang

T'ai-tsung (627-49), defeated the Turks
582. Kuan Yin (6th-7r.l1 cent.) Museum of
who tried to take Ch'ang-an, the west- Fine Arts, Boston. Stone.
744 CHINA

583. Camel and Driver, Palmer Coll., Chicago. Glazed pottery.

ern capital. Bv conquest or treaty he between the Byzantines, Arabs, Indians,

began to control the oasis cities of Cen- and Chinese. Water routes were as im-
tral Asia. Gifts in great numbers were portant as land routes, and the seaport
exchanged. Turkish and Uighur princes towns were thronged with foreigners, as

were invited to attend court and serve were the two capital cities of the north.
as officers in the Chinese army, and Travelers, monks, students, and soldiers
princesses were given in marriage to poured into China from all directions.
consolidate these ties. One, as we have They brought new gods to worship, new
seen, was sent to Tibet, for the Tibetans fashions. The old Chinese were shocked
proved to be very troublesome at this by the ready acceptance of 'barbarian'
time. Though silk was no longer a mo- ways, but their reproofs did not prevent
nopoly of China, the old silk road was the building of temples to the strange
kept open by Chinese garrisons for trade gods, nor did they keep the ladies of the
 T ANG DYNASTY 745

palace from riding horseback, playing sign; and Buddhist art is injected with a
polo, or going about without hats. Chi- direct impulse from Gupta India.
nese arts, like Chinese life, underwent There are few architectural remains
considerable change. of the T'ang period in China. Except
The clay figurines which were still for a rare octagonal pagoda of brick or
used in tombs give us a vivid picture of stone, little can be seen of the era; in

the times. They include many foreign Japan wooden structures based on Chi-
ethnic types; camel drivers (fig. 583), nese models have survived (fig. 619).
grooms who were sent in with the trib- The cave temples, however, had not
ute horses, dancing girls, Negroes, and been severely damaged until modern
holy men. Stone slabs are ornamented times; experts have reconstructed the
with Persians wearing the long tunic of Buddhist places of worship well enough
the Sassanian period; textiles are woven for us to see the gradual evolution in

with so many Sassanian motifs that it is architecture, sculpture, and painting to-

something of a shock to find Chinese ward the cosmopolitan Chinese ideal

characters on them; pilgrim bottles have from the simple beginnings of the Six
strong Near Eastern influences in de- Dynasties period. In northern and east-

1 ..,

584. Amitabha Paradise, Cave 139 A, Tun-huang (9th cent.) Painting.

74<5
CHINA

ern China, work had gone on from the the oasis cities of the northern and
fifth century; in southwest China, ar- southern Trade Routes there were flour-

chaeologists have recently discovered ishing Buddhist communities, and many

many more sites. The farthest output monasteries. The local kings, the lay
of all, Tun-huang, the place where car- believers, and the monks had all been
avans stopped on entering or leaving the patrons of art, or artists themselves,
country for the overland desert route, making countless images in clay (for

had been a center of religious activity stone was scarce), and adorning walls
since the fourth century. A monk had with frescoes in the Indian tradition.
been led by a vision to that place; he had Central Asia was a meeting place for
hollowed out grottoes in the mud cliffs many peoples, each contributing some-
above a dry stream, having in his heart
the ideal of a concrete representation
of the Thousand Buddhas. Other help-
ers had come, and there were many
temples hollowed out, their walls cov-
ered with scenes of the life of the his-
torical Buddha and the heavenly worlds
to which the faithful might go (fig.

584). The donors who contributed to-

ward this undertaking are pictured

there, too, in their finest clothes. The
Turkish donors are especially brightly
colored, for the women wore embroi-
dered robes and headdresses of flowers
and elaborate hairpins, and their cheeks
were painted with crimson circles. All
the walls vibrated with color, and the
sculptured figures placed against them
were equally brilliant.

The mother school for was all this

Ajanta, and Indian proportions were
faithfully followed, as were the texts tell-

ing how the various scenes must be ar-

ranged, but many changes had taken
place; Central Asiatic artists had worked
out the themes, and their methods nat-
urally influenced the Turks and Chi-
nese, who must have been most active
in the making 585 Adoring Bodhisattva, from Tun-huang
of this outpost shrine. In
(8th cent.) Fogg Museum, Cambridge. Clay.
 T ANG DYNASTY 747

586. Avalokitesvara as the Guide of Souls (10th cent.) British Museum. Painting on
silk.
 CHINA
74 8
thing to the art of the area. The subtle tions of oasis cities, of desert sands and
shading of tones used by Ajanta painters mountain winds, of the marvels of

was translated by oasis artists into bands India, is one of the most delightful
of primary colors; a kneecap, for in- travel stories in any literature, and
stance, which had been modeled in light served as a guide to modern archaeolo-
and dark shadows, was here reduced to gists in their discoveries of many impor-
a circle of blue, green, or yellow, mak- tant sites rich in Buddhist remains. He
ing a pleasant pattern, if quite an un- came back to China with Sanskrit
realistic one. With the coming of so texts which had to be translated and
much activity to the Buddhist shrines interpreted, as did other monks who
of China, owing to the overland trade took similar journeys, so the monaster-
and missionaries, the desert and oasis ies were busy centers of learning.
art made a profound impression there. Symbol of the law and doctrine and
Tun-huang is a rich mine for the intellectual aspect of the church was
student and explorer, not only because Vairocana Buddha, a celestial being who
of its wall paintings made from the had not lived upon the earth, but in a
fourth through the tenth centuries, and paradise eons of years away, where he
its T'ang sculpture (fig. 585), but also sat upon a lotus throne, the power of
because of the countless votive banners his mind emanating spiritual rays that

painted on cotton and silk (fig. 586), inspired confidence and hope in be-
and the texts in many languages. One lievers. At Lung-men, near Loyang, the
of the earliest printed books in the eastern capital, the Buddha was repre-
world was found in a walled-up library sented in a colossal image 85 feet high
where other precious things had been (fig. 587), carved in the solid rock. It
hidden— a paper scroll of the Diamond was dedicated in an impressive cere-
Sutra (Buddhist text) dated a.d. 868. mony in a.d. 672. Remote and awe-
It was a time of literary and intellec- inspiring, he sits upon his throne, with a
tual activity. Poets sang the praises of great halo containing the Seven Bud-
their emperors, of palace beauties, of the dhas of the Past carved in relief behind
great festivals, and of the lonely men him. The colossus is flanked by Bo-
who were garrisoned in the far-flung dhisattvaand monks, and protected by
outposts controlled by China. Courtiers muscular guardians of the law (fig. 588),
and scholars discussed the classics, and who stand 50 feet high. The sculptors
called upon monks to expound the doc- had to portray many different qualities
trine of the many religious foundations in the various beings prescribed by the
in the capitals. Students and learned Buddhist texts— symbols of wisdom,
men came and went, quite a few to compassion, kingly majesty, mystical
India, the most famous of the travelers rapture, austerity, brute force— all con-
in the seventh century being Hsiian- ceived on a scale that would have been
tsang. His diary with its vivid descrip- impossible to less gifted men, but in art
 T ANG DYNASTY
749

587. Colossal Vairocana Buddha, Lung-men, Honan (672-76) Stone, 85' high.
 CHINA

588. Guardians, Lung-men, Honan (672-76) Stone, 50' high.

as in politics, nothing seemed impossible sculpture does, but there was, as well, a
then to the Chinese. Poised, mature, and native tradition that stemmed from the
benign, even the small images are im- Han period.
bued with greatness (fig. 589). Though no painted scrolls
there are
In painting, too, there was a ferment in existence dating from the Han, we
of activity, and a level of accomplish- know from historical records that paint-
ment to which later generations pointed ing played an important role in the
with pride. Artists were hired by the lives of the people; portraits of the vir-

hundreds to adorn the walls of Bud- tuous and great were hung on the walls,
dhist grottoesand sanctuaries, monks and the beams and supports of palaces
and nuns became painters, and, in secu- and temples were richly decorated. In
lar life, at court and among the scholars, fact, the Wu Liang Tzu motifs (fig.

painting was regarded as a fine art. Bud- 575) are so nearly like palace ornamen-
dhist banners and murals, of course, tation described in a contemporary poem
were made according to rules developed that it is quite likely that the flat sil-

in India, and reflect as much Indian houettes in low relief were derived from
and Central Asiatic influence as the painted figures. Lacquered objects and
 T ANG DYNASTY 75 1

589. Buddha (7th cent.) Metropolitan Museum, New York. Gilt bronze.
 CHINA
75 2

painted pottery that have survived are in a delicate brush style. There are re-

witness to the skill and dexterity of a minders that whatever rises high must
brushwork that was well suited to fanci- fall— as the sun rises, so shall it set, as

ful subjects. Chang Heng, who lived the moon waxes, so must it wane. And
from a.d. 78 to 139, preferred to paint again, 'No one can endlessly please/ a

ghosts and demons, for he thought that piece of worldly advice based on the

real objects were difficult to represent experience of beauties who were brought
and also that the realm of the unreal from all over China to please the Em-
was infinite. peror, but who held power for only a
A renowned copy of a scroll by a moment. Each episode is a unit to be
fourth-century painter, Ku K'ai-chih, enjoyed separately. The figures are irre-

was based on a text called the Admoni- sistible in their delicate charm, floating

~\

590. Ku K'ai-chih (c. 350-400) Admonitions of the Imperial Preceptress, British Museum,
London. Painting on silk, 10" high.

tions of the Imperial Preceptress (fig. almost in an undefined space, fragile

590). As its title suggests, it is courtly and exquisite as the flowers for which
and Confucianist in theme. The young they were named. Quite unlike the
ladies of the palace were urged by their voluptuous Indian beauties who wore
imperial tutor to learn proper deport- much more jewelry and a few diapha-
ment by imitating the famous heroines nous scarves, the Chinese ladies were
and beauties of the past. The horizontal clothed from head to foot in long silk

silk scroll is designed in a series of robes that give no hint of the body
scenes, each one carefully labeled, illus- underneath; their appeal is subtle, so-

trating an incident or moral precept. phisticated, as tenuous as a faint per-

Loyalty to the emperor, the folly of fume. They are painted in true Chinese
vanity, the desirability of a large family fashion by means of brush and ink on
and of telling the truth are illustrated silk, in which forms are suggested by
 T ANG DYNASTY 753

thickening and thinning lines. Some philosopher-poets, the scholar- painters,

color was used, but line would be suf- who were not bound by rules as were the
ficient without color, it is so filled with craftsmen working on religious subjects,
life and rhythm, so carefully placed. but were free to paint any subject, once
Like the calligraphy labeling each they had mastered the discipline of
scene, the brushwork demonstrates that 'good brush.' By it they expressed their
the painter-writer had mastered one of attitude toward nature or their fellow
the most difficult disciplines in the man in true Chinese fashion, seeking
world ot art. to convey much by the simplest means,
The writer 01 painrei, by control and realizing that the unsaid is as impor-
dexterity, could make a thin line or a tant as the said, that a suggestion is more
thick one while using the same brush. challenging than complete statement.
Depending on his skill, imagination, It meant setting down the essence of
and personality, he could, in a few the subject, which could come only
strokes, suggest the power of an ocean after a devoted study of it. Therefore, as
wave or the delicacy of a butterfly's they tell us, they watched each flower
wing, even in a written character or as it grew, opening in the dew of the
pictograph. The shape of a character morning, advancing from bud to blos-
and the spacing of its parts were of as som to seed pod. They noted all kinds
great concern to the writer as were the of trees, each with its own root system,
arrangement of mountain peaks and trunk, branches, and characteristic leaves
waterfalls to the maker of pictures. To and watched them change appearance
both writer and painter, no matter what in the different seasons. Mountains and
the subject might be, the quality de- rocks, the flight of birds, the fall of
sired above all was a rhythmic vitality, snow, a fisherman, a spray of bamboo-
a suggestion of the form of life itself. all of nature was their guide and tutor.

As early as about a.d. 500, in canons Remembering Hsieh Ho's first canon,
written by Hsieh Ho, this came first on they imbued their paintings with life
his list of directions for producing great and vitality instead of making objective,
paintings. The last canon is as charac- scientific studies; they had looked deeper
teristically Chinese as the first: he sug- than the surface, and had caught the
gests that by copying the old masters rhythm as well as the appearance of
one might reach toward a greater cre- things in the world about them.
ative activity. The T'ang master, Wu Landscape was a favorite theme with
Tao-tzu, has served as such a model. the poet-painters, and consisted prima-
Many of the poets were painters by rily of mountains and water. Like their
the T'ang period, adding that highest poems, the paintings are made of mist
accomplishment of the gentleman and and mountains, and reflect the mood
the scholar to their poetic gift. They of the artist. Wang Wei is one of the
were founders of the tradition of the outstanding masters of poetry and scroll
 CHINA
754
painting in the Tang period. Though Ajanta (fig. 529), for the Central Asian
we know his painting only from copies communities and the Chinese had dif-

or descriptions made by contemporaries, ferent pigments and different interpre-

he could serve as the representative of tations of the texts. The primary colors,

the unhampered Chinese style of deli- red, blue, and yellow, with some brilliant

cate color, ink, and shading on silk or secondaries, were popular in Tun-huang.

paper, in contrast to the religious paint- The hidden library there contained
ings of Buddhist caves and sanctuaries, countless banners as well as texts on
with their strong Indian and central silk and cotton (fig. 586). Some had
Asian influences. already been dedicated to the Buddha
In Tun-huang, especially, the wall or one of the Bodhisattva, others had
paintings and banners of the Tang been prepared but the dedication had
period give us an idea of the splendor not yet been written in the space de-
of Buddhist art (fig. 584). The walls signed for it. They vary in workmanship
were prepared with a fine coating of from the marvelous in color and com-
plaster, applied over rougher layers, and position to the poorest provincial copies.
on it the designs were laid out accord- Some are as magnificent as the wall
ing to Indian formulas, with a large paintings in scale, others are small ver-
Buddha in the center, surrounded by tical hangings with hastily sketched
lesser deities and attendants. Beneath figures on them. Good and bad, they
the religious scene a row of portraits are authentic, and they reflect Tang
represented donors in Chinese or Turkic ideas in religious art; we must turn to
dress. The scheme was worked
central them, and to a few pieces preserved in
out by using chalk on string; the body Japan, for our knowledge of the period.
of the Buddha served as the starting It is invaluable for our study of Chinese
point, and, once his measurements were art, and also of Tibetan art. The Ti-
correct, and a circle made for the halo betans came and went at all times from
behind his head, as well as a larger man- the outpost city nearest their own terri-

dorla behind the body, the craftsmen tory. They took some of the banners
then placed the Bodhisattva at intervals, home and brought their own to dedi-
snapping the chalk against the plaster cate to the Thousand Buddhas; a num-
to establish radial lines. The outlines of ber of the banners show Tibetan influ-
the figures were drawn freehand or ence, and in the earliest Tibetan paint-
made by using pounces; each one had ings are Chinese motifs which stem
to be made in the proper proportion from the Tang era.
and with the proper garments, hand In banners as well as murals the
gestures, and attributes, according to painter hadsome opportunity to let his
Indian texts. Colors, too, were assigned imagination guide him in portraying
to certain figures. They were more vivid tales of the previous existences of the
than the browns, blues, and greens of Buddha and episodes from the life of
 T ANG AND SUNG DYNASTIES 755

the historical Buddha or the Bodhisattva. When the next dynasty came to
These scenes were smaller in scale than power, the Sung (960-1279), one of the
the big Buddhist Heavens, and they emperors, Hui-tsung, became a poet-
were narratives. In them we see a blend- painter, as well as a great collector of
ing of foreign and native styles, and the masterpieces of the past. He was the
introduction of Chinese costume, archi- patron of artists who were called to the
tecture, landscape, even of the playful, capital to the Academy he directed.
fanciful sprites and demons stemming Members of the Academy wore special
from old Chinese art. Though they are robes and insignia, and were expected
small and sometimes badly preserved, to maintain a high level of excellence in
they are among the most important and their painting. The Emperor specified
delightful treasures of the Caves of the the subjects to be portrayed, and re-

Thousand Buddhas. warded the best competitors. Some of

Mural painting on a grand scale was these subjects seem more fitting for
continued in China in the succeeding poets than painters and were a great
periods, but the most sought-after paint- challenge to the ingenuity of the artist:

ings in later epochs are done on silk or 'The hoofs of his steed returned heavily

paper, such as small album pieces or the charged with the scent of the trampled
horizontal and vertical scrolls. flowers/ or 'A boat lying idle the whole

591. Hui-tsung (1082-1135) Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Painting on silk, scroll x'iVi" high x 4'c/' long.
75<5
CHINA

*»

JT

J
592. Hui-tsung (1082-1135) The Five-Colored Parakeet, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Paint-
ing on silk.

day long as nobody wishes to cross the side it, and seals of approval above. In-
river/ were solved by the winners by stead of showing the whole tree or
showing a swarm of butterflies clustering shrub, by choosing a few branches that
around the horse's hoofs, and by a boat- come up dynamically from a place out-
man daydreaming with his flute beside side the limits of his silk, he suggests
him. the whole growing organism. Tiny buds,
Hui-tsung copied a Tang design of some beginning to open, and some full-
Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk blown blossoms cluster together as they
(fig. 591), faithfully depicting costume, would on a growing fruit tree, develop-
textile patterns, coiffures, and beauty ing in a cycle as inevitable as spring it-

marks, but ignoring any specific setting. self. A firmer brush stroke was used on
His Five-Colored Parakeet (fig. 592) is the branches and twigs, for 'old branches
typical of album painting, the bird are like dragon's horns, young ones like
perched on an apricot branch, with an angling rods,' and the parakeet clings
inscription in delicate calligraphy be- confidently to the longest. As we study
 SUNG DYNASTY 757

x J>/.z&.

593. Fan K'uan (act. 990-1030) A Temple Among the Snowy Hills, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Painting on silk, 10" x 10".

it we become aware of the subtle repe- sketch, never erasing line or color, and
tition of curves in the body of the bird seem to do it so effortlessly.
and in the branches, and of the impor- Even before Hui-tsung's time great
tance of the unpainted areas. Though it landscapes were painted, both as album
looks unpremeditated, it is deliberately pieces (fig. 593) and horizontal scrolls
asymmetrical and carefully planned. (fig. 594). The latter were as carefully
Only an artist who had observed the planned as the little circular or rectangu-

parakeet and apricot for a long time lar studies, and gave fuller scope to Chi-
could thus catch the inner character of nese genius, with its longing for infinity
each, and only a skilled painter could and space. The two characters that
paint on the silk without a preliminary make up their word for landscape are
75* CHINA

'mountain and water/ both suggesting few inches of the scroll at a time as it

vastness, solitude. We have to look is unrolled, we find that we are actually

closely for man in the valleys if we are in a moving picture; but our eyes are

to find him at all; he is usually a traveler doing the moving, drawn up, over,

earning a pack on his back, or a boat- down, and across bv a constantly mov-
man. He is all men on their journey ing focus, by variations on the themes
through life, with their burdens, their that are broken occasionally by moving
stonv paths, their visions of beauty be- water. After showing the majesty of
yond as the mist clears. He is not so mountains with evergreens crowning
great as a mountain, nor does he live as their summits, the sturdiness of trees in

long as a pine; he is beaten low by the foreground, distant land, tiny men
storms, but he goes on his way. He be- in boats, open stretches of river, and
longs in the scheme of things; he does bubbling streams, the painter closes his
not tame nature; he accepts his place, composition with a repetition of his
patientlv and with humility, a being at opening harmonies— and yet he does
home in his universe. Through him, and not close it, for we must imagine the
through the world about him, flows a rest of it, as the river flows down to the
vibrant life, movement and change and sea.

rhythm. In the Clear Weather in the While the Emperor and his masters
Valley by Tung Yuan (fig. 594), the of the brush tried to capture the fra-
landscape elements are arranged in grance of a flower and the delicate pat-
changing groups of motifs woven to- tern of bamboo reflected on silk in the
gether horizontally, with vertical accents moonlight, the barbarians closed in
rising or falling behind them. If we fol- again from the northwest. Hui-tsung
low from right to left, seeing only a fled, giving up his collection of over six

594. Tung Yuan (10th cent.) Detail of Clear Weather in the Valley, Museum of Fine Arts
Boston. Ink on paper, scroll i'j" high x 5'n" wide.
 SUNG DYNASTY

thousand scrolls, but he was taken cap-

tive and killed by the Golden Tatars.
Kao-tsung, his successor, went south to
Nanking, but could not escape, and in
1141 signed a treaty with the invaders
giving them most of the northern prov-
inces. The Tatars made their capital in

Peking, while the Chinese court was

established in the south at Hangchou.
Some of the finest works of art ever pro-
duced were done in the southern Sung
period. It was a time of sorrow for most
of China, when they could do little

more than dream of the past or face the

hard work and bitterness of the present.
More than ever the poets found beauty
in small, exquisite things, in the sound
of rain, or the jade-white petal of a
flower, or the melancholy music of the
flute. They retired to their bamboo
groves, as did former statesmen; for the
time being, the teaching of Lao-tzu,
with its emphasis on nature, seemed
more in key with the times than the pre-
cepts of Confucius did.
The pomp and color of Mahayana
Buddhism and its texts and rituals began
to pall. A more personal approach had
been introduced in the sixth century
by Indian teachers who believed in the

efficacy of contemplation in which each

worshiper had to find the Buddha in

his heart. No one could intercede for

him, nor would the building of temples

or memorials increase his merit; he had
to rely on himself, with the guidance
of a few masters who could only sug-
gest, not prescribe, how he might find
the Way. Thus Ch'an Buddhism and 595. Liang K'ai (act. 12th cent.) The Poet
Li T'ai-po, Count Matsudaira Coll., Tokyo.
Taoism grew into a religion very agree- Ink on paper.
760 CHINA

nation often came while chopping

wood, drawing water, or fishing. If it

seemed slow in coming, a box on the

ear or some other unexpected shock
might bring it about. Teachers talked in
riddles, for The Tao of which one can
speak is not the Tao/
Painters in these monasteries no
longer decorated walls with formal pic-
tures of the heavens of the future. Now
the painter-monks cleared their minds
of distracting thoughts, and set to work
with brush, ink, and paper. Even light
color was discarded, for the ink painting
was more of a challenge, leaving much
to the observer to fill in. Instead of
painting each leaf, the brush swept
quickly over the paper, giving an im-
pression of the forms. Thus Liang K'ai
did a masterly portrait of the famous
T'ang poet, Li T'ai-po (fig. 595), with

the fewest possible strokes, and in a

staccato style he painted Hui-neng Tear-
ing up the old Buddhist scriptures (fig.

596) in the frenzy of energy of one who

believed that the only way to Illumi-
nation was through contemplation, not
the written word. The motion of Liang

^ K'ai's

as if
brush must have been as abrupt
he were tearing them; he put the
ink on the paper in quick angular lines,
596. Liang K'ai fact. 12th cent.) The Priest and made a pine branch up above shoot
Hui-neng, Count Matsudaira Coll., Tokyo. Ink
on paper, i'6" high.
like a rocket across the scroll. As in the

early ink paintings, these figures exist in

able to the Chinese temperament. Mon- a very real but entirely anonymous
asteries had been established near Nan- space. A fellow monk-painter, Mu Ch'i,
king as well as in the north, and were showed equal skill in suggesting much
run by abbots who, though enlightened, through simple means; his painting of
might be quite unlettered. Menial tasks Persimmons (fig. 597), daring in its

were assigned to the novices, for Illumi- simplicity of form, looks more like a
 SUNG DYNASTY 761

which must be about to put out the

pale yellow-green buds of early spring.
The timber bridge lies ahead, with
water flowing under it, and, once safely
across it, he may go through a bamboo
grove to the house nestling in a cove.
The damp mist is rising, almost obscur-
ing the bamboo and the house, cloak-
ing the base of the mountain that rises
in the distance. There is the mood about
it of the twilight hour, of a journey al-

most done, of the need to hurry before

the fog settles. The curve of the willow
branches, of the bridge, and of the
mountain are in perfect harmony with
the circle of the silk. The dark accents

MuCh'i (13th cent.) Persimmons, Ryii- of the lower right, repeated near the
597.
koin Temple, Kyoto. Ink on paper. bridge, in the tree tops, and on the
mountain ridge, add to the impression
work of the twentieth century than one of a vibrant radiation, which gives life

of the thirteenth. Landscape, too, was to a scene composed of undramatic ele-

a favorite theme for the Ch'an philoso- ments. The design of these parts, of the
phers, and was painted with the same light and dark areas, of the empty
freedom of brush. spaces and the filled, was done by a
This is the great moment of painting master hand, sure and subtle.
in China. Future generations will look Fan K'uan also chose the circular fan-

to the Sung masters and collect their shaped silkalbum piece of A

for his
works with as much love as they have Temple Among the Snowy Hills, and
lavished on the classics of literature and like Ma Yuan he emphasized the curv-
ancient bronzes, which were catalogued ing patterns of rock, shore line, tree

in this period. Famous names abound as trunk, bamboo, and mountain (fig. 593).
they do three centuries later in the rich He, too, places the heaviest elements in
era of the Renaissance in Italy. the lower right-hand corner, and he
Ma Yuan, in an album piece (fig. expands the design radially from there.
598), shows a tiny traveler, his posses- But the mood of his snow scene is quite
sions tied to a stick held over his shoul- different; there is a suggestion of the
der, as he approaches a bridge flanked soundless chill of winter, of a world
by willow trees. We identify ourselves blanketed in white. Contours are sharp,
with him as he nears the tall, graceful contrasts more striking. Man is still

willows with their curving branches, small, he still labors toward shelter and
762 CHINA

1
598. Ma Yiian (act. 1190-1225) Bare Willows and Distant Mountains, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Painting on paper, 9V2" x 9V2".

peace, but this time with a hat as big in the right-hand corner, the traveler is

as an umbrella, and, as he bends into about to leave a solid bank to cross a

the wind, he lifts his feet to get through rickety bridge, and he, too, braces him-

the heavy drifts. self against the wind that tears autumn
More violent in mood, free and pow- leaves off the trees. He almost crouches
erful in brushstroke, Hsia Kuei's Rain under his umbrella, and will have to be
Storm is another Sung masterpiece (fig. careful of his footing before he reaches
599). The vertical, hanging scroll gave the pavilion. A bold cliff juts out on
the artist more scope and space, but he the left side, to which the trees cling,
is careful not to fill the space. Far down their roots cutting into it like dragon
 SUNG DYNASTY 763

claws. Everything is unsteady, designed

in sweeping diagonals. Hsia Kuei's
brushstroke is free and forceful, his ink

rich and black, or shaded to thin wisps.

Bf*;K
'-
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': -t

^P^; 600. Mi Fei (1051-1107) Misty Landscape,

Freer Gallery, Washington. Painting on silk,
411 2 7

The mass of foliage on the trees is done

by a few quick dabs of the brush loaded
with ink, and even the leaves blown by
the wind are small, bold dots. Behind
the trees, the mist comes in obscuring a
hill that appears high up in the picture.

A small sapling growing from the moun-

tain is mercilessly beaten by this au-

tumn wind, a force to be endured, not

tamed.
Equally original, Mi Fei became fa-

mous for his technique of placing small

599. Hsia Kuei (act. 1195-1224) Rain Storm,
'blobs' of ink in varying tones close to-
Baron Kawasaki Coll., Kobe. Painting on paper.
 CHINA
7 64

gether, a twelfth-century 'pointillist' ap- regime was Li T'ang. He was inspired

proach in monochrome (fig. 600). The by the beauty of the Hangchou hills to
effect is one of softness and subtle shad- paint bold landscapes, and he was
ing, well adapted to the portrayal of equally inspired by rice wine. His Man
mist, mountain, and trees that have a on a Water Buffalo Returning Intoxi-
vaporous, undulating quality. Though cated from a Village Feast (fig. 601)
the method of painting was original might well be a self-portrait. The pitiful

and unorthodox, Mi Fei achieved a old man is kept astride his lowly steed
serene peacefulness that was the ideal by a faithful retainer walking beside
of more academic painters. him. A ragged boy pulls the unwilling
One of the academicians who moved beast.They are all unkempt, stooped,
south after the collapse of Hui-tsung's and dejected; the old man had tried to

L-JL

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601. Li T'ang (act. 1100-30) Man on a Water Buffalo, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Painting
on silk, 10" x 11".
 SUNG DYNASTY 765

602. Ma Lin (act. 1215-25) Ling Chao-nii Standing in the Snow, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Painting on silk, 9V2" x 10".

forget the sorrow of the Sung, the shame smoother contours. Hundreds of deli-

of the barbarians flourishing in the cate lines indicate the rippling surface
north. Li Tang, the former court of the river flowing beside the slow-
painter, was meticulous in his brush- moving procession.
stroke. Every tiny willow leaf is done The quietness of winter and the lone-
carefully and the hair of the buffalo is liness of a gray day are expressed by Ma
equally fine in texture. The willow Lin in his painting of Ling Chao-nii
trunks are covered by rough bark, and Standing in the Snow (fig. 602). His
the bamboo leaves are painted with subject, the daughter of a good Taoist
 CHINA
7 66

who did not disturb his spirit by min- rived back in the Chinese capital, be-

gling in worldly affairs, had to go out wildered by crowded streets and the
to seek food and firewood. Though there rush of many peoples, as she mounted
are cracks in the silk, which is seven the steps, clad in the white robes of
hundred years old, and it has yellowed mourning. We look down upon the
with age,we are still touched by the scene of her return, into a picture di-

mood. The slim figure of the girl, the vided into small segments by diagonal
leaves blackened by frost, branches roof lines. As in many Oriental paint-
broken and bent, the path blanketed by ings, the lines suggest space extending
snow suggest stillness and solitude. out from the picture plane toward the
Something of the same melancholy is beholder, and they create a simple set-

conveyed by an anonymous painter of ting for the lively panorama of street

the twelfth century who did a narrative and palace.
scroll of Lady Wen-chi's captivity in Dragons were regarded as particularly

Mongolia and her return to China (fig. beneficent creatures: they served as sym-
603). Illustrating a favorite story of bols of the East, they were the bringers
Han times, he showed the delicate Chi- of rain, and of good crops. They lived
nese girl as she was taken out into Mon- in lakes or pools, or in the Eastern Sea,
golia by her captor, who made her his and they could rise like the mist, disap-
wife. She had to live in a tent and grow pear into a cloud, become invisible at
accustomed to the uncouth ways of will, moving like lightning. Though it

nomadic people. Finally money for her would seem almost impossible to por-
ransom came, but it was with sorrow tray a creature of sky and mystery on a
that she parted from her husband and piece of silk or paper, the painters often
the children she had borne him. She ar- devoted themselves to dragon subjects.

603. Return of Lady Wen-chi to Ying Ch'uan (12th cent.) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Painting on silk, 10" x 22".
 SUNG DYNASTY 767

604. Ch'en Jung (act. 1235-55) Detail of Nine Dragon Scroll, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Ink on paper, scroll i'6" x 36'.

One of the greatest was Ch'en Jung of ink on the paper, probably feeling as
the thirteenth century, a governor of powerful as a dragon at the moment.
Fukien, who painted as a hobby. Like Part of a 36-foot horizontal scroll (fig.

Li T'ang, he was often inspired by wine, 604), done in ink with light color on
and was known to shout as he flung his bamboo paper, is a detail of one of his

i:

Hi
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605. Ma Fen (act. nth cent.) Detail of the Hundred Geese Scroll, Academy of Arts, Honolulu.
Ink on paper, 1/2" high.
 CHINA
7 68
an ambitious project when he painted
The Hundred Geese, showing them fly-
ing, settling down on the water, swim-

ming, feeding, always varied and full of

life. A copy of his is one

scroll (fig. 605)
of the most delightful ink paintings in
the Sung style, sure in its brushwork,
beautifully spaced, done with acute ob-
servation of the birds.
This freedom of expression that came
with the Sung period affected even the
religious painting of orthodox Buddhist
subjects. One of the Ten Kings of Hell
(fig. 606) sits like a Chinese magistrate
at his desk, interviewing the wicked.
Though the flames of Hell burn near
by in this thirteenth-century painting
by Hsi-chin Chii-shih, the King goes
calmly about his judgments, full of

ceremony and etiquette. All his attend-

ants, even misshapen demoniac guards,

are individuals. We are aware of what
a change had taken place as we compare
this with the T'ang painting of Bud-
dhist worlds (fig. 584), where deities
existed in a remote heaven, attended by
spirits of superhuman, hieratic aspect,

each placed at a prescribed distance

from the Buddha.
In the series by Chou Chi-ch'ang and

606. Hsi-chin Chii-shih (13th cent.) One of

Lin T'ing-kuei of the twelfth century
the Ten Kings of Hell, Metropolitan Museum, (fig. 607), there is the same interest in
New York. Painting on silk, 3'8" x i'j".
portraiture and individuality. The sages,
greatest masterpieces, full of fury and or Arhats, are shown as men of super-
spirit. natural power drifting down toward the
Some of the painters who specialized earth, clad in monks' robes, but they
in birds and flowers preferred to do long look like prosperous Chinese citizens be-
scrolls rather than album pieces. Ma Fen stowing alms on the ragged beggars be-
of the late eleventh century undertook low them. There is striking contrast
 SUNG DYNASTY 769

ture, suggesting an infinity of space and

movement.
Buddhist painters showed a tendency
to break away from the magnificent
crowded composition and to prefer as

a subject the solitary monk, engaged in

contemplation. Lu Hsin-chung of the
thirteenth century painted Vanavasi
Gazing at a Lotus Pond (fig. 608), so in-

tent in his concentration that he is not

aware of an attendant who has ap-
proached with a tray. He is oblivious of

607. Lin Ting-kuei (act. 1160-80) Arhats

Giving Alms to Beggars, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Painting on silk, 3'8" x 1/9".

between the misshapen, grotesque raga-

muffins who are almost caricatures of
misery, and the bland, plump Immor-
tals. The Chinese artists have thus re-

belled against the strict formality of

composition dictated by the Indian
sutras, and place their figures in un-
symmetrical groups: clouds, trees, and 608. Lu Hsin-chung (13th cent.) Vanavasi
Gazing Lotus Pond, Museum of Fine Arts,
at a
rocks are cut by the border of the pic- Boston. Painting on silk, 3'8" x 1*4*.
 CHINA

ducks playing among the lotus, and of flower holders or tea ceremony dishes.

the wind in the willows; he is com- The thickness of the body varies from
pletely lost in thought. Unlike the heavy stoneware to delicate porcelain
Ch'an paintings, which were mono- that rings when flicked by the finger,

chrome, black and white, these Ma- some of it fired at high temperatures.
hayana Buddhist paintings are colored. Glazing advanced beyond anything
Vanavasi wears a red and gold brocaded known before; the potters learned how
priest's robe over a green undergar- to make crackle in the glaze, and how
ment, his attendant wears a blue gown to control the size and direction of the
tied with red cords about his waist, the cracks. Most of the Sung ware is mono-
ducks are brown and blue-green, the chrome, described bv Chinese names in
lotus blossoms a fragile pink, and the a truly poetic way, 'blue as the sky after
lotus and willow leaves are green. In rain,' 'ice crackle,' 'fish roe crackle/
this— as in other paintings of the same 'onion green,' 'hares' fur,' or 'palm eyes/
series in Boston— the artist shows a Sometimes a design was cut into the
master's skill in arranging forms, tex- body before glazing, or was painted in
tures, and patterns, demonstrating his the glaze, done with as much skill as in

interest in the concrete world and the calligraphy or painting on silk. A bowl
realms beyond reality.

These are a few among the great

names of the Sung painters. Figure
painters, landscape artists, specialists in
birds, flowers, dragons, and bamboo-
all were splendid. Many were innova-
tors, experimenting in techniques and
styles that have influenced Chinese
painting down the ages, and still set a

standard for all the world to admire.

This is the great moment in the ce-
ramic arts, too. Based on the tradition

handed down from Neolithic times,

which reached a high point under the
Han and T'ang, pottery-making in
609. Ting Ware Bowl (ioth-i3th cent.) Mu-
China now outstripped that of other
seum of Fine Arts, Boston. Pottery.
lands in refinement, beauty of shape,
and glaze. The imperial family took a of Ting ware (fig. 609), glazed creamy
great interest in its production, choos- white, is as delightful as an album paint-
ing the rarest and finest pieces. Shapes ing. The curve of the bowl is repeated
were modeled on the bronze ritual ves- in the curve of the grasses, the swans,
sels, or were designed especially as and the waves that buov them up. It is
 SUNG AND YUAN DYNASTIES
77 ]

610. Kuan Tao-sheng (14th cent.) Bamboo (1309) Museum ot Fine Arts, Boston. Ink on
silk, 11" x 4'6".

graceful, exquisite, and a miracle of re- traveler to report on its charms. Since
straint. Kubilai was interested in all kinds of
things and people, we can imagine how
LATER CHINESE ART the city's streets looked as the caravans
came in from the desert, bearing gifts
The southern Sung dynasty came to from and Damascus, or
Persia, Russia,
an end with the Mongol invasion. Un- when came up from the south
traders
der Jenghis Khan, the nomads had with spices, jewels, and rare animals.
harassed the north, and had established Tibet and Lamaism played important
themselves there by 1234. The Chinese roles in the life of the north and west,
attacked the Yuan, as they named them, for the Mongols supported that sect, as

and started a conflict that lasted forty- well as allowing Buddhism, Taoism, and
five years, ending in the subjugation of Confucianism to continue.
all China, and the annexation of Chi- Painting followed the Sung tradition
nese territory to most of Asia already as the 'non-collaborators' tried to ig-

under Mongol rule. Chinese were sent nore their conquerors and lived in soli-

to Mesopotamia, and tribesmen from tude apart from the Mongol cities, but
all parts of Asia flocked to the big east- some of the most gifted artists were
ern cities. Under Kubilai, who was the patronized by the newcomers. The 'bar-

Khan of China from 1260 to 1294, barians' liked paintings of horses and
Peking was proclaimed the winter cap- the hunt, those which tended to empha-
ital, and was rebuilt under Moslem di- size vigor and strength rather than deli-

rection. Many halls, gardens, and even cacy; but the most renowned names are
a zoo were in 'Khanbaliq,' as it was those of artists who followed the prin-
called, and Marco Polo was not the only ciples of the past. Chao Meng-fu and
 CHINA
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611. Ni Tsan (1301-74) Landscape (1362) Freer Gallery, Washington. Ink on paper, 1' x i'8".

his son and grandson were so famous as of Europe and Asia were under the
painters of horses and animals that same rule, the Chinese concept of space
nearly every Mongol period scroll that began to undergo changes; distant
has a horse in it is ascribed to this fam- mountains, instead of rising majesti-
ily. Chao's wife, Kuan Tao-sheng, is cally as they so often had in earlier
one of the few women who rank high Ni Tsan
painting, were reduced in scale.
in the Chinese records; she was known (fig. 611) and Huang Kung-wang were
as a specialist in bamboo painting (fig. among the experimenters, bringing a
610). Wu Chen, basing his ink paint- new power and originality to landscape
ing on the Sung ideals of life, rhythm, painting. The former, particularly, won
and simplicity of form, did many studies for himself an honored place by pio-
of bamboo. Another traditionalist is neering in the dry-brush technique. By
Ch'ien Hsiian, whose bird and flower it he achieved a solidity of form in rocks
scrolls would have pleased the Sung and trees that formed the basis for some
emperor-painter Hui-tsung. of the great Ming painting to follow.
Many landscapes were painted, often Owing perhaps to their contact with
in the old styles, but there were several other civilizations where realism was
innovators who tried out different brush stressed, the Mongols had portraits
techniques, using line rather than tone made. Their gay embroidery and head-
for rocks, trees, water, and hills. As dresses are similar to those seen in
might be expected in a time when parts T'ang paintings of Turkic people of
 YUAN AND MING DYNASTIES 773
Central Asia. In style, the Ming ances-
tor portraits followed the same meticu-
lousness for several centuries.
Much of the Buddhist painting of the
Yuan period follows the tradition of
the* past. Of the scroll painters of this
group, Yen Hui is one of the most in-

teresting, reflecting in his work a pop-

ular belief in folklore, for Chinese fairy

folk were joined by Tibetan demons

and Persian djinns in the minds of the
common people. His Immortal (fig.

612) is one of the dwellers in hills and

forests who had been given the secret
of immortality. His astral body issues

from his mouth, soaring up into the air,

while he remains sitting above the

abyss as the mist closes in. He looks
like an unkempt foreigner, with bushy
hair, flat, knotty fingers, and a Persian
pilgrim bottle hanging at his side.

Largely through the artist's skillful use

of tone, he is endowed with a magic
quality equal to that of the Sung
arhats.

In the decorative arts, as in paint-

ing, there was a considerable exchange
of ideas with the outside world, partic-
612. Yen Hui, Arc Immortal, Chion-ji, Kyoto.
ularly with the Near East. From Russia, Painting on silk.
also under Mongol domination, the art
of cloisonne enamel was introduced as established a new dynasty, the Ming,
practiced by Byzantine craftsmen. Thus which lasted until 1644. At first there
China became a great center for the was a great expansion, for the Chinese
making of highly colored vases and were victorious in military campaigns
dishes. and had impressive fleets plying the
The Mongols were unable to main- coastal waters, and voyaging to India
tain their sovereignty long. Strong as and Africa.
they seemed, they were driven out by The early capital of the Ming dy-
forces from the south in 1368. A Bud- nasty was in Nanking, but in 1403 it

dhist monk, leader of the Chinese army, was moved north to Peking, which was
774 CHINA

rebuilt on the plan we know today by laid out symmetrically according to

the Emperor of the Yung-lo period. Ex- definite concepts of order and auspi-
cept for the imperial tombs near Nan- cious direction inherited from the past,
king, this northern capital affords the but the white marble of the walls marks
best examples of Ming genius in plan- a break with tradition. It is in har-
ning and building imposing edifices. mony, however, with the colors of tiles
The imperial palace, the 'Forbidden and ornaments. The Altar of Heaven
City' of later days, contains three court- (fig. 613) consists of three circular ter-

yards around which are grouped pa- races with their balustrades joined by
vilions, halls, terraces, gardens, and imposing and ramps that were
stairs

ornamental waterways. Like the ancient used by the emperor when he went
house in plan, but expanded to magnfi- there in the early dawn to perform his
cent dimensions, it has been called the sacrificial rituals. Like the jade symbol
grandest palace in the world. The tile of heaven, the circle of the altar sug-
roof is supported by brackets that gested completeness that was both heav-
branch out from vertical supports, but enly and imperial.
the roofs are colored blue, green, gold, In Peking there was a revival of the
and red rather than a somber brown or arts and a renewed activity in the mak-
clay, and the bracket system has grown ing of encyclopedias, books on crafts and
increasingly complex. The courtyards are agriculture, and fine editions of re-

613. Altar of Heaven, Peking.

 MING DYNASTY 775

ligious and philosophic works. In- eenth centuries, and China, in turn, be-
creased trade carried Chinese porce- came acquainted with products from the
lains, silks, carved ivories, and jewels to Western world. Then in the seven-
other parts of the world, where 'chi- teenth century the Chinese were forbid-
noiserie' later became a great vogue, den to go abroad, and trading on a
especially in the seventeenth and eight- large scale was not encouraged; the

*•

614. Tai Chin (act. 1430-50) Details of Breaking Waves and Autumn Winds, Freer Gallery,
Washington. Ink on paper, scroll 1' x 36'6".
7-6 CHINA

Chinese turned their eves on the glo- versatile amateurs; Shen Chou, poet
rious past. and gentleman, was a real leader among
While some Ming painters studied them. With delicate humor and fine
the past with reverence, others produced brush work he gave individuality to
works notable for their originality and both album pieces and large composi-
power. So great was their versatility, in tions. Whether he painted persimmons
fact, that they are difficult to classifv in or majestic landscapes, he did them with
limited compartments. One group, the a mastery of technique that set him
Che, consisted of court painters. They above the hundreds of painters of the
had as their models the Sung masters, period. He followed the Yiian masters,
such as Ma Yiian (fig. 598) and Hsia especially Ni Tsan (fig. 611), taking
Kuei (fig. 599). Though some of them the dry-brush method and adding color.
produced copies more remarkable for Of his pupils, T'ang Yin is noteworthy
precision than for boldness, their leader, for his swift brushwork, his delicacy,
Tai Chin, was imaginative and original, and his humor, and Wen Cheng-ming
capable of working in several methods. for his independence and versatility. In

His interpretation of nature shows the the sixteenth century Tung Chi-ch'ang
sensitiveness and understanding that was outstanding as scholar, statesman,
we look for in the best of Chinese paint- art critic, and friend of Matteo Ricci,
ing. In his scroll of fishermen bringing the Jesuit priest who took such an in-

their boats to harbor in a hard blow terest in Chinese painting. Chu Tuan,
(fig. 614), the brushwork is strong, another important Ming painter, pro-
demonstrating how expert he was in duced traditional subjects in the freer
that exacting medium. The handling Ming style (fig. 615).
of tone, which he graded from light to The use of color is one of the im-
dark to suggest volume, shows how well portant contributions of the Ming art-

he knew that much could be expressed ists to the history of Chinese painting.
if every brush stroke counted. Like the Many of them loved the exquisite fes-
masterpieces of former days, the paint- tivals of the court, which took place be-
ing is filled with life and rhythm; one hind walls that shut out the noisy city,

follows the moving focus through the in a setting amid rocks, dwarfed pines,
1
36 /2-foot-long scroll, from scene to willows, and curving bridges, for the
scene, each a part of the other, and each courtiers and ladies who feasted there.
perfect in itself. The wind, bending Ch'iu Ying gives us a good picture of
trees, filling the sails, and blowing trav- such entertainment. No longer do the
elers before it, has rarely been painted moods of nature touch these people.
so successfully. Hsia Kuei would have They and their music live in a pro-
looked upon it with delight. tected world, painted in subtle tones
Of the non-professional painters, the of mauve, vermilion, and blue-green.
Wu school of literary men produced While the name of Ming has long
 MING DYNASTY 7/7

seen. Never was the porcelain more

purely white, the glaze more flawlessly

translucent. Among the greatest achieve-

ments were the vases decorated in un-

der-glaze blue with cobalt imported

from Persia, and the pieces decorated
with red derived from copper.
Monochrome ware was equally fine.
Shapes of unparalleled purity and
beauty were enhanced by reds, yellows,
greens, and other colors. It was at this

time, too, that the famous 'five-color'

enameled wares were made, the en-

amels applied over the glaze, both in

combination with under-glaze designs

and alone. Floral designs, good luck
symbols, dragons, butterflies, and sages
were some of the popular ornaments.
The 'three-color' wares were usually
heavy pots, big bowls, and garden seats,

and the technique consisted of separat-

ing the patterns of colored glazes by
means of cloisons of clay or by incisions
in the paste, so that in firing there
would be no intermingling of colors;

some of these were carved in open-

615. Chu Tuan, Man and Boy in a Boat un- work designs. Aside from the stand-
der Trees (1518) Museum of Fine Arts, Bos-
ard wares, the beautiful creamy white
ton. Ink on paper, 4' x 2'.
called blanc de chine was made in Fu-
been, familiar to students and collec- kien province; in I-hsing, west of Shang-
tors of Chinese porcelain, it is only in hai, were made the teapots for the
the( last decade or so that we have come scholars' tables, of unglazed clays in

to know the really great examples of chocolate brown and shades of red and
Ming ceiamic wares. At Ching-to-chen, yellow, sometimes intricately carved.
which had been a former center of activ- Other regions, too, had their special-
ity under imperial patronage, the fac- ties.

tories were re-established in 1369. From Ming porcelains have been so skill-

that Lime on for almost three cen- fully imitated that assignment of a
turies, in unbelievable quantities, came piece in its proper period is an extremely
the finest porcelain the world has ever complex and puzzling task. The vases
778 CHINA

of at least ten of the seventeen Ming done under the Ming, it was natural
reign periods can be distinguished by that they should encourage artists of
a careful study of the paste, glaze, color, all kinds. More than ever the past was
and type of design, but the mark of a examined and copied, and a display of

Ming ruler on a piece of porcelain may skill for its own sake, rather than orig-
mean nothing more than that a copy inality, was the goal of craftsman and
was made by a later workman emulat- painter.
ing the honorable past. Brush-stroke types were classified and
Wood-block printing was used ex- made into copybooks, which were stud-
tensively in this period in the making ied more earnestly by apprentices than
of encyclopedias, in the illustration of was nature herself; as a consequence
religious texts, and in copvbooks used countless painters proved to be pro-
by art students. The color print had ficient, but their work was academic and
been developed into a thing of exquisite lifeless. They were charmed by meticu-
beautv bv Ming craftsmen. Textiles, lousness and were inclined to overload
which had always kept pace with the their compositions, often stressing the
major arts of China, assumed a new im- decorative values at the expense of
portance. Robes for state ceremony and power and vitality. Though they turned
sacrificial rituals were made according to the Sung and Yiian periods for in-

to imperial edict and ornamented with struction, they failed to capture the
symbols handed down from prehistoric simplicity and grandeur that had been a

times. These robes were so much ad- part of the heritage of the past. The
mired bv the conquerors of the Ming, eighteenth- and nineteenth-century
the Manchus, that they adopted the de- painters were often frame-conscious,
signs for their own imperial costumes. allowing the border of a scroll to serve
In 1644, the Manchus, who later con- as a real stopping place for the imag-
quered Turkestan and Tibet, infiltrated ination, instead of suggesting more than
into northern China and took Peking was included in the picture; they ran
for their second capital, which it re- their mountains up to astonishing
mained until 1912 when the Republic heights to fit them into the vertical

was proclaimed. For forty years they composition, and arranged other motifs
waged campaigns in the south, and to suit themselves within the pattern;
finally extended their power to Indo- they were fascinated by different tex-

China, bringing all of the country un- tures, and by multitudinous objects that
der their rule which they called the could be squeezed into the composi-
Ch'ing Dynasty. They readily adapted tion. Man did not occupy a humble
themselves to Chinese law, manners, place any longer; portraits were popular,
and customs, and brought years of peace especially if rank could be indicated by
in which the arts could flourish. Since 'mandarin squares,' the embroidered in-

they admired so much of what had been signia indicating the exact status of civil
 CH ING DYNASTY 779

;,
H spontaneity that marks a real progress
in the long development of brush tech-
niques. Because the painters retained in-
herited discipline, there is still vitality,

subtlety of form, and sly humor. Such

,
men as Tao Chi, Yiin Shou-ping, and
the Four Wangs were interested in the
variety in nature, rather than in its

uniformity. Some made careful descrip-

tive studies, trying to capture what the
eye sees, but, unlike their copybook
contemporaries, they drew from nature
and endowed their studies with person-
ality. A bird on a branch, by Chu Ta,
for instance (fig. 617), is done with the
fewest possible strokes of the brush;
each stroke is essential, placed in ex-
actly the right relation to the other
strokes, and, what is more important
in Chinese painting, in the right rela-

tion to the unfilled areas. This paint-

616. Leng Mei (18th cent.) Lady Walking

on Garden Terrace, Museum of Fine Arts, Bos-
ton. Painting on silk, 3'6" x i'io".

and military officials. Lovely ladies were

shown swooning in delicate melancholy
(fig. 616), and courtiers in their rich-
est robes in audience with the emperor.
Men gathered in pavilions for sociable
meetings, and the painters delighted in
depicting every detail.
In spite of the popularity of copying,
and the widespread worship of the past
or of the materialistic present, some 617. Chu Ta (act. 1630-50) Kingfisher on a
Lotus Stalk, Kuwara Collection, Kyoto. Ink on
Ch'ing paintings shows a freedom and paper.
780 CHINA

ing seems to have been executed more out to grace the homes of seafaring men.
rapidly than similar studies of the Sung Ceramic wares from China were in de-
and Ming periods, and is very modern mand everywhere, and foreign influences
in its freshness and bold simplicity. were registered in that art as in so many
Men of this caliber were the true in- others, but pieces made for the im-
heritors of the past and the guardians perial household had to meet the rigid

of the future. It is their work, rather standards of imperial patronage just as

than the mannered, decorative pieces they had in the past. The reigns of the

that inspired 'chinoiserie/ which link K'ang-hsi emperor (1661-1722) and the
a stirring twentieth-century China to Ch'ien-lung emperor (1736-95) are
her creative tradition of the dynasties noted especially for the porcelains.
long since gone, a heritage unrivaled by Those emperors were connoisseurs, col-

any other nation. Sung pieces, which now

lecting the finest
The wood-block print again was used bear their poems or marks of approval,
extensively to illustrate treatises and lit- and they demanded the best from their
erature. We can turn to them for a own workers in the imperial factories.
faithful picture of the times, now val- Blue and white ware was popular, made
uable to the student of genre art, por- with more mechanical perfection than
celain, furniture, naval architecture, and in the Ming Dynasty. Among the en-
even of warfare. A series of prints, the ameled wares, the most sought-after in

Conquests of the Emperor, were en- Europe were those called by the French
graved on copper in France, and other collectors 'famille verte, jaune, rose,' if

prints were designed in China and the ornamentation showed a prepon-

printed in Europe or vice versa. Natu- derance of those colors. Monochromes
rally there was more European influ- came into favor again, with magnificent
ence than ever before to be found in glazes such as sang de boeuf (copper
perspective used in the Western man- red), Imperial yellow, clair de lune,
ner, in costumes, and in racial types 'mirror black/ and 'camellia-leaf green/
that appear in Ming and Ch'ing art. An Shape and glaze were superbly suited to
Italian monk, Castiglione, combined each other, so that a delicate vase the
both Western and Oriental ideas in his color of moonlight seemed really to cap-
painting of the Ch'ien-lung period, and ture the fleeting beauty of a summer
won great favor with the emperor, who night.
used his services as architect in creating By the twentieth century, corruption,
pavilions in the Summer Palace. The especially in the palace, marked the
flourishing trade with the United States downfall of the Manchus. By the time
and Europe in the eighteenth and nine- the dowager empress had been laid
teenth centuries had a profound influ- away, pressure was brought on the boy
ence on those lands, as ivories, lacquer, emperor to retire to the shelter of the
fans, and Canton enamels were shipped Forbidden City, and in 1912 the Re-
 CH ING DYNASTY 781

public came into being. For the last pean orientation. Wood-block prints

time an emperor of China had climbed carry a propaganda message in a style

the marble steps of the Altar of Heaven hardly distinguishable from Western
(fig. 613), and the sacrifices were dis- prototypes, though traditional prints of
continued. There on the white platform flowers, birds, animals, and landscape
surrounded by its three tiers of balus- still appear. Artists in exile and master-
trades, the ancient rituals had been per- pieces in museum collections have in-
formed for the last time. spired the Western world to a keener
Now new ways of life and new the- appreciation of the virtues of Chinese
ories have come to China, with a Euro- art.
XXXI Japan

EARLY ART by the aborigines and the peoples who

The islands of Japan, lying off the east
may have come up from the South Seas

coast of Asia, w ere the last to receive the

and the mainland to join them. Accord-
ing to legend, the Three Precious Things
Asiatic culture that was carried there
from India and China and the Near East. —a jewel, a sword, and a mirror— were
Hokkaido in the north, the large is- given in 660 b.c. to Jimmu Tenno, who
land of Honshu founded the empire.
stretching south and
west, with Shikoku fitting into a curve
There is some prehistoric pottery

of its southern shore, and Kvushu

showing the use of the potter's wheel,
al-

most due as well as pottery figures of hollow tile.

east from Shanghai are a
beautiful group of volcanic lands that
These were set around the graves, not

inspired the early inhabitants to a wor- placed inside them as in China, but

ship of mountains, streams, and trees.

set on stems that were pushed into the
We know little about their culture be- ground. They were of men, women, and
fore about 500 b.c. and have no writ- animals, about 3V2-4 feet high. Though
ten records until Buddhism was intro- not great works of art, they offer the
duced in a.d. 552. Their myths of the student a chance to study early costume,
creation of the islands, which were un- especially the armor, and they indicate
der the special protection of the sun- the Japanese preference for things that
goddess and her earthly descendants are 'bright and clear' in their simplicity

who form the imperial house of Japan, and doll-like appeal. We are impressed
indicate the love felt for their country at once bv the difference between this

78:
 SUIKO PERIOD 783

and Chinese art, which embodied the pitched roof with spreading gables was
forces of nature and dealt with mys- the most characteristic feature of ar-

teries that stirred the souls of men. chaic dwellings. No doubt the 'palace'

Early bronze articles are less accom- erected by the descendant of the sun-
plished in casting than mainland pieces; goddess in western Japan was of this
Daitoku bells, very thin, have quite type, which is still followed in the mod-
primitive designs in their panels of ern Shinto shrine at Izumo (fig. 618).
matchstick men, animals, and houses. Like most Indonesian houses, it is set

Chinese influence came via Korea in up on a platform of posts and planks,

the Han Dynasty, bringing the mirror and is almost dwarfed by the great roof,
form and ornament, to which were which should serve to protect it even
added jingles similar to those used in in a torrential downpour; the roof is

Siberia. thick, made of layers of cryptomeria

Judging from early clay models of bark or thatch, originally kept in place
houses, and from houses built in the by the crossed timbers on the ridge pole
traditional manner today, the high which are retained now as a decorative

618. The Great Shrine, Izumo, Shimane Prefecture. Wood.

784 JAPAN

feature. In Japanese construction the promised immortality through the sac-

post and lintel are the basis of design rifice of a life in the line of duty.
and support, rather than the wall. Whether in an isolated place like Ise,

Wood, the only material at hand for with its clear, bubbling streams and
the early builders, was appropriate be- giant trees, or in modern Tokyo, where
cause of the emphasis on purity and elaborate edifices have been erected to
simplicity in Japanese ritual. Some of the patriots, the Japanese recognize the
the modern shrines are rebuilt on these torii as a symbol of the things they have
traditional lines even twenty or thirty revered most.
years, so that there is no decay; they are Except for the South Seas influence in

not adorned with color, plaster, or clay; architecture and in the early bronzes,
the wood speaks for itself. Inside the the chief source of arts and crafts seems
shrine there was one chamber, almost to have been Korea. In the Han period
divided in two parts by a partition; Korea became a Chinese province, and
there were no images at first, only mat- thus had received her bronzes and pot-
ting on the floor and an altar; the wor- tery from the Middle Kingdom, as well

shiper did not go inside. as Confucian ideals. These made their

The entrances to the early places of way into Japan. Then in the fifth cen-

worship, which were generally in groves tury, when the Tatars swept over north
of trees or on mountains, were marked China and a ferment of activity began
by simple gateways made by placing a in the service of the Buddha, Korea
horizontal log on two vertical tree shared in that, too. Image makers, tem-
trunks. This practice is continued in ple builders, and painters followed
Shinto shrines in the erection of the monks as the Law spread north and
torii, though the simplicity of ancient east.

days has been discarded; the bark is A king of Korea sent an image of the
stripped off of the logs, the surfaces are Buddha to the emperor of Japan in
smoothed and frequently painted, and a.d. 552, with sacred texts, and a letter

the topmost horizontal piece often is recommending the adoption of the new
curved. The torii is used, for instance, religion.The emperor submitted the
at the famous shrine of the sun-goddess problem to his ministers, who were torn
at Ise. Shinto, the 'Way of the Gods,' between the old and the new; they could
which was closely associated with crea- not agree, and thus was caused a long
tion legends and the sacred groves of cleavage at court. In spite of dissension
nature spirits, embraces the ruling house and suspicion, Buddhism gradually took
of Japan, and those who give their lives hold in Japan. Its early days were
to protect the emperor. In the nine- stormy; sometimes it was in favor, some-
teenth and twentieth centuries this re- times not, but the missionary zeal of
lationship has been used to inspire patri- the believers did not flag. Though
otic fervor in the people, who were scourges of illness were attributed to the
 SUIKO PERIOD 785

foreign god, and persecutions took place, to his people, incorporating much of

the practice of the Law became wide- Buddhism and Confucian doctrine in
spread toward the end of the sixth cen- it. He recognized in Buddhism a civil-

tury. As the demand grew, more holy izing agent of prime importance to his

relics were brought over from Korea, country, and therefore encouraged the
priests and monks hastened to instruct building of temples and the translation
the 'children' of the Land of the Rising of texts (in which Chinese characters
Sun, temple carpenters came, as did were used, since up to that time the Jap-
skilled painters, carvers, and sculptors in anese had had no written language),
bronze and clay. and made use of the knowledge of the
In 593 the Empress Suiko came to the monks in the development of agricul-

throne following the murder of the ture and crafts. By the end of a.d. 624,
reigning emperor. In her time, inspired there were 46 temples, 816 priests and
by her regent, Shotoku Taishi, the first monks, and 569 nuns.
art period begins (Suiko, a.d. 552-646). One of the temples, the Horyu-ji, still

This regent, her nephew, was one of the stands today, the oldest wooden build-

great men of Japan in the early historic ing in the world (fig. 619), and the best
period. In 604 he gave a Code of Laws example in Japan of the early seventh-

619. Horyu-ji Temple, Nara Prefecture (7th cent.) Wood, plaster, tile.
7 S6 JAPAN

620. Lecture Hall, Toshodai-ji (8th cent.) Wood, plaster, tile.

century stvle which followed Chinese tage for space and beauty, appropriate
lines. Since there is nothing so well pre- to the setting. The buildings and sur-
served in China itself, it takes on an rounding hills blend in a harmonious
added significance. It served both as whole.
monastery and training school for Early sculpture, like the architecture,
monks. The various buildings are in- is close to Chinese and Korean models,
closed in a rectangle by a wall, on the which followed Buddhist texts written

south side of which is the Great South in India. Akin to the images of the Wei
Gate. Within are the Golden Hall, the and Sui periods of China (fig. 579,
five-tiered pagoda, the lecture hall (illus- 581), the figures are rigid, faces and
trated by the one at Toshodaiji, fig. robes have been based upon patterns
620), and the Hall of Dreams which was rather than living models, and in these

added later in the eighth century. The figures the spirit shines forth serenely.
roofs are of tile, not thatch, showing Though plagues of illness were attrib-
the change from the old Japanese sys- uted to followers of the Buddha who
tem to the fashionable Chinese type. had broken with the nature gods, mirac-
The weight of the roof is carried by ulous cures were credited to him by
wooden beams that rest on tall, mast- those who prayed to him in his healing
like posts, and on the brackets, or cor- aspect, called the Yakushi Buddha. Sev-
bels, of the wall, which were derived eral of the most notable figures of the
from the Han Dynasty supports (fig. Suiko period are of Yakushi, or of

576); the wall itself is of wood and the Bodhisattva of Mercy (Kwannon).
plaster. It is an example of simple and The historical Buddha inspired many
honest construction, in which the ma- more dedications. Chinese and Korean
terials were used to the greatest advan- masters, both wood carvers and bronze
 SUIKO PERIOD 787

casters, taught their native pupils all the

secrets of their arts, and the pupils
proved to be so apt that the Suiko pe-
riod and following eras produced some
of the finest masterpieces of Nipponese
sculpture. We cannot say now which
were made by the teachers and which
by their apprentices; the motherland,
China, has so little left in wood or
monumental bronze of the same time
that we can only be grateful for the
Japanese examples.
Of them, one of the most precious
in the eyes of Buddhists and connois-
seurs is the Kwannon (fig. 621), shut
away from most mortals in the Hall of
Dreams of the Horyu-ji, a favorite
place of retirement for the prince-
regent. According to popular belief, the
slim, six-foot wooden figure was based
on that of the regent, who must have
been taller than his countrymen. The
Bodhisattva (Bosatsu) holds a flam-
ing jewel of immortality, and looks out
with a benign smile for those who call

upon his mercy. He is crowned with a

diadem of pierced bronze set upon the
flat waves of his hair, which follows the
neckline, and descends in regular curls
over the shoulders. This type of diadem,
the long, stylized curls, and drapery ar-

ranged in rigid folds are characteristic

of most of Suiko sculpture. The Indian
prototype has been followed to the ex-
tent that the urna between the eyes is

included, as well as the long earlobes,

and the dhoti, scarves, and jewelry of a
prince; but they show Chinese influ-

ence in the flattening of volumes, the

621. Kwannon, Horyu-ji Temple ( 6th-yth
lack of interest in the body beneath the cent.) Wood, 6' high.
7 88 JAPAN

622. Tori Busshi, Shaka and Two Bosatsu, Golden Hall, H6ryu-ji Temple (623) Bronze, central
figure 2'io" high, attendants 3' high.
 SUIKO PERIOD 789

'
^Mr! ST

623. Kudara Kwannon, Horyu-ji Temple (7th 624. Guardian Figure Bishamonten, Golden
cent.) Wood, 6'8" high. Hall, Horyu-ji Temple (7th cent.) Wood, 4Y'.
7Q0 JAPAN

drapery, and the flowing robes, which room are the guardians of the Four
are like Six Dynasty and Sui dress. The Quarters (fig. 624), the kings who safe-

halo, too, seems to be a combination guard followers of the Buddha, each of

of Indian and Chinese ideas, as it ex- whom holds his weapons and attributes
tends upward in a flame, ornamented in his hands, and stands upon a miser-
with lotus flowers and the stupa sym- able creature. Later versions of these
bolizing the Buddha. guardians will be full of fury, but at
Within the simple, spacious interior this early stage the sculptors were con-
of the Horyu-ji, there are other splendid tent to make them majestic, as unyield-
figures of the Suiko period. Two gilt ing as the tree trunks from which they

bronze groups are attributed to the were carved, massive, yet crowned, as

sculptor Tori of the early seventh cen-

tury, one of Yakushi with attendants,
and one of the historical Buddha and
two Bosatsu (fig. 622). Like the Kwan-
non, some Indian features in icono-
graphic details are retained, but the
character of the whole is much nearer
Chinese Six Dynasty work in drapery
treatment. The stylized folds flow over

the pedestals in sharply marked pat- i

terns of curving lines, which emphasize

the smooth modeling of each face and
throat as they emerge from the upper
garments with architectonic simplicity.
Another, called the Kudara Kwannon
(fig. 623) because it was reputed to be
from Kudara, Korea, was carved from
a solid tree trunk, and painted. The
paint has worn off in places, revealing

the sure stroke and sweep of the car-

ver's knife. Side drapery runs parallel to
the body, allowing the spectator viewing
it from the front to see the thin profile

of the folds, which are in marked con-

trast to the full, long arms and the
rounded volume of the vase holding the
625. Bodhisattva in Meditation, Chugu-ji Nun-
dew of immortality suspended from the
nery, Horyu-jiTemple (7th cent.) Wood, 5V
left hand. Placed in the corners of the high.
 SUIKO PERIOD 79 1

were so many other Suiko figures, by

pierced bronze diadems.
In the Chvigu-ji Nunnery in Nara, a
seated Bodhisattva is enshrined. The
nuns have taken such excellent care of
it in these thirteen hundred years that
it looks as though it were made of pol-
ished bronze rather than wood (fig.

625). The bare torso of the Indian

rajah has been retained, but two knobs
adorn the head instead of one; the pose
may be seen in countless figures taken
from the caves of Yiin-kang and Lung-
men in China, but the true Japanese
style begins to manifest itself in the
marked feeling for decorative folds and
sharp, linear rhythms of hairline, ears,

and shoulder curls. Because the body

is heavier and nearer the human form in
626. Base of Tamamushi Shrine, Golden Hall,
modeling, it is sometimes attributed to
Horyu-ji Temple (7th cent.) Painting on wood,
the following period. The gentle smile 2V high.

and subtle carving have made it, for

many people, the most beautiful figure part as he is being devoured. Delicate
in Japan. bamboos mask the stark painfulness of
Almost as famous as these pieces of this latter part, however, and they serve,
sculpture is a small painted shrine in the composition, to balance the heav-
called the Tamamushi. The panels rep- ier upper areas. Colors are laid on the
resent scenes from the life of the Bud- 'banded style' of the early T'ang paint-
dha, or symbols of Buddhist worship. ers of China. The upper part of the
They are framed by strips of pierced shrine is a fine scale model of a Chinese
bronze under which are imprisoned iri- temple, interesting to architects for the
descent beetle wings, which give the structural details.
shrine its name. One of them (fig. Direct contact with China in the
626) illustrates an event in the life of T'ang Dynasty wrought a change in

the Buddha in which he gave his life Japanese art, as did the maturing of
to save some starving tiger cubs. He is native artists. The Hakuho period (646-
shown, in the upper section, standing on 710) was enriched by contact with
a cliff, hanging his garment on a small mainland cultures, as travelers of all

tree; then he plunges through space, kinds flocked to the great T'ang cities.

and we see his lifeless body in the lower As we have seen, the western capital,
792 JAPAN

627. Shrine of Lady Tachibana, Golden Hall, Horyu-ji Temple (7th cent.) Bronze.

Ch'ang-an, was a cosmopolitan place, a cupies the central position. The three
revelation to the Japanese, who became figures sit or stand upon lotus, which
acquainted there with other Asiatic grows from a pool in his heavenly para-
people and with sumptuous wares of- dise. The saviour, benign and welcom-
fered for sale. Their art at home began ing, sits in Indian fashion upon his
to take on more mature aspect, be-
a flower pedestal, flanked by standing
coming richer and heavier, closer to Bodhisattva. Features, hair, drapery,
Tang sculpture, painting, and architec- and hand gestures are integral parts of
ture. circular and oval linear rhythms, which
In Buddhist art Amidism, with its enhance the massiveness of their pon-
idea of salvation for the masses, had a derous, cyclindrical bodies— an effect

profound effect. In one of the best ex- that is unusual in small-scale sculpture,
amples of Hakuho art, the shrine of the for these figures are only a few inches
Lady Tachibana (fig. 627), Amida oc- high. Throughout, the shrine shows the
 HAKUHO PERIOD 793

628. Screen and Halo, Shrine of Lady Tachibana, Golden Hall, Horyu-ji Temple (7th cent.
Bronze, screen i'o/' high, halo 1'.

utmost care in design and execution, the easternmost flowering of the Bud-
even in parts not visible at first to the dhist fresco tradition, which had
onlooker. The pool is made of bronze, stemmed from Ajanta. In magnificence
a sheet of the metal ornamented with of conception, purity of line, and beauty
patterned waves and lotus, which one of color, they are among the finest wall
can see only by standing above the little paintings in all of Asia.
group; a delicately designed halo nearly Plumpness of cheeks, neck, and hands,
hides a screen 628), which is an
(fig. so much admired in T'ang art, and a
exquisite portrayal in low relief of the certain languid grace associated with
souls of the blessed. They, too, are India are to be found in the big black
seated on lotus, which grows up from bronze Yakushi of the Yakushi-ji in
the pool, guarded by the tentacles of Nara (fig. 630) The
. healing Buddha sits

an octopus, and clad in scarves that upon a pedestal ornamented with motifs
float upward in their watery world. borrowed from Sassanian Persia, India,
Amida is one of the four impressive and China. There are clusters of grapes
deities painted on the walls of the in the upper border, jewels surrounded
Golden Hall of the Horyu-ji (fig. 629). by pearls, and, on each of the four
These murals, about 10 feet high, mark sides, the Dragon, Red Bird, Tiger, and
794 JAPAN

Tortoise in combat. Strange dwarf peo- sections, and yakshas hold ornaments
pie with kinky hair and protruding over their heads, which divide the panels
teeth look out from caves in the lower in two parts— symbols of civilization

** * .-&il

629. Amida Enthroned, Golden Hall, Horyu-ji Temple (7th cent.) Fresco, 10' high.
 HAKUHO PERIOD 795

630. Yakushi, Golden Hall, Yakushi-ji Temple, Nara Prefecture (yth-Sth cent.) Bronze,
7'4" high.
79<5 JAPAN

tectural monument, for it has the sub-

tlety of proportion and the honesty of
construction found in the Horyu-ji
buildings, plus a grace and lightness
that mark later Japanese design. From
the central mast (fig. 632), the hori-
zontal beams extend to support the
roofs, five in number, which form an
interesting and uneven pattern in sil-

houette. A nine-ring soren serves as a

crowning member, recalling the parasols
that topped the stupas of India, the
source of inspiration for the Pagodas of
China and Japan.
The later Nara period, called Tem-
pyo (710-794), was one of constant

631. Pagoda, Yakushi-ji Temple, Nara Prefec-

ture (8th cent.) Wood, plaster, tile.

and barbarity are brought together to

serve the Buddha. He sits cross-legged,
and gazes into space, ignoring his two
attendants who stand on either side.

All three figures have survived several

fires that destroyed the temple building;
and their survival has been attributed
by the Japanese to magical qualities in
the bronze. There is a large amount of
silver in the alloy, which has turned
black with time; this blackness and the
smooth round volumes of faces, necks,
and hands catch the light and give a
richer appearance than the simple wood
carvings of the earlier era.
A similar black bronze figure is

housed near by in the three-storied pa-

632. Pagoda, section. Yakushi-ji Temple, Nara
goda (fig. 631), an outstanding archi- Prefecture (8th cent.).
 HAKUHO AND TEMPYO PERIODS 797
prayers of the devout, gold was dis-

covered miraculously in the north-

just enough gold to cover the colossus.
Amid great rejoicing, the Emperor
called out his whole court to see him as
he painted the pupil of the eye, which
was the finishing touch. Like the big
stone Buddha at Lung-men (fig. 587),
this was dedicated to Vairocana the
Illuminator, the source of all wisdom
and law.
The Todai-ji became a center of Bud-
dhist learning, favored of the royal fam-
ily. An illustrious Chinese monk was in-

vited to establish a platform for ordina-

tion there, and did finally succeed,
though he survived perils that would
have stopped a less determined charac-
ter. On his sixth attempt, in 754, he
633. The Priest Ganjin, Kaizando, Toshodai-ji reached Nara, after having been delayed
Temple, Nara (8th cent.) Dry lacquer, 2'8"
by pirates, storms, shipwreck, and the
high.
Chinese authorities. Blind and feeble,
activity. The capital was established this Ganjin held his first triumphal cere-
in Nara, laid out on lines similar to monies at the Todai-ji, in which he re-

Ch'ang-an. The became entirely

court ceived more than four hundred persons
Buddhist, modeling itself on the Bud- into the church, including the Empress
dhist hierarchy; courtiers were referred Dowager. A portrait of him (fig. 633)
to as Bodhisattva, and sutras were read made after his death is one of the finest

by every cultured person. Many new in Japanese sculpture.

monasteries and temples were built, in One devout Buddhist of the royal
which members of the royal family and family, the Emperor Shomu, abdicated
nobility retired to a life of contempla- in 746 to become a monk. His wife gave
tion. As a climax, the dedication of the his art collection to the Todai-ji, where
huge bronze Buddha of the Todai-ji in a special house, the Shosoin, was built

752 was unequaled for pomp and cere- to receive it. He had collected things
mony. The building itself, later de- made in all parts of Asia, among them
stroyed by fire, was the largest wooden textiles, screens, lacquer, paintings (fig.

building in the world, and the 53-foot- 634)— a priceless treasure brought to-

high Buddha had kept the bronze cast- gether before the mid-eighth century,
ers busy for months. In answer to many which has not been augmented since,
79§ JAPAN

634. Bodhisattva, Shosoin, Nara (8th cent.) Painting on hemp, 5' x 5'

giving it unique value to the student wooden armature, the clay— or cloth
of art and history. dipped in lacquer juice— could be
In the Todai-ji, too, some of the out- molded into folds of garments (fig.

standing contemporary sculpture is 635), or protruding muscles and veins,

housed. Tempyo sculptors were model- or even whirling draperies and scarves.
ers rather than carvers. Clay and lac- Just as in China, where Indian ideas
quer were used, which allowed more va- had come in a fresh wave in the T'ang
riety and greater freedom
of pose in period, Tantric formulas proved to be
surface modulation than was possible in popular.Kwannons with eleven heads
carved wood. Building out from a and many arms were made according to
 TEMPYO AND JOGAN PERIODS 799

such directions, but the Tempyo sculp- and energy notable in India; Japanese

tors failed to give them the inner fire examples of thousand-armed Bodhisat-
tva are overwhelming because of the
sheer conglomeration of forms, not be-
cause of tension and power (fig. 636).
The lacquer Asura (fig. 637), enemy of
the gods, looks bewildered and rather
dismayed at having spidery projections
coming out of his armholes, and shows
no affinity to his fellow demons of Cam-
bodia or Tibet. Like other contem-
porary religious images, he wears a care-
fully painted garment, for the Japanese
love of textile patterns begins to enter
all their art.

MEDIEVAL JAPANESE ART

Because members of the royal family

retired to monasteries and continued to
influence national policy from a dis-

tance, and much tax-exempt land had

passed into the hands of religious foun-
dations, an edict was issued removing
the capital from Nara to Kyoto, 'capital
of peace and tranquility/ where a new
palace was made
ready in 795. For the
next ten years there was building on a
grand scale. Kyoto, like Nara, was mod-
eled on Ch'ang-an, symmetrically di-

vided by broad roads into squares, and

subdivided by narrow roads. By each
was a moat; in fact, water from nearby
Lake Biwa flowed into the gardens of
all fine houses. Since there were many
shrines already in Kyoto before it be-
came capital, the Emperor Kwammu
issued an edict soon after his accession

(782) limiting the number of temples

and restricting the admission of priests
635. Bonten, Hokkedo, Todai-ji Temple, Nara
to holy orders; but soon the hillsides
(8th cent.) Clay, 6'f high.
8oo JAPAN

636. Thousand- Armed Kwannon, Toshodai-ji Temple, Nara (8th cent.) Dry lacquer, ij'6" high.
 JOGAN PERIOD 801

the art of the Jogan period (a.d. 794-

897). A more mystical Buddhism,
touched by Hinduism, replaced the
tender and protective teaching of the
Suiko days. Instead of Yakushi the
healer, Kwannon the merciful one, and
Amida the saviour, there were Fudo the
chastiser, and Dainichi, the remote
source of unearthly power. The Red
Fudo from Mt. Koya (fig. 638) was con-
sidered too terrible a painting for aver-
age mortals to look upon; he sits in his
fiery cavern, holding a thunderbolt and

637. Asura, Kofuku-ji Temple, Nara (8th

cent.) Dry lacquer, 5' high.

were covered with monasteries, and hot

rivalry sprang up between the various
sects. War-like monks proved to be a
greater menace than anything dreamed
of in Nara. Intrigue among the high-
ranking clansmen in the palace kept the
people in a turmoil; there were fires and
ambushes, plots and counterplots that
made ironic mockery of the name of the
city.
638. Red Fudo, Myooin Temple, Mt. Koya
This change of mood is reflected in (9th cent.) Painting on silk, x 3V.5V
802 JAPAN

sword entwined in serpents, and a lasso

to catch the wicked, attended by two

youths who look more frightened than
vengeful and have a cast of face that is

decidedly Japanese, even to the promi-

nent teeth. It belongs to one of the big
monasteries founded in the ninth cen-
tury by Kobo Daishi. He had gone to
China to study, and returned in 807, im-

bued with the doctrine of Dainichi

Nyorai, the eternal Buddha from whom
emanate all other Buddhas, who is to
be approached by incantations, magic
formulas, and ritual gestures. In sculp-
ture (fig. 639) and painting, he is de-
picted as holding the forefinger of one
hand in the five fingers of the other,
;#
each finger standing for an element-
earth, water, fire, air, ether, and wisdom. 639. Unkei, Dainichi, Enjo-ji Temple, Nara
Prefecture (c. 1176) Wood, 3' 3" high.
He was the Great Sun surrounded by
flames, the highest vehicle of mystic man built a country house, which was
union. later given to the church and dedicated
A rival institution, the Enryaku-ji to Amida. The courtiers of the Fujiwara
monastery on Mt. Hiyei near Lake Biwa, period (897-1185) were very cultivated,
had been founded in 805 by Dengyo given to a study of literature and the
Daishi. He, also, had gone to China to arts, and dedicating their lives to proper
study, and adhered to the Lotus Sutra, etiquette and ceremony— all in the midst
which stressed meditation, self-disci- of constant strife among the clans. This
pline, and esoteric projections. country house (fig. 640), true to the
One of his monks, Genshin, defected taste for fantasy, was designed in the
and started a popular sect based on shape of a phoenix (pheasant), the body
worship of Amida. He reassured his fol- and tail a corridor stretching out behind
lowers by emphasizing faith, not deeds, it, and the wings spread on either side.
and a reliance on the Buddha of Bound- It is in the tradition of post and lintel
less Light. If they said 'Namu Amida construction, using the simple bracket
Butsu' often enough to reach his ear, inherited from the Chinese. The pro-
he would assure their rebirth in his portions are exquisite, and the sloping
Western Paradise. This comforting phi- tile roofs delight the eye, twice lovely
losophy appealed to laymen. because they are reflected in the lotus
Not far from Kyoto, at Uji, a noble- pool. Affixed to the roof of the central
 JOGAN AND FUJIWARA PERIODS 803

40. Phoenix Hall, Hoodo, Byodoin Temple, Uji, Kyoto Prefecture (1053) Wood, plaster, tile.

pavilion, the graceful bronze male and with more Bosatsu and with a few bits
female phoenix face each other. Within of landscape, which begin a style

the hall, now a sanctuary, the Amida uniquely Japanese, decorative, resplend-
Buddha presides (fig. 641), calm and ent, like a textile pattern.
majestic, a gilded wooden figure at- This Tosa style of painting was started
tributed to Jocho, done in 1054. The by a Fujiwara nobleman, and it reflects

high lotus pedestal, the stiff spareness the ideals of Japan so perfectly that it

of the Buddha, and the elaborate halo, has been labeled Yamato-e (Yamato
canopy, and wall decoration are char- being the homeland of Japanese cul-

acteristic. The ceiling is inlaid with ture). It is used to illustrate the Tales
mother-of-pearl and painted in flower of Genji, the Genji Monogatari (fig.

medallions of rose, green, and blue. On 642), written by a lady-in-waiting,

the side walls a joyous throng of Bosatsu Murasaki Shikibu, in the early eleventh
carved in wood seem to sweep down, century. It is a remarkable romance,
playing on musical instruments and one of the world's great books, which
sporting on clouds. The sweetness, ten- we may read in the English translation
derness, and elegance of this are in per- by Arthur Waley. Genji was a courtier,
fect contrast to the brooding and ter- a man of tender sentiment who left a

rible figures of Koyasan. The inner fac- trail of broken hearts behind him. Lady
ing of the wooden doors was painted Murasaki was one he loved and left, but
804 JAPAN

641. Jocho (d. 1057) Amida of Hoodo, Byodoin Temple, Uji, Kyoto Prefecture. Gilded wood,
9/8" high.
 FUJIWARA PERIOD 805

f
1
3

642. Takayoshi? (12th cent.) Illustration of Genji Monogatari, Tokugawa Collection, Tokyo.
Painting on paper, 8V2" high.

643. Toba Sojo (12th cent.) Hare Chasing a Monkey, Kozan-ji Temple, Kyoto. Ink on paper,
1' high.
8o6 JAPAN

she manages to remain detached enough characteristic tall black hat; they seem
to tell her tale with charm. Written on to be accomplished eavesdroppers and
tinted paper flecked with gold, in a sportsmen, engaging in sallies of wit or
delicate, flowing script, it is a perfect arms with equal aplomb. In design the
reflection of courtly refinement. The scroll reaches a high mark in Japanese
scenes that illustrate the narrative are art. The intricate spatial relations and
painted in tones of violet, green, rose, color areas are the work of a master who
gold, and beige, set off by clear black would feel perfectly at home in twen-
lines. The perspective angle is from tieth-century painting.
above and to one we seem
side, so that The pomp of court and religious cere-
to look into palace rooms made roofless mony proved too tempting to the abbot
for our inspection. As in other Asiatic

painting, the lines come toward us in-

stead of vanishing to some point within
the picture plane. The background is
established by the use of sliding panels
and screens, and by emphasizing the
diagonal lines of the floor matting.
There are no cast shadows, the whole
things is done in clear light, space being
linear not atmospheric. Figures are cut
into segments and patterns by the
screens; it makes little difference whether
one looks at the scroll right side up or
upside down— the pattern is always
striking. The ladies sit on the floor
dressed in their court robes, with sleeves
so wide that they look like butterfly
wings, and their straight black hair is

brushed to the
mark of especial
hem of the garment, a
beauty. Their oval
'^M
faces are all of a type, there is no indi-
viduality. All have rosebud mouths, in- !

.™
x
JHP^f ;

finitesimal noses, slanting

heavy eyebrows. They are well named-
eyes, and \
Wisteria Blossom, Cherry, Chrysanthe-
mum—sentimental participants in po-
etry contests, as adapt at intrique as are
palace beauties all over the world. The
644. Kichijoten, Joruri-ji Temple, Kyoto Pre-
men, too, wear brocaded robes and a fecture (12th cent.) Wood, 2'n" high.
 FUJIWARA PERIOD 807

of a monastery for him to resist mocking checking them in with a pious smugness
them. Maybe Toba Sojo painted four all too familiar to the painter. Long be-
scrolls caricaturing the occupations and fore Walt Disney, a Japanese discovered
games of his contemporaries. As we un- the joys of poking fun at man and his

roll these Kozan-ji makemono and foibles in the guise of animals. There
chuckle over the incidents— monkeys, is no text nor is there need— the pic-

frogs, and hares (fig. 643), acting like tures speak for themselves.
courtiers and priests, ragamuffins and These, and the three scrolls of the
bums— we can enjoy a different side of Shigisan Engi, which are done in light
Japanese personality expressed superbly color and with a brush as remarkable
in line and satire. The whole of each as the Kozan-ji set, begin a secular art

scroll in the set should be seen to get that developed into the wood-block
full enjoyment of them, for the time prints of the eighteenth and nineteenth
element in the unrolling is important, centuries. The Tosa courtly style be-
but even a fragment is delightful. In came so popular that it even intruded
one part, beneath a tree worthy of a into the religious fields; the sutras dedi-
Sung master, we see a monkey garbed cated to the Taira family are as gay as
as an officiating priest making an offer- fans and as delicate as dew on a cobweb.
ing to the Buddha— and Buddha is a Kichijoten, goddess of beauty and for-

frog. His legs are folded in yoga fashion, tune, is no longer an Indian goddess but
his hands raised in the right mudras, his a noble lady (fig. 644) and a colorful

smile benign and blank, his halo of Japanese one.

leaves and his cushion of a lotus are This frivolous world was shaken from
as correct as a courtier's hat. In the next its dreams when Yoritomo established
scene another priest-monkey is receiving himself as Shogun in 1192 in Kamakura,
gifts of tiger skins, fruits, and scrolls, the ancient seat of his clan. The real

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645. Detail of the Burning of the Sanjo Palace (13th cent.) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Painting on paper, scroll l'/j." high x 22'n" wide.
8o8 JAPAN

government then moved north, though

the emperor was allowed to keep his
nominal power in Kyoto. Military men
took over the running of the country,
which left the court nobles with a beau-
tiful, empty etiquette to maintain. The
glorification of war and its terror were
depicted in scrolls dealing with the
Heiji wars; one, the Burning of the Sanjo
Palace, is in the Museum of Fine Arts in
Boston 645) This last detail, which
(fig. .

follows a vivid continuous picture of

hurrying crowds, and smoke billowing
from the palace, as courtiers, nuns, and
attendants were trampled underfoot
and horsemen rushed through the pal-

ace, comes as a quieter moment in all

the excitement. The emperor is pro-

tected by his guard, who go forward
gingerly, expecting an ambush. After
the crowded ovals of frantic people, this
makes a final wedge-shaped pattern
pointing toward the equestrian on the
black horse and the archer who tiptoes
toward the unknown. It is one of many
splendid narrative scrolls based on the 646. Jizo (i2th-i4th cent.) Metropolitan Mu-
seum, New York. Painting on silk.
lives of national heroes, churchmen,
and men of letters.

Religious painters were as active as

robe, carrying a staff. He was a boyish
and pleasant youth especially dear to
secular artists, still doing the large, mag-
nificent vertical scrolls that were hung
the Japanese. Even a Shinto god of war
in the temples or carried to the bedside is shown as a mild monk (fig. 647).
of those about to die; such paintings of One of Japan's greatest sculptors was
Amida, resplendent in gold, were thus active in the Kamakura period— Unkei,

taken as a kind of extreme unction to son of Kokei. He and his relatives went
the faithful, a reassuring vision of the to Nara to restore some of the Suiko

Western Paradise where they would be period figures. They, too, worked in

reborn. Jizo, special protector of little wood, but they preferred joining pieces
children (fig. 646), was a popular figure, together rather than carving from a
portrayed as a young monk in a rich solid trunk, a method that allowed more
 KAMAKURA PERIOD 809

647. Koshun, Hachiman as a Priest (1328) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Wood.

freedom of action and pose than the Basu-sennin who looks as lean as a
Suiko sculptors had achieved. It is a Donatello St. John the Baptist, the
period of realism and dynamic power. miserable flesh hanging on his bones,
They made the two guardians that are eyes sunk in their sockets, and his rags

placed inside the great gate at the en- flapping on his bent body (fig. 649).
trance of the Todai-ji monastery in Another, Jokei, did a muscular guardian
Nara, muscular, fierce, with exaggerated with swirling drapery (fig. 650), which
veins and tendons, bulging eyes, and must have pleased the military leaders.
wide-spread fingers. In a quieter vein Most of the wooden sculpture had crys-

there is the portrait of Muchaku, an in- tal eyes (fig. 651) set in to make the
teresting character study of the travel- faces more natural, and one figure was
ing Chinese monk, Hsiian-tsang (fig. left nude so that it could be clothed in
648). One of Unkefs followers carved brocaded garments. The Japanese feel-

a full-length figure of the Indian teacher ing for pattern and simplicity of form
8io JAPAN

648. Unkei, Hosso Patriarch Muchaku, Hoku-

endo, Kofuku-ji Temple, Nara (1208) Wood,
6V high.

is demonstrated in the carving of a

courtier, Uesugi Shigefusa (fig. 652),

which looks to us more like a twentieth-

century piece than one of the thirteenth

century. It is a pity that one of the in-

ferior works of this magnificent period

is the best known, the Great Amida in

*#8§?

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:...

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649. School of Unkei (13th cent.) Basu-

sennin, Sanjusangendo Temple, Kyoto. Wood,
5'3" hi § h -
 KAMAKURA PERIOD 8ll

Thus the Japanese, like the Indians,

escaped Mongol domination. But Kam-
akura power was waning, and there was
a restlessness in Kyoto where intrigue
reached its height when five ex-em-
perors, all of whom had abdicated, tried
to exercise the authority belonging to
a ruler. By 1330 two lines were in con-
flict, and Daigo II was victor; 'Kamakura
was captured 1333 and destroyed by
in

fire. Kyoto again became the seat of

government, though the Emperor en-
trusted the administration to the Ashi-
kaga family, who were appointed Sho-
guns, and they were the actual rulers
from 1392 to 1568.
Numbers of Chinese moved to Japan
when the Mongols destroyed the Sung
Dynasty, and they continued to follow

650. Jokei (13th cent.) Kongorikishi, Kofuku-

ji Temple, Nara. Wood.

Kamakura (fig. 653). The temple hous-

ing it has been destroyed so often that
there have been no more attempts to

rebuild it, and Amida now sits in the

midst of beautiful trees, a sanctuary in

itself.

Kubilai Khan twice attempted to in-

vade Japan, in 1274 and 1281, but each
time his fleet was destroyed by storms. 651. Red Fudd, Hokkedo (13th cent.) Wood.
 JAPAN

652. Uesugi Shigefusa, Meigetsuin Temple, Kamakura (13th cent.) Wood, 2'-$" high.

the philosophy that emphasized medi- pieces had been taken to Japan, there
tation, the Ch'an form of Buddhism, was an upsurge of creative activity as

called Zen in Japan. The simplicity, soon as peace and order were restored.
rugged individualism, and disregard for Turning their backs on their own rapidly
metaphysics appealed to the military developing styles, Japanese painters and
minds of the Ashikago period. Zen other artists received this Chinese in-

priests were placed in key positions; they fluence with enthusiasm. New temples
were important politically, and their were built, gardens were constructed to
teaching influenced all of the art and look like Chinese scenery, flower ar-

life of that time. They controlled trade, rangement became- a pastime of monks
and they brought 'modern' spoken Chi- and military men alike, the tea ceremony
nese to Japan, where the language of offered a change from the battlefield or
China of four centuries before was still affairs at court; priests and courtiers
used. tried brush painting with such good re-

Following the inspiration of the Sung sults that it is hard to tell some of the
Dynasty artists, many of whose master- Japanese painting from the Chinese.
 ASHIKAGA PERIOD 813

The third Shogun, Yoshimitsu, built

the Golden Pavilion in 1397, and ruled
from there like a retired emperor. The
Pavilion (fig. 654) is a three-story house
made of fine woods in the simple man-
ner dictated by Zen. The balustrades,
supports, and walls are unadorned, and
the only curving lines are to be found
in the roofs and the windows on the
third floor. Burned recently, it has been
restored; a gilded replica and memory of
it remain. It was reflected in a pool, and
surrounded by austere gardens consist-
*, ing largely of pines, rocks, and sand,
until recently destroyed by fire.

The eighth Shogun, Yoshimasa, was

a noted patron of all of the arts during
....

his rule from 1449 to 1474. He built the

653. The Great Buddha, Kamakura (1252)
Bronze, 33' high.
Silver Pavilion, and had its gardens laid

?f m

654. The Golden Pavilion, Rokuon-ji Temple, Kyoto (1397) Wood.

814 JAPAN

655. So-ami, Chinese Landscape Screen (late 15th cent.) Rockefeller Coll., New York. Ink on
paper.

-*6 #**
-Vr.f/

656. Josetsu (act. 1394-1408) Catfish and Gourd, Taizoin Temple, Kyoto. Painting on paper,
2'6" x 3'n".
 ASHIKAGA PERIOD 815

out by the painter So-ami, who imitated

Chinese waterfalls, rocks, mountains,
and trees. His family, called the San
Ami, were prominent exponents of Chi-
nese brush techniques and connoisseur-
ship (fig. 655).

Japanese painters, in true Zen fashion,

learned to suggest more in the black
and white paintings than was actually
described. Josetsu, at the end of the
fourteenth century, did the Catfish and
Gourd (fig. 656), which is composed of

bamboo, river grasses, misty mountains,

and a ragged fisherman, who looks, in

the Chinese manner, like a child of na-

ture trying to catch his lunch; but it is

actually a symbol of man's endeavors in

which he reaches beyond himself. It is

as hard to catch a slippery catfish in a

small gourd as to be a true follower of
657. Sesshii (1420-1506) Winter Landscape,
the Tao. Manjuin Temple, Kyoto. Ink on paper, i'6"
x 1'.
Since it was a period of great artistic

activity, there are many names that

Sung period, especially the rugged, dra-
should be included; but one outshines
matic places that might have served as
all the others— that of Sesshii. Oda
models for Hsia Kuei, whose work he
Toyo, for that was his real name, lived
particularly admired. On his return to
from 1420 to 1506, most of his life a
Japan he devoted himself to perfecting
Zen priest. In training for the priest-
a similar style (fig. 657) by which he
hood he had the opportunity to learn
could portray the crystalline hardness of
to paint, and became a pupil of the
rocks, the tortuous twisting of tree
distinguished priest-painter Shiibun. As branches and roots, the rough thatch
he studied the Chinese masters whose of a cottage roof, with a few vigorous
works had been taken to Japan in con- brush strokes. A human being could be
siderable numbers, he was fired with the done in ten strokes. Among his more
ambition to go to China, a journey he ambitious works is the horizontal scroll,

made from 1467 to 1469. He traveled 51 feet long, now in the possession of
extensively, steeping himself in the Count Mori. This he did in his sixty-

landscapes that had had such a pro- seventh year, a masterpiece of sustained
found influence on the painters of the effort. If we compare it with the Chi-
8i6 JAPAN

658. Sesson (16th cent.) Boat Returning in a Storm, Nomura Tokushichi Coll., Osaka. Ink on
paper, 9" x 12".

nese scrolls, we find that there is less LATER JAPANESE ART

grading of tones, less poetry, less interest
While priests and scholars were try-
in actual space, but more in the relation-
ing to paint in the Chinese way, cour-
ship of forms, which he handles in a
tiers continued to love the Tosa style.
personal and exciting way; portions of
Thinking to combine the good qualities
it would seem to anticipate some paint-
of both, a group of professional painters
ings of Van Gogh. Like other Japanese,
formed a school called Kano, led by
the decorative qualities interest him. He
worked in three styles, and toward the
Masanobu and his son Motonobu. They
werein demand as painters of screens,
end of his life seemed to prefer a free
and powerful tonal painting, done with especially for the Kyoto monasteries.
unbelievable speed and sureness, leav- They decorated the sliding panels that
ing so much unsaid that the imagina- separated one room from another, and
tion is called into full play. Of his many large six-fold or eight-fold screens which
followers, one, Sesson, learned to use could be placed against the wall; ap-
his ink with freedom and power, and propriate subjects were the changing
with a marked feeling for decorative seasons, sages and leaders of the past,

design (fig. 658). and the birds and flowers. Since they
 MOMOYAMA PERIOD 817

i
$fr*w

659. Kano Sanraku (1559-1635) Peonies, on Sliding Screen Panels, Daikaku-ji Temple, Kyoto.
Painting on paper, 3' 3" x 6V.

were to be seen from a distance, they gold leaf laid on in squares (fig. 659).
had to be boldly designed and executed, In the following period, the Momo-
using definite lines, brilliant colors, and yama (1568-1615), civil wars again

660. Castle, Nagoya (1611)

 JAPAN

661. Sanraku (1559-1635) Uji Bridge, Mizoguchi Munchiko Collection, Tokyo. Painting on
paper, 5'6" x 11 '2".

troubled Japan. Military men had in- By this time Buddhist art was on the
fluence even in the world of art. They decline, and Tosa was almost dead; it

erected big castles in the European was the great moment for the decorators
fashion, built of stone with strong foun- and the few who still worked in the
dations (fig. 660). To bring color to the Chinese manner. Of the latter, the most
severe walls they used magnificent interesting is Tohaku. He is renowned
screens, much as Europeans of the Mid- for his screens (fig. 662), which differ
dle Ages had used tapestries. The taste from the brilliant Kano products, being
of the military did not run to the deli- usually black and white, or in light

cate, so the Kano makers had a splendid colors, relying on soft tone and brush-
opportunity to give rein to the Japanese work rather than striking pattern.
genius for striking design. A six-fold Sotatsu and Koetsu were as versatile

screen attributed to Sanraku (fig. 661) and gifted as Renaissance Italians; they
of the Bridge at Uji has been much ad- were the leaders of the gentleman-
mired. The background is covered with painters.
gold leaf, willow trees with reddish As the church and nobility ceased to
brown trunks and branches droop over be patrons, the way was paved for a
the bridge which sweeps across the popular, plebeian art, something gay,
panels in a bold and distorted pattern, rich in color, and not too profound. In
dominating the whole design. The water the next period, the Tokugawa (1615-
under the bridge flows in patterned 1867), just such an art developed.
waves, bronze-colored, and seems to Painters made designs for pottery,
mingle with clouds on the right, which screens, and panels, men like the Ogata
are equally patterned. brothers Korin (fig. 663) and Kenzan.
 TOKUGAWA PERIOD 819

662. Hasegawa Tohaku (1539-1610) Screen with Gibbons, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Ink
on paper, l'n" x 5'.

They and the lacquer makers, porce- birds and fish. Among the temple build-
lain manufacturers, and wood-block ings was the sacred stable, and there the
print makers had an opportunity at last famous monkeys of 'Hear no evil, see no
to make their wares completely Japa- evil, say no evil' were carved and col-

nese in style. Some of them co-operated ored, green, brown, white, and gold.
with architects to make the sumptuous Moving away from the dazzling colors
buildings of the seventeenth and eigh- of the temple, the patriot could go up
teenth centuries. a long flight of steps to the mausoleum
The famous shrines at Nikko (fig. of the Shogun Ieyasu, a peaceful place

664) reflect the change from the sim- guarded by giant cryptomeria trees,

plicity of the past to the richness of the more like the original Shinto shrine at
Japanese Baroque. In a setting of trees Ise.

and streams, which would have been One of the eras, the Genroku (1688-
shrine enough for worshipers in earlier 1704), was a time of great luxury, fa-

times, they erected gates, pagodas, and mous for lacquer, porcelain, and other
halls of prayer so elaborately carved and decorative arts. The nobility became
gilded that it would take days to study alarmed at the prosperity of plebeians,
all the panels. A brilliant red lacquered and had laws that forbade them to own
bridge was reserved for the use of the things as elaborate as those of the hered-
royal family, but all pilgrims could en- itary families, but these laws were cir-

ter the gate, with its curved roofs and cumvented by the people who were tak-

its many corbels, flanked by corridors ing the fortunes from the nobility, and
adorned with carved, painted panels of wanted some of the tempting things
8zo JAPAN

663. Korin Ogata (1658-1716) designer, and Kenzan Ogata (1663-1743) Plate, Museum of
Fine Arts, Boston.

seen in the shops of Tokyo, the new fying the demand. The process had
capital. been perfected in China, where it was
Travelers came to the city from other being used extensively at this same time,
parts of Japan to see the sights, espe- but the Japanese made of it an art that
cially of the theater and the Yoshiwara has not been rivaled by any other coun-
district, where the ladies of the Green try.

Houses lived in a world of their own; In the late seventeenth century,

and they wanted souvenirs to take Moronobu made a series of prints of
home. The inexpensive wood-block occupations in Tokyo, as well as single
print proved to be the means of satis- sheet souvenirs for visitors, pictures of
 TOKUGAWA PERIOD 821

664. Yomeimon Gate, Toshogu Shrine, Nikko, Tochigi Prefecture (17th cent.) Wood.

a Floating World (Ukiyo-e). Usually to bold compositions and swirling pat-

small in scale, they resemble book illus- terns, ample curves and splendid textile

trations that had been made for cen- design in the garments of the actors. He
turies, except that he recognized more began to do these in the wood-block
than anyone else the possibilities of the technique, and became the founder of
woodcut. Some were colored by hand, the Torii school specializing in theater
but most of them were patterns in black work. His eldest son, Torii Kiyomasu,
and white in which there were no cast worked in a style so similar that it is

shadows, no grading of tone; space was not easy to tell their prints apart (fig.
established by diagonals set against 665).
curves, and by the placement of figures. As the trade became more profitable
They are animated, gay, sometimes sa- and interesting, all kinds of refinements
tirical. Though we think of the Ukiyo-e were thought of; the simple prints were
masters as being primarily interested in enriched with gleaming black lacquer,
prints, which are better known to West- water colors, and gold, and gauffrage
erners, they did paintings as well. began to be used— a kind of relief, made
Moronobu's pupil Kiyonobu was a by raising the surface of some areas.

sign painter for the theater, accustomed The next step was the use of separate
822 JAPAN

of the well-to-do, graceful and appealing.

In their most casual occupations, ad-
miring cherry blossoms, doing their hair,

he found subjects worthy of his most

painstaking care. He liked to emphasize
their frailty by showing them buffeted
by wind or rain, or standing beside a
building much larger than they. One,
called the Crow and the Heron (fig.
666), is of a white-robed girl and her
escort, who is swathed in black, as they

walk through the snow, stepping softly

on wooden shoes and holding

their high

an umbrella on which the snow has

drifted. The feeling of a chilly day is

brought out by his restraint in handling

this little genre scene. He purposely dis-

torts his figures for effective design, and

uses the traditional contrast of diagonals
and curves, as well as color, to indicate

space.
His success was so great that the other
print makers almost stopped work in dis-
665. Torii Kiyomasu (1679-1763) Actor Mat-
sumoto Shigemaki as a Woman, Museum of couragement. Two of his pupils, how-
Fine Arts, Boston. Wood-block print. ever, Koryusai and Shunsho, strove to
develop the color print into a great art,
blocks for printing each color; at first,
and succeeded nearly as well. Shunsho
pink and green, or other simple two-
specialized in doing actors of the popu-
and three-color prints were made, and
lar theater in their favorite roles. As in
finally, under Harunobu (1725-70), the
the time of Shakespeare, men were the
art of printing many colors was brought
only actors on the stage. They took
to its highest point, using as many as

eleven separate blocks to print the 'bro-

women's parts, spending their lives act-

cade' colors, which he started in 1764.

ing and speaking like women, even off

From that time on, he experimented, the stage, practicing a mincing walk that

producing delicate and subtle prints. In- made the flowing kimono move in

stead of drawing inspiration from the graceful lines, and speaking in a fal-

city streets or the theater, he concen- setto. They were so proud of their art

trated on young girlhood with all its that they handed the tradition from
moods and fancies, the refined daughters father to son, or to an adopted child
 TOKUGAWA PERIOD
823

s
( 1 The Cm w
^i, w^oTSt, II ^T
7 ) and the Heron, Louis
V. Led oux Coll., New
824 JAPAN

667. Torii Kiyonaga (1742-1815) The Debarkation, Art Institute, Chicago. Wood-block print.

who was brought up to be a specialist the ladies of the Green Houses (fig.

in these parts. 668); he gloried in showing every pose

Toward the latter part of the eight- and mood of the famous beauties, who
eenth century another master of the were often cultivated women. The half-

Torii line, Kiyonaga, brought out prints length figure appealed to him particu-
in still a different style (fig. 667). He larly, for it allowed him to concentrate
liked mature women, tall, classic, and on the face, throat, and shoulders, the
poised. Flowing kimono and the obi delicate hairline or tiny ear. His outline
tied around the waist are of varied pat- is so tenuous that it is hard to see; at

terns and colors, which are shown to ad- times he dispensed with the black line
vantage on their ample figures; stylized entirely, and had colors printed side by
coiffures are a special study in them- side. He and some of his contempo-
selves. He preferred spacious back- raries enriched the whole print by us-
grounds, with a grand sweep of riverside ing powdered mica on the background,
or garden. Sometimes he found one giving it a sparkling quality. This seemed
piece of paper too small, and made a to make it too precious in the opinion of
design that was printed in three parts, the nobles, so sumptuary laws forbidding
a triptych of eighteenth-century Jap- it were passed. By some he is consid-
anese life. He was inspired by breadth ered one of the greatest of the Ukiyo-e
and grandeur rather than by the deli- masters; by others, a decadent practi-
cacy and frailty Harunobu loved. tioner of an art that lacks dynamic qual-
At about the same time two other ity or nobility of theme.
artists of unusual talent came to the pub- Sharaku, the mystery man of the
lic eye— Utamaro and Sharaku. Utamaro whole group, appeared like a comet and
considered himself the high priest of disappeared as quickly. In the year
 TOKUGAWA PERIOD 825

668. Kitagawa Utamaro (1754-1806) Three Geisha, Art Institute, Chicago. Wood-
block print.
 JAPAN

669. Toshusai Sharaku (18th cent.) Ichikawa Ebizo TV as Washizuka Kwandavu (1794) Metro-
politan Museum, New York. Wood-block print.
 TOKUGAWA PERIOD 827

1794, in a few months, he designed one painter by their energy and fury. He is

hundred thirty prints caricaturing actors the master of the expressive eyebrow,
of the popular drama (fig. 669), carica- the pig-like eye, the hooked nose, and
tures of such power and venom that it the vicious mouth; and the master, too,
is hard to believe that they were done of interesting hands and of elegant, sim-
by an amateur. We know only that he ple robes, in which he used the actor's

was an actor in the classical No drama, crest very effectively. He stopped as sud-
attached to a nobleman's household, denly as he had started, and retired, per-
and forbidden to mingle with actors in haps to the sheltered world of an aris-

the plebeian theater. So far, no early tocratic household. Whether it was done
works have been discovered that could by choice, or by order of his lord, or

account for these accomplished satires; through pressure on him by the popular
we are reminded of Toba Sojo and his actors he lampooned, we do not know.
rebellion against the pompousness of the In the late eighteenth and early nine-
Fujiwara court and church (fig. 643), teenth centuries the color print was
and of dramatic masks worn by No used by two outstanding landscape art-

actors, and even of old religious sculp- ists, Hokusai and Hiroshige, to picture
ture—of guardians particularly (fig. the whole of Japanese life and most of
624) that might have inspired the the beauty spots of their country. Ho-

670. Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) Thirty-six Views of Fuji: The Wave, Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston.Wood-block print, 10" x 15".
8z8 JAPAN

671. Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858) Fifty-three Stages of the Tokaido: Shono, Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston. Wood-block print.

kusai, the 'old man mad with painting/ and Fuji in the distance, all done in

lived to be eighty-nine years old, and at tones of blue with a suggestion of yellow
his death his only regret was that he had in the sky. The energy with which he
neglected to make more pictures of his did this is characteristic of him and his

homeland. During his long life he illus- unfailing zest for life.

trated books, made single prints of birds Hiroshige, too, did series of land-
and flowers, and did series of views, the scapes (fig. 671), and bird and flower
best known being the Views of Fuji. prints. Like Hokusai he succeeded in re-

He included everything he could in his cording the most beautiful aspects of

landscapes— peasants working in the rice his country— the postroad from Kyoto
fields, going to festivals, or fishing. In to Tokyo, mountains, and rivers. Even
his famous print, The Wave (fig. 670), today, wherever the traveler may look
he gives a vivid impression of the life he is sure to see a bit of land that re-
of those, who go out on the sea in frail minds him of a Hiroshige print. Unlike
boats. In a composition of sweeping Hokusai, whose prints are crowded with
he shows the boatmen almost
curves, details, the younger man learned to
swamped by the ocean, their heads leave out some of the non-essential ele-
hardly larger than the fingers of foam ments, and thus gave to his work a
that reach toward them. There are the breadth and subtlety that are a constant
surge of the sea, the mist rising from it, delight. He relied more on color and
 TOKUGAWA PERIOD 829

tone, less on line, for his interesting ef- as the people of the world are drawn
fects; the Japanese had become ac- closer together. The tradition on which
quainted with European perspective Ukiyo-e was based is as old as civiliza-
techniques, and his work shows that he tion itself, growing out of the infinite

had studied them, though the total im- riches of the Orient. The poetry of
pression is entirely Oriental. He not Persia in all its brilliant color, the in-

only pictured specific places, he caught tellect and emotion of India made vis-

as well the changes of season, the insig- ible in stone and bronze, the secret har-
nificance of man, and the majesty of monies of nature echoed in the rhythms
mountains; his was a poetic expression. of Chinese art, the youthfulness and
Rain pouring down, making of bamboo boldness of Japan— all are ours now to

and hillside a study in tones of gray, enjoy and study. We can take pleasure
geese flying across the moon, a bridge at in them without knowing more than
sunset— all are done with singular that the design and color are appealing,
beauty. but that pleasure can be increased im-
He and the others mark the final de- measurably by learning something of
velopment of a unique art, which struck the peoples and places that produced
nineteenth-century Europe as a fresh, them, for there is no art for art's sake

lovely, and admirable thing. These prints in the Orient. The disciplines of the

served as ambassadors of good will to a various crafts were perfected to serve

world waiting for something new and the glory of man or god; therefore we
they changed the course of Western art must look beyond technical facility to

in a trend that has become reciprocal the inner vision that inspired it.
Glossary

Abacus The uppermost member of a classic capital; a simple plinth in the Doric, the
abacus becomes a thin slab, sometimes decorated in the Ionic, and in the
Corinthian order a molded block with concave sides.
Acanthus A Greek plant that served as the inspiration for the foliage of the Corin-
thian capital and other architectural motives.
Acroteria Figures or decorations placed above the angles of a pediment.
Adobe A method of construction using dried clay, especially associated with south-
western United States.
Aisle A longitudinal division of a plan separated from other parts of the building by
colonnades or arcades; especially the narrower lateral divisions of church plans.
Ambulatory The semicircular or semipolygonal aisle encircling an apse.
Anta A thickening of a wall provided with a plain capital and base, to receive the end
of a beam. Somewhat similar to but not to be confused with a pilaster, the
anta is simpler and its capital and base plainer than that of the order with
which it is to be used.
Apanada An audience hall.
Apsaras Angel.
Apse A semicircular or polvgonal part of a plan, particularly one terminating the main
axis of a church.
Arabesque Originally signifying the rich surface patterns of Mohammedan art, the
word has come to mean any elaborate scroll pattern in paint or low relief.

Arcade A row of arches supported by piers or columns.

Arch A device for spanning an opening, consisting of wedge-shaped blocks called
voussoirs.
Arch Order An arch, enframed by engaged columns or pilasters and entablature, devel-
oped in Rome, but also used in the Renaissance and in the derivatives of
either style.
Architrave A beam, particularly the lower of the three principal divisions of a classic
entablature.
Archivolt An architrave turned into an arch; a group of moldings adorning and em-
phasizing the curve of an arch.
Arhat or Lohan A disciple of Buddha.
Armature A frame of wood or metal serving as the support for the clay of a statue
while the sculptor models it.
Arris A ridge formed by the intersection of two planes; particularly the ridge that sepa-
rates flutes in a Doric column.

83i
832 GLOSSARY

Ashlar Cut stone masonry; in regular ashlar, the blocks are rectangular and uniform in
size; in random ashlar the blocks vary in size.

Atrium An enclosed but unroofed forecourt such as those found in Roman houses and
in Early Christian and later churches.
Attic (1) A low story placed above a cornice. (2) The uppermost story of a house,
curtailed in volume by the slope of the roof. ( 3 ) Pertaining to the land of
Attica; i.e. Athens.
Axis An imaginary central line around which a design or any of the parts thereof is

balanced.
Baldacchino The word comes from the canopies carried in religious processions; hence,
a free-standing architectural canopy over an altar.

Barrel Vault A semicylindrical vault.

Bas Relief Low reliefs; sculpture in which the roundness of the forms is expressed by
planes projecting slightly from a flat background.
Basilica A hall-like structure flanked by aisles; Roman basilicas served as business
buildings; the Early Christian basilicas were churches.
Batter An inward slope of the surface of a masonry wall, used to add strength.
Bay The space between the centers of adjacent supports, and thus a unit of design.
Beam A horizontal member to support a weight over an opening.
Bodhisattva Saintly Buddhist beings who deny themselves eternal blessedness to save
others from misery.
Bond The interlocking of stones or bricks in a wall by laying one unit over parts of
two or more other units. The commonest bonds in brickwork are ( 1 ) Ameri-
can Bond, one course of headers (the short ends of brick exposed) out of
every six or seven courses of stretchers (the long side of the brick exposed); (2)
English Bond, alternate courses of headers and stretchers; and (3) Flemish
Bond, alternate headers and stretchers within each course.
Cartoon The final full-size preliminary drawing for a painting.
Cartouche An ornament in paint or low relief carving, composed of scrolls, heraldry,

or foliate designs.
Caryatid A sculptured female figure used in place of a column.
Casement See Sash.
Cella The sanctuary of a classic temple.
Cement A material that when mixed with water will dry into a stonelike mass. Cement
should be carefully distinguished from concrete, of which it is one of the in-

gredients; cement is also used in some mortars.

Centering The temporary mold of wood or metal used to support an arch or vault un-
til construction is completed; the centering is then removed.
Chaitya Hall for worship, India.
Chamfer A diagonal plane cut from the corner of a rectangular member, such as a
square pier, or a window or door opening.
Chancel The area of a Christian church around the high altar, reserved for the clergy;
the sanctuary.
Chapel A small church; also a part of a larger church housing one of the secondary
altars.
Chevet The complex of apse, ambuatory, and radiating chapels in medieval churches
Chiaroscuro Light and shade in painting.
 GLOSSARY 833

Choir That portion of a church between the altar and the nave or crossing reserved for
the lower clergy, especially the singers. Occasionally the liturgical choir may
extend down into the architectural nave.
Chryselephantine Of gold and ivory, as was the Zeus of Phidias.
Cire Perdue Lost wax; a method of bronze-casting wherein the shell of the statue is

duplicated in wax which

then replaced by molten bronze.
is

Clapboard A thin board nailed horizontally to the frame of a house; clapboards over-
lap one another like shingles.
Clearstory Part of a building raised above the roof of a neighboring part to admit light.
Cloister A rectangular courtyard beside a medieval church to provide a sheltered walk
for the clergy.
Coffer A decorative panel sunk in the under surface of a vault or ceiling; most coffers
are rectangular or octagonal but they may be of any shape.
Collage Compositions created by glueing bits of paper, cloth, cigarettes, and other
scraps on a flat surface; parts of the design may be painted.
Colonnade A row of columns supporting beams or lintels.
Colonnette A small column.
Column An architectural support, round in plan or nearly so, and composed of a base,
shaft, and capital.
Compound Pier An architectural support composed of colonnettes, and rectangular
members around a masonry core.
Concrete A building material similar to stone when dry but semifluid while being
mixed. The ingredients are cement, sand, crushed stone or gravel, and water.
Contrapposto A torsion of the axis of the body to produce a sense of balancing move-
ments within the figure, as when the shoulders face in a different direction
from the hips.
Corbel A stone or brick whose face projects beyond that of its support to serve as a
bracket. A Corbel Table consists of a series of small arches resting on corbels.
A Corbel Arch is composed of stones laid in horizontal courses, each corbelled
out in turn until the opening is covered.
Cornice The uppermost division of a classic entablature, projecting sharply to support
the edge of the roof; any similar molded projection.
Course A horizontal layer of stone or brick in a wall.
Court An area open to the sky but enclosed on three or four sides by walls or blocks
of building.
Crocket A projecting stone, usually carved with foliage, on the edge of a gable or the
angles of a spire.
Crossing space in churches occupied by the intersection of the nave and transepts.
The
Crown of anArch The apex of an arch.
Crypt The basement of a church, not necessarily underground, often containing some
of the relics.

Cyclopean Masonry Large, irregularly cut blocks of stone built into ponderous walls.
Dagoba See Stupa.
Dentil A small rectangular block; a molding composed of such blocks, commonly used
to support a cornice.
Dhoti Draped skirt, India.
Diptych A painting composed of two balancing panels.
834 GLOSSARY

Dome A hemispherical vault.

Dormer An attic window with its roof and enframement projecting through a sloping
roof.
Drum A cylindrical block of stone to form part of the shaft of a column; also the
cylindrical wall on which a dome rests.

Eaves The portion of a roof overhanging the walls.

Echinus The cushion-like member of the Doric capital immediately below the abacus.
Elevation A scaled architectural drawing portraying the front, back, or side of a
building.
Engaged Column A column part of whose diameter is incorporated in a wall.
Engraving A process in the graphic arts in which the design
is scratched on a metal

wiped over the plate will remain in the scratches and thus enable
plate; ink
the design to be printed.
Entablature The portion above the columns and below the roof on the exterior of a
classic temple, consisting of the architrave, frieze, and cornice; these same
members may also be used to terminate a wall.
Entasis The slight vertical curve or bulge in a shaft when compared with a straight line
run from the top to the bottom. Most columns taper somewhat, but this is
not entasis.
Etching A graphic process wherein the design is scratched through a film of wax onto

a metal plate; the plate is then bathed in acid which attacks the metal wher-
ever the wax has been scratched off; after the acid has been washed off, and
the remaining wax removed, the plate is inked and prints made from it.

Fagade The front of a building.

Fenestration The arrangement of windows in a building.
Feng "Phoenix," bird of pheasant type in Chinese art.
Fillet A narrow flat molding.
Flute A groove, usually vertical; especially that in the shaft of a column or pilaster.
Collectively these grooves are called fluting.
Flying Buttress A half arch supporting a diagonal course of stone to transfer the
thrusts of the nave vault over the aisle roofs to the pier buttress on the outer
wall of the church.
Fresco A technique on wet plaster. See p. 231.
of painting
Frieze A horizontal band, sometimes sculptured, especially the middle third of an
entablature.
Frontality, Law of Figures in which the axis of the body
is not twisted or curved later-

obey the law of frontality. The action of the arms or legs of

ally are said to

such figures, however, need not be identical in pose.

Gambrel Roof A roof with two slopes in each half; the upper slope comparatively gen-
tle, and the lower one steeper.

Gandharva Sky minstrel, India.

Gargoyle A waterspout, frequently carved as a grotesque in mediaeval architecture.
Garuda Bird enemy of Nagas, India.
Gauffrage Relief printing without color.
Gesso The layers of plaster mixed with glue applied to panels to provide a smooth sur-
face for the pigment.
Girder A strong horizontal member supporting the beams of a floor or roof.
 GLOSSARY 835

Groin Vault A type of vault created by the intersection of two barrel vaults of equal
span, the ridges of their intersections being called groins.
Half Timber A form of construction in which the spaces between the heavy timbers of
the frame are filled with brick or other material.
Hatching Repeated small parallel lines frequently adopted to provide a transition from
one value or color to another in early paintings. Cross Hatching refers to a
crisscross of such lines.
Haunch Roughly the middle third of the height of an arch.
Hinayana Lesser Vehicle of Buddhist doctrine.
Hip Roof A roof that slopes up from three or four sides of a building, as distinguished
from a gable roof which rises only from two sides.
Hypostyle A colonnaded hall, particularly those in Egyptian temples.
Iconography The identification of religious characters, incidents, and symbols in the
arts.

Illuminated Manuscript A hand-written book in which designs are introduced to

adorn the text, such as initial letters, decorative borders, or even miniature
paintings.
Impasto The layer or layers of pigment in a painting.
Impost Block A block placed between the capital of a column and the arches or vaults
it supports.
Inter columniation The space between two columns.
Isocephaly Heads of figures on the same level, as in a frieze.
Jatakas Tales of previous existence of the Buddha, India.
Joist A small beam to support a floor or ceiling.
Kakemono Vertical scroll painting, Japan.
Keystone The central stone in around or segmental arch. As a rule, there is no key-
stone in pointed arches.
Kodo Japanese, lecture hall.
Kondo Japanese, Golden hall.
Ku Chinese ritual vessel.
Lantern A cupola placed at the apex of a dome or roof to admit light.
Lean-to A roof with a single slope; a shed roof.
Li Tripod with hollow legs; Chinese ritual vessel.
Linga Phallic stone, India.
Lintel A beam over a door, window, or intercolumniation.
Lithography A graphic process in which the design is drawn on stone or metal with a

greasy pencil. The stone may then be inked to permit printing of the design.
Liwan A chamber or hall opening on a court, usually with a vaulted passage giving
access to the interior, Persia.
Lokopala Guardians of the four directions, India.
Mahayana Greater Vehicle of Buddhist doctrine.
Makemono Horizontal scroll painting, Japan.
Mandala (Mandara, Jap.) Holy chart, India.
Mastaha An Egyptian tomb form, rectangular in plan, low, flat-topped, and plain
externally.
Metope An approximately square slab in a Doric frieze between two triglyphs, some-
times enriched with sculpture.
836 GLOSSARY

Mihrab Prayer niche in mosque, Persia.

Miniature A small painting.
Modillion A bracket-like form, often carved with an acanthus leaf, supporting the over-
hanging members of Corinthian or Composite cornices.
Molding A small band used singly or in combination with other moldings to decorate
or divide architectural members.
Mortar A mixture of cement or lime with sand and water to provide a cushion for
stones or bricks in masonry.
Mosaic A design composed of small cubes of stone or glass set in mortar to decorate
floors, walls, or vaults. The designs may contain figures, or they may be floral

or abstract.
Mudra Significant hand gestures, India.
Mullion A vertical bar of stone or wood subdividing a window.
Naga Serpent kings, India.
Narthex The vestibule of Early Christian or Byzantine churches.
Nave Architecturally the central aisle of a church, and by extension, the entire western
arm of a church. Liturgically, the portion of a church assigned to the laity.
Nave Arcade The arches that support the triforium and clearstory, and therefore mark
the separation of the nave and aisles.

Necking The lowest portion of a capital which serves as a transition from the shaft to
the upper members of the capital.
Obelisk A tall, tapering rectangular monolith with a small pyramidal top, commonly
used in front of Egyptian temples.
Obi Sash worn by Japanese women.
Order A formal system of base, column, and entablature in classic architecture.
Organic Architecture An architecture in which ribbed vaults concentrate their weight
and thrust at isolated points and are logically and visibly supported and
abutted.
Patina A discoloration of the surface of bronze, or by extension of stone sculpture, ac-
quired through time or artificially induced.
Pediment The low triangle at the end of a building corresponding to the pitched roof;
a similar motive used over a door or window for accent or to discharge rainfall
to the sides of the opening.
Pendant A projection below the architectural member to which it is attached; pendants
sometimes mark the junction of ribs in late Gothic vaults, or the lower ends of
structural timbers under the overhanging second floor in early colonial houses.
Pendentive A triangular section of a vault used to support a dome; four pendentives
enable adome to be supported over a square area.
Peripteral Surrounded on all sides by free-standing columns.
Peristyle A colonnade surrounding a building or within a court.
Perspective The science of graphic presentation of the relative distances of objects.
Linear Perspective resorts to line and relative size for this purpose; Atmos-
pheric Perspective relies on the relatively sharper definition of nearby objects.
Pi A circle, symbol of heaven and heaven's mandate held by the emperor of China.
Pier An one whose plan is not circular. Pier
isolated architectural support, especially
is a more general term than column, but should be reserved to refer to those

supports that cannot be called columns

 GLOSSARY 837

Pieta A representation of the Virgin holding the dead body of Christ.

Pilaster A columnar form flattened against a wall.
Pinnacle A decorative turret projecting above a surface. Pinnacles appear in late Gothic
buildings at the apex of gables and around the base of the spire, or above the
buttresses along the parapet of a roof.
Plastics Any of a number of fabricated precast or premolded materials available to-
day for architecture and sculpture.
Plinth A flat rectangular block; particularly the lowest unit of the base for an Ionic or
Corinthian column.
Pointing A mechanical method for reproducing in stone from a plaster model at any
desired size the shape of a work of sculpture.
Polyptych A painting of many panels.
Portico A porch whose roof is supported by columns or piers.
Post and Lintel A basic system of construction in which vertical supports carry hori-
zontal beams.
Predella In painting, the row of small panels below the principal panels of an altar-
piece.
Pseudo-peripteral Having a free-standing colonnade on one side, continued by pilas-
on the remaining sides.
ters
Pylon A pair of solid masses of masonry flanking and forming an entrance; particularly
in an Egyptian temple.
Quadripartite Vault A four-part vault; a vault supported by ribs with the two diagonal
ribs dividing the rectangle covered by the vault into four triangles.
Quoins Alternate long and short blocks of stone at the corner of a masonry building
for strength and accent.
Raking Cornice A cornice following the sloping lines of a pediment.
Reinforced Concrete Concrete in which steel bars have been embedded to add to the
tensile strength.
Relief Projection from a plane; particularly sculpture whose figures or objects are rep-
resented by their relative projection from a background.
Rib An arch used to support a vault.
Rilievo Schiacciato Crushed relief; very flat relief in which the forms seem to melt into
the background; popularized by Donatello.
Rinceau A pattern composed of a series of connected spirals of floral design.

Rustication A
treatment of stonework in which the individual blocks are accented
either by leaving the exposed surface undressed, or by cutting back the edges
of each block
Sanctuary The area in a religious structure especially consecrated to the god.
Sash The frame of a window holding the glass; the earlier type of sash was the Case-
ment either fixed in place or hinged; late in seventeenth-century England the
Double Hung Sash became popular, in which one or both halves of the win-
dow may slide up or down in grooves.
Senmurv or Si-murgh Fabulous composite creature, Persia.
Set Back Upper stories of smaller area than lower stories which therefore break back
from the plane of the lower walls; particularly the upper stories of skyscrapers
treated in this way.
8^8 GLOSSARY

Sexpartite Vault A vault whose ribs divide the surface into six compartments, com-
mon Romanesque and early Gothic buildings.
in late
Shaft The portion of a column between the base and the capital comprising most of
the height of the column.
Soffit The exposed under surface of an arch or beam.
Soren Crowning member of pagoda consisting of metal rings, Japan.
Spire A tall pyramidal form placed oxer a tower.
Splay A diagonal plane commonly used in mediaeval architecture to enlarge the areas
of doors or windows.
Springing The point at which an arch begins to curve.
Squinch A device to support a dome over a square area; it may consist of an arched
niche, or blocks placed diagonally across the corners of the square.
Steeple Similar to a spire but different in that a steeple is composed of several distinct
stories or stages whereas a spire is a single more or less enriched pyramid.
Stele Memorial slab or tablet.
Stilting The an arch between the impost or capital and the point at
vertical portion of
which the arch begins to curve. In Gothic architecture, stilting may be so
pronounced that it requires a colonnctte above the main capital. This is not
true of Roman, Romanesque, or Renaissance arches, many of which, however,
are slightly stilted.
String Course A horizontal molding used to mark primary divisions in a wall.
Stupa Memorial mound, sometimes a reliquary, India.
Stylobate The top step or platform of a classic temple on which the columns rest.

Sutra Buddhist scriptures, India.

Swag A caned garland of fruit and flowers, commonly used in Roman art and its

Renaissance and later derivatives.

Taille Directe Direct cutting in stone of the final statue by the artist himself, instead
of the nineteenth-century practice of turning over a plaster model of his work
by pointing.
to a stonecutter for conversion into stone
T'ao-fieh Ornamental monster mask consisting of animal head with lower jaw miss-
ing, China.
Tempera A technique of painting on a plaster-covered wooden panel. See p. 225.
Terra Cotta Baked clay. Both architectural and sculptural forms can be molded in clay
and then baked to become hardened; they may also be colored and glazed
before baking.
Thrust The lateral pressure of an arch or vault.
Thupa Pali for Stupa.
Tie Rod A rod of wood or metal whose ends are anchored in the springing of arches
or vaults to counteract thrust; Italian architecture resorts to tie rods so regu-
larly that paintersintroduce them into their paintings, but northern peoples
tend to look on them as a subterfuge and to prefer the more structural masonry
buttress.
Ting Vessel Tripod for food offering, China.
Ting Ware White glazed ceramic ware, China.
Tondo A circular painting or relief.
Torana Gateway to Buddhist shrine, India.
Torii Gateway to Shinto shrine, Japan.
 GLOSSARY 839

Tracery The interlocking bars of stone subdividing Gothic windows and supporting the
glass.

Transepts A transverse unit of a church plan projecting beyond the walls of the aisles

and usually of the same height as the nave.

Triforium That gallery in churches between the nave arcade and the clearstory, corre-
sponding in height to the lean-to roof over the aisles.
Triglyph A group of vertical members alternating with metopes in the frieze of the
Doric order.
Triptych A painting with three panels; the side panels are often one half the size of
the central panel and hinged to it so that they may be folded over it like doors.
Trumeau A post supporting a tympanum within an arch and dividing a doorway into
two doors.
Truss A structure of wood or metal members, based on the rigidity of a triangle, and
devised to support a heavier load or cover a wider span than is practicable
with beams or girders.
Tympanum The surface below an arch and above a door, often sculptured.
Ukiyo-e 'Pictures of a floating world' —popular Japanese art.

Xjrnd Buddhist mark between the eyes, India.

Ushnisha Buddhist protuberance on top of head, India.
Va\rapani Thunderbolt-bearers, India.
Vault A method of roofing an area based on the principle of the arch. See Barrel
Vault, Dome, Groin Vault, Quadripartite Vault, Sexpartite Vault.
Veneer A thin layer of material applied as surface decoration for its beauty of color or
texture.
Vihara Monastic establishment, India.
Volute A scroll, such as the spirals at the sides of Ionic capitals, or the large scrolls

flanking the second-story fagades of Italian late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-
century churches.
Voussoir One of the wedge-shaped stones of an arch or vault.
Wainscot A
treatment of an interior wall, especially of its lower part, with paneling.
Web of a Vault The mass of a vault as distinguished from the ribs.
Woodcut A graphic process in which the design to be printed is left on the surface of
a block of wood by cutting away the portions intended to be left white.
Yaksha Guardian of mineral treasures of the earth, India.
Yakshi Nature spirit, tree guardian, India.
Yamato-e Painting in true Japanese style.
Yang and Yin Symbols of male and female elements in Chinese art.
Yoni Symbol of the female in India, a circle.
Yii Bucket-shaped ritual vessel for carrying liquids, Chinese.
Ziggurat A Mesopotamian temple tower of stepped form, built of brick.
Zoning Law A legal restriction on building imposed in many communities to limit the
use and size of buildings within specified areas.
Suggested Readings

General
Chase, G. H. and Post, C. R., A History of Sculpture, New York, Harper, 1925.
The best one volume introduction to the subject.
Cheney, Sheldon, A World History of Art, New York, Viking, 1937.
An exciting, if biased, version of the histoiy of art, brilliantly written by an
outspoken advocate of modern art.

Fletcher, B. F., A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method, New York,

Scribner, 1943.
Indispensable for reference.
Fry, R., Transformations, London, Chatto & Windus, 1926.
, Vision and Design, London, Chatto & Windus, 1920.
Two volumes of unusually thought-provoking essays on miscellaneous prob-
lems in the theory and history of art.
Hamlin, T. F.,Architecture Through the Ages, New York, Putnam, 1940.
A splendid interpretation of architecture in civilization by one of the leading
American architectural historians.
Post, C. R.,A History of European and American Sculpture from the Early Christian
Period to the Present Day, 2 vols., Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1921.
A comprehensive survey, but insufficient illustrations.
Robb, D. M., The Harper History of Painting: the Occidental Tradition, New York,
Harper, 1951.
The most recent one-volume introduction to the subject.

Primarily for Illustrations

Phaidon Press
A series of volumes, chiefly of illustrations that are exceptional in quality.
Among the periods and personalities covered to date are Ancient Egypt,
Roman Portraits, Ghiberti, Donatello, Angelico, Mantegna, Botticelli, Leo-
nardo, Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, Tintoretto, Diirer, Bruegel, Bernini, El
Greco, Velasquez, Rubens, Hals, Rembrandt, Vermeer, The Impressionists,
Rodin, Cezanne, Van Gogh, and Chinese Painting.
Propylaean Kunstgeschichte
A multi-volume work on successive art periods. Although the brief text, cap-
tions, and index are in German, the illustrations are copious and of satisfac-
tory quality. The chief defect lies in an over-emphasis on German art.
841
842 SUGGESTED READINGS

Skira Books
The Great Centuries of Painting
Painting, Colour, History
The Taste of Our Time
In these three series, the text has been written by recognized authorities in
their fields, but their chief value perhaps lies in their copious color illustrations.
The University Prints
An extensive and admirable (in view of the very reasonable price) collection
of photographs covering architecture, sculpture, painting, and some of the
minor arts in Europe, America, and the Orient. The prints may be obtained
individua'lv, in sets covering particular art periods, or, in some cases, in bound
volumes.

Theory, Iconography. Miscellaneous

Bulfinch, Thomas, The Age of Table, New York, Crowcll, 1947.
The standard reference book on mythology.
Ducasse, C. J.,
The Philosophy of Art, New York, MacVeagh, 1929.
A well-balanced and critical discussion.
Greene, Theodore, The Arts and the Art of Criticism, Princeton, Princeton University
Press, 1940.
A comprehensive discussion of aesthetics involving literature, music, and the
dance as well as the visual arts.
Hamlin, T. F., Architecture, An Art for All Men, New York, Columbia University
Press, 1947.
An unimpeachable presentation of the elements and theory of architecture
for the layman.
Jameson, Mrs. A., Legends of the Madonna, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1896.
Legends of the Monastic Orders, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1897.
,

, Sacred and Legendary Art, 2 vols., Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1897.

Indispensable reference works on Christian iconography.
Ruskin, John, Modern Painters, new ed., New York, Merrill and Baker, 1873.
An epoch-making examination of Renaissance and later landscape painting.
, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, Orpington, Allen, 1880.
A literary classic providing a Victorian moralistic theory of architecture.
Scott, Geoffrey, The Architecture of Humanism, 2nd ed., New York, Scribner, 1924.
A penetrating examination of architectural theory and the fallacies that have
crept into the criticism of architecture.
Sullivan, Louis, The Autobiography of an Idea, New York, Norton, 1934.
A picturesque account of Sullivan's life and of his formulation of the func-
tional theory of architecture.
Wittkower, Rudolf, Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism, London, War-
burg Institute, 1949.
A keen critical study of Renaissance and Post-Renaissance theory.
Wolfflin, Heinrich, Principles of Art History, 7th ed., trans, by M. D. Hottinger, Lon-
don, Bell, 1932.
Hard reading, but widely recognized for its discussion of basic art problems.
 SUGGESTED READINGS 843

Prehistoric Art (Chapter ii)

Breuil, Abbe Four Hundred Centuries of Cave Art, trans, by M. E. Boyle,

H.,
Montignac, Centre d'Etudes et de Documenation Prehistorique, 1952
Brown, G. B., The Art of the Cave Dweller, London, John Murray, 1928.
Childe, V. C, Man Makes Himself, London, Rationalist Press, 1936.
Howells, W., Back of History, New York, Doubleday, 1954.
Maringer, J. and Bandi, H. G., Art in the Ice Age, New York, Frederick A Praeger,
!953-

Pre-Classical Art (Chapter hi)

Aldred, Cyril, Old Kingdom Art in Ancient Egypt, London, A. Tiranti, 1949.
, Middle Kingdom Art in Ancient Egypt, London, A. Tiranti, 1950.
, New Kingdom Art in Ancient Egypt, During the Eighteenth Dynasty, Lon-
don, A. Tiranti, 1951.
These three volumes have been printed in one volume.
Frankfort, Henry, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient, Harmondsworth,
Penguin, 1954.
An up-to-date account of this important field.

Hall, H. R., Aegean Archaeology, London, Warner, 1915.

A careful but dry summary of Aegean civilization.
Smith, E. B., Egyptian Architecture as Cultural Expression, New York, Appleton-
Century, 1938.
A thorough and scholarly presentation of the causes, characteristics, and
growth of Egyptian architecture.

Greek Art (Chapters iv-vi)

Bieber, Marguerite, The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, New York, Columbia Univer-
sity Press, 1955.
The last word on this period.
Dickinson, G. L., of Life, 15th ed., New York, Doubleday, 1924.
The Greek View
An admirable commentary on the interrelation in Greek life of religion, the
state, the individual, and the various forms of artistic expression. Not illus-
trated.
Dinsmoor, W. B., The Architecture of Ancient Greece, London, Batsford, 1950.
Comprehensive and absolutely reliable.
Richter, G. M. A., The Sculpture and Sculptors of the Greeks, New Haven, Yale Uni-
versity Press, 1929.
A scholarly volume on the whole history of Greek sculpture.

Roman Art (Chapter vii)

Anderson, W. J. and Spiers, R. P., The Architecture of Ancient Rome, rev. by

T. Ashby, London, Batsford, 1927.
Swift, E. H., Roman Sources of Christian Art, New York, Columbia University Press,
1951.
Though savagely attacked, the basic thesis of this book seems sound.
Walters, H. B., The Art of the Romans, London, Methuen, 1911.
Satisfactory general account of Roman architecture, sculpture, and painting.
844 SUGGESTED READINGS

The Arts of the Early Church (Chapter viii)

Dalton, O. M., Byzantine Art and Archaeology, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1911.
The most satisfactory work in one volume on a field not well covered by pub-
lications in English.
Hamilton, G. H., The Art and Architecture of Russia, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1954.
The scholarly standard on a field of growing interest.
Hamilton, J. A., Byzantine Architecture and Decoration, New York, Scribner's, 1934.
Lowrie, Walter, Art in the Early Church, New York, Pantheon, 1947.
A sound handbook on Early Christian art, covering iconography, architecture,
sculpture, painting, and the minor arts.
Rivoira, G. T., Lombardic Architecture; Its Origins, Development, and Derivatives,
2 vols., new ed., trans, by G. M. Rushforth, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1933.
By the outstanding opponent of Strzygowski; this book carries on through the
Romanesque period; prejudiced in favor of Italy, especially in dates.
Strzykowski, Josef, Origin of Christian Church Art, trans, by O. M. Dalton and H. J.

Braunholtz, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923.

An attempt to trace the origin of Early Christian art to the eastern Mediter-
ranean and beyond; its thesis finds less favor today than some years ago.

Romanesque and Gothic Art (Chapters ix-xi)

Bond, Francis, English Church Architecture, 2 vols., New York, Oxford, 1913.
A scholarly analysis of the development of the several elements of English
medieval architecture in the Romanesque and Gothic periods.
Clapham, A. W., Romaiiesque Architecture in Western Europe, Oxford, Clarendon
Press, 1936.
Dupont, Jacques and Gnudi, Cesarc, The Great Centuries of Gothic Painting, Geneva,
Skira, 1954.
Evans, Joan, Art in Medieval France, 987-1498, New York, Oxford, 1948.
A comprehensive survey of this field.
Male, Emile, Religious Art in France; XIII Century, 3rd ed., trans, by D. Nussey, New
York, Dutton, 1913.
The classic discussion of medieval iconography; two other volumes covering
the earlier and later Middle Ages have not been translated.
Meiss, Millard, Painting in Florence and Siena After the Black Death, Princeton, Prince-
ton University Press, 1951.
The second half of the 14th century.
Moore, C. H., Development and Character of Gothic Architecture, 2nd ed., New York,
Macmillan, 1904.
The classic presentation of the thesis that the essence of Gothic architecture
lies in its solution of structural problems.
Morey, C. R., Medieval Art, New York, Norton, 1942.
Iconography and style from Early Christian times through late Gothic art.
Panofsky, Erwin, Early Netherlandish Painting, Its Origins and Character, Cambridge,
Harvard University Press, 1953.
Porter, A. K., Medieval Architecture, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1912.
The major problems of Carolingian, Lombard, Norman, and French Gothic
buildings, with an introduction to the architecture of the early church.
 SUGGESTED READINGS 845
Stone, Lawrence, Sculpture in Britain; the Middle Ages, Harmondsworth, Penguin,
*955-

Italian Renaissance Art (Chapters xii, xiii)

Anderson, W. J.,
The Architecture of the Renaissance in Italy, 5th ed., rev. and enl. by
A. Stratton, New York, Scribner, 1927.
Burckhardt, Jakob, Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, New York, Oxford, 1944.
The background and character of the movement; indispensable to both the
student and the general reader.
Castiglione, Baldassare, The Book of the Courtier, trans, by L. E. Opdycke, New York,
Scribner, 1927.
Imaginary discussions by a contemporary of the characteristics of ladies and
gentlemen in the early 16th century.
Cellini, Benvenuto, The Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini, trans, by A. Symonds,
J.
New York, Macmillan, 1929.
A highly colored account of his personal prowess and artistic achievements.
Lassaigne, Jacques and Argan, G. C, The Fifteenth Century from Van Eyck to Botti-
celli, Geneva, Skira, 1955.

Chiefly Flemish, Italian, and French painting.

Maclagan, Eric, Italian Sculpture of the Renaissance, Cambridge, Harvard University
Press, 1935.
Mather, F. J.,
A History of Italian Painting, New York, Holt, 1923.
The development and character of Italian painting from Giotto and Duccio
through the 16th century, with a brief conclusion on the painting of the 17th
and 18th centuries.
Schmeckbier, Lawrence, A Handbook of Italian Renaissance Painting, New York, Put-
nam, 1938.
Valuable for its concentration on the facts.
Vasari, Giorgio, Lives of Seventy of the Most Eminent
Painters, Sculptors, and Archi-
tects, 10 by G. D. de Vere, London, Macmillan, 1912-14.
vols., trans,

This classic, though often inaccurate, is still worth reading for its gossip about
the leaders of Italian art in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Many edi-
tions and translations are available.

Northern Renaissance Art; Post-Renaissance Art (Chapters xiv-xix)

Blunt, Anthony, Art and Architecture in France, 1500-1700, London, Penguin, 1953.
Fokker, T. H., Roman Baroque Art, London, Oxford, 1938.
Hagen, Oskar, Patterns and Principles of Spanish Art, Madison, University of Wiscon-
sin Press, 1943.
Kimball, S. F., The Creation of the Rococo, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Museum of Art,

*943-
Mather, F. J.,
Western European Painting of the Renaissance, New York, Holt, 1939.
Painting outside of Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Summerson, John, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, London, Penguin, 1953.
Traz, Georges de, The Eighteenth Century, Watteau to Tiepolo, trans, by S. Gilbert,
Geneva, Skira, 1952.
Chiefly French, English, and Italian.
846 SUGGESTED READINGS

Waterhouse, E. K., Painting in Britain, 1550 to 1790, London, Penguin, 1953.

Wilenski, R. H., Dutch Painting, London, Faber & Faber, 1955.

Arts of the American Indian (Chapter xx)

Bennett, W. C, Ancient Arts of the Andes, introd. by Rene d'Harnoncourt, New York,
Museum of Modern Art, 1954.
Douglas, F. H. and Harnoncourt, Rene d'. Indian Art of the United States, New York,
Museum of Modern Art, 1941.
Drucker, Philip, Indians of the Northwest Coast, New York, American Museum of Nat-
ural History, 1955.
Feuchtwanger, Franz, The Art of Ancient Mexico, London, Thames and Hidson, 1945.
Morley, S. G., The Ancient Mara, 3rd ed., rev. by G. W. Brainerd, Stanford, Stanford

University Press, 1956.

Vaillant, G. C., Indian Arts in North America, New York, Harper, 1939.

American Art (Chapters xxi and xxvi)

Andrews, Wayne, Architecture, Ambition and Americans: History of American Architec-
ture, New York, Harper, 1955.
A general account of American architecture.
Barker, Virgil, American Painting, History and Interpretation, New York, Macmillan,
1950.
A thorough and critical discussion of painting down to 1900.
Baur, J.
I. H., Revolution and Tradition in Modern American Art, Cambridge, Harvard
University Press, 1951.
Painting and sculpture since 1900; well organized.
Burroughs, Alan, Limners and Likenesses; Three Centuries of American Painting, Cam-
bridge, Harvard University Press, 1936.
Brief but stimulating.
Forman, H. C, The Architecture of the Old South, Cambridge, Harvard University
Press, 1948.
Hamlin, Talbot, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, New York, Oxford, 1955.
The Pulitzer Prize biographv.
, Greek Revival Architecture in America, New York, Oxford, 1944.
Kimball, S. F., Domestic Architecture of the American Colonies and of the Early Re-
public, New York, Scribner, 1922.
The Colonial, Georgian, and Federal periods.
Larkin, O. W., Art and Life in America, New York, Rinehart, 1949.
Painting, sculpture, and architecture from the time of settlement to the
present.
Morrison, Hugh, Early American Architecture, New York, Oxford, 1952.
A
thorough and up-to-date account down to 1775.
Mujica, Francisco, History of the Skyscraper, Paris, Archaeology and Architecture Press,
1929.
Mumford, Louis, Sticks and Stones, New York, Norton, 1933.
Richardson, E. P., Painting in America, New York, Crowell, 1956.
 SUGGESTED READINGS 847

Taft, Lorado, History of American Sculpture, new ed. rev., New York, Macmillan, 1930.
The only serious and complete work in this field, but the geniality and
eclecticism of its author hamper its critical quality.

The Nineteenth Century in Europe (Chapters xxii-xxiv)

Clark, Kenneth, The Gothic Revival, New York, Scribner, 1929.

The movement; hampered by insufficient illustrations.
bases and growth of the
Fry, R. E., Characteristics of French Art, London, Chatto & Windus, 1932.
Six critical essays covering the story of French painting from the late Middle
Ages through the nineteenth century.
Hitchcock, H. R., Early Victorian Architecture in Britain, New Haven, Yale University
Press, 1954.
Mather, F. J., Modern Painting, A Study of Tendencies, New York, Holt, 1927.
Although unsympathetic in its treatment of the men after Impressionism, its

discussion of the earlier movements of the nineteenth century is effective.

Meier-Graefe, Julius, Modern Art; Being a Contribution to a New System of Aesthetics,
2 vols., trans, by F. Simmonds and G. W. Chrystal, New York, Putnam, 1908.
Though spotty and overloaded in the second volume with German painters, its
treatment of the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists is excellent.
Rewald, John, The History of Impressionism, New York, Museum of Modern Art, 1946.
Post-Impressionism, New York, Museum of Modern Art, 1956.
,

The Art of Primitive Peoples (Chapter xxv)

Linton, R., Wingert, P. S., and Harnoncourt, R. d', Arts of the South Seas, New York,
Museum of Modern Art, 1946.
Masterpieces of African Art, Brooklyn, Brooklyn Museum, 1954.
Muensterberger, W., in collaboration with W. L. Muensterberger, The Sculpture of
Primitive Man, New York, Harry N. Abrams, 1955.
For illustrations.
Radin, P. and Sweeney, J. J.,
African Folktales and Sculpture, New York, Pantheon,
1952.
Tischner, Herbert, Oceanic Art, New York, Pantheon, 1954.
For illustrations.
Trowell, Margaret, Classical African Sculpture, London, Faber & Faber, 1954.
Sydow, E. von, Afrikanische Plastik, New York, Wittenborn, 1954.
For illustrations.
Wingert, P. S., The Sculpture of Negro Africa, New York, Columbia University Press,

1950.
, Art of the South Pacific Islands, New York, Beechhurst Press, 1953.

Twentieth-Century Art (Chapter xxvii)

Barr, A. H., Picasso, Fifty Years of his Art, New York, Museum of Modern Art, 1946.
, Masters of Modern Art, New York, Museum of Modern Art, 1954.
ed.,
Giedion, Sigfried, Space, Time, and Architecture, Cambridge, Harvard University Press,
1941.
The growth of modern architecture in structure and aesthetics from the late
Baroque style in Europe to the present.
$A$ SUGGESTED READINGS

Hamlin, T. F., Forms and Functions of Twentieth-Century Architecture, 4 vols., New

York, Columbia University Press, 1952.
Comprehensive discussion and problems in mid-century
of architectural theory
Hitchcock, H. R., Modern Architecture, Romanticism and Reititegration, New York
Payson, 1929.
Thorough account of the growth of modern architecture from the early nine
teenth century.
Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, trans, from the 13th French ed. by
F. Etchells, London, Bodker, 1931.
Museum of Modern Art. Catalogues, especially those on 'Cubism and Abstract Art
(1936), and 'Fantastic Art, Dada, Surrealism' (1936).
Both the brief introductions and the abundant illustrations arc admirable.
The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, Twentieth Century Section, Philadelphia,
Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1954.
Whittick, Arnold, European Architecture in the Twentieth Century, 2 vols., London,
Lock wood, 1950-53.

Oriental Art, General (Chapters xxviii-xxxi)

Binyon, Lawrence, The Spirit of Man in Asian Art, Cambridge, Harvard University
Press, 1935.
Finegan, Jack, The Archaeology of World Religions, Princeton, Princeton University
Press, 1952.
An illustrated history of Asiatic religious thought.
Grousset, Rene, The Civilizations of the East, trans, by C. A. Phillips, 4 vols., New
York, Knopf, 1931-5.
The arts of Persia, India and Greater India, China, and Japan.
Hackin, J.,
and others, Asiatic Mythology, London, Harrap, 1932.

Persia (Chapter xxviii)

W., Painting in Islam, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1928.
Arnold, T.
Dimand, M. S., Handbook of Muhammadan Art, New York, Metropolitan Museum,
1944.
Ghirshman, Roman, Iran, London, Penguin, 1954.
Excellent on pre-Islamic eras.
Gray, Basil, Persian Painting, London, Benn, 1930.
A good summary, including a discussion of techniques.
Guest, G. D., Shiraz Painting in the Sixteenth Century, Washington, Freer Gallery,
1949.
Herzfeld, E. E., Iran in the Ancient East, New York, Oxford, 1941.
Persian art from prehistoric times through early historic periods.
Lane, A., Early Islamic Pottery, New York, 1948.
Pope, A. U., ed., A Survey of Persian Art, New York, Oxford, 1938-9.
Wilber, D. N., The Architecture of Islamic Iran, Princeton, 1952.

India (Chapter xxix)

Anand, M. R., The Hindu View of Art, London, Allen & Unwin, 1933.
 SUGGESTED READINGS 849

Binyon, Lawrence, The Court Painters of the Great Moguls, New York, Oxford, 1921.
An account of Mogul court and art.
Brown, Percy, Indian Architecture, Bombay, 1942.
Codrington, K. de B., An Introduction to the Study of Mediaeval Indian Sculpture,
London, Goldston, 1929.
Recommended for later Hindu art.
Coomaraswamy, A. K., History of Indian and Indonesian Art, London, Goldston, 1927.
Rajput Painting, 2 vols.,
, New York, Oxford, 1936.
Gordon, A. K., The Iconography of Tibetan Lamaism, New York, Columbia University
Press, 1939.
Good reference book for beginners. ,

Khandalavala, K., Indian Sculpture and Painting, Bombay, Taraporevala, n. d.

Mackay, E.,The Indus Valley Civilization, London, 1935.
Resume of prehistoric art.
Majumdar, R., Raychaudhuri, H., and Datta, K., An Advanced History of India, Lon-
don, 1950.
Mehta, N. C., Studies in Indian Painting, Bombay, Taraporevala, 1926.
Rowland, Benjamin, The Art and Architecture of India, London, Penguin, 1953.
Except for the omission of Islamic art, a good coverage of India and Greater
India.
Zimmer, H. R. Myths and Symbols
7
in Indian Art and Civilization, New York, Pan-
theon, 1946.
The Art of Indian Asia, ed. by
,
J. Campbell, New York, Pantheon, 1955.

China (Chapter xxx)

Ashton, Leigh, An Introduction to the Study of Chinese Sculpture, London, Benn, 1924.
Binyon, Lawrence, The Flight of the Dragon, London, Murray, 1943.
Painting in the Far East, London, Arnold, 1943.
,

Creel, H. G., The Birth of China, New York, Reynal & Hitchcock, 1936.
Recommended for the early arts of China.
Driscoll, L. Chinese Calligraphy, Chicago, University of Chicago, 1935.
and Toda, K.,
Getty, Alice, The Gods of Northern Buddhism, Oxford, Clarendon, 1928.
Goodrich, L. C, A Short History of the Chinese People, rev. ed., New York, Harpei,
1951.
, and Fenn, H., A Syllabus of the History of Chinese Civilization and Culture,
New York, Chinese Society of America, 1941.
Grousset, Rene, In the Footsteps of the Buddha, London, Routledge, 1932.
Translations from the diary of a Chinese monk of the seventh century, con-
taining an account of life in China, Central Asia, and India.
Guest, G. D. and Wenley, A. G., Outlines for the Study of Far Eastern Art — China,
Washington, Freer Gallery, 1946.
Annotated bibliography on China and Japan.
Kuo Hsi, An Essay on Landscape Painting, trans, by S. Sakanishi, London, Murray,
1 935-

Leach, B., A Potter's Book, London, 1940.

Excellent on techniques.
85O SUGGESTED READINGS

Nourse, M., A Short History of the Chinese, Philadelphia, Blakiston, 1944.

Sakanishi, Shio, The Spirit of the Brush, London, Murray, 1939.
Sickman, L. C. and Soper, A., The Art and Architecture of China, London, Penguin,
1956.
Siren, Osvald, Chinese Painting, 6 vols., London, Lund Humphries, 1956.

Japan (Chapter xxxi)

Binyon, L. and Sexton,J. J.
O., Japanese Colour Prints, London, Benn, 1923.
Blaser,Werner, Japanese Temples and Tea-houses, New York, Dodge Books, 1956.
Bowie, H. P., On the Laws of Japanese Painting, New York, Dover Publications, 1951.
Drexler, A., The Architecture of Japan, New York, 195 V
Index of Japanese Painters, Tokyo, The Society of Friends of Eastern Art, 1941.
Koiki, S., Japan s New Architecture, Tokyo, 1956.
Ledoux, L. V., An Essay on Japanese Prints, New York, privately printed, 1938.
Minamoto, Hoshu, An Illustrated History of Japanese Art, trans, by H. G. Henderson,
Kyoto, Hoshino, 1935.
Okakura, Kakuzo, Ideals of the East, London, Murray, 1905.
Essays by a man acquainted with both Oriental and Western traditions.
Pageant of Japanese Art, ed. by staff members of the Tokyo National Museum, Tokyo,
1952-54.
Paine, R. T., Japanese Screen Paintings, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, 1935.
and Soper, A., The Art and Architecture of Japan, London, Penguin, 1955.
Sadler, A. L., Cha-no-yu, London, 1934.
Description of the tea ceremony.
A
Short History of Japanese Architecture, London, 1941.
,

Sansom, G. B., Japan, A Short Cultural History, rev. ed., New York, Appleton, 1943.
Soper, A. C, The Evolution of Buddhist Architecture in Japan, Princeton, Princeton
University Press, 1942.
Toda, Kenji, Japanese Scroll Painting, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1935.
Tsuda, N., Handbook of Japanese Art, Tokyo, Sanseido, 1935.
Warner, Langdon, The Craft of the Japanese Sculptor, New York, McFarlane, 1936.
The Enduring Art of Japan, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1952.
,

Methods and media described in a dynamic series of essays.

Index

Alexander the Great, portrait of (Lysippus), 102

Alexandria, Christ Church, 469
Aachen, palace chapel, 154 Algerian Women (Delacroix), 501; fig. 379
Abadie (Sacre Coeur, Paris), 513-15 Allston, Washington, 567
Abstract Portrait of Marcel Duchamp (Pevsner), All's Well (Homer), 573
638-9; fig. 477 Altamira cave, 19
Abu Simbel, Temple of Rameses II, 34, 35, 37, Amadeo (Certosa, Pavia), 252-3; fig. 193
39; fi *3
g- AmaravatI, relief from, 687-8; figs. 525, 526
Academy of Painters and Sculptors, 14, 398, American Gothic (Wood), 611
407, 481, 484, 495, 518, 544 American Indian, Asiatic origin, 438
Accordionist (Chagall), 628; PI. xiv Amiens Cathedral, architecture, 181, 184, 192,
Adam, Robert, 430-32, 477 207; figs. 136, 138
Kedleston, 431 figs. 148, 150, 161
sculpture, 201-3, 216;
London, Lord Derby's House, 431; fig. 336 Ancy-le-Franc, Geometry (Primaticcio), 353
London, Home House, 431; fig. 335 Andalusia (Walter), 565-6; fig. 426
Adam style,430-31, 473, 474, 475, 478; figs. Angelico, Fra, 266, 274-6, 279
335> 33 6 Annunciation, fresco, San Marco, Florence,
Adler and Sullivan, 579, 588 274-6; fig. 214
Chicago, Columbian Exposition, Transpor- Coronation of the Virgin, 274; PI. in
tation Building, 579; fig. 437 Madonna del Linaiuoli, 274
St. Louis, Wainwright Building, 588; fig. Angkor Thorn, 717, 719; fig. 560
443 Angkor Vat, 717, 719-23; figs. 561, 562
Admonitions of the Imperial Preceptress (Ku Animal-Style art, 649-50; fig. 486
K'ai-chih), 752-3; fig. 590 Annunciation (Andrea della Robbia), 261-2;
Adoration of the Magi (Diirer), 348; fig. 275 fig. 201

Aegina, Temple of Aphaia, sculpture, 75-6, 79, (Donatello), 261

80, 87, 88, 108; figs. fresco (Angelico), 274-6; fig. 214
43, 44
Aeschylus, 78, 96 Anselm of Aosta, St., 167
Africa, Central, 549, 551-4; figs. 414-16; PI. Anshutz, Thomas, 604
XIII Anthemius of Tralles (Constantinople, Hagia
African Negro sculpture, 546-54, 619-21; figs. Sophia), 143-8; figs. 101-5
408-16; PI. XIII Antonello da Messina (Condottiere) 165-6, ,

Agbatana, city walls, 42 279; fig. 206

Age of Bronze (Rodin), 515-16 Anyang, Carved Owl, 729; fig. 567
Ageladas (Statuette from Ligourio) , 73, 95; Aphrodite of Cnidus (Praxiteles), 101, 106; fig.
41
fig. 67
Agias (Lysippus), 102-3; %• ^9 Aphrodite of Melos, 106; fig. 70
Agra, Pearl Mosque, 706; fig. 547 Apollo and Daphne (Bernini), 4, 12, 361; fig.

Taj Mahall, 705-6; fig. 546 283

Ahura Mazda, 135, 650, 651, 659 Apollo Belvedere, 481
Aigues Mortes, 192 'Apollo' type, 66-7, 75, 76; fig.
33
Aihole, Durga Temple, 697; fig. 539 Apotheosis of St. Ignatius Loyola (Pozzo), 11.
Ajanta, caves and paintings, 690-92, 708, 713, 367-9; fig. 288
746-8, 754; figs. 528, 529 Apoxyomenos (Lysippus), 102
Alberti, Leon Battista, 251-2, 285, 286, 511, Apparition of Face and Fruit-dish on a Beach
512 (Dali), 632; PI. xv
Rucellai Palace, Florence, 251, 285, 286; Aquinas, Thomas, 244
fig. 191 Ara Pads Augustae, Rome, 115; fig. 78
Mantua, 252
Sant' Andrea, Archermus (Nike of Delos) 69-70; fig. 36
,

San Francesco, Rimini, 251-2, 511, 512; Archipenko, Alexander, 634-6, 638
fig. 192 Dance, The, 634-5
Alexander Entering Babylon (Le Brun), 407 Medrano, 636; fig. 475
Alexander the Great, 98, 102, 103, 104, 650, Arhats Giving Alms to Beggars (Lin T'ing-kuei),
652, 658, 682 768-9; fig. 607
85:
 8 52 INDEX

Aristophanes, 103 Bacon, Henrv ( Lincoln Memorial, Washington,

Aristotle, 105 D.C.j, 581; fig. 438
Aries, St. Trophime, sculpture, 171-2; figs. 126, Bacon's Castle, Surry County, Virginia, 466
127 Bagneux, dolmen, 22
Arlington, Lee Mansion, 566 Bahrain II in Combat, 659-60
Armory Show, 605, 613 Bakota figures, 552; figs. 414-16; PI. xm
Arp, Hans (Human Concretion), 628, 640; fig.
Baldassare Castiglione, portrait of (Raphael),
479 306; fig. 239
Art, human need of,
3 Baldovinetti, Alesso, 279
influence of economics on, 13-14 Balla (Dog on a Leash), 626
influence of geography on, 1
Ballet Dancer on the Stage (Degas), 530-32;
influence of government on, 14, 15 fig. 400
influence of religion on, 14, 15 Balzac, portrait of (Rodin), 516-17;fig. 391
influence of society on, 14, 15
Bamboo (Kuan Tao-sheng), 772; fig. 610
Arfs of the West (Benton), 611
Bamiyan, Colossal Buddha, 685-6; fig. 522
Ashanti bronzes, 550
Bandinelli, Baccio, 303
Ashur-bani-pal, Palace of, sculptured frieze,
Bangkok, palace, 724; fig. 564
47-8; fig. 22
Baoule, Figure, 550; fig. 409
Ashur-nasir-pal, portrait of, 46 Baptism in Kansas (Curry), 611
Ashur-nasir-pal Storming a City, 47; fig. 21
Barabudur, architecture and sculpture, 714-17;
Assisi, San Francesco, frescoes (Giotto), 231
fi
§s -
5557
Assumption of the Virgin (Correggio), 317
Barbizon School, 505-9, 522, 573; figs. 382, 385
(Donatello), 260-61
Bare Willows and Distant Mountains (Ma
(Titian), 311-13; fig. 243
Yuan), 761, 776; fig. 598
Athena Lemnia (Phidias), 86; fig. 53
Bark of Dante (Delacroix), 498-9
Athena Parthenos (Phidias), 87, 94, 98
Bar of the Folies Bergere (Manet), 526-7; fig.
Athens, Choragic Monument of Lvsicrates, 99,
480 397
Baroque architecture, Italian, 299, 358-61; figs.
Erechtheum, 8, 84, 94-5, 480; figs. 59, 60
281, 282
LittleMetropolitan Church, 149; fig. 107
Baroque art, character of, 356-8
Parthenon, architecture (Ictinus and Cal-
licrates),
Baroque painting, Flemish, 380-84; figs. 296-9;
11, 13, 59-60, 84-6, 98, 194,
PI. VII
478, 479, 565; figs. 29, 52
Italian, 315, 317, 366-9; figs. 287-9
sculpture (Phidias), 64, 86-94, 110 ^§ s '
-

Spanish, 377-9; fig 295

54-8
Propvlaea (Mnesicles), 84, 95, 480; figs.
Baroque sculpture, Italian, 361-6; figs. 283-6
61', 62 Barry, Charles (Houses of Parliament, London),

Temple of Wingless Victory, 60, 84, 95; 490, 568; fig. 368
fig. 30 Bartolommeo, Fra, 303
Theseum, 60 Barve, Antoine Louis (Jaguar Devouring a
Attalus I, 108, 112 Hare), 491-2, 515; fig. 371
Augusta, State Capitol (Bulfinchj, 474 Bassae, Temple of Apollo Epicurius, 98
Augustus, portrait of, from Prima Porta, 115; Bassano, 370
Basu-sennin (Unkei), 809; fig. 649
%77 Bath, Prior Park (Wood), 429-30; fig. 334
Aurignacian art, 17, 18, 19
Austria, architecture, 20th century, 642 Bather, The (Falconet), 425; fig. 330
Autumn Oaks (Inness), 573; fig. 432 Bather, The (Lipchitz), 636
Autun, St. Lazare, sculpture, 176, 177; fig. 131 Bathers (Cezanne), 542-4; fig. 406
Avalokitesvara as the Guide of Souls, 748, 754; Bathers (Fragonard), 424
fig. 586 Battle of Anghiari (Leonardo), 381
Aztec, 445, 452-3; fig. 350 Battle of San Romano (Uccello), 269-71; fig.
209
Bayon, Angkor Thorn, 720, 723; fig. 560
Bear Run, Kaufmann House (Wright), 598,
Bacchus (Sansovino), 326-7; fig. 256 602; fig. 452
Bacchus and Ariadne (Titian), 313-14, 399; Beauvais Cathedral, architecture, 181, 187
fig. 244 Bella Coula, Mask, 461-2; PI. ix
Backyards, Greenwich Village (Sloan), 604; fig. Bellini, Giovanni (Frari Madonna), 279-80,
458 311; fig. 219

Bellows, George, 604-5, 616
Cross Eyed Boy, 604
Dempsey and Firpo, 604-5; ^8- 459
Belur,Temple, 698
Benedetto of Parma, 176
Benevento Cathedral, bronze doors, 176
Beni Hasan, rock-cut tombs, 29
Beni Hasan, Tomb of Khnumhotep, paintings,
41
Benin bronzes, 551
Benton, Thomas H. (Arts of the West), 611
Berceuse, La (Van Gogh), 537, 600; fig. 403
Berlin, Brandenburg Gate (Langhans), 479-80
Bernard, Emile, 621
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, 4, 11, 12, 358, 359,
361-6, 402, 407, 427, 480
Apollo and Daphne, 361; fig. 283
Baldacchino, St. Peter's, Rome, 366; fig.
262
Chair of St. Peter, St. Peter's, Rome, 366;
262
fig.
Colonnades, St. Peter's, Rome, 358; fig.
261
Francesco d'Este, portrait of, 361-3; fig.
284
St. Theresa of Avila, 363; fig. 285
Tomb of Alexander VII, 365-6; fig. 286
Berry, Due de, 235
Between Rounds (Eakins), 574
Bharhut, Buddhist railing, 680, 682
Bhuvanesvara, Lingaraja Temple, 697; fig. 641
Bhuvanesvara, Parasuramesvara Temple, 697;
fig. 640
Bierstadt, Albert, 575
Bihzad, 672-3
6,
King Darius and Herdsman, 673; fig. 509
Sultan Hussein Mirza in a Garden, 673;
PI. XVI
Sultan Hussein Mirza Revelling, 672; fig.
506
Birth of Venus (Botticelli), 265, 277; fig. 216
(Bouguereau), 544; fig. 407
Bishop Berkeley and His Entourage (Smibert),
470
Blessing, The (Chardin), 421; fig. 327
Blind Bird (Graves), 614; fig. 467
Blois, Chateau, 340-41, 345; fig. 269
Blue and Green Music (O'Keeffe), 609
Blue Rider group, 626
Boat Returning in a Storm (Sesson), 5, 816;
fig. 658
Bodhgaya, Buddhist railing, 681; fig. 516
Mahabodhi Temple, 697; fig. 537
Bodhisattva Dedicated by Friar Bala, 686-7; ^8-
5
23
Bodiam Castle, 212-13; ^§ s - 1
Boethus (Boy with a Goose), 111; fig. 74
Boffrand (Hotel de Soubise, Paris), 415-16;
320
INDEX ;
53
Bologna, Giovanni da, 11-12, 327-8
Flying Mercury, 327; fig. 257
Rape of the Sabines, 327-8; fig. 258
Bologna, San Petronio, door jambs (Quercia),
253-5; fig. 194
Bolognese Academy, 325-6; fig. 254
Bonnat, Leon, 519
Book of Kelts, 153-4; %• 111
Borghese, Pauline Bonaparte, portrait of (Ca-
ll ova), 491
Borromini, Francesco, 359-61
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome,
359; figs. 281, 282
San Giovanni in Laterano, Rome, 359-61
Bosch, Jerome, 353
Garden of Earthly Delights, 353
Temptation of St. Anthony, 353
Boston, Federal Street Church (Bulfinch), 568
Old State House, 469
Public Library (McKim, Mead, and
White), 580-81
State House (Bulfinch), 474-5
Trinity Chinch (Richardson), 575-6; fig.
434
Botticelli,Sandro, 265, 277-9, 544
Birth of Venus, 265, 277; fig. 216
Primavera, 277-8; fig. 217
St. Augustine, 278
Boucher, Francois Vulcan Presenting to Venus
(
the Arms of Aeneas), 421, 425, 529; fig.
326
Bouguereau (Birth of Venus), 544; fig. 407
Boulle, Andre Charles, 405
Bound Slave (Michelangelo), 297-8; fig. 232
Bourges, Jacques Coeur House, 213-14, 340;
Boy with
% 159
Goose (Boethus), 111; fig. 74
a
Boyle, Richard, Earl of Burlington, 428
Bramante, 282-6, 306, 307, 327, 329-30, 334
Cancelleria Palace, Rome, 285-6; fig. 223
Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, 282
St. Peter's, Rome, 306-7, 329-30; fig. 259
Tempietto, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome,
282-3, 327; fig. 220
Brancusi, Constantin (Leda), 637-8; fig. 476
Braque, Georges, 620-23
Breaking Waves and Autumn Winds (Tai
Chin), 776; fig. 614
Breton, Andre, 630
Britton, John, 488
Brno, Tugendhat House (Van dei Rohe), 11,
643-5; figs. 481-3
Broken Pitcher, The (Greuze), 424
Bronzino, Angelo (Venus, Cupid, Folly, and
Time), 322-4; fig. 253
Brosse, Salomon de (Luxembourg Palace,
57' 1 5& Paris), 397-8
Brown, Henry Kirke (Washington, portrait ot),
fig. 570-71, 582, 616; fig. 429
Briicke, Die, 619-20, 626
854 INDEX

Bruegel, Jan, 381

Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, 353-5, 384
Carrying of the Cross, 353 Caen, St. Etienne (Abbaye aux Hommes), 167-
Children's Games, 353 70, 183, 190; figs. 122-4
Fall of Icarus, 353 Ste. Trinite (Abbaye aux Dames), 168,
Flemish Proverbs, 353 188
Harvesters, 353 Calamis (Charioteer from Delphi), 82-4; fig. 51
Hireling Shepherd, 354 Calder, Alexander, 601-2
Huntsmen in the Snow, 353 Callicrates (Parthenon, Athens), 84-6; figs. 29,
Parable of the Blind Men, 354 5
2

Peasant Dance, 354; fig. 280 Callini (Termini Station, Rome), 645
Peasant Wedding, 354-5; PI. v Cambodia, 717-23; figs. 558-62
Return of the Herds, 353 Cambridge, Stoughton House (Richardson),
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 246-50, 267, 417 577
Baptistry, North Doors (Competition), Cameroons, 549, 551; figs. 412, 413
Florence, 246 Campbell, Colin, 429
Dome, Cathedral, Florence, 247; fig. 185 Canaletto, Antonio, 369
Foundlings Hospital, Florence, 247-8 Canova, Antonio, 480-81, 491, 566
Pazzi Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence, 248- Borghese, Pauline Bonaparte, portrait of,

9; figs. 186, 187 491

San Lorenzo, Florence, 249-50;
Bruni, see Leonardo Bruni.
Buffington, Leroy S., 586-7;
Bulfinch, Charles, 474-5, 568
Augusta, State Capitol, 474
Boston, Federal Street Church, 568
Boston, State House, 474-5
Hartford, Old State House, 474
Bull Leapers, Cnossus, 51-2; fig. 25
Bull Leapers, Tiryns, 53
Buonarroti, see Michelangelo.
Burchfield, Charles, 610-11
Burghers of Calais (Rodin), 516
Burghley House, 344
Burgundy, Romanesque sculpture, 175-6, 177;
figs. 130, 131
fig. 188 Hercules Hurling Lichias into the Sea, 480
Perseus, 480-81; fig. 364
Canterbury Cathedral, architecture, 161, 464
fig. 442
stained glass, 6
Caprichos, Los (Goya), 495; fig.
374
Capua, personified, head of, 176
Caravaggio, 358, 375, 390
Death of the Virgin, 326; fig. 255
Carnac, cromlech, 22
Carolingian architecture, 154
Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste (Dance), 515; fig. 389
Carracci, Annibale, 399
Gallery, Farnese Palace, Rome, 325-6; fig.
2 54
Carrying of the Cross (Bruegel), 353
Castelfranco Madonna (Giorgione), 8
Castillo cave, 18; fig. 2

Burial at Ornans (Courbet), 521-2; fig. 394 Catfish and Gourd (Josetsu), 815; fig. 656
Burial of Count of Orgaz (El Greco), 371-3P > Cellini,Benvenuto, 245, 327, 339, 345
fig. 291 Nymph of Fontainebleau, 327, 345
Burial of St. Petronilla (Guercino), 366-7; fig.
Perseus, 327

287 Celtic manuscripts, 153-4; %• 111

Burma, 723-5 Centaur and Dryad (Manship), 599
Burnham and Root (Masonic Temple, Chi- Ceylon, 711-14; figs. 552-4
cago), 587-8 Cezanne, Paul, 537-44, 618, 621
Bathers, 542-4; fig. 406
Burnham, Daniel H., 577, 587-8
Mt. Ste. Victoire,
540-41; fig. 405
Chicago, Masonic Temple, 587-8
538-9; PI. xii
Still Life,
Chicago, World's Columbian Exposition
Chagall, Marc, 628; PI. xiv
(architect in charge), 577
Chalgrin (Arc de Triomphe, Paris), 479
Burning of the Sanjo Palace, scroll, 808; fig. 645
Chambord, Chateau, 341-2, 398, 403; figs. 270,
Bury, 183
271
Byzantine architecture, Byzantine Renaissance, Champaigne, Philippe de (His Eminence Car-
150 dinal Richelieu), 398
First Golden Age, 142-8; figs. 101-105 Champollion, Jean Francois, 49
Second Golden Age, 148-50; figs. 106, 107 Chang Heng, 752
Byzantine ivories, 150-51; figs. 108, 109 Chantilly Book of the Hours (Pol de Lim-
Byzantine manuscripts, 152-3 bourg), 235-7; fig. 179
Bvzantine mosaics, 151-2, 223-5; figs. 110, 169; Chao Meng-fu, 771-2
PL 11 Character, q-6
 INDEX ';>:>

Chardin, Jean Baptiste Simeon (Blessing, The), Christ Crowning the Emperor Roman IV and
421, 538; fig. 327 Eudoxia, 151; fig. 109
Chares of Branchidae, 69; fig. 35 Christ of the Resurrection (Pilon), 345; fig. 2-4
Charioteer from Delphi (Calamis), 82-4; fig. 51 Christianity, toleration of, 135-6
Charlottesville, Monticello (Jefferson), 476 Church, Frederick, 575
University of Virginia (Jefferson), 476 Chu Ta (Kingfisher on a Lotus Stalk), 779-80;
Chartres Cathedral, architecture, 11, 182, 187, fig. 617

192-5; figs. 142-4 Chu Tuan (Man and Boy in a Boat under
sculpture, 197-200; figs. 145, 146 Trees) 776; fig. 615
,

stained glass, 6, 193, 195; PI. 11 Ciceronians, 245

Chavin de Huantar sculpture, 439-40; fig. 340 Cimabue, Giovanni (Madonna Enthroned),
Checkers Down at the Farm (Rogers), 571 226, 230-31; fig. 174
Ch'en Jung (Nine Dragon Scroll), 767-8; fig. Clear Weather in the Valley (Tung Yuan),
604 75 8 ;
fi
g- 594
Chevreul, Michel, 527 Clerisseau, C. L., 475, 477
Chicago, Chicago Daily News Building (Hola- Clodion (Nymph and Satyr), 425-7; fig. 331
bird and Root), 9, 591; fig. 447 Clouet, Francois (Elizabeth of Austria), 352,
Chicago Tribune Building (Howells and 502; fig. 279
Hood), 591 Conquests of the Emperor, prints, 780
competition (Saarinen), 591; fig. 446 Cnossus, Palace of, architecture, 49-50, 53; figs.

Home Life Insurance Building (Jenney), 2 3> 2 4

painting, 51-2, 53;
587 25
fig.

Marshall Field Warehouse (Richardson), Cogul rock shelter, 20

11, 576-7; fig. 435 Cole, Thomas, 572
Masonic Temple (Burnham), 587-8 Colleoni, Bartolommeo, portrait of (Verroc-
World's Columbian Exposition (Burn- chio), 263, 570; fig. 205
ham), 577-9 Cologne Cathedral, 206
Agricultural Building (McKim, Mead, Colombe, Michel (St. George Slaying the
and White), 578-9; fig. 436 Dragon), 344-5
Transportation Building (Sullivan), 579; Color, 10

Chichen
%
Itza,
437
449, 452
Columbia-Fraser Rivers, Indian art of, 454, 458
Combarelles cave, 18; fig. 3
Ch'ien Hsiian, 772 Coming of Quetzalcoatl, The (Orozco), 613
Children's Games (Bruegel), 353 Coming to the Parson (Rogers), 571; fig. 430
Chilkat Indian blankets, 462 Composition, 7-10; fig. 1
China, bronze vessels, types of, 730-33; figs. 568- Compton Wynyates, 214-15, 464, 642; fig. 160
72 Condottiere (Antonello), 265-6; fig. 206
Ch'in period, 733 Constable, John (Hay Wain), 499, 503-4, 505,
Ch'ing period, 778-81; figs. 616-17 524, 528; PI. VIII
Chou period, 731-3; figs. 571, 572 Constantinople, Church of the Holy Apostles,
Great Wall of,
733 M3> 15°
Han period, 733-8; figs. 573-6 Hagia Sophia (Anthemius of Tralles and
Ming period, 773-8; figs. 613-15 Isidorus of Miletus), 143-8; figs. 101-5
neolithic, 728-9; fig. 566 Nea, 148
Shang period, 729-31; figs. 567-70 SS. Sergius and Bacchus, 143
Six Dynasties period, 738 Constructivism, 638-9; fig. 477
Sui period, 741-3; figs. 581, 582 Content, 4
Sung period, 755-71; figs. 591-609 Copenhagen, Gruntvig Church ( Jensen-Klint),
T'ang period, 743-55; figs. 583-90 642
Wei period, 738-41; figs. 577-80 Copley, John Singleton (Jeremiah Lee, portrait
Yuan period, 771-3; figs. 610-12 of), 470-71, 616; fig. 360
Chinese Landscape (So-ami), 815; fig. 655 Coram, Captain, portrait of (Hogarth), 434
Chinoiseries, 486, 775 Corbett, Harrison, MacMurray (Rockefeller
Chippendale, Thomas, 432 Center, New York), 593-5
Chirico, Giorgio de, 628 Coronation of the Virgin (Angelico), 274; PI.
Ch'iu Ying, 776 in
Chosroes II, portrait of, 660 Corot, Jean Baptiste, 10, 506-7
Chou Chi-ch'ang, 768 Honfleurs, 507; fig. 384
Christ and His Cross (Orozco), 613; fig. 465 Matinee, La, 506-7; fig. 383
856 INDEX

Correggio, 316-17, 325, 358 David (Donatello), 258-9; fig. 198

Assumption of the Virgin, 317 David (Michelangelo), 296; fig. 231
lo, 316-17; fig. 248 David, Jacques Louis, 481-4, 492, 495, 496, 501,
Madonna of St. Jerome, 316; fig. 247 524
Counter Reformation, 356-7, 370, 371 Death of Socrates, 482-4, 496; fig. 365
Courbet, Gustave, 521-3, 525, 604 Marat, 484
Burial at Ornans, 521-2; fig. 394 Oathof the Horatii, 482
Wave, The, 522; fig.
395 Mme., portrait of, 484; fig. 366
Seriziat,
Couture, Thomas (Romans of the Decadence), Davies, Arthur B. (Unicorns) 602-3, 605 ,

5*9 Davis, Alexander J., 570

Coysevox, Antoine, 407 Davis, Stuart, 613
Le Brun, portrait of, 407; fig. 315 Death of Sardanapalus (Delacroix), 499
Louis XIV in Triumph, 407 Death of Socrates (David), 482-4, 496; fig. 365
Cram, Goodhue, and Ferguson, 581 Death of the Virgin (Caravaggio), 326; fig. 255
Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, 349 Debarkation (Kiyonaga), 824; fig. 667
Judgment of Paris, 349 Decoration, 6
Scheming, Dr., portrait of, 349 Degas, Edgar Hilaire Germain (Ballet Dancer
Venus, 349 on the Stage), 529-32, 619
Crete, architecture, 49-51; 23, 24
figs. Deir-el-Bahari, Mortuary Temple of Queen
minor arts, 52-3; figs. 26, 27 Ilatshepsut, 33-4
painting, 51-2; fig. 25 Delacroix, Ferdinand Eugene, 493, 497-501,
Cromlech, 22 503, 528, 529; fig. 379
Cross Eyed Boy (Bellows), 604 Algerian Woman, 501
Crossing the Brook (Turner), 504 Bark of Dante, 498-9
Crow and the Heron (Harunobu), 822; fig. 666 Death of Sardanapalus, 499
Crucifixion, Scuola di San Rocco, Venice (Tin- Liberty Leading the People, 499-500; fig.

toretto), 319-20 378

Ctesiphon, Taq-i-Kisra, 658-9; fig. 495 Massacre of Scio, 499; fig. 377
Cubism, 605, 613, 620-25, 634-6, 638; figs. 469, Delaunay, Robert, 605
470; PI. XII Delia Robbia, Andrea (Annunciation) , 261-2;
Curry, John Steuart, 611-12 201
fig.

Baptism in Kansas, 611 Luca (Singing Gallery), 261

Tornado, The, 611 Delphi, Treasury of the Siphnians, 70-71; fig
37
Tragic Prelude, The, 611 12; fig. 464 sculpture, 76
Cuyp, Aelbert, 395 Demosthenes, portrait of, 113
Czechoslovakia, architecture, 20th century, 643- Dempsey and Firpo (Bellows), 604-5; fig. 459
5; figs. 481-3 Demuth, Charles (My Egypt), 609; fig. 462
Denmark, architecture, 20th century, 642
sculpture, Neoclassic, 481
Departure of the Volunteers (Rude), 491; fig
Dadaism, 613, 628-30 369
Dakota, Painted Buffalo Robe, 461; fig.
354 Deposition (Van der Weyden), 239-40; fig. 182
Dainichi (Unkei), 802; fig. 639 Derain, Andre, 618
Dali, Salvador, 630-33 Desastres de la Guerra, Los (Goya), 495
Apparition of Face and Fruit-dish on a Descent from the Cross (Rubens), 357, 381,
Beach, 632; PI. xv fig. 296
Persistence of Memory, 631-2; fig. Descent of the Ganges, Mamallapuram, 694- 5,
473
Dalou, Jules (Silenus), 515
Dance, The (Archipenko), 634-5
% 533
Desiderio da Settignano (Madonna and Child),
Dance (Carpeaux), 515; fig. 389 262; fig. 202
Dance, The (Matisse), 618 9; fig. 468 Dessau, Bauhaus (Gropius), 11, 613, 627, 642-
Dance of Death (Holbein), 349 3; fig. 480
Dancer and Gazelles (Manship), 599 De 613, 627-8; fig. 472
Stijl,
Daniele da Vol terra, 303, 322 Dionysus vase (Execias), 71; fig. 38
Daughters of Asher Wertheimer, portraits of Dioscondes manuscript, 666-7; %• 5°
(Sargent), 586; fig. 441 Discus Thrower (Myron), 100
Daughters of Revolution (Wood), 611 Dix, Otto, 630
Daumier, Honore, 519-21, 620 Dog on a Leash (Balla), 626
Gargantua, 521; fig. 392 Dogon, Figure, 549; fig. 408
Washwoman, The, 521; fig. 393 Dolmen, 22
 INDEX 857
Dolphins (Lachaise), 600 Egypt, architecture, capitals, 32-3
Donatello, 246, 258-61, 267, 296, 570, 809 column forms, 31-4
Annunciation, 261 decoration, 33
Assumption of the Virgin, 260-61 domestic, 34
David, 258-9; fig. 198 temples, 30-34; figs. 9-13
Gattamelata, 260, 1570; fig. 200 tombs, 27-30; figs. 7, 8
Lo Zuccone, 259-60, 296; fig. 199 history, 25
Singing Gallery, 261 importance of Nile, 24-5
St. John Baptist, 809 painting, 37-41; PI. 1

Doryphorus (Polyclitus), 86, 95-7, 100; fig. 63 religion, 26

Doughty, William, 572 sculpture, 34-41; figs. 8, 13-17
Dove, Arthur G., 605, 609 Eight, The, 603, 604
Dresden, Zvvinger, 415 Elephanta, Saiva Trinity, 696; fig. 536
Dr. Tulp's Anatomy Lesson (Rembrandt), 389; Elizabeth of Austria, portrait of (Clouet), 352;
fig. 302 fig. 279
Drunken Old Woman, 111 Elura, Kailasa Temple, architecture, 695; fig.

Duceio da Buoninsegna, 225-9, 54 2 534

Majestas, 226-9; figs. 170, 171; frontispiece sculpture, 695-6; fig.
535
Rucellai Madonna, 225-6 Embarkation for Cythera (Watteau), 11, 418-
Duchamp, Marcel (Nude Descending the 21; fig. 324
Stairs), 605, 629, 636 England, architecture, Adam style, 430-32; figs.

Duchamp Villon, Raymond (The Horse), 636 335. 33 6

Dufy, Raoul, 618 Georgian, 428-31; fig. 334
Duke Gothic, 207-10, 212-15; figs. 151-4, 157,
of Norfolk, Young Englishman, portrait
of (Titian), 8 158, 160
Neoclassic, 480
Dunlap, William, 567
Renaissance, 343-4
Durand, Asher Brown (In the Woods), 572-3;
% 43
Diirer, Albrecht, 346-9
1
Restoration, 409-12; figs. 31719
Romanesque, 170-71; fig. 125
17th century, 408-12; figs. 316-19
Adoration of the Magi, 348; fig. 275
20th century, 642, 645-6
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 348-9
furniture, 18th century, 432
Four Saints, 348; fig. 276
19th century, 432-3
Knight, Death, and the Devil, 349
painting, Romanticism, 503-5; fig. 381; PI.
Large Passion, 348
VIII
Small Passion, 348
17th century, 408
Durham Cathedral, 170-71, 188; fig. 125 18th century, 433-7; figs. 337-9
Dutch painting, 17th century, 384-96; figs. 300- sculpture, 20th century, 639-40; fig. 478
306; PI. VIII Ensor, James, 618
Dying Gaul, 108-9, 110 >
fig-
72 Epidaurus, Tholos, 98-9; fig. 65
Ernst, Max (Little Tear Gland that says Tic-
Tac, The), 628, 629
Et in Arcadia Ego (Poussin), 399-401; fig. 308
Eakins, Thomas, 574, 604, 616 Etretat (Monet), 528-9; PI. x
Between Rounds, 574 Eumenes II, 109
Gross Clinic, 574 Euphronius (Heracles and Antaeus), 70-71, 97;
Thinker, The, 574
fi g-
39
Early Christian architecture, basilica, 1 36-8; figs.
Euripides, 78, 96, 103
95-6 Execias (Dionysus vase), 71; fig. 38
orientation, 137 Execution of Madrilenos (Goya), 495; fig.
373
Early Christian mosaics, 139-41; figs. 98, 99 Exeter Cathedral, 210
Early Christian sculpture, 138-9; fig. 97 Expression, 5
Easter Island sculpture, 563; fig. 425 Expressionism, 613
Eclecticism, architecture, French, 510-15; figs.

386-8
defined, 510
sculpture, French, 515; fig. 389 Falconet, Etienne Maurice, 425
Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, 575, 576, 582 Bather, The, 425; fig. 330
Edfu, Temple of Horus, 31; fig. 11 Peter the Great, portrait of, 425
Edinburgh, High School (Hamilton), 480 Venus Spanking Cupid, 42^5
858 INDEX

Fall of Icarus (Bruegel), 353 Santa Croce, Annunciation (Donatello),

Fan K'uan (A Temple Among the Snowy 261
Hills), 761-2; fig.
593 Bardi Chapel, frescoes (Giotto), 231,
Farmer Driving His Bull to Market, 112, 139; 234-5; fi g- 177
fi
g- 75 Santa Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi, Cruci-
Farnese Hercules, 407, 480 fixion (Perugino), 279; fig. 218
Farragut, Admiral, portrait of (Saint-Gaudens), Santa Maria Novella, frescoes (Ghirlan-
582; fig. 439 daio), 279
Fauvism, 605, 618-20; fig. 468; PI. x Florentine painting, 14th century, 230-35; figs.
Fayum portraits, 11315 174-7
Federigo da Montefeltro, portrait of ( Piero della 15th century, 265-71, 274-8; figs. 207-9,
Francesca), 265; PL in 214 -17; PI. in
Feke, Robert (Isaac Royall and His Family), 16th century, 287-92; figs. 227-9
470 Flying Mercury (Bologna), 327; fig. 257
Fernande (Picasso), 621-3; fig. 469 Fontainebleau, Gallery of Francis I, 352-3
Ferriss, Hugh, 590; fig. 445
Font-de-Gaume, 19
Fetes Galantes, 418, 481
Fonthill Abbey (Wyatt), 486-8; fig. 367
Fighting Temeraire, The (Turner), 504-5; fig.
Forge of Vulcan (Velasquez), 375
381
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Diirer),
Firuzabad, palace, 659
Five-Colored Parakeet (Hui-tsung), 756--; fig.
348-9
Four Saints (Diirer), 348; fig. 276
59-
Flanders, architecture, Gothic, 211-12; fig. 156 Fourment, Helena, portrait of (Rubens), 383;
painting, Baroque, 380-84; figs. 296-9; PI.
fig. 298
VII
Fragonard, Jean Honore, 422-4, 529
15th century, 237-43, 346; figs. 180-84 Bathers, 424
Renaissance, 353-5; fig. 280; PI. v Swing, The, 422-4; fig. 328
Flannagan, John B. (Triumph of the Egg), 601 France, architecture, eclecticism, 510-15; figs.

Flemish oil technique, 237-8 386-8

Flemish Proverbs Bruegel Flamboyant Gothic, 210-11, 213-14; figs.
(353 ) ,

Florence, Baptistry, architecture, 247 i55> *59

east doors (Ghiberti), 255-8; figs. 196, Gothic, 182-95; figs. 134-44
*97 Henrv IV, 397-8
north doors (Ghiberti), 247, 255 Louis XIII, 398
north doors, competition ( Brunelleschi Louis XIV, 402-6; figs. 310-13
and Ghiberti), 246, 255 Louis XV, 415-16; fig. 320
south doors (Andrea Pisano), 222; figs. Louis XVI, 416-18, 473; figs. 321-3
166, 167 Neoclassic, 478-80; fig. 363
Brancacci Chapel, frescoes (Masaccio), Renaissance, 339-43; figs. 269-72
267-9; figs. 207, 208 Romanesque, 160, 162, 167-70, 182;
Cathedral, architecture, 181 figs. 117, 122-4

dome (Brunelleschi), 247; fig. 185 furniture, Louis XIV, 405

Singing Gallery (Donatello), 261 Louis XV, 416
Singing Gallerv (Luca della Robbia), Louis XVI, 418
261 painting, academic, 501-3, 518-19, 544;
Foundlings Hospital (Brunelleschi), 247-8 figs. 380, 407
Laurentian Library (Michelangelo), 328-9 Fauvism, 618-19, 620; fig. 468; PI. x
Palazzo Vecchio, 212 Impressionism, 523-32; figs. 396-400; PI.
Pazzi Chapel (Brunelleschi), 248-9; figs. x
186, 187 Louis XIII, 398
Pitti Palace. 398 Louis XIV, 399-402, 407-8; figs. 307-9
Riccardi Palace (Michelozzo), 250-51; figs. Louis XV, 418-21; figs. 324-7
i8q, 100 Louis XVI, 421-6; figs. 328, 329
Rucellai Palace (Alberti), 251, 285, 286; Neoclassic, 481-4; figs. 365, 366
fig. 191 Post-Impressionist, 532-44; figs. 401,
San Marco, architecture (Michelozzo), 402, 405, 406; PI. XI, XII
Realism, 521-2; figs. 394, 395
frescoes (Angelico), 274-6; fig. 214 Renaissance, 352-3; fig. 279
San Lorenzo (Brunelleschi), 249-50; fig. Romanticism, 495-501, 505-9; figs. 375-
188 9, 382-q
 INDEX 8 59

France, painting Continued painting, Renaissance, 346-52; figs. 275-8

20th century, 618-23, 629, 630; fig. 468; 20th century, 619-20, 626
PL x sculpture, Gothic, 218
sculpture, detente, 345 20th century, 634, 640; fig. 479
eclecticism, 515; hg.
389 Ghana, bronzes, 550
Gothic, 195-204, 216-18; figs. 145-50, Ghent altarpiece (Van Eyck), 238-9; fig. 180
161-3 Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 247, 255-6
Impressionism, 515-17; figs. 390, 391 east doors, baptistry, Florence, 255-8; figs.

Louis XIV, 406-7; figs. 314, 315 196, 197

Louis XV, 425-7; figs. 330-32 north doors, Baptistry, Florence, 25^
Louis XVI, 427-8; fag. 333 Ghirlandaio, Domenico (frescoes, Santa Maria
Renaissance, 344-5; tigs. 273, 274 Novella, Florence;, 277, 279, 295
Romanesque, 171-8; fags. 126-32 Giacometti, Alberto, 640
Romanticism, 490-92; fags. 369-71 Giacomo della Porta, 331, 337-8
20th century, 633-4, 636; fig. 474 Dome, St. Peter s, Kome, 331; fig. 260
Francesco d'Este, portrait of (Bernini), 361-3; Fagade, II Gesii, Rome, 337-8; fag. 267
fig. 284 Gibbons, screen (iohaku), 818; fig. O02
Frari Madonna (Bellini), 279-80; fig. 219 Gibbs, James (London, St. Martin's in the
French, Daniel Chester, 582 Fields), 429, 469
Fresco technique, 231 Gilbert, Cass t^Woolworth Building, New
Fulton, Robert, 568 York), 589; fig.
444
Futurism, 605, 607, 625, 626 Gilles (Watteau), 421; ng. 325
Giordano, Luca, 377
Giorgione da Castelfranco, 8, 309-10, 312, 493
Madonna del Castelfranco, 310
Gabo, Naum, 638, 639 Sleeping Venus, 310, 493; fig. 242
Gabriel, Jacques-Ange (Petit Trianon, Ver- Tempest, 309-10; fig. 241
sailles), 416-17; fig. 321 Giotto di Bondone, 11, 15, 222, 231-5, 267,
Gaddi, Taddeo, 235 , 539, 54°
Gainsborough, Thomas, frescoes, San Francesco, Assisi, 231
384, 432, 436, 437,
frescoes, Santa Croce, Florence, 231, 234-5;
47 15°3 *
fig. 177
Graham, Honorable, Mrs., portrait of, 436;
frescoes, Arena Chapel, Padua, 231-4, 539,
fi
g- 339
Market Wagon, 503 540; figs. 175, 176
Girl with a Lamb (Greuze), 424
Ganjin, portrait of, 797; fig. 633
Girl with a Water Jug (Vermeer), 393-4; PI.
Garden of Earthly Delights (Bosch), 353
VIII
Gargantua (Daumier), 521; fig. 392
Gislebertus, 176
Gamier, Charles (Opera House, Paris), 513;
Gisze, Georg, portrait of (Holbein), 351; fig.
figs. 387, 388

Gattamelata, portrait of (Donatello), 260, 570;

277
Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, Tomb of ( Michel-
fig. 200
angelo), 298-9; figs. 233, 234
Gauguin, Paul, 6, 534-5, 537, 618, 619 Gizeh, mastabas, 27; fig. 7
Mahana No Atua, 534-5; PI. xi Gizeh, Pyramids, 11, 27-9, 30; fig. 8
Manao Tupapau, 534-5; fig. 402 Gizeh, Temple of the Sphinx, 12-13, 30, 33, 34;
Yellow Christ, 534 fig-
9
Geese, from Medum, 41 Glackens, William, 603
Genji Monogatari (Takayoshi), 803-6; fig. 642 Gloucester Cathedral, 210; fig. 154
Georg Gisze (Holbein), 5, 7 Gold Coast, bronzes, 550
Georgian period, 428 Goodhue, Bertram Grosvenor, 581
Gericault, Theodore (Raft of the Medusa), Lincoln, Nebraska State Capitol, 581
496-7; fig. 376 New York, Chapel of the Intercession, 581
Germantown, Chew Mansion, 467 New York, St. Bartholomew's, 581
Germany, architecture, Carolingian, 154 Good Shepherd, 139
Gothic, 206, 212 Gospels of Emperor Otto, 178
Neoclassicism, 479-80 Gothic architecture, architects, 181-2
Renaissance, 343 civic, 211-12; fig. 156
Rococo, 415 defined, 182
Romanesque, 166-7 domestic, 212-15; fig s * 57-60
-

20th century, 642-3; fig. 480 English, contrasted with French, 207 10
86o INDEX

Gothic architecture, English Continued Purification of theTemple, 370-71; fig. 290

Decorated style, 210 Resurrection, 373-4; fig. 292
Early English style, 207-10; figs. 151-3 View of Toledo, 374
Perpendicular style, 210; fig. 154 Greece, anthropomorphism is religion, 65
France, asymmetry, 192 architecture, Corinthian order, 98-9; fig. 65
buttress, 187-90; 138-41, 143, 144
figs. Doric order, 56-9; fig. 28
contrasted with Greek, 194-5 Ionic order, 61-3; fig. 32
facade, 190-92; figs. 141, 143 Periclean age, 84-6, 93-5; figs. 29, 30.
Flamboyant style, 210-11, 213-14; figs. 52, 59-62
1
55/^9 temple plan, 59-60; figs. 29, 30
piers, 185-7; "§ s 1 3""S^
-
J
42 > M4 geography, 55-6
spatial effect, 194 materials, 56
spires, 192; fig. 143 Peloponncsian War, influence of, 97-8
tracery, 190; figs. 136, 137, 139-42 Persian Wars, influence of, 78-9
vaults, 183-5;
German, 206, 212
s %
1 34~8> - 2 M sculpture, archaic, 65-77; fi§ s 33"7> 4°"44
-

4th cent., 98-103; figs. 66-9

Italian, 206, 212 genre figures, 111; fig.
74
religious expression of, 182 Hellenistic, 105-12; figs. 70-75
Spain, 205-6
influence of games on, 73-5
Gothic furniture, 215-16 Pergamum, first school of, 108-9; fig- 7 2
Gothic manuscripts, Franco-Flemish, 235-7; fig.
Pergamum, second school of, 109-10; fig.
179
73
13th century, 222-3
Periclean age, 84, 86-97; figs. 53-8, 63
14th century, 223; fig. 168
pictorial reliefs, 111-12; fig.
75
Gothic period, civic rivalry in, 181
homogeneity, 180-81
Roman copies of, 63-4, 105
sources of information, 63-4
name, derivation of, 180
transitional, 79-84; figs. 45-51
Gothic Revival, England, 486-90; figs. 367, 368
use of color in, 72-3
Gothic sculpture, France, Burgundian, 216-18;
vase painting, black-figured, 71; fig. 38
fig. 162

compared with Greek, 201 dark ages, 64-5

contrasted with Romanesque, 196-7 Periclean age, 97; fig. 64
detente, 218; fig. 163 red figured, 70-71; fig. 39
grotesques, 203-4 Greek Revival, architecture, 478-80
High Gothic, 200-204; figs. 147-50 United States, 564-6, 568-70; figs. 426, 428
iconography, 195-6 Greek Slave (Powers), 567
late 13th century, 216; fig. 161 Greenough, Horatio (Washington, portrait of),
reliefs, 203; fig. 1 50 566-7, 570; fig. 427
transitional, 197-200; figs. 145, 146 Greuze, Jean Baptiste, 424-5
German, 218 Broken Pitcher, The, 424
Italian, 219-22; figs. 164-7 Girl with a Lamb, 424
Gothic stained glass, France, 193; PI. 11 Innocence, 424
Goujon, Jean, 343, 345, 352 Return of the Prodigal Son, 424; fig. 329
Nymphs, Fountain of the Innocents, Paris, Grimbald Gospels, 178
345; fi g- 2 73 Gropius, Walter (Bauhaus, Dessau), 11, 642-3;
Goya y Lucientes, Francisco, 493-5, 523 fig. 480
Caprichos, Los, 495; fig. Gros, Antoine Jean (Napoleon in the Pest
374
Desastres de la Guerra, Los, House at Jaffa), 495-6; fig.
495 375
Execution of Madrilenos, 495; fig. Gross Clinic (Eakins), 574
373
Maja Desnuda, 493-5 Grosz, Georg, 630
Prorerbios, Los, 495;
fig. 372 Griinewald, Matthias, (Isenheim Altarpiece),
Tauromaquia, La, 495
349
Graham, Honorable Mrs., portrait of (Gains- Guardi, Francesco, 369
borough), 436; fig. 339 Gudea, 44-6, 69; fig. 20
Graves, Morris (Blind Bird), 614; fig. 467 Guercino, (Burial of St. Petronilla) 366-7; fig.
,

Great Lakes Indians, finger-weaving, 460 287

Greco, El, 9, 10, 321, 370-74, 375, 542 Guidoriccio da Fogliano (Simone Martini), 5,
Burial of Count of Orgaz, 371-3; fig. 291 230; fig. 173
Nino de Guevara, portrait of, 374-6; PI. vi Guinea Coast, 549-50; fig. 409
 INDEX 86l

Holabird and Root (Chicago Daily News Build-

ing)* 9> 59 1 ; fi g- 447
Hachiman as a Priest (Koshun), 808; fig. 647 Holbein, Hans, the Younger, 5, 7, 349-52
Haida, Totem Pole, 461-2; fig. 355 Dance of Death, 349
Halebid, Temple, 698 Gisze, Georg, portrait of, 351; fig. 277
Halicamassus, Mausoleum, sculpture, 101-2, Madonna of the Burgomaster Meyer, 349-
110; fig. 68 5
1
n
Hals, Frans, 387-8, 523, 525 Seymour, Jane, portrait of, 351-2; fig. 278
Jolly Toper, The, 388; fig. 301 Holland, painting, Post-Impressionist, 535-7;
Officers of St. Andrew's Company, 387; fig s - 4° 3> 4°4
fig. 300 17th century, 384-96; figs. 300-306; PI. vm
Hamilton, Thomas (High School, Edinburgh), 20th century, 627-8; fig. 472
480 Hollywood, Barnsdall Residence (Wright),
Hampton Court, 343 598
Hamza-namah, illumination from, 710; fig.
549 Homer, 53-4, 64, 65, 105
Harappa, torso from, 676, 680; fig. 511 Homer, Winslow, 573-4, 616
Hare Chasing a Monkey (Toba Sojo), 806-7; All's Well, 573
fig. 643 Northeaster, 574; fig. 433
Hari-Hara, 717-18; fig. 558 Honfleurs (Corot), 507; fig. 384
Hartford, Capitol (Richard M. Upjohn), 575 Hooch, Pieter de, 393
Hartford, Old State House (Bulfinch), 474 Hood and Fouilhoux (Rockefeller Center, New
Hartley, Marsden (Portrait of a German Offi- York), 593-5
cer), 605-7, 6°9' fig- 460 Hopi art, 459
Harunobu (Crow and the Heron), 822, 824; Hopper, Edward (Lighthouse at Two Lights),
fig. 666 610, 616; fig. 463
Harvesters (Bruegel), 353 Hoppner, John, 437
Hasta la Muerte (Goya), 495; fig. 374 Horace, 278
Hawaiian sculpture, 560-61; fig. 422 Horse, The (Duchamp-Villon), 636
Hay Wain (Constable), 503-4; PI. vm Horyu-ji Temple, Nara, architecture, 785-6; fig.
Heathfield, Lord, portrait of (Reynolds), 436 619
Heckel, Erich, 619 Horyu-ji Temple, Nara, painting, 791, 793; figs.

Helmholtz, H. L. 527 F., 626, 629

Henri, Robert, 603-4, 613 Horyu-ji Temple, Nara, sculpture, 787-93; figs.

Hepplewhite, George, 432 621-5, 627, 628

Heracles and Antaeus (Euphronius) , 70-71, 97; Hotl-Mardan, Buddha, 682-3; fig- 5*9
fi
Houdon, Jean Antoine (Voltaire, portrait of),
g- 39
Heracles and Nemean Lion, 687; fig. 524 427-8;
fig.
333
Hera of Argos (Polyclitus) 98 ,
Howe and Lescaze (Philadelphia Savings Fund
Society Building), 593, 595
Hera of Samos, 67, 69, 72; fig. 34
Howells and Hood (Chicago Tribune Build-
Herculaneum, excavation of, 417
ing) 59
Hercules and Antaeus (Pollaiuolo), 262-3; fig. >

Hsia Kuei (Rain Storm), 762-3, 776, 815; fig.

204
Hercules Hurling Lichias into the Sea (Canova), 599
Hsi-chin Chu-shih (One of the Ten Kings of
480 Hell), 768; fig. 606
Hermes Carrying the Infant Dionysus (Praxi-
Hsieh Ho, canons of, 753
teles), 100-101, 111; fig. 66
Huang Kung-wang, 772
Herodotus, 42, 649 Hui-neng (Liang K'ai), 760; fig. 596
High Yaller (Marsh), 610 Hui-tsung, 755-7, 758, 764, 772
Hildesheim, Knochenhauerampthaus, 212 Five-Colored Parakeet, 756-7; fig. 592
Hingham, Old Ship Meeting House, 466 Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk, 756;
Hireling Shepherd (Bruegel), 354 fig-
59 1
Hiroshige (Shono), 828-9; fig. 671 Human Concretion (Arp), 640; fig. 479
Ho Ch'u-ping, Tomb of, 733-4; fig. 573 Hundred Geese Scroll (Ma Fen), 768; fig. 605
Hogarth, William, 428, 433-4 Huntsmen in the Snow (Bruegel), 353
Coram, Captain, portrait of, 434
Marriage a la Mode, 433-4; fig- 337
Shrimp Girl, 434
Hohokam, 455, 456 Ibibio wood carving, 551
Hokusai (The Wave), 6, 827, 828; fig. 670 Ibo wood carving, 551; fig. 411
862 INDEX

Ichikawa Ebizo IV as Washizuka Kwandayu Romanesque, 157-60, 162-6; figs. 112-

(Sharaku), 824-7; fig. 669 14, 118-21
Ictinus and Callicrates (Parthenon, Athens), 20th century, 645
84-6, 478, 479, 565; figs. 29, 52 painting, Baroque, 366-9; figs. 287-9

llaria del Caretto, tomb of, Lucca Cathedral Bolognese eclectics, 325-6; fig. 254
(Quercia) ,255 Gothic, 223-35; figs. 169-77
Immaculate Conception (Murillo), 3~~-9; fig- Mannerism, 302-3, 322-5; fig. 253

295 Realist, 326; 255 fig.

Immaculates, The, 609, 613; fig. 462 Renaissance, 15th century, 263-80; figs.
Immortal (Yen Hui), 773; fig. 612 206-19
Impressionism, 377, 505, 573, 583 Renaissance, 16th century, 287-92, 299-
painting, French, 523-32; figs. 396-400; 317; figs. 227-9, 235-48; PI. IV
PI. x 20th century, 625-6, 628
sculpture, French, 515-17; figs. 390, 391 sculpture, Baroque, 361-6; figs. 283-6

lnayat Khan, portrait of, 710; fig. 551 Gothic, 219-22; figs. 164-7
late 16th century, 326-8; figs. 256-8
Inca art, 439, 442-3; fig.
344
Neoclassic, 480-81; fig. 364
India, Andrha Period, 687-8; figs. 525, 526
Renaissance, 15th century, 253-63; figs.
Aryan Invasion, 676
Brahmanism, 691-4 194-205
Renaissance, 16th century, 292-9; figs.
Buddhism, origin of, 6~6-8
230-34
Gupta period, 688-92; figs. 52-9
Romanesque, 176
Kushan Dynasty, 682
20th century, 640
Maurya period, 678-82; figs. 513-17
Ivory Coast, 550; fig. 409
Mughal and Rajput, 702-711; figs. 545-5 618
Izumo, Shinto Shrine, 783-4; fig.
neolithic period, 674-6; figs. 511, 512
Industrial Revolution, 485
J
Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique Odalisque) 1

501-3, 529, 544; fig. 380

Jackson, portrait of (Mills), 570
Inness, George (Autumn Oaks), 5-3, 616; figs.
Jaguar Devouring a Hare (Barye), 491-2; fig.
432
Innocence (Greuze), 424 37 1
Jahanglr, portrait of, 710; fig. 550
Innocent X, portrait of (Velasquez), 3— 5-6;
Japan, Ashikaga period, 811-17; figs. 654-9
fi
g- 2 93
Buddhism, 784
Institution of the Rosarv (Tiepolo), 369; fig.
Fujiwara period, 802-7; figs. 640-44
289 Hakuho period, 791-6; figs. 627-32
International stvle, architecture, 642-6; figs.
Jogan period, 801-2; figs. 638, 639
480-83 Kamakura period, 807-11; figs. 645-53
painting, 235; fig. 178 Momoyama period, 817-18; figs. 660-62
In the Woods (Durand), 572-3; fig. 431 prehistoric pottery, 782-3
Investiture of Ardashlr I, 659; fig. 496 Suiko period, 785-91; figs. 619-26
lo (Correggio), 316-17; fig. 248 Tempyo period, 796-9; figs. 633-7
Iron, structural use of, 512, 586 Tokugawa period, 818-29; figs. 663-71
Iroquois masks, 459 Jason (Thorvaldsen), 481
Isaac Royall and His Family (Feke), 470 Java, 714-17; figs. 555-7
Ise, shrine, 784 Jefferson, Thomas, 474, 475-6, 478
Isenheim Altarpiece (Griinewald), 349 Charlottesville, Monticello, 476
Isfahan, Congregational Mosque, 664; figs. 499, Charlottesville, University of Virginia, 4-6
500 Richmond, State Capitol, 475-6, 478; fig.

Isidorus of Miletus (Constantinople, Hagia 362

Sophia), 143-8; figs. 101-5 Jefferson, Thomas, portrait of (Stuart), 473;
Italy, architecture, Baroque, 299, 358-61; figs. fig. 361
281, 282 Jenney and Mundie (Home Life Insurance
Gothic, 206, 212 Building, Chicago), 587
late 16th century, 328-38; figs. 259-68 Jensen-Klint (Gruntvig Church, Copenhagen),
Renaissance, 15th century, 246-53; figs. 642
185-93 Jizo,808; fig. 646
Renaissance, 16th century, 282-7; fi§ s - Jocho, Amida Buddha, 803; fig. 641
220-26 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 428
 INDEX 86 3

Johnson, Dr. Samuel, portrait of (Reynolds), Kouyunjik, Palace of Sennacherib, 44

435-6; fig. 338 Adam, 218
Krafft,
Jokei (Kongorikishi) 809; fig. 650
, Kuan Tao-sheng (Bamboo), 772; fig. 610
Jolly Toper, The (Hals), 388; fig. 301 Kudara Kwannon, 790; fig. 623
Jonah sarcophagus, 138-9; fig. 97 Kuhn, Walt, 605
Jones, Inigo, 408-9, 428, 430, 463 Ku K'ai-chih (Admonitions of the Imperial Pre-
Banqueting House, Whitehall, London, ceptress) , 752-3; fig. 590
408-9, 463; fig. 316 Kyoto, Golden Pavilion, 813; fig. 654
Jordaens, Jakob (The King Drinks), 383-4 Silver Pavilion, 813-15
Josetsu (Catfish and Gourd), 815; fig. 656
Joshua Roll, 153
Judgment of Paris (Cranach), 349
Juggernaut, 697 Labrouste, Henri (Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve,
Julius II, portrait of (Raphael), 305 Paris), 511-12, 581; fig. 386
Julius II, Tomb of (Michelangelo), 295, 297-8 Lachaise, Gaston, 600
Justinian, 142, 145, 148, 151 Dolphins, 600
Standing Woman, 600; fig. 454
Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk (Hui-
tsung), 756; fig. 591
Kali, 694; fig. 532 Lady Walking on a Garden Terrace (Leng
Kamakura, The Great Buddha, 11, 810, 811; Mei), 779; fig. 616
% 6 53
Kandinsky, Wassily, 626-7, 630; ^
XIV •
Lady Wen-chis Return
fig. 603
to Ying Ch'uan, 766;

Kanishka, Casket of, 682; fig. 518 Laguerre, Louis, 433

Kano school, 816-18; figs. 659, 661 Lalique, Rene, 600
Kansu, pottery from, 728-9; fig. 566 Landscape at Auvers (Van Gogh), 537; fig. 404
Karli, Chaitya Hall, 681-2; fig. 517 Lanfranc, 167
Karnak, Temple of Amon Ra, 31, 34; fig. 12 Langhans (Brandenburg Gate, Berlin), 479-80
Temple of Khonsu, 30-31; fig. 10 Laon Cathedral, 185
Kaufmann, Angelica, 431 Large Passion (Diirer), 348
Kedleston (Adam), 431 Lascaux cave, 19-20; fig. 4
Kelermes, Pectoral of Lioness, 649; fig. 486 Las Meninas (Velasquez), 376-7, 388, 524; fig.

Kenzan (Plate), 818; fig. 663 294

Khafra, portrait of, 12, 13, 37; fig. 15 Last Supper (Leonardo), 289-92; fig. 228
Khajuraho, Temple, 698 Latrobe, Benjamin Henry (Capitol, Washing-
Khorsabad, Palace of Sargon, 42-4; figs. 18, 19 ton, D.C.), 474
Kichijoten, 807; fig. 644 La Venta, 445, 446; fig. 346
King Darius and Herdsman (Bihzad), 673; fig. La Vieja grotto, 20
509 Lawrence, Thomas, 437
Kingdom of Flora (Poussin), 399; fig. 307 Layard, Austin Henry, 49
King Drinks, The (Jordaens), 383-4 Le Brun, Charles, 399, 405, 407, 418
Kingfisher on a Lotus Stalk (Chu Ta), 779-80; Alexander Entering Babylon, 407
fig. 617 portrait of (Coysevox), 407; fig. 315
Kirchner, Ernst, 619, 620 Leda (Brancusi), 638; fig. 476
Kiss, The (Rodin), 516; fig. 390 Lee, Jeremiah, portrait of (Copley), 470-71;
Kiyomasu (Matsumoto Shigemaki as a fig. 360
Woman), 821; fig. 665 Leger, Fernande, 613, 629
Kiyonaga (Debarkation), 824; fig. 667 Lehmbruck, Wilhelm, 634
Kivonobu, 821 408
Lely, Peter,
Klee, Paul, 626, 627 LeMercier, Jacques (Pavilion de l'Horloge,
Klenze, Leo von (Walhalla, Regensburg), 479 Louvre, Paris), 398; fig. 272
Kneller, Godfrey, 408 Leng Mei (Lady Walking on a Garden Ter-
Knight, Death, and the Devil (Diirer), 349 race), 779; fig. 616
Koetsu, 818 Le Notre, Andre, 403-4
Konarak, Black Pagoda, 697-8; figs. 542, 543 Leo X, portrait of (Raphael), 305-6
Korin (Plate), 818; fig. 663 Leonardo Bruni, tomb of (Rossellino), 262;
Koryusai, 822 fig. 203
Koshun (Hachiman as a Priest), 808; fig. 647 Leonardo da Vinci, 246, 287-92, 303, 315, 33Q,
Kouros (Metropolitan), 66-7; fig. 33 381
Kouros (Noguchi), 602; fig. 456 Battle of Anghiari, 381
 86 4 INDEX

Leonardo da Vinci Continued Lorrain, Claude, 401, 402, 503, 504

Last Supper, 289-92;fig. 228 Marriage of Isaac and Rebecca, 401-2; fig.

Madonna and St. Anne, 292; fig. 229 309

Madorma of the Rocks, 289, 315; fig. 227 Los Borrachos (Velasquez), 375
Mona Lisa (La Gioconda), 292 Louis XIV, age of, 398-9
Leon Cathedral, 205 Louis XV, age of, 413-14
Leonid, 633 Louis XVI, age of, 414-15
Lescot, Pierre (Louvre, Paris), 342-3; fig. 2-2 Louis XIV in Triumph (Coysevox), 407
Lespugue Figure. 1- Louis XIV, portrait of (Rigaud), 407-8
Liang K'ai, 760 Lo Zuccone, Campanile, Florence (Donatello)
Hui-neng, -60; fig. 596 259-60, 296; fig. 199
Li T'ai-po, -60; fig. 595 Lucian, 63, 82
Liberty Leading the People (Delacroix), 499- Lucretius, 278
500; fig. 378 Lu Hsin-chung (Vanavasi Gazing at a Lotus
Lighthouse at Two Lights (Hopper), 610; fig. Pond), 769-70; fig. 608
463 Luks, George, 601, 603
Ligourio, Statuette from (Ageladas), 73, 95; Lung-men, sculpture, 740-41, 748-50;
figs. 579,

fig. 41 580, 587, 588

Lincoln. Nebraska State Capitol (Goodhue), Luristan bronzes, 648, fig. 485
581 Lutvens, Edwin (Deanery Gardens, Sonning),
Line, 10-11 642
Ling Chao-nii Standing in the Snow (Ma Lin), Luxor, Temple ot Anion, 34
-65-6; fig. 602 Lysippus, 99, 102-3, 106
Lin T'ing-kuei (Arhats Giving Alms to Beg- Agias, 102-3; %• 69,
gars), 768-9; fig. 60- Alexander the Great, portrait of, 102
Lipchitz, Jacques The Bather), 636
(
Apoxyomenos, 102
Lippi, Fra Filippo {Madonna and Child),
2 7 6-7 ; 215 %
Lippold, Richard (New Moonlight), 602; fig.
Mabusc
r ™ 457
Li T ai-po (Liang K'ai), -60; fig. 595
•
(Jan Gossaert), 353
MacDonald-Wright, Stanton, 605, 609
Li T'ang (Man on a Water Buffalo), 764-5, MacMonnies, Frederick, 582
-6-; fig. 601
Maderna, Carlo (Nave and facade, St. Peter's,
Little Tear Gland that says Tic-Tac, The, Rome), 331-4; figs. 261, 262
(Ernst), 629 Madonna and Child, Pitti tondo (Lippi), 276-
Lombard Romanesque architecture, 162-6; figs.
215
7; fig.
118-21
Madonna and St. Anne (Leonardo), 292; fig.
London, Bank of England (Soane), 480
229
Banqueting House (Jones), 408-9, 463;
Madonna del Cardellino (Raphael), 11, 305;
fig. 316
fig. 238
City Plan (Wren), 409-10
Madonna del Castelfranco (Giorgione), 310
Crystal Palace, ^13
Home House (Adam), 431; fig. 335 Madonna del Linaiuoli (Angelico), 274
Houses of Parliament (Barrv). 490, 568;
Madonna Enthroned (Cimabue), 230-31; fig.
fig. 368
174
Lord Derby's House (Adam), 431; fig. 336 Madonna of St. Jerome (Correggio), 316; fig.

2 47
Roval Festival Hall (Matthew and Martin),
645-6
Madonna of the Burgomaster Meyer (Holbein)
St. Martin's in the Fields (Gibbs), 349-5 1
429
St. Mary-le-Bow (Wren), 410-11; fig. Madonna of the Canon Van der Paele (Van
317
St. Paul's (Wren), 411-12, 417; figs. 318, Eyck, Jan), 239; fig. 181
3*9
Madonna of the Cherries (Titian), 311; PI. iv
St. Paul's, dome, murals (Thornhill), Madonna of the Long Neck (Parmigianino),
433
Soane Museum (Soane), 480 324
Westminster Abbey, 464 Madonna Rocks (Leonardo), 289, 315;
of the
Longhi, Pietro, 369 227
fig.

Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, 230 Madura, Great Temple, 698-701; fig. 544

Lorenzetti, Pietro, 230 Maes, Nicholas, 393
Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, Tomb of (Michel- Ma Fen (Hundred Geese Scroll), -68; fig 605
angelo), 298-9 Magdalenian art, 17, 18, 19
 INDEX 865
Mahana No Atua (Gauguin). 6, 534, 535; Market Wagon (Gainsborough), 503
PI. XI Marriage a la Mode (Hogarth), 433-4; fig.
Maiden, from Acropolis, Athens, 72-3, 75; 337
fig. Marriage at Cana (Veronese), 320-21; fig. 251
4° Marriage of Bacchus and Ariadne (Tintoretto),
Maillol, Anstide (Seated Woman), 5, 11, 634; 320; fig. 250
fi
g- 474 Marriage of Isaac and Rebecca (Lorrain), 401-2;
Mainz Cathedral, 167 fig. 309
Maisons a Chatou, Les (Vlaminck), 620; PI. x Marquesas Islands figures, 562-3; fig. 424
Maisons-Laffitte, Chateau (Francois Mansart), Mars (Velasquez), 375
398 Marsh, Reginald (High Yaller), 610
Maja Desnuda (Goya), 493-5; fig. 372 Martin (Royal Festival Hall, London), 645-7
Majestas (Duccio), 226-9; fig s - 1 7°» 1
7 1 J frontis- Martini, Simone, 5, 229-30
piece Guidoriccio da Fogliano, 230; fig. 173
Majestas (Simone Martini), 229-30 Majestas, 229-30
Malevich, Kasimir, 627, 638 Sant' Ansano Annunciation, 230; fig. 172
Ma Lin (Ling Chao-nil Standing in the Snow), Martin van Nieuvenhoven, portrait of (Mem-
765-6; fig. 602 ling), 241-3; fig. 184
Mamallapuram, Descent of the Ganges, 694-5; Martorel, Bernat (St. George Killing the
% 533
Manafi' al-Hayawdn, 667-8;
Dragon), ^35; fig. 178
Martyrdom
fig. 504 of St. Bartholomew (Ribera), 375
Man and Boy in a Boat under Trees (Chu Masaccio, frescoes, Brancacci Chapel, Florence,
Tuan ), 776; fig. 61 5 267-9, 277; figs. 207, 208
Manao Tupapau (Gauguin), 534-5; fig. 402 Masanobu, 816
Manchester, cotton mill, 512 Mass, 11
Manet, Kdouard, 388, 523-7, 537, 604 Massacre of Scio (Delacroix), 499; fig. 377
Bar of the Folies Bergere, 526-7; fig. Mastaba, 27; fig. 7
397
Olympia, 525-6; fig. 396 Matinee, La (Corot), 506-7; fig. 383
Manichaean manuscripts, 665-6 Matisse, Henri (The Dance), 605, 618-19, 621;
Mannerism, 302-3, 317 fig. 468
painting, 322, 325, 352, 353, 370-74; figs. Matsumoto Shigemaki as a Woman (Kiyo-
253, 290-92; PI. VI masu), 821; fig. 665
sculpture, 327-8, 3415; figs. 257, 258, 273 Matthew (Royal Festival Hall, London), 645-6
Man on a Water Buffalo (Li T'ang), 764-5; fig. Mausoleum, Halicarnassus, sculpture, 101-2,
601 110; fig. 68
Mansart, Francois (Chateau of Maisons-Laf- Maximilian I, Emperor, portrait of (Rubens),
fitte), 398 383; PI. VII
Mansart, Jules Hardouin (Hall of Mirrors,
Maximianus, Throne of, Ravenna, 150-51; fig.
Versailles), 404-5; figs. 312, 313
108
Manship, Paul, 599, 602
Mayan art, 445, 447-50; figs. 347, 348
Centaur and Dryad, 599
Dancer and Gazelles, 599
Ma Yuan (Bare Willows and Distant Moun-
tains), 761, 776; fig. 598
Mantegna, Andrea, 272-3, 279
Mclntire, Samuel, 474
Eremitani, Padua, frescoes, 272-3; fig. 212
Camera McKenzie, Voorhees, and Gmelin (Barclay-
degli Sposi, Gonzaga Palace,
Mantua, frescoes, 273; fig. 213 Vesey Telephone Building, New York),
San Zeno Altarpiece, 272, 279 591-3; fig. 448

Mantua, Gonzaga Palace Camera degli Sposi, McKim, Mead, and White, 133, 577-82
frescoes (Mantegna), 273; fig. 213
Boston, Public Library, 580-81
Mantua, Sant' Andrea (Alberti), 252 Chicago, Columbian Exposition, Agricul-
tural Building, 578-9; fig. 436
Maori art, 561-2; fig. 423
Mara from Hadda, 684; fig. 521 New York, Pennsylvania Station, 133
Marat (David), 484 Medford, Isaac Royall House, 467-9, 470; figs.

Marburg, St. Elizabeth, 206 358, 350

Marc, Franz, 626 Medici, family, 249, 295
Marcus Aurelius, portrait of, 260 Medici Tombs (Michelangelo), 13, 298-9, 319,
Maria Louisa van Tassis, portrait of (Van 600; figs. 233, 234
Dyck), 384; fig. 299 Medrano (Archipenko), 637; fig. 475
Marie de Medici, 397 Melanesia, 554, 555-8; fig. 417-20; PI. xm
Marin, John (Woolworth Building, No. 31), Meleager (Scopas), 99
607-9; fig. 461 Melissenda Psalter, 153
866 INDEX

Memling, Hans (Martin van Nieuvenhoven, Modena Cathedral, sculpture, 176

portrait of), 241-3, 265; fig. 184 Mogollon, 455
Mendelssohn, Erich ( Einstein Tower, Pots- Mohenjo-Daro, 674-6; figs. 511, 512
dam), 596 Moissac, St. Pierre, sculpture, 172-4; figs. 128,
Menhir, 22 129
Meninas, Las (Velasquez), 4, 376-7; fig. 294 Mona Lisa (Leonardo), 292
Menology of Basil II, 153 Mondrian, Piet, 601, 613, 627, 628, 643; fig.
Mercury (Bologna), 11-12, 32-; fig. 294 4-2
Mesa Verde, Cliff Palace, 455 Monet, Claude (Etretat) 10, 527-9, 619; PI. x
,

Mesolithic art, 21 Monreale Cathedral, 160, 182

Mesopotamia, architecture, 42-4; figs. 1S, 19 Monte Alban, 445-6, 451; fig. 345
history, 41 Montepulciano, San Biagio (San Gallo the
materials, 41 Elder), 284-5; figs. 221, 222
religion, 42 Montuori (Termini Station, Rome), 645
sculpture, 44-9; figs. 20-22 Moore, Henrv (Recumbent Figure), 639-40;
Metz Pontifical, 223;fig. 168 fig. 478
Micciades (Nike of Delos) 69--0: fig. 36 , Morienval, 183; fig. 134
Michelangelo Buonnaroti, 13, 13, 118, 235, 258, Moronobu, 820-21
272, 279, 292-303, 313, 31-. 319. 320, Morris. William, 432, 575
322,325, 328-34. 333, 338, 361, 434, Morse, Samuel F. B., 568
516, 542, 567, 600 Moses (Michelangelo), 298
Bound Slave, 297-8; fig. 232 Moses, Well of (Sinter), 216-18; fig. 162
Capitoline Hill, palaces, Rome, 338 Mother and Child (Zorach), 600-601; fig. 455
David, 296; fig. 231 Mother of the Gods (Aztec), 453
Laurentian Library, stairwav, Florence, Motonobu, 816
328-9 Moulin de la Gallette (Renoir), 529; fig. 398
Medici Tombs, 298-9, 319, 600; figs. 233, Mound-builder culture, 457-8; fig. 353
2 34 Mt. Abu, Jain Temple, 702; fig. 545
Moses, 298 Mt. Ste, Victoire (Cezanne), 540-41; fig. 405
Pieta. 293-6; fig. 230 Mount, William S., 571
St. Peter's, Rome, 329-34: figs. 239-62 Moutier St. Jean, sculpture, 178; fig. 132
^^Sistine Chapel, ceiling, Rome, 299-302; Mschatta, detail of frieze, 664; fig. 498
figs. 235-7 Muchaku, portrait of (Unkei), 809; fig. 648
Last Judgment, Rome, 302-3 Mu Ch'i (Persimmons) 760-61; fig. 597
,

Tomb of Julius II, 295, 297-8 Miiller, Otto, 619

Michelozzo, 250-31, 2-q Mullet, A. B., 575
Riccardi Palace, Florence, 250-51; figs. New York, Post Office, 575
189, 190 Washington, State, War, and Navy De-
San Marco, Florence, 2-5 partment Building, 575
Middle American art, 443-54; figs. 345-51 Munch, Edvard, 618, 619
Mi Fei (Misty Landscape) 763-4; fig. 600 ,
Murillo, Bartolome Esteban (Immaculate Con-
Milan, Sant' Ambrogio, 163-6, 183; figs. 118-21 ception), 377-9; fig. 295
Santa Maria delle Grazie (Bramante), 282 Mycenae, Lion Gate, 52
Last Supper (Leonardo), 289-92; fig. Treasury of Atreus, 5
228 Mycenaean architecture, 50-51, 52
Mill, The (Ruysdael), 394-5; fig. 306 My Egypt (Demuth), 609; fig. 462
Miller, Kenneth Hayes, 609-10 Myron, 82, 88, 100
Millet, Jean Francois (The Sower), 507-8; fig. Discus Thrower, 82, 100
Heifer, 82
Mills, Clark (Jackson, portrait of), 5-0
MfZo of Croton (Puget), 406-7; fig. 314
Mimbres, 455, 456; fig. 352
Mino da Fiesole, 262 Nagoya, Castle, 818; fig. 660
Miracle of St. Mark (Tintoretto), 318-19 Naples, Sant' Angelo a Nilo, Assumption of the
Misty Landscape (Mi Fei), 763-4; fig. 600 Virgin (Donatello), 260-61
Mithras, 135 Napoleon in the Pest House at Jaffa (Gros),
Mitla-Mixtec, 445, 451-2 495-6; fig. 375
Mnesicles (Athens, Propylaea), 95, 480; figs. Naqsh-i-Rustam, Investiture of Ardashir I, 659;
61, 62 fig. 496
Mochica pottery, 439, 440-41; fig. 341 Tomb of Xerxes, 650; fig. 487
 INDEX 867

Nara, Horyu-ji Temple, architecture, 785-6; fig. Ney, Marshal, portrait of (Rude), 491, 570,
619 fig. 370

painting, 791, 793; figs. 626, 629 Nicola d' Apulia, 176, 219-22
sculpture, 767-93; rigs. 621-5, 627, 628 Pulpit, Baptistry, Pisa, 219-20; fig, 164
Nara, Kofuku-ji Temple, sculpture, 799, 809; Cathedral, Siena, 220-22; fig. 165
figs. 637, 650 Nigeria, 549, 550-51; figs. 410, 411
Nara, Shosom, painting, 797; fig. 634 Night Watch (Rembrandt), 389-91; fig. 303
Nara, Todai-ji Temple, sculpture, 799; fig. 635 Nine of Delos (Micciades and Archermus), 69-
Nara, Toshodai-ji Temple, architecture, 12, 786; 70; fig. 36
fig. 620 Nikko, Y'omeimon Gate, 819; fig. 664

Nara, Yakushi-ji Temple, sculpture, 793-6; fig. Nimes, Maison Carree, 122-3, 475, 476; fig. 83
630 Pont du Gard, 123-4; ^8- ^4
architecture, 796; figs. 631, 632 Nine Dragon Scroll (Ch'en Jung), 767-8; fig.
National Academy of the Arts of Design, 567 604
Navaho art, 459 Nino de Guevara, portrait of (El Greco), 374-6;
Nazca pottery and PI. VI
textiles, 439, 441-2; fig. 342;
PL ix Ni Tsan (Landscape ) 772, 776;
,
fig. 611

Neoclassicism, archaeology, 477-8

Noguchi, Isamu (Kouros), 602; fig. 456
architecture, English, 480
Noisiel-sur-Marne, Menier Chocolate Works,
French, 478-80; fig.
586
363
German, 479-80 Nolde, Emil, 619
in literature,
Norman Romanesque architecture, 160, 167-70;
478
painting, French, 481-4; figs. 122-4
figs. 365, 366
Northeaster (Homer), 574;fig.
433
United States, 567-8
Northwest Coast Indians, masks and totem
sculpture, Danish, 481
poles, 461-2; fig. 355; PI. ix
Italian, 480-81; fig. 364
United States, 566-7;
Nude Descending the Stairs (Duchamp), 605,
fig. 427
Neolithic
629
art, 21-3
Nymph and Satyr (Clodion), 425-7; fig. 331
Neo-Plasticism, 627-8, 643; fig. 472 Nymph of Fontainebleau (Cellini), 327, 345
Neo-Romanticism, 632
Neue Sachlichkeit, 629
New Britain masks, 556; fig. 418

New England Indian art, shell beads, 459-60 Oak Park, Unity Church (Wright), 596, 599:
New Guinea art, 555-6; fig. 417 fig. 450
New Hebrides sculpture, 558; PI. xin Oaks, The (Rousseau), 505-6; fig. 382
New Ireland art, 556-8; fig. 419 Oath of the Horatii (David), 482
Newminster, Liber Vitae, 178-9; fig. 133 Oaxaca, 445
New Moonlight (Lippold), 602; fig. 457 Odalisque (Ingres), 502-3; fig. 380
New York, Barclay- Vesey Telephone Building Odyssey Landscapes, 118
(McKenzie, Voorhees, and Gmelin), Officers of St. Andrew's Company (Hals), 387;
591-3; fig. 448 fig. 300

Chapel of the Intercession (Goodhue), Ohio-Mississippi River, Indian art of, 454, 457-
581 8; fig.
353
Lever House ( Skidmore, Owings, and Mer O'Keeffe, Georgia (Blue and Green Music),
rill), 595; fig.
449 609
Pennsylvania Station (McKim, Mead, and Old Battersea Bridge (Whistler), 583; fig. 440
White), 133 Old Delhi, Tomb of Humayun, 704
Post Office (Mullet), 575 Old Market Woman, 1 1
Rockefeller Center (Corbett, Harrison, and Olmec, 446
MacMurray; Hood and Fouilhoux; Rein Olympia, Heraeum, 59
hard and Hofmeister), 593-5 Temple of Zeus, sculpture, 79-82, 87, 98;
St. Bartholomew's (Goodhue), 581 figs. 45-9
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum Olympia (Manet), 525-6; fig. 396
(Wright), 598-9; fig.
453 Olympian Zeus (Phidias), 87, 98
Trinity Church (Richard Upjohn), 568; Onatas (sculpture, Temple of Aphaia, Aegina),
fig. 428 75-6, 108; figs. 43, 44
Woolworth Building (Gilbert), 589; fig. One of the Ten Kings of Hell (Hsi-chin Chii-
444 shih), 768; fig. 606
Zoning Law, 589-91; fig.
445 Orcagna, Andrea, 235
868 INDEX

Orozco, Jose Clemen te, 612-13 Pasadena, Millard Residence (Wright), 598,
Christ and His Cross, 613; fig. 465 599
Coming of Quetzalcoatl, The, 613 Pasargadae, Tomb of Cyrus, 651-2; fig. 488
Orphism, 605 Pavia, Certosa (Amadeo), 252-3, 340; fig. 193
Orvieto Cathedral, 206 Peale, Charles Willson (Washington, George,
Capella di San Brixio, frescoes (Signorelli), portrait of), 471-2
271-2; fig. 211 Peasant Dance (Bruegel), 354; fig. 280
Orvieto vase, 97; fig. 64 Peasant Wedding (Bruegel), 354-5; PI. v
Ostberg, Ragnar (City Hall, Stockholm), 642 Pechstein, Max, 619
Peking, Altar of Heaven, 774, 781; fig. 613
Peking, Forbidden City, 773-4, 780
Penmarch, menhir, 22
Pach, Walter, 605 Peonies (Sanraku), 817; fig. 659
Padua, Arena Chapel, frescoes (Giotto), 231-4, Pereira, I. Rice (Transversion) 613; fig. 466 ,

540; figs. 175, 176 Pergamum, Altar of Zeus, 109-10, 112; fig. 73
Eremitani, frescoes (Mantegna), 272-3; fig. Pericles, 78, 84
212 Perigueux, St. Front, 514
Paduan painting, 272-3;
figs. 212, 213 Peroz I Hunting, 662; fig. 497
Paestum, Temple of Hera, 60-61, 480; fig. 31 Perrault, Claude (East Front, Louvre, Paris),
Pagan, ruins, 725 402-3, 411; fig. 310
Palaeolithic art, 16-21 Persepolis, Palace of Darius and Xerxes, 49, 652-
Palenque, 449 489-92
6; figs.
Palermo, La Martorana, mosaic, 223-3; fig. 169 Perseus (Canova), 480-81; fig. 364
Palladio, Andrea (Villa Rotonda, Vicenza), Perseus (Cellini), 327
334-5^ 337> 35 8 4 o8 4 28 43°; fi g s 26 3>
> > > -
Persia,Achaemenid period, 650-58; figs. 487-94
264 Islamic period, 662-73; figs. 498-510; PI.
Parable of the Blind Men (Bruegel), 354 XVI
Parable of the Sower, Canterbury Cathedral, 6 pottery, prehistoric, 647-8; fig. 484
Paris, Arc de Triomphe ( Chalgrin ) 4-9 , Sassanian period, 658-62; figs. 495-7
Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve (Labrouste), Persimmons (Mu Ch'i), 760-61; fig.
597
511-12, 581; fig. 386 Persistence of Memory (Dali), 631-2; fig. 473
Cathedral, Notre Dame, architecture, 181, Pertaining to Yachts and Yachting (Sheeler),
182, 184, 185-7, 1 9
sculpture, 200-201;
'
J
92 ' % s- 2
37> M 1 609
fig. 147 Perugino, Pietro (Crucifixion), 279, 303, 305;
Tower, 513
Eiffel fig. 218
Fountain of the Innocents, Nymphs (Gou- Peruvian art, 439-43; figs. 340-43
jon), 345; fig. 273 Pesaro Madonna (Titian), 315
Hotel de Soubise (Boffrand), 415-16; fig. Peter the Great, portrait of (Falconet), 425
320 Pevsner, Anton (Abstract Portrait of Marcel
Louvre, architecture, 342-3, 398, 402-3, Duchamp) 638-9; fig. 477
,

411; figs. 272, 310 Phidias, 78, 84, 86-94, 9 8 110 >

(LeMercier), 398; fig. 272 Athena Lemnia, 86; fig. 53

(Lescot), 342-3; fig. 272 Athena Parthenos, 87, 94, 98
(Perrault), 402-3, 411; fig. 310 Athena Promachos, 78
Marie de Medici series ( Rubens), 381 Olympian Zeus, 87, 98
Luxembourg Palace (De Brosse), 397-8
Madeleine (Vignon), 478-80;
Parthenon Sculpture, 86-94, 1] °' % s- 54~ 8
fig. 363 Philadelphia, Centennial Exposition, 575
Market Hall, 512 Christ Church, 469
Opera House (Gamier), 513; figs. 387, 388 Independence Hall, 469
Pantheon (SoufHot), 417-18, 478; figs. Philadelphia Savings Fund Society Build-
3 22 2
3 3> ing (Howe and Lescaze), 593, 595
Place des Vosges, 397 Picabia, Francis, 629
Sacre Coeur (Abadie), 513-15 Picasso, Pablo, 5, 620-25, 629
Ste. Chapelle, 188; fig. 139 Fernande, 621-3; fig. 469
Parma Cathedral, Assumption of the Virgin Pitcher and Bowl of Fruit, 625; PI. xn
(Correggio), 317 Spring, The, 625; fig. 471
Parmigianino (Madonna of the Long Neck), Stein, Gertrude, portrait of, 621
623
Still Life,
Parthenon, see Athens Three Musicians, 625; fig. 470
Parvatt, 694; fig. 531 Young Ladies of Avignon, 621
 INDEX 869

Piedras Negras, 448-9; fig.

347 Praxiteles, 99-101, 106, 111
Pier della X'igna, bust of, 176 Aphrodite of Cnidus, 101, 106; fig. 67
Piero della trancesca, 265, 271, 534 Hermes Carrying the Infant Dionysus, 100-
Fedcrigo da Montefeltro, portrait of, 265; 101, 111; fig. 66
PI. in Presentation of the Virgin (Tintoretto), 317-
Resurrection, 271; fig. 210 18, 324; fig. 249
Pietd (Michelangelo), 295-6; fig. 230 Primaticcio, Francesco, Geometry, Ancy-le-
Pigalle, Jean Baptiste (Tomb of Marshal Saxe), Franc, 339, 353
4 2 7; fi
g- 33 2 Primavera (Botticelli), 277-8; fig. 217
Pilon, Germain (Christ of the Resurrection), Provence, Romanesque architecture, 182
345| fig- 2 74 Romanesque sculpture, 171-2; figs. 126,
Pinturricchio, Bernardino, 303 127
Pisa, Baptistry, Pulpit (Nicola d' Apulia), 219- Proverbios, Los ( Goya ) 49 5 ,

20; fig. 164 Providence, First Church, 469

Cathedral, 157-160; figs. 112-14 Pueblo architecture, 13, 455
Pisanello, Antonio,258 art,
455-6, 459
Pisano, Andrea (South Doors, Baptistry, Flor- Pueblo Bonito, 455
ence), 222; figs. 166, 167 Puget, Pierre (Milo of Croton), 406-7; fig. 314
Pisano, Giovanni, 220-22 Pugin, Augustus N., 488
Pulpit, Cathedral, Siena, 220-22; fig. 165 Pugin, A. N. Welby (St. Augustine's, Rams-
Pulpit, Sant' Andrea, Pistoia, 222 gate), 490
Pisano, Nicola, see Nicola d'Apulia. Purl, Jaganatha, 697
^
^
Pistoia, Sant' Andrea, Pulpit (Giovanni Pisano), Purification of the Temple (El Greco), 9-10,
222 370-71; fig. 290
Pitcher and Bowl of Fruit (Picasso), 625; PI. Pyramids, Gizeh, 11, 27-9, 30; fig. 8
XII
Plains Indians, paintings on buffalo hide, 460-
61; fig. 354
Quatremere de Quincy, 418, 428
Plato, 105, 482
Queen of Sheba, 673; fig. 510
Pliny, 63, 95, 101
Quercia, Jacopo della, 253-5
Pol de Limbourg (Chantilly Book of the Door jambs, San Petronio, Bologna, 253-5;
Hours), 235-7; fig- 2 79 fig. 194
Pollack, Jackson, 613-14
Ilaria del Caretto, tomb of, Lucca Cathe-
Pollaiuolo, Antonio (Hercules and Antaeus, dral,
255
sculpture), 262-3; fig. 204 Wisdom, Fonte Gaia, Siena, 255; fig. 195
Polonnaruva, sculpture, 713-14; figs. 552-4
Polyclitus, 86, 95-8, 100
Doryphorus, 86, 95-7, 100; fig. 63 Rabbi, The (Rembrandt), 391-2; fig. 304
Hera of Argos, 98 Racine, Jean, 398
Polygnotus, 97 Raeburn, Henry, 437
Polynesia, 554, 559-63; figs. 421-5 Raft of the Medusa (Gericault), 496-7; fig. 376
Pompadour, Madame de, 421 Rain, Steam, and Speed (Turner), 505
Pompeii, excavation of, 417 Rain Storm (Hsia Kuei), 762-3, 776; fig. 599
House of the Vettii, paintings, 118; fig. 81 Raj put-Raj asthdni, 708; fig. 548
Pontormo, Jacopo, 322 Ramsgate, St. Augustine's (A. N. W. Pugin),
Portinari Altarpiece (Van der Goes), 240-41, 490
266, 354; fig. 183 Ranefer, portrait of, 36, 37, 66, 67; fig. 16
Portrait of a German Officer (Hartley), 605-7; Rape of Europa (Titian), 315;
246 fig.

fig. 460 Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus (Rubens),

Post-Impressionist painting, Dutch, 535-7; figs. 381-3; fig. 297
403, 404 Rape of the Sabines (Bologna), 327-8; fig. 258
French, 532-44; figs. 401, 402, 405, 406; Raphael, 11, 15, 140, 303-7, 313, 322, 325, 399,
PI. XI, XII
544
Potsdam, Einstein Tower (Mendelssohn), 596 Baldassare Castiglione, portrait of, 306; fig.

Poussin, Nicolas, 399-401, 534, 542 239

Et in Arcadia Ego, 399-401; fig. 308 Julius II, portrait of, 305
Kingdom of Flora, 399; fig. 307 Leo X, portrait of, 305-6
Powers, Hiram (Greek Slave), 567 Madonna del Cardellino, 11, 305; fig. 238
Pozzo, Fra Andrea (Apotheosis of St. Ignatius School of Athens, 306-7; fig. 240
Loyola), 11, 367-9; fig. 288 Sistine Madonna, 305
870 INDEX

Rashld-al-Dln, manuscript, 668-70; fig. 505 Resurrection (Piero della Francesca), 271; fig.

Raxana under Mr. Kailasa, Elura, 695-6; fig. 535 210

Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare in Classe, 142 Return of the Herds (Bruegel), 353
Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, 142 Return of the Prodigal Son, The (Greuze) 424; ,

San Vitale, 142-3, 151-2, 154; PI. ii fi g-

3
29

Ray, Man, 628 Reynolds, Joshua, 384, 432, 434-6, 437, 471
Realism, 521 Heathfield, Lord, portrait of, 436
Recumbent Figure (Moore), 640; fig. 478 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, portrait of, 435-6;
fig- 338
Red Fudo, Myooin Temple, 801-2; fig. 638
Siddons, Mrs., as the Tragic Muse, 434-5
Reformation, 348, 349
Rheims Cathedral, architecture, 11, 190, 192;
Regensburg, Walhalla (Von Klenze), 4-9
fig. 140
Reinhard and Hofmeister (Rockefeller Center,
sculpture, 202-3; fig. 149
New York), 593-5 Ribera, Jose de, 326, 374-5
Relation of material to design, 11-13
Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew, 375
Rembrandt van Rijn, 326, 357, 384, 388-93, St. Agnes,
374
542, 710 Richardson, Henry Hobson, 11, 575-7, 579, 642
Dr. Tulp'sAnatomy Lesson, 389; fig. 302 Boston, Trinity Church, 575-6; fig. 434
Night Watch, 389-91; fig. 303
Cambridge, Stoughton House, 577
Rabbi, The, 391-2; fig. 304
Chicago, Marshall Field Warehouse, 11,
Saskia in a Red Hat, 389
576-7; fig. 435
Self portraits, 392; 305 fig.
Richelieu, Cardinal, portrait (Champaigne),
Syndics of the Cloth Guild. 391
398
Renaissance, Age of Discovery, 24.5-6
Richmond, State Capitol (Jefferson), 475-6,
architecture, English, 343-4
478; fig. 362
French, 339-43; figs. 269-72
Rickman, Thomas, 488
German, 343 Riemenschneider, Tilman, 218
Italian, 15th century, 246-53; figs. 185-
Rigaud, Hyacinthe (Louis XIV, portrait), 407-8
93 Rimini, Arch of Augustus, 251
Italian, 16th century, 282--; figs. 220-26
San Francesco (Alberti), 251-2, 511, 512;
Spanish, 343
fig. 192
biographies, 245
Rivera, Diego, 612
furniture, Italian, 287 Riverside, Coonley House (Wright), 596-8; fig.
humanism, 245
45 1
individualism, 245
Robbia, see Della Robbia
Neo-Platonism, 245
Rococo architecture, French, 415-6; fig. 320
painting, Flemish, 353-5; fig. 280; PI. v
German, 415
Florentine, 15th century, 265-71, 274-8;
Rodin, Auguste, 515-17, 582, 633, 637
207-9, 21 4" x 7' PI-
figs. m Age of Bronze, 515-16
Florentine, 16th century, 287-92, 299- Balzac, portrait of, 516-17; fig. 391
303; 227-9, 235-7
figs.
Burghers of Calais, 516
French, 352-3; fig. 279
Kiss, The, 516; fig. 390
German, 346-52; figs. 275-8 Rogers, John, 571, 616
humanism, 281-2 Checkers Down at the Farm, 571
Flemish influence on, 266
Italian,
Coming to the Parson, 571; fig. 430
Paduan, 272-3; figs. 212, 213
Roman architecture, amphitheaters, 128; figs.
Umbrian, 265, 271-2, 279, 303-7; figs.
88, 89
210, 211, 218, 238-40; PI. in
aqueducts, 123-4; fig- 84
Venetian, 265-6, 279-80, 307-21; figs.
basilicas, 129-31; 91, 92
figs.
206, 219, 241-51 baths, 131-3; figs. 93, 94
portraiture, 245 Etruscan influence on, 121-3
revival of learning, 244-5 fora, 131
sculpture, French, 344-5; figs. 273, 274 Greek influence on, 120-23
Italian, 15th century, 253-63; figs. 194- influence of, 133
205 orders, 121; fig. 82
Italian, 16th century, 292-9; figs. 230-34 planning, 124, 131-3
Renoir, Pierre Auguste, 529 temples, rectangular, 122-3; fig- ^3
Moulin de la Gallette, 529; fig. 398 temples, round, 125-8; figs. 86, 87
Seated Bather, 529; fig. 399 triumphal arches, 128-9; fig- 9°
Resurrection (El Greco), 373-4; fig. 292 vaulting, 124-33
 INDEX 871

Roman painting, 113-19; fig. 81 Pantheon, 125-8, 247, 329, 366, 476, 478;
Roman Revival, architecture, 478-80; fig. 363 figs. 86, 87

United States, 473-6; fig. 362 San Carlo all Quattro Fontane (Borro-
Roman sculpture, 113-16, 118-19; figs. 76-80 mini), 359; figs. 281, 282
Romanesque architecture, definition of, 1 56-7 San Clemente, 135, 137-8; fig. 96
English, 170-71; fig. 125 SS. Cosmo and Damiano, mosaic, 141
German, 166-7 Santa Costanza, mosaic, 139-40; fig. 98
Lombard, 162-6; figs. 118-21 San Giovanni in Laterano (Borromini),
Norman, 160, 167-70; figs. 122-4 359-61
pilgrimage routes, 160-62; figs. 115-17 Sant' Ignazio, Apotheosis of St. Ignatius
Provence, 182 Loyola (Pozzo), 367-9; fig. 288
Sicilian, 160
San Lorenzo, 138
Spanish, 160-62, 182; figs. 115, 116
Santa Maria della Vittoria, Cornaro
Tuscan, 157-60; figs. 112-14
Chapel, Altarpiece of St. Theresa of
Romanesque manuscripts, 178-9; fig. 133 Avila (Bernini), 363; fig. 285
Romanesque period, crusades, 1 56
St. Peter's, architecture, 306-7, 329-34,
decentralization of, 155-6
356, 358, 412; figs. 259-62
feudalism, 156
(Bramante), 306-7, 329-30; fig. 259
monasteries, 1 56
(Giacomo della Porta), 331; fig. 260
power of the Church, 1 56
relics, importance of, 161
(Maderna), 331-4;
figs. 261, 262

Romanesque sculpture, Burgundian, 175-6, 177; (Michelangelo), 329-34; figs. 259-62

figs. 130, 131 Baldacchino (Bernini), 366; fig. 262
influences on, 171 Chair of St. Peter (Bernini), 366
Italian, 176 San Pietro in Montorio, Tempietto (Bra-
pilgrimage routes, 172-4; figs. 128, 129 mante), 282-3, 327; fig. 220
Provencal, 171-2; figs. 126, 127 Santa Pudenziana, mosaic, 140-41, 151; fig.
Romano, Giulio, 322 99
Romans of the Decadence (Couture), 519 Temple of the Divine Trajan, Forum of
Romanticism, architecture, see Gothic Revival Trajan, 131
definition,
485 Termini Station (Montuori and Callmij,
and Neoclassicism, 486 645
painting, English, 503-5; fig. 381; PI. vin Vatican, Sistine Chapel, frescoes (Michel-
French, 495-501, 505-9; figs. 375-9, angelo), 299-303; figs. 235-7
382-5 Stanza della Segnatura, School of Athens
Spanish, 493-5; figs. 372-4 (Raphael), 306-7; fig. 240
sculpture, French, 490-92; figs. 369-71 Romney, George, 437
Rome, Ara Pacis Augustae, sculpture, 115; fig. Rood, Ogden X., 527
Rossellino, Bernardo {Leonardo Bruni, tomb
Arch of Constantine, 129, 265; fig. 90 of) , 262; fig. 203
Arch of Titus, architecture, 128-9 Rosso, II, 339
sculpture, 115-16;79 fig.
Roszak, Theodore J.,
602
Basilica of Maxentius (Constantine), 129-
Rouault, Georges, 618
31, 329; figs. 91, 92 Rouen, St. Maclou, 211; fig. 155
Basilica Ulpia, 131
Tour de Beurre, 591
Baths of Caracalla, 131-3; figs. 93, 94
Roumania, sculpture, 20th century, 637-8; fig.
Cancelleria Palace (Bramante), 11, 285-6;
fig. 223 476
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 420
Capitoline Hill (Michelangelo), 358
Colosseum, 128, 265, 285; figs. 88, 89 Rousseau, Theodore (The Oaks), 505-6; fig.

Column of Trajan, 96, 131 382

sculpture, 116; fig. 80 Royal Academy, 434, 471 .
j

Early Christian manuscripts, 141-2 Rubens, Peter Paul 3*1, 3517, 3^0/3, 3/S4, 4^2,
Farnese Palace (San Gallo the Younger), 4*9, $5, 5 i, £2 ' I
286-7; s
%
22 4'6 -

Gallery (Carracci), 325-6; fig. 254

Descent from the Gross, 357, 381; fig. 296
Fourment, Helena, portrait of, 383; fig.
Forum of Trajan, 131 298
Forum Romanum, 131 Maximilian I, Emperor, portrait of, 383;
II Gesu (Vignola and della Porta), 335-8; PI. VII
figs. 265-7 Marie de Medici series, 381
872 INDEX

Rubens, Peter Paul Continued Sarnath, Asokan capitol, 678-9; fig. 513
Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus, 381- Buddha Preaching, 690; fig. 527
3; fi g- 2 97 Saskia in a Red Hat (Rembrandt), 389
Self Portrait, 383 Saxe, Marshal, Tomb of (Pigalle), 427; fig. 332
Rucellai Madonna (Duccio), 225-6 Scheming, Dr., portrait (Cranach), 349
Rude, Francois, 491, 515, 570 Schmidt-Rotluff, Karl, 619
Departure of the Volunteers, 491; fig. 369 Scopas, 99, 102
Ney, Marshal, portrait of, 491, 570; fig. Meleager, 99
370 Tegea, Temple of Athena Alea, sculpture,
Ruskin, John, 361, 583 99
Russell, Morgan, 605, 609 Seated Bather (Renoir), 529; fig. 399
Russia, architecture, 1 50 Seated Scribe (Louvre), 36; fig. 14
painting, 20th century, 626-7, 628; PI. xiv Seated Woman (Maillol), 5, 11, 634; fig, 474
sculpture, 20th century, 634-6, 638-9; figs. Sepik River art, 555-6; fig. 417
Seriziat, Mine., portrait of (David), 484; fig.
47 5> 477
Russolo, Luigi, 626 366
Ruwanveli, dagoba, 712 Serlio, Sebastiano,
340
Sesshu (Winter Landscape), 815-16; fig. 657
Sesson (Boat Returning in a Storm), 5, 816;
fig. 658
Saarinen, Eliel (Chicago Tribune Building), Seti I Offering to Osiris, Abydos, 38-9; fig. 17
591; fig. 446 Seurat, Georges (Sunday on the Grande Jatte),
Sahri Bahlol, Bodhisattra, 683-4; fig. 520 11, 533-4; fig. 401
St.Agnes (Ribera), 374 Severn Bridge, 512
Sanf Ansano Annunciation (Simone Martini), Seville Cathedral, 205
230; fig. 172 Seymour, Jane, portrait of (Holbein), 351-2;
St. Augustine, Ognissanti, Florence (Botticelli), fig. 278

278 Shah-ndmah manuscript, 670; fig. 508

Saint-Gaudens, Augustus (Admiral Farragut, Shaka and Two Bosatsu (Tori Busshi), 790;
portrait), 582; fig. fig. 622
439
St. George Killing the Dragon (Martorel), 235; Sharaku (lchikawa Ebizo IV as Washizuka
fig. 178 Kwandayu), 824-7; fig- 669
St. George Slaying the Dragon (Colombe), Sheeler, Charles, 609
3445 Pertaining to Yachts and Yachting, 609
St. Louis, Wainright Building (Sullivan), 588; Upper Deck, 609
fig-
443 Shen Chou, 776
St. Theresa of Avila (Bernini), 363; fig. 285 Shen, Funerary Pillar of, 734-6; fig. 574
Saiva Trinity, Elephanta, 696; fig. 536 Sheraton, Thomas, 432
Salamanca, Cathedral, 575 Shono (Hiroshige), 828-9; fig. 671
Salem, House of the Seven Gables, 465 Shrimp Girl (Hogarth), 434
Salisbury Cathedral, 207-10; figs. 151-3 Shubun, 815
Sanchi, Stupa No. 1, 680, 682; figs. 514, 515 Shunsho, 822
Temple No. 17, 697; fig. 538 Siam, 723-5; fig. 564
San Gallo the Elder, Antonio da (San Biagio, Sicilian Romanesque architecture, 160
Montepulciano) 284-5; fig s 221 222
, -
> Siddons, Mrs., as the Tragic Muse (Reynolds),
San Gallo the Younger, Antonio da (Farnese 434-5
Palace, Rome), 286-7; fig s 22 4"6 - Siena, Cathedral, architecture, 181, 206
Sanraku, 817-18 Pulpit (Nicola d'Apulia and Giovanni
Peonies, 817; fig. 659 Pisano), 220-22; fig. 165
Uji Bridge, 818; fig. 661 Fonte Gaia, Wisdom (Quercia), 255; fig.
Sansovino, Jacopo, 320, 328 *95
Bacchus, 326-7; fig. 256 Palazzo Pubblico, 212
Library, Venice, 320, 328; fig. 252 San Galgano, 206
Santiago de Compostela, 11, 160-62; figs, 115, Sienese painting, 14th century, 225-30; figs.

116 170-73; Frontispiece

San Zeno Altarpiece (Mantegna), 272, 279 Sigirya, painting, 712-13
Sargent, John Singer, 586, 616 Signorelli, Luca, frescoes, Capella di San Brixio,
Daughters of Asher Wertheimer, 585; fig. Orvieto Cathedral, 271-2; fig. 211
441 Silenus (Dalou), 515
 INDEX 873
Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome, frescoes (Mi- Stuart and Revett, 477-8
chelangelo), 299-30, 325; figs. 235-7 Sudan, 549; fig. 408
Sistine Madonna (Raphael), 305 Sullivan, Louis, 579, 588, 595, 642
Siva, as Nataraja, 693-4; %• 53° Chicago, Columbian Exposition,
Trans-
Skidmorc, Owings, and Merrill (Lever House, portation Building, 579; fig. 437
New York), 595; fig. 449 St. Louis, Wainwright Building, 588; fig.
Sleeping Venus (Giorgione), 310, 493; fig. 242 443
Sloan, John (Backyards, Greenwich Village), Sultan Hussein Mirza in a Garden (Bihzad),
601, 603-4, 610; fig. 458 673; PI. XVI
Sluter, Claus (Well of Moses, Champmol) ,216 Sultan Hussein Mirza Revelling (Bihzad), 672;
18; fig. 162 fig. 506
Small Passion (Diirer), 348 Sunday on the Grande fatte (Seurat), 533-4;
Smibert, John (Bishop Berkeley and His En- 401
fig.

tourage), 470 Suprematism, 627

Smithfield, St. Luke's,
466 Surrealism, 353, 630-33; fig. 473; PI. xv
Snake Goddess (Boston), 52-3; fig. 26 Susa, Palace of Artaxerxes, 657; figs. 493, 494
Snyders, Frans, 381 Palace of Darius, frieze of archers, 49
So-ami (Chinese Landscape), 815; fig. 655 Sweden, architecture, 20th century, 642
Soane, John, 480 Swing, The (Fragonard), 422-4; fig. 328
London, Bank of England, 480 Switzerland, painting, 20th century, 627, 628
London, Soane Museum, 480 Synchromism, 605
Solomon Islands carvings, 558; fig. 420 Syndics of the Cloth Guild (Rembrandt), 391
Sonning, Deanery Gardens (Lutyens), 642
Sophocles, 78
Sotatsu, 818
Soufflot,Jacques Germain (Pantheon, Paris),
417-18, 478; figs. 322, 323 Tachibana, Lady, Shrine of, 792-3; figs. 62-7,
South Pacific art, 554-63; figs. 417-25; PI. xm 628
Southwest United States, Indian art of, 454-7, Taft, Lorado, 582
458-9; fig. 352 Tahiti, Fly-whisk Handle, 560; fig. 421
Sower, The (Millet), 507-8; fig. 385 Tahmina Visiting Rustam, 672-3; fig. 508
Space, 11 Tai Chin (Breaking Waves and Autumn
Spain, architecture, Gothic, 205-6 Winds), 776; fig. 614
Renaissance, 343 Tajin, 450
Romanesque, 160-62, 182; figs. 115, 116 Takayoshi (Genji Monogatari) , 803-6; fig. 642
painting, Baroque, 377-9; fig. 295 Tamamushi Shrine, 791; fig. 626
International style, 235; fig. 178 Tampumachay, 443; fig. 344
Mannerist, 370-74; figs. 290-92; PI. vi Tanagra figurines, 105
Romanticism, 493-5; 372-4figs. T'ang Yin, 776
17th century, 370-79; figs. 290-95; PI. vi Tanjore, Tower, 698
20th century, 620-25, 630-33; figs. 469- Tao Chii, 779
71, 473; PI. XII, xv Tarascan, 445, 454; fig. 351
Spalato, Palace of Diocletian, 135, 431, 477 Tarrytown, Sunnyside, 570
Sphinx, Gizeh, 35; fig. 8 Tauromaquia, La (Goya), 495
Spring, The
(Picasso), 625; fig. 471 Tegea, Temple of Athena Alea, sculpture
Squarcione, Francesco, 272 (Scopas), 99
Standing Woman (Lachaise), 600; fig. 454 Tello, figures from, 44-6; fig. 20
Stein, Gertrude, portrait of (Picasso), 621 Tempera, 225
Stella, Joseph, 607 Tempest, The (Giorgione), 309-10; fig. 241
Steppe art, 648-50; fig. 486 Temple Among the Snowy Hills, A (Fan
Stieglitz, Alfred,
605 K'uan), 761-2; fig.
593
Still Life (Cezanne), 538-9; PI. xn Temptation of St. Anthony (Bosch), 353
Stockholm, City Hall (Ostberg), 642 Teotihuacan, 445, 446-7
Stonehenge, 12, 22-3; fig. 6 Citadel,447
Stoss, Veit, 218 Pyramid of the Moon, 446
Strawberry Hill, 486 Pyramid of the Sun, 446
Stu2rt, Gilbert, 471, 473, 616 Quetzalcoatl, Temple of, 447
Jefferson, Thomas, portrait of, 473; fig. 361 Terborch, Gerhardt, 393, 394
Washington, George, portrait of, 473 Texture, 1
8 74 INDEX

Thebes, Valley of the Kings, deep rock-cut Tung Chi-ch'ang, 776

tombs, 30 Tung Yuan (Clear Weather in the Valley),
Theotokopoulos, Domenikos, see Greco 758; fig.
594
Thinker, The (Eakins), 574 Tun-huang, painting, 746-8, 754, 768; figs. 584,
Thornhill, James (London, St. Paul's dome, 586
painting), 433 sculpture, 748; fig. 585
Thorvaldsen, Bertel (Jason), -5. 481 Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 504-5, 528
Three Geisha (Utamaro), 824; fig. 668 Crossing the Brook, 504
Three Musicians (Picasso), 625 Fighting Temeraire, The, 504-5; fig. 381
Tiahuanaco, Gate-way of the Sun, 442; fig.
343 Rain, Steam, and Speed, 505
sculpture, 439, 442; fig.
343 Tuscan Romanesque architecture, 157-60; figs.

Tibet, 725-7 1 12-14

Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista ( Institution of the
Rosary), 369; fig. 289
Tikal,448
Ting ware, 770-71; fig. 609 Uccello, Paolo (Battle of San Romano), 269-
Tintoretto, 317-20, 324, 370 71; fig. 209
Crucifixion, 319-20 Uesugi Shigefusa, portrait of, 810; fig. 652
Marriage of Bacchus and Ariadne, 320; Uji Bridge (Sanraku), 818; fig. 661
fig. 250 Uji, Byodoin Temple, architecture, 802-3; **§•
Miracle of St. Mark, 318-19 640
Presentation of the Virgin, 317-18, 324; sculpture, 803; fig. 641
fig. 249 Umbrian painting, 265, 271-2, 279, 303-7; figs.

Tiryns, Palace of, 49, 50-51, 58 210, 211, 218, 238-40; PI. in
Titian, 8, 311-13, 317, 324, 325, 32-, 3-0, Unicorns (Davies), 602-3
399. 54 2 United States, architecture, Federal, 473-6; fig.

Assumption of the Virgin, 311-13; fig. 243 362

Bacchus and Ariadne, 313-14, 399; fig. 244 Gothic Revival, 568-70; fig. 428
Madonna of the Cherries, 311; PI. iv Greek Revival, 564-6; fig. 426
PesaroMadonna, 315 modernized classic, 577-9, 588; fig. 436
Rape of Europa, 315; fig. 246 skyscrapers, 586-95; figs. 442-9
Young Englishman, portrait of, 314-15; 17th century, 463-6; figs. 356, 357

Tivoli,
% -45
Temple of Vesta, 282, 480
18th century colonial, 466-9; figs. 358,
359
Villa d'Este, 338; fig. 268 mid- 19th century, 575-7; figs. 434, 435
Toba S6jc (Hare Chasing a Monkey), 806-7, 20th century, 579-81, 589-99; figs. 438,
827;
fig. 643 44453
Tobey, Mark, 614 painting, colonial, 470-71; fig. 360
Tohaku (Gibbons, screen), 818; fig. 662 Federal, 471-3; fig. 361
Tokyo, Imperial Hotel (Wright), 598, 599 mid-igth century, 571-4; figs. 431-3
Toltec, 445, 452 Neoclassic, 567-8
Tomb of Alexander VII (Bernini), 365-6; fig. World's Fair generation, 582-6; figs.

286 440-41
Topsfield, Parson Capen House, 13, 464-6; figs. 20th century, 602-16; figs. 458-67
sculpture, colonial, 469-70
35 6 357 >

Tori Busshi (Shaka and Two Bosatsu) , 790; mid-igth century, 570-71; figs. 429, 430
622
fig. Neoclassic, 566-7; fig. 427
Torii school, 821 World's Fair generation, 582; fig.
439
Tornado, The (Currv), 611 20th century, 599-602; figs. 454-7
Tosa style, 803-7, 816, 818; fig. 642 Unkei, 802, 808-9
Toshodai-ji Temple, Nara, architecture, 12, Basu-sennin, 809; fig. 649
786; fig. 620 Dainichi, 802; fig. 639
Totonac, 445, 450-51; fig. 349 Muchaku, portrait of, 809; fig. 648
Toulouse, St. Sernin, 160, 162; fig. 117 Unknown Roman, 76
portrait of, 113; fig.

Tragic Prelude, The (Curry), 611-12; fig. 464 Upjohn, Richard (Trinity Church, New York),
Transversion (Pereira), 613; fig. 466 568-70; fig. 428
Triumph of the Egg (Flannagan), 601 Urrjohn, Richard M. (Capitol, Hartford), 575
Trumbull, John, 473 Upper Deck (Sheeler), 609
Tuan Fang Shrine, 741-3; fig. 581 Utamaro (Three Geisha), 824; fig. 668
Tula, 452 Uxmal, 449; fig. 348
 INDEX 875
Veronese, Paolo (Marriage at Cana) , 320-21,
519; fig. 251
Valley of the Kings, deep rock-cut tombs, 30 Verrio, Antonio, 433
Valltorta Gorge, 21; fig. 5 Verrocchio, Andrea del (Bartolommeo Col-
Vanavdsi Gazing at a Lotus Pond (Lu Hsin- leoni, portrait), 263, 296, 570; fig. 205
chung), 769-70; fig. 608 Versailles, Palace of, 403-6; figs. 311-13
Van der Goes, Hugo (Portinari altarpiece) ,
Versailles, Petit Trianon (Gabriel), 416-17;
240-41, 266, 354; fig. 183 321
fig.

Van der Rone, Mies (Tugendhat House, Brno) Vezelay, La Madeleine, sculpture, 175-6; fig.

11, 643-5; figs. 481-3 130

Van der Weyden, Rogier (Deposition), 239- Vicenza, Villa Rotonda (Palladio), 334-5; figs.
40); fig. 182 263, 264
Van Dyck, Anthony (Maria Louisa van Tassis, Victory of Samothrace, 106-8; fig. 71
portrait of), 321, 384, 408, 433, 437; Vienna Genesis, 142
fig. 299 Vienna, Postal Savings Bank (Wagner), 642
Van Eyck, Hubert (Ghent altarpiece), 238-9; View of Toledo (El Greco), 374
fig. 180 Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da (II Gesii, Rome),
Van Eyck, Jan, 238-9 335-6; figs. 265, 266
Ghent altarpiece, 238-9; fig. 180 Vignon, Barthelemy (Madeleine, Paris), 478-
Madonna of the Canon Van der Paele, 80; fig. 363
239; fig. 181 Vincent of Beauvais, 195, 244
Van Ghent, Justus, 266 Virgil, 115, 120
Van Gogh, Vincent, 10, 535-7, 600, 618, 619, Vitruvius, 121, 251
816 Vlaminck, Maurice de (Les Maisons a Chatou),
Berceuse, La, 537, 600; fig. 403 618, 620; PI. x
Landscape at Auvers, 537; fig. 404 Voltaire, portrait of (Houdon), 427-8; fig.
333
Van Huysum, Jan, 395 Volume, 11
Van Ostade, Adriaen, 393 Vulcan Presenting to Venus the Arms of Aeneas
Van Ruysdael, Jakob (The Mill), 394-5; fig. (Boucher), 421; fig. 326
306
Vaphio, Gold Cups, 53, 64, 65
Vasari, Giorgio, 245
Vatican Virgil, 141-2; fig. 100 Wagner, Otto (Postal Savings Bank, Vienna),
Vaughan, Henry, 581 642
Velasquez, Don Diego Rodriguez de Silva y, 4, Walter, Thomas U., 565-6
357> 3757> 3 88 5 2 3"5> 53 2
>
Andalusia, 565-6; fig. 426
Borrachos, Los, 375 Washington, Capitol, 565
Forge of Vulcan, 375 Wang Wei, 753-4
Innocent X, portrait of, 375-6; fig. 293 Ward, John Quincy Adams (Washington, por-
Mars, 375 trait), 571, 582
Meninas, Las, 376-7, 388; fig. 294 Washington, Capitol (Latrobe), 474
Venetian painting, 265-6, 279-80, 307-21, 369; (Walter), 565
figs.206, 219, 241-51, 289; PI. IV Lincoln Memorial (Bacon), 581, fig. 438
Venice, Ducal Palace, 212 State, War, and Navy Department Build-
Gesuati, Institution of the Rosary (Tie- ing (Mullet), 575
polo), 369; fig. 289 Washington, portrait of (Brown), 570-71; fig.

Library (Sansovino), 320, 328; fig. 252 429

St. Mark's, 150 Washington, portrait of (Greenough), 566-7,
bronze horses, 260
mosaic, 152; fig. 110
%
Washington,
427
portrait of (Peale), 471-2
Scuola di San Rocco, Crucifixion (Tin- Washington, portrait of (Stuart), 473
toretto), 319-20 Washington, portrait of (Ward), 571
Venus (Cranach), 349 Washwoman, The (Daumier), 521; fig.
393
Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time (Bronzino), Watteau, Antoine, 11, 418-21, 424, 499, 502
322-4; fig. 253 Embarkation for Cythera, 418-21; fig. 324
Venus de Medici, 265, 277 Gilles, 421; fig. 325
Venus of Willendorf, 17 Wave, The (Courbet), 522; fig. 395
Venus Spanking Cupid (Falconet), 425 Wave, The (Hokusai), 6,827-8; fig. 670
Vermeer, Jan (Girl with a Water Jug), 11, Weber, Max, 605, 609
393-4; PI. vm Wen Cheng-ming, 776
876 INDEX

West, Benjamin, 471, 473, 567, 570 Hollywood, Barnsdall Residence, 598
Westover, 467 NewYork, Solomon R. Guggenheim Mu-
Whistler, James McNeill (Old Battersea Bridge), seum, 598-9; fig. 453
8, 583; fig. 440 Oak Park, Unity Church, 596, 599; fig. 430
White, Stanford (Farragut, Admiral, monu- Pasadena, Millard Residence, 598, 599
ment), 582; fig. 439; see also McKim, Riverside, Coonley House, 596-8; fig. 451
Mead, and White Tokyo, Imperial Hotel, 598, 599
Williamsburg, College of William and Mary, Wright, Michael, 408
469
Wu Chen, 772
Wii Liang Tzii, Tomb of, 736, 750; fig. 575
Wilson, Richard, 503
Winter Landscape (Sesshu), 815-16; fig. 657
Wu Tao-tzu, 753
Wyatt, James (Fonthill Abbey), 486-8; fig. 367
Wisdom, Fonte Gaia, Siena (Quercia), 255;
% 195
Wolgemut, Michael, 348
Wood-block prints, 532, 778, 780, 781, 807,
Yellow Christ (Gauguin), 534
figs. 665-71
819, 820-29;
Yen Hui (Immortal), 773; fig. 612
Wood, Grant, 611 Yoruba sculpture, 550-51; fig. 410
American Gothic, 611 Young Englishman (Titian), 314-15; fig. 245
Daughters of Revolution, 611 Young Ladies of Avignon (Picasso), 621
Wood, John (Prior Park, Bath), 429-30; fig.
334 Ypres, Cloth Hall, 211-12; fig. 156
Woolworth Building, No. 31 (Marin), 607-9; Yumedono Kwannon, 787-90; fig. 621
fig. 461 Yiin-kang, sculpture, 739-40; figs. 577, 578
Worms Cathedral, 167 Yiin Shou-ping, 779
Wounded Lioness, Palace of Ashur-bani-pal,
47-8; 22 fig.

Wren, Christopher, 409-12, 428, 429, 469

City Plan, London, 409-10 Zadkine, Ossip, 636
St. Mary-le-Bow, London, 410-11; fig. 317 Zapotec, 445
St. Paul's, London, 411-12, 417; figs. 318, Zen philosophy, 812
3*9 Zeuxis, 75
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 595-9, 602, 642, 643 Zorach, William (Mother and Child), 600-601,
Bear Run, Kaufmann House, 598, 602; 616; fig. 455
% 45 2 Zuni art,
459

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 technical terms, a complete index, and
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s <

The Authors
INUSSINSK
Everard M. Upjohn, Paul S. Win-
gert, and Jane Gaston Mahler are
members of the Department of Art His-
tory and Archaeology at Columbia Uni-
.URGA
versity. Before joining the Columbia
Mr. Upjohn, a graduate of Har-
GOLIA / faculty
vard College and the Harvard School of
Architecture, founded the Department
'

ORDOSA] of Fine Arts at the University of Minne-

He was Matthews Lecturer at the
AN j
sota.

'•TUN HUANG Metropolitan Museum during 1941-42,

and is author of Richard Upjohn, Archi-
tectand Churchman. He is Professor of
H'ANG AN Art History and Archaeology at Colum-
bia University.
CHINA Mr. Wingert is a graduate of Colum-
CHUNGKING bia College and Columbia University,
where he is now Professor of Art His-
tory and Archaeology. He is the author
of many books, includingThe Sculpture
.LHASA ;
\* 1
of William Zorach, The Sculpture of
riv^S ^ 3
Negro Africa, An Outline Guide to the

Art of the South Pacific, American

In-

dian Sculpture and Primitive Art.

hlGAYA
LCUTTA
f n i

TO Mrs. Mahler is a graduate of the Uni-

versity of Wisconsin and Columbia Uni-
versity. She has studied at the Sorbonne
and has traveled extensively on scholar-
^•PAGAN ships in Europe and the Far East. She
RANGOON has lectured extensively on Oriental art,
{^T SJAM P and contributed the entire Asiatic sec-

^
\' BANGKOK/
"

(CAMBOD
">i
\

ANGKOR
tion the Encyclopedia of Painting.
to

Mrs. Mahler is Associate Professor of

Art History and Archaeology at Colum-
bia University.

MALAYA

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by Bernard S. Myers $15.00

Survival Through Design

by Richard Neutra $7.50

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, new york i6, n. y.