See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/283282605

Design and fabrication of Grid-tied PV inverter with Net-metering

Research · October 2015

CITATIONS READS
0 5,286

4 authors, including:

Govind Joshi Mukesh Gautam

Colorado School of Mines Tribhuvan University
2 PUBLICATIONS   0 CITATIONS    4 PUBLICATIONS   0 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

B.E. Project View project

Optimal Energy Generation and Distribution Planning under Supply Uncertainty View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Mukesh Gautam on 28 October 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK CAMPUS
Department of Electrical Engineering
A

Final Year Project Report

On

“Design and Fabrication of Single Phase Grid Connected PV

Inverter with Net-Metering”
(In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of B.E in Electrical Engineering)

Project Supervisor
Er. Dipesh Lamsal
Project Members

Govind Raj Joshi (066BEL313)

Mukesh Gautam(066BEL320)

Rakesh Prasad Bhatt(066BEL326)

Sangyan Chhetri(066BEL333)

November 23, 2013

 COPYRIGHT

The author has agreed that the Library, Department of Electrical Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, and
Institute of Engineering (IOE) may make this report freely available for inspection. Moreover, the author
has agreed that permission for extensive copying of this project report for scholarly purpose may be
granted by the supervisors who supervised the project work recorded herein or, in their absence, by the
Head of the Department wherein the project report was done. It is understood that the recognition will be
given to the author of this report and to the Department of Electrical Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, and
Institute of Engineering in any use of the material of this project report. Copying or publication or the
other use of this report for financial gain without approval of to the Department of Electrical Engineering,
Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering and author’s written permission is prohibited. Request for
permission to copy or to make any other use of the material in this report in whole or in part should be
addressed to:

Head of Department
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering (IOE)
Lalitpur, Nepal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to acknowledge our sincere gratitude to our Supervisor Er. Depesh Lamsal. His valuable
advice, suggestions, instructive guidance and cooperative supervision have been one of the very
motivating factors for sharpening and shaping our project. The supervision and support that he gave truly
helped us in the progression and smoothness of our project. The co-operation is much indeed appreciated.

Our special thanks go to the Electrical Department and all its staffs for providing us good environment
and lots of cooperation to conduct this project. We would also like to thank our Head of Department Er.
Kumudini Koirala for her co-operative efforts on providing us with the well-equipped lab and
sophisticated equipments. Without their help and support, our project would have faced many difficulties.

We are also grateful to Er. Hari Prasad Rimal, Mr. C.B Khadka, Mr. Madhusudan Shrestha, and Mr.
Deepak Shrestha for their generous help in providing us with the necessary equipments.

Finally we are fortunate to receive help from our colleagues Mr. Dipesh Shrestha, Mr. Nripesh Ayer. We
would like to thank Mr. Binod Basnet for his help to boot our PIC.

Last but not least we would like thank to all our colleagues, friends, seniors for generously devoting their
time and wise ideas to help us with project.

Govind Raj Joshi (066 / BEL /313)

Mukesh Gautam (066 / BEL /320)

Rakesh Prasad Bhatt (066 / BEL /326)

Sangyan Chhetri (066 / BEL /333)

 ABSTRACT

Energy is the key element for the economic development of country. In Nepal the economic growth is in
slow pace due to lack of proper utilization of the energy resources. In this situation the optimum use of
renewable energy sources, mainly solar power in case of Nepal, is necessary. But the conventional off-
grid system used in solar system makes solar energy very expensive and the need of grid-tied system is
increasing. In this project we have designed and fabricated grid connected single phase inverter with net
metering.

The grid connected inverter is a special type of inverter that can convert the DC electricity to AC
electricity and feeds power generated by inverter to local distribution grid. This type of solar system
supplies domestic loads and ejects excess power to the grid. The Net meter is equipped to realize the
energy transactions.

Single phase H-bridge inverter scheme consists of four numbers of IRF540N MOSFETs for switching
purpose. Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) technique is used for control strategy of inverter.
SPWM is generated with the use of analog circuits using TL084 (op amp) by comparing grid voltage
waveform from step down (220V/6V) transformer with carrier triangular wave generated using TL084.A
12 V DC battery acts as an inverter input and the output of inverter is filtered by LC low pass filter to
obtain sinusoidal voltage waveform.

NET-METER is implemented using ATMEGA32A microcontroller along with voltage and current
sensors. The sensors have been used to sense current and voltage from inverter and domestic load of unity
power factor. The sensed voltage and current are given to microcontroller by using voltage rectifier circuit
and current offset circuits. The controller carries out necessary mathematical calculations and output
result is displayed using LCD.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………i
TITLES PAGE NO.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Advantages of grid-tied system
1.3 Objectives 2
1.3 Methodology 2
CHAPTER 2: SYSTEM OVERVIEW
2.1 Digital Energy Meter
2.2 Working Principle
2.3 Inverter System
2.4 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
2.5 Generation of SPWM using Analog System
2.5.1 Generation of Triangular Carrier Wave
2.6 H-Bridge with MOSFET Drivers
2.7 Filtering Scheme and Generation of Sine Wave

CHAPTER 3: SIMULATION STUDIES

3.1 MATLAB Simulation
3.2 Software Realization
3.3 Proteus Simulation

CHAPTER 4: HARDWARE DESIGN AND DESCRIPTION

4.1 Implementation of Offset circuit
4.2 Implementation of rectifier circuit
4.3 Implementation of Micro-controller
4.4 ADC Implementation
4.5 Sampling and RMS value computation
4.6 PCB Design for net meter
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendation
REFERENCES 19

LIST OF FIGURES
1. Figure 2.1: Block diagram of Net-metering
2. Figure 2.2: Pulse Width Modulation
3. Figure 2.3: Triangular Wave Generator
4. Figure 2.4: H-Bridge with MOSFET Drivers
5. Figure 2.5: Typical Connection for IR2110 MOSFET Driver
6. Figure 2.6: LC filter configuration
7. Figure 3.1: Inverter block
8. Figure 3.2: Internal inverter circuit
9. Figure 3.3: PWM output of PWM generation block
10. Figure 3.4: Output voltage waveform of inverter circuit and transformer
11. Figure 3.5: Flow chart for net metering
12. Figure 3.6: Proteus model of net meter
13. Figure 3.7: Triangular wave generator and comparator
14. Figure 3.8: Triangular carrier wave and PWM signal
15. Figure 4.1: Proteus model of +2.5V DC offset circuit
16. Figure 4.2: Proteus model of voltage divider circuit
17. Figure 4.3: Proteus model of net meter
18. Figure 4.4: Real world view of net meter PCB circuit
19. Figure 4.5: Hardware fabrication of net meter
20. Figure 4.6: Output of net meter
21. Figure 4.7: Overall hardware view
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background

The energy demand of the world is increasing instantaneously. The fossils fuels like coal, petroleum and
oils are being depleted rigorously. If this trend continues these fossils fuels will be used completely within
the few decades. The cost of hydropower projects is too high and employs the use of highly advanced
technology and skilled manpower. So, the world is moving towards the renewable sources of energy with
the versatile power deregulation and optimization.

With rising fuel costs, increasing concerns for global climate change, and a growing worldwide demand
for electricity, utilizing renewable energy sources such as solar power becomes a necessity rather than a
luxury. The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and landmasses is approximately
3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year but only a fraction of that is captured for electrical power production.
Solar powered systems can generate electricity using photovoltaic (PV) panels, or thermal collectors. For
our project, we have chosen to explore solar PV systems for residential building. Specifically we will
focus on the grid-connected electronics utilized in setups for typical households. We then present the
various topologies used in grid-tied inverters with a special emphasis on multilevel inverters.

In our system a solar photovoltaic (PV) plant owners can also enjoy the opportunity of net metering by
selling energy to the National grid when the consumed energy is less than the Delivered energy.

At the day time energy consumption by local load (owner load) may be less than energy generated from
the inverter so that some of generated energy may be delivered to local load and rest of it may be sold to
national grid while at night time there is no power output from PV panel and owner may switch load to
grid supply. The record of owner’s energy consumption and delivery is displayed in this meter.

Here two current transformers (CT) and a potential transformer (PT) are used to sense current and
voltage. Current flowing from inverter circuit is sensed by one CT while current flowing to local load is
measured by next one. Voltage across load or output of inverter or voltage at grid is measured by PT.
After getting current and voltage we compute energy generated and consumed by counting the time of
flow of current in respective circuit. And it is obvious that we are designing the overall system (from
inverter to net meter) for unity power factor load.
1.2 Advantages of Grid-tied System

 Power grid itself acts in a sense as a giant battery that uses any excess electricity that our solar
panels may generate, and which we can draw from on cloudy days when there is insufficient
sunlight to fully power our home

 Less expensive than off-the-grid systems because they do not require either batteries or battery
charging controllers

 Lesser equipments system, so, much simpler systems to set up and use. They take less time to
install and require very little maintenance

 More efficient and environmentally friendly than off-the-grid systems

1.3 Objective

 To design and fabricate single phase grid connected PV inverter with Net-Metering.

1.4 Methodology

In order to fullfill the above objectives, project development process involved following steps from
starting to till this date:

i) Theoretical study: We have studied different research article and previous project reports
related to Grid Connected Solar System.Study about inverter, sinusoidal Pulse Width
Modulation (SPWM).
ii) Simulation of SPWM inverter on MATLAB/Simulink.
iii) Programming in MPLAB software for Atmel microntroller.
iv) Simulation of Net meter in Proteus software for calculation and display of Energy
produced by solar inverter and consumed by domestic load and Net Energy .
v) Design and Fabrication of harware of the above proposed scheme.
vi) Testing and debugging of hardware.
vii) Documetation: We have collected documents and prepared report.
 CHAPTER 2
SYSTEM OVERVIEW

2.1 Digital Energy Meter

The development of electronic (digital) energy meters has gained a great deal of momentum over the past
several years. This is due to their two main advantages over the traditional electromechanical designs:
improved accuracy and an expanded set of features. Current microcontroller technology allows designers
to build meters that are competitive in price with traditional devices, while maintaining the required IEC
1036Class 1 accuracy of ±1% for domestic applications. Microcontrollers also allow the easy
incorporation of added features, such as RMS voltage and current and peak demand metering, as local
electric utility companies desire to implement them.

This net meter is not only useful for PV system rather it can be used with any other sources of energy
satisfying the purpose of net metering. For example with wind energy, in micro hydro power plant, diesel
generator etc.

2.2 Working Principle

Figure 2.1: Block diagram of Net-metering

The block diagram shown in Figure 2.1 explains the working principle of net metering. Here two current
transformers (CT1 and CT2) and a potential transformer (PT) are used to sense current and voltage.
Current flowing from inverter circuit is sensed by one CT1 while current flowing to local load is measured
by next CT2. Voltage across load or output of inverter or voltage at grid is measured by PT. The ac
current sensed by CT1 and CT2 is given to ADC input pin of Microcontroller (ATMEGA32A) after offset
circuit. Similarly, third pin of ADC is connected to the output of PT after half wave rectification which
measure ac voltage. After getting current and voltage sampling is done within microcontroller and RMS
value of current and voltage is calculated. Energy generated and consumed is then computed within
microcontroller by counting the time of flow of current in respective circuit and displayed in LCD
interfaced with Microcontroller.

The mathematics used to compute net energy is as given below.

Power generated by inverter is:

P1=Irms*Vrms.

Where Irms = rms value of current output in Ampere.

And Vrms = rms value of voltage in Volts.

Let total time of flow of current from inverter = T1 sec.

Then energy generated is;

W1= P1*T1/3600*1/1000 kWh.

Similarly energy consumed by load of unity power factor is

W2= Irms*Vrms*T2/3600*1/1000 kWh.

Here Irms and Vrms are current and voltage in A and V respectively across load and T 2 is the time of flow
of current in load in sec.

Now net energy = energy generated (W1) – energy consumed (W2).

Note: Algorithm of computation of Irms, Vrms, P1, P2, W1, W2 and net value is given in section 2.3.2.

2.3 Inverter System

Dc-to-ac converters are known as inverters. The function of an inverter is to change a dc input voltage to
a symmetric ac output voltage of desired magnitude and frequency. Voltage source inverter is the inverter
topology where independently controlled ac output is voltage signal. The ac output voltage from inverter
may be either fixed or variable. The input dc source may be fixed dc source or it may be rectified from
fixed ac source. This dc voltage is converted to ac by using network of switches to alternate between
positive and negative dc buses. The output magnitude and frequency is varied by controlling the
switching sequence which is done by various modulating techniques. In this project, sinusoidal PWM
generated using analog circuits is used as modulating signal to control the switching sequence.

2.4 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a commonly used technique for controlling power to electrical
devices, made practical by modern electronic power switches. Here, data is represented by the duty cycle
(ratio of the ON time to the total time). PWM has the property where the instantaneous dc component is
directly proportional to the duty cycle. By using PWM techniques, the frequency spectra of input
waveforms can be changed such that the major non-fundamental components are at relatively high
frequency and also to reduce the switching stress imposed upon the power switching devices. The high
frequency components can be filtered by using low pass filters so as to reduce the harmonic distortion at
output.

2.5 Generation of SPWM using Analog System

Basically there are two types of PWM techniques- Analog System and Digital PWM technique. In our
project, we have used analog system for the generation of SPWM signal. In this technique, a carrier signal
and modulating signal are compared using a comparator and output of the comparator is desired PWM
signal. Since we have used sinusoidal PWM technique, the reference waveform is a sinusoidal wave and
the carrier wave is triangular and hence the width of output PWM signal varies sinusoidally as shown in
the Figure 3.1 below. The grid voltage is stepped down and used as sinusoidal modulating signal. For the
generation of triangular wave, an analog circuit known as triangular wave generator is used whose
detailed circuit is explained in the next topics. These two signals are compared by using operational
amplifier as comparator. When the carrier signal exceeds the reference, the comparator output signal is at
one state, and when the reference is at a higher voltage, the output is at its second state which is also
shown in the Figure 2.2 below.
 Figure 2.2: Pulse Width Modulation

2.5.1 Generation of Triangular Carrier Wave

The triangular wave acts as carrier wave for the generation of PWM signal. Carrier waves can be either
saw-tooth or triangular signals; in this project, a triangular wave has been used. The frequency of the
generated triangular carrier signal will be around 3 kHz. The generation of the triangular carrier wave is
done with analog components. The circuit for the construction of the triangular wave generator consists of
a square wave generator and integrator, as shown in Figure 2.3.
 Figure 2.3: Triangular Wave Generator

The above circuit will oscillate at a frequency of 1/4RtC, and the amplitude can be controlled by the
amplitude of R1 and R2. The frequencies that can be generated by this circuit depend greatly on the slew
rate of the operational amplifiers. Using the TL-084 op-amp, with R t=12k, R1= 10k, R2= 15k and C=
10nF, this circuit generates triangular waves oscillation around 3kHz.

2.6 H-Bridge with MOSFET Drivers

Generating a sine wave centered on zero volts requires both a positive and negative voltage across the
load, for the positive and negative parts of the wave, respectively. This can be achieved from a single
source through the use of four MOSFET switches arranged in an H-Bridge configuration. To minimize
power loss and utilize higher switching speeds, N-Channel MOSFETs were chosen as switches in the
bridge. For level translation between PWM signals and voltages required to forward bias high side N-
Channel MOSFETs, the IR2110 MOSFET driver integrated circuit was chosen. A diagram of the H-
Bridge circuit with MOSFETs and drivers is shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: H-Bridge with MOSFET Drivers

The IR2110 High and Low side Drive device exceeds all requirements for driving the MOSFETs in the
bridge. It is capable of generating up to 500V at a current rating of 2A at fast switching speeds. This
device is required to drive the high side MOSFETs in the circuit designated HO, due to the fact that the
gate to source voltage must be higher than the drain to source voltage, which is the highest voltage in the
system. This device utilizes a bootstrapping capacitor to maintain a voltage difference of approximately
10V above the drain to source voltage. With a full bridge configuration, two of these devices are utilized,
as shown in the above figure. A typical connection of a single IR2110 device is shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Typical Connection for IR2110 MOSFET Driver

Operation of the IR2110 device will be controlled through generated PWM signals. The PWM signal will
be fed to the HIN and LIN pins simultaneously. If the internal logic detects a logic high, the HO pin will
be driven; if a logic low is detected, the LO pin will be driven. The SD pin controls shut down of the
device and will be unused and tied to ground. Additional pins that require external connections are the
Vss pin which will be tied to ground, the Vcc pin which will be tied to 15V, pins requiring connections to
bootstrapping components and outputs to the MOSFETs.

2.7 Filtering Scheme and Generation of Sine Wave

For the generation of the output voltage waveform of 50 Hz pure sine wave and higher order harmonics
should be eliminated, LC low pass filter should be used as shown in Figure 2.6. The transfer function H(s)
relates output voltage and input voltage of the filter. The transfer function for output and input voltage is
related as

H(s) = Vout/Vin
The transfer function of LC filter is given as

H(s) = 1/ (S2LC+1)

The cut-off frequency (f0) for the LC filter is

F0 = 1/ (2 )

Figure 2.6: LC filter configuration

 CHAPTER 3
SIMULATION STUDIES

Before carrying out activities in hardware, simulations were carried out in software such as
MATLAB/Simulink, AVR Studio and Proteus. This chapter is mainly concerned with the simulations in
these software.

3.1 MATLAB Simulation

MATLAB simulation was performed to test and confirm its implementation in a realhardware. To
simulate constant output of MPPT controlled solar panel 12V battery is used. The major components of
the Simulink model as shown in figure 3.1 are givenbelow:

Figure 3.1: Inverter block

 Figure 3.2: Internal inverter circuit

a) PWM generator block:

This block generates sinusoidal PWM which is obtained by comparing triangular signal as carrier
wave and sinusoidal signal as reference wave. This block has two output ports out1 and out2 as
given in above figure 3.2, which give complementary outputs to drive MOSFET switch pair.
Output of this block is shown in following figure 3.3.
 Figure 3.3: PWM output of PWM generation block

b) Filter and transformer:

As the output of inverter is not pure sine wave the filter circuit is used to get sinusoidal output
signal. Proper value of LCR component is chosen to get required output. Step up transformer is
used to step up 12V ac to 230V ac which is suitable for grid connection. Output of transformer is
shown in following figure 3.4.
 Figure 3.4: Output voltage waveform of inverter circuit and transformer

3.2 Software Realization

Flow chart used for net metering purpose is shown in figure 3.5 below.
 Figure 3.5: Flow chart for net metering.

Here time = 3/3600 hr which is the least time taken by ATMEGA 32 for ADC conversion, mathematical
calculation and LCD display. Similarly k=10 is scale of current probe and k3=220/6 is transformation
ratio of PT used to measure voltage.
3.3 Proteus Simulation

All the simulation work of net metering is carried out in Proteus. ATMEGA 32 Micro controller is used
for net metering purpose. HEX code is generated in AVR studio and loaded in Micro controller. Proteus
model of net meter and its output is shown in following figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Proteus model of net meter.

Here in LCD

W1 = energy generated by PV inverter.

W2 = energy consumed by load.

Net = W1- W2.

3.3.1 Generator of PWM Signal using Comparator

The diagram showing triangular wave generator and comparator comparing triangular and sine wave is
shown in Figure 3.7 below.

Figure 3.7: Triangular wave generator and comparator

The output of comparator (i.e. PWM signal) along with triangular carrier wave is shown in the Figure 3.8
below.
Figure 3.8: Triangular carrier wave and PWM signal
 CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE DESIGN AND DESCRIPTION

4.1 Implementation of Offset circuit

In our project offset circuit is used to offset the negative voltage. LM741 which is an operational
amplifier is used for this purpose. 1KΩ POT in conjunction with LM741 gives +2.5v dc offset on given
input signal. Operational Amplifier is used here in its inverting mode with gain -1. To sense ac current we
use current probe provided by department with scale 100mV/1A. As output of current probe is equivalent
ac voltage of ac current so it contains negative voltage hence output of current probe cannot be given
directly to Micro-controller. Offset-circuit of following circuit diagram is used to offset negative ac
output of current sensor.

Figure 4.1: Proteus model of +2.5V DC offset circuit.

Two sets of these types of circuit are used to measure two different current probe output.

Gain = -R2/R1.

Even though output of offset circuit is 180 degree out of phase with input voltage it does not make any
error in rms voltage calculation.

POT of 1KΩ gives +1.25v input required for +2.5V offset output.
Current probe gain and offset value is taken care properly during current calculation in programming.

4.2 Implementation of rectifier circuit

Voltage across load is used by transformer of rating 220V/6V. Output of transformer is approximately 9V
peak which cannot be directly to Micro-controller hence we design voltage divider circuit as given in
following figure. The negative voltage present in output of voltage divider circuit is eliminated by the use
of half wave rectifier given below. 0.7V drop in diode is take account within programming.

Figure 4.2: Proteus model of voltage divider circuit.

Output voltage of voltage divider circuit Vout = R2/(R1+R2)*Vin.

Here R2=330KΩ, R1=990KΩ then

Vout = ¼*Vin.

Transformer ratio=220/6.

Micro controller programming for voltage measurement takes care for these ratio to compute exact
voltage across load. In real hardware model the LM741 IC is used at the output of voltage divider circuit
to minimize signal distortion due to interfacing with Micro-controller.

4.3 Implementation of Micro-controller

All necessary mathematical calculation at every load current or inverter current change and net energy
consumption are carried out within Micro-controller ATMEGA32A. This microcontroller is used because
of its easy availability in the market. Also, the requirements of the project and its capacity were found to
be in congruence. This microcontroller features an internal ADC, which provides a greater saving in cost
than the use of external ADC chips. Also, the task of interfacing ADC to microcontroller becomes facile
when an internal ADC is used. Three input signals are given to PORTA (PA0, PA1, PA2) of micro
controller to complete our objective. PORTC (PC0-PC7) is used for display in LCD. Control signals to
LCD is given by the combination of PORTD (PD0-PD2). 16MHz crystal is sufficient for our objective.
Schematic diagram:

Figure 4.3: Proteus model of net meter.

Here in LCD

W1 = energy generated by PV inverter.

W2 = energy consumed by load.

Net = W1- W2.

4.4 ADC Implementation

Computation of net energy means sampling of current and voltage and computing their rms value and
hence computation of power and energy. Single internal ADC of ATMEGA 32 is sufficient for us in spite
of small error. Error is in the sense that ADC takes 13-260 micro seconds for conversion of analog value
to digital so if we need voltage and current of same time this is not possible exactly but not of great error
as well. Three input channel ADC0-ADC2 input (pin number 40, 39, 38) of ATMEGA32 has been used
to read current and voltage and for analog to digital conversion. The ADC of ATMEGA32 is a ten bit
ADC; however the microcontroller is eight bit. So, to ease the task of processing data, only eight bits of
the ADCoutput have been considered. To convert 10 bit digital value to 8 bit digital value, 10 bit result
which is contained in the ADCH and ADCL register have been taken after adding these two values.
External voltage reference of 5 V connected to the AREF pin of ATMEGA32 is used as the reference
voltage for analog to digital conversion. During each sampling duration, the ADC of ATMEGA32
converts the sampled values into 10 bit binary code 8 bit binary code for the signal samples is then
obtained by adding data of ADCH and ADCL.

Equivalent analog value of digital value = (ADC result*5.0)/1024.

4.5 Sampling and RMS value computation:

Frequency of current or voltage wave form is 50Hz. So, as dictated by Nyquist’s sampling theorem, we
require sampling frequency which is at least twice this frequency. In our project we chose sampling
frequency of 128 kHz, thus providing slight oversampling to prevent aliasing effect. This sampling
frequency has been implemented in the microcontroller through ADPS2:0: ADC Prescaler Select Bits of
ATMEGA32. Hence approximately 13 to 260 micro seconds interval sampled data is obtained to us.

We take 400 samples starting from any time of input signal. Then RMS value is computed by using
following relation

RMS value of instantaneous current i (Irms) = .

RMS value of instantaneous voltage v (Vrms) = .

4.6 PCB Design for net meter

Combined PCB’s for offset circuit, rectifier circuit and Microcontroller circuit were designed using PCB
Wizard and live wire. These circuits were transferred to single sided copper PCB board through Toner
Transfer method and etched using Ferric Chloride solution. Finally the spots in the PCB were drilled and
individual components were soldered. The PCB diagram along with real world view and actual circuit
board is shown in figure below:
Figure 4.4: Real world view of net meter PCB circuit.
Figure 4.5: Hardware fabrication of net meter.

Figure 4.6: Output of net meter.

Figure 4.7: Overall hardware view
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

The main objective of our project is to design and fabricate single phase PV inverter with net metering.
For the design of PV inverter, we have used sinusoidal pulse width modulation (PWM) technique and net
metering has also been implemented in the inverter. In order to achieve this objective, a series of steps
were taken. Firstly, the project was designed and evaluated using software such as Proteus and MATLAB.
After achieving satisfactory results, the project was implemented in hardware. The implementation was
found to be successful. It was verified that Net meter was able to measure the net energy consumed by the
unity power factor load. The output of inverter was passed through the LC low pass filter to obtain the
sinusoidal voltage output. The measurement of net energy and sinusoidal output from the inverter implied
the success of the project.

5.2 Recommendation

The net metering system was successfully designed as per the aim of the project. But still we can improve
the performance of this system by further study and enhancement. This system can be further improved to
measure the net power and energy of reactive loads. The following are suggestions for future
enhancement for better performance and reliability of the system:

 By employing extra protection system (a better snubber circuits) for MOSFETswitching

circuit, the reliability of the system can be increased.
 By incorporating the power factor measurement circuit for reactive load.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Muhammad H. Rashid (2001), Power Electronics Handbook, Academic Press

 Prof. Dr. Indra Man Tamrakar, A Course Manual on Power Electronics
 Datasheets of MOSFETs and MOSFET drivers provided in Official International
Rectifier website www.irf.com
 www.alldatasheets.com

View publication stats