SCIENCE REVIEWER

Pointers to Review (By sir Keryx)

1. Reproductive System Male and Female (5 items)
2. Endocrine System (6 items)
3. Menstrual Cycle (3 items)
4. Nervous System (5 items)
5. Protein Synthesis (3 items)
6. Genetic Mutation (5 items)
7. Evidence of Evolution (3 items)
8. Geologic time scale (6 items)
9. Biodiversity (5 items)
10. Population and Diversities (5 items)
11. Anthropogenic Factor to Biodiversity (4 items)

PURELY MULTIPLE CHOICE (50 item exam)

UNIT 3, MODULE 1: LIVING THINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

NERVOUS SYSTEM
*Your Nervous System connects all your body parts and transmit signal from one part to another. It is a system
of cells, tissues, organs that regulates the body’s responses to internal and external stimuli.
MAJOR DIVISION AND PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
-The CNS serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system. It consists of two main
components. Brain and Spinal Cord
a. Brain-This is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of
information for the body.

3 Main Parts
*Cerebrum-Large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought.
*Cerebellum-The part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance and coordination
*Brain Stem- The part that connects the Brain to Spinal Cord and controls automatic breathing,
digestion, heart rate and blood pressure.
b. Spinal Cord- This serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body, and
controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

-The PNS connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs. It has 2 main divisions:

a. Somatic Nervous System

-This system is associated with voluntary control of body movements and has two main parts:
*Spinal Nerves- The nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the
Body.
 *Cranial Nerves- The nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.

b. Autonomic Nervous System

-This system is associated with the involuntary control of the body movements and has two
subdivisions:
*Sympathetic- It is activated when the body is a dynamic role or Stress (ex. Increased heart rate)
*Parasympathetic- It maintains body function and restores the body to normal or relaxed mode.

4 lobes of the brain:

1. Frontal Lobe- Reasoning, Motor Control, emotion and language
2. Temporal Lobe- Hearing, memory, emotion and some aspects of language
3. Occipital Lobe- Interpreting incoming visual information
4. Parietal Lobe- Processing of sensory information, understanding spatial orientation and body awareness

THE NERVE CELL

-The basic unit of the nervous system is the NERVE CELL. Nerve cells are called NEURONS. There are
billions of nerve cell in the body. There are 12-14 billion of neurons in the body.

DENDRITES
-Carry impulses towards the cell body. A cell may have as many as 200 DENDRITES carrying impulses
towards the cell body. A single dendrite can be 1 meter long.

AXONS
-Carry impulses away from the cell body. Pass impulses to the dendrites of other neurons or cell body of muscle
cells. Can be grouped together into cable-like bundles called NERVES.

*NEURONS are cells with the special ability to carry signals or impulses.
*NERVE IMPULSE is a combination of an electrical charge and a chemical reaction.
*A place between neurons is called SYNAPSE.
*A STIMULUS is any factor in the environment that influences behavior.
*A RESPONSE is a reaction to a condition or stimulus.
*An ORGANISM must be able to respond to a stimulus in order to survive.
*REACTION TIME is the length of time between application of a stimulus and detection of a response.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
-In control of the mechanisms in the body that slowly takes place, such as cell growth.
-Composed of glands that secrete different types of hormones that affect almost every cell, organ, and function
of our body. It is essential regulating growth and development, metabolism, as well as reproductive processes
and mood.
HORMONES
-AFFECT various processes in the body as they regulate and balance the functioning of organs, tissues, and
cells.
-Have GREAT IMPACT on your growth, appearance, emotions, and reproductive functions.
-These determine whether you DEVELOP DISORDERS such as diabetes, thyroid disease, growth disorders,
or sexual dysfunction.
-An INCREASE OR DECREASE in hormonal levels may result in body disorder due to hormonal imbalance.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
-The system involved in sexual reproduction is called the reproductive system.

PART FUNCTION
Testis Produces sperm cells.
Scrotum Sac of skin That holds the testis.
Penis Deposits sperms into the vagina during mating.
Vas Deferens (tube) Carries sperm from testes to urethra.
Urethra Carries sperm and urine out of the body.
Glands Provide liquid in which sperm can swim.

A. Seminal Vesicle A. Secretes a fluid that makes up most of the

components of the semen.
B. Prostate Gland B. Secretes a slightly alkaline milky fluid that is
discharged as part of the semen.
C. Bulbourethral Gland C. Secretes a thick and clear mucus that
lubricates and neutralizes the any trace of
acidic urine in the urethra.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Produces female sex cells.
2. Receives sperm cells from the male.
3. Natures the development of and provides nourishment for the new individual.
 PART FUNCTION

Ovary Produces egg cells.

Oviduct Serves as passageway of eggs from the ovary to the
uterus; site of egg fertilization.
Uterus Serves as site of egg implantation; is where the
fertilized egg develops.
Vagina Receives the penis of male during mating.

*PUBERTY involves the onset of sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce.

THE ROLES OF HORMONES IN FEMALE AND MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

*HORMONES play an important role in both male and female reproductive systems.
*The PITUITARY GLAND controls the functions of both the testes and the ovaries.
*These HORMONES keep the reproductive system properly functioning.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
*On average, ovary releases only one egg every 28 DAYS.
*HORMONES control many of the changes in the reproductive system.
*The monthly changes that take place in the female reproductive system are called MENSTRUATION.
*This cycle occurs EVERY MONTH from the onset which could happen when a female is between 10-13
years old.
*The monthly cycle continues for about 40 YEARS.

DID YOU KNOW? Menstrual Cramps are the results of the strong contractions of the uterine wall that occur
before and during menstruation.

*A FEEDBACK MECHANISM is the process through which the level of one substance influences the level
of another substance.
*A NEGATIVE FEEDBACK affects the production of hormones in the menstrual cycle.
HOMEOSTASIS is the state reached when each part of the body functions in equilibrium with other parts.
This is attained through the regulation of the bodily functions by the endocrine and nervous system.

To achieve homeostasis, the nervous and endocrine systems maintain a normal range of the ff variables:
1. Body Temperature
2. Amount of water in the body
3. Amount of metabolic wastes in the cell
4. Blood calcium level
5. Hormones in the blood

UNIT 3, MODULE 2: HEREDITY; INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

Basis of Comparison DNA RNA

1. Number of strands 2 1
2. Location in the cell Nucleus cytoplasm
3. Type of sugar deoxyribose Ribose
4. Nitrogenous base pair A, T, C, G A, U, C, G

*A DNA is a double helix molecule composed of complementary

strands of deoxyribonucleotides units. The complementary base
pairs of the DNA are held by hydrogen bonds.
*RNA is single stranded.
*Examples of RNA types include mRNA, rRNA and tRNA.
*In DNA, adenine always bond with thymine and cytosine bonds
with guanine.
*In RNA, adenine bonds with uracil, and cytosine bonds with
guanine.

REPLICATION
-In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick worked out that DNA is double helix like a twisted staircase.
- 2 sugar phosphates backbones make up the slides
-Base pairs make up the rungs or steps of the twisted staircase.
-DNA is copied during interphase prior to mitosis and meiosis. It is important that new copies are exactly like
the original molecule.
-The process of making copies of DNA is called REPLICATION.
 The central dogma of transfer of genetic information.

*DNA is made up of sugars, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases and its shape is a double helix. The
complementary structure the 2 strands of DNA allow each strand to serve as a template during replication.
*The specificity of base pairings in DNA, adenine with thymine, and cytosine with guanine, allows DNA to
replicate itself with accuracy.

TRANSCRIPTION
*The sequence of nucleotides in DNA directs the order of nucleotides in messenger RNA in a process called
TRANSCRIPTION.
*There are 3 major types of RNA that help build proteins: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA.
*The mRNA carries the information in DNA to the ribosomes found in the cytoplasm.

TRANSLATION
*The DNA directs the production of proteins and determines the formation of mRNA. The order of bases of
mRNA determines the protein synthesized.
*The process of converting the information in messenger RNA into a sequence of amino acids that make a
protein is known as TRANSLATION
*The role of transfer RNA (tRNA) is to bring the amino acids in the cytoplasm to the ribosomes to make
proteins.

*Each group of three nucleotide bases represents CODON in a DNA or mRNA that corresponds to a specific
amino acid or a start/stop signal.
*Each AMINO ACID that will form the protein molecule to be synthesized determined by the triplet code or
codon on the mRNA.
MUTATION
-May be induced by factors called MUTAGENS.
-MUTAGENS Are commonly in the form of toxic chemicals and harmful radiation.
-Can occur in 2 different type of cells: REPRODUCTIVE AND BODY CELLS.
-only MUTATIONS in sex cells pass on to offspring. Mutations in non sex cells only are not hereditary.

*Abnormalities in chromosomal structure may occur during meiosis.

*Changes that affect the structure of chromosomes can cause problems with growth, development, and function
of the body’s system.
*The Gain or loss of chromosome material can lead to variety of genetic disorders.

A. Cri du chat- is caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5.
-French, and the condition is so named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that
Sound like a cat.
-Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, are moderately to severely
Mentally retarded, and very short.

B. Down’s Syndrome- is usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21).

-Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull,
Slanting eyes and mild to moderate mental retardation.

C. Edwards Syndrome- which is the second most common trisomy after Down’s Syndrome, is a
Trisomy of chromosome 18.
-Symptoms include mental and motor retardation and numerous congenital
anomalies causing serious health problems.
-They have a characteristic hand appearance with clenched hands and overlapping
fingers.

D. Jacobsen Syndrome- is also called terminal 11q deletion disorder. This is a very rare disorder.
-Those affected have normal intelligence or mild mental retardation, with poor
Or excessive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called PARIS-
TROUSSEAU SYNDROME.
E. Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY)- Men with this condition are usually sterile and tend to have longer
Arms and legs and to be taller than their peers.
- They are often shy and quiet and have a higher incidence
Of speech delay.
F. Turner’s Syndrome (X INSTEAD OF XX OR XY)

- Female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped.

-They often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a
“caved-in” appearance to the chest.

HUMAN KARYOTYPING
*Some of the abnormalities associated with chromosome structure and number can be detected by a test
called karyotype.
*A karyotype is an image of the full sets of chromosomes of an individual that displays the normal
number, size, and shape.
*The normal human karyotypes contain 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex
chromosomes. Normal karyotypes for females contain two X chromosomes and are denoted 46, XX;
males have both an X and a Y chromosome denoted 46, XY.

GENETIC ENGINEERING
*When DNA from two different species are joined, it is called RECOMBINANT DNA. This process
uses restriction enzymes to cleave one organism’s DNA into fragments and other enzymes to splice the
DNA fragment into a plasmid or viral DNA.
*Genetic engineering is the process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to alter the genetic
makeup of an organism.
UNIT 3, MODULE 3: BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

SOURCES OF EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

*Organisms inhabiting the Earth have changed overtime, their structures, traits and abilities allowed
them to adapt and survive in their environment.
*Data from the fossil records, anatomy and morphology, embryonic development and biochemistry
could be analyzed to demonstrate if evolution of life on Earth has taken place.

EVIDENCE FROM FOSSIL RECORDS

*Fossils are examples of evidences that paleontologists use in studying evolution.
*They are traces of organisms that lived in the past and were preserved by natural process of
catastrophic events.
*Paleontologist is a person who studies fossils.

*Most fossils were commonly found in sedimentary rocks. They were from the hard parts of the
organisms like woody stem, bones, or teeth.
*Another type of fossil is an imprint or impression. Imprints are shallow external molds left by
animal or plant tissues with little or no organic materials present. Compression is the other side with
more organic material.

IMPRESSION COMPRESSION

DETERMINING THE AGE OF FOSSILS

*Paleontologists make initial estimates of the age through the position in the sedimentary rocks.
*Fossils found in the bottom layer are much older than those found in upper layer of rocks.

*Relative dating is a method used to determine the age of the rocks by comparing them with the rocks
in the outer layer.
*The younger sedimentary rock layer is assumed to be found on top and the older rock is found at the
bottom layer.
*The fossils of invertebrates found at the bottom part of the rock layer suggests that invertebrates are
probably one of the first and oldest organisms that lived on Earth.

*Another method is using radioactive isotopes such as carbon-14.

*Radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks using the decay of radioactive
isotopes present in rocks.

*All organisms have decaying carbon-14 in it.

 *When an organism dies, carbon-14 starts to decay.
*Carbon dating is used to tell the age of organic materials. Art collectors use carbon dating to
determine if a piece of artwork is genuine or not.

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

-Shows major events in the Earth’s history. It also shows the appearance of various kinds of organisms
in a period on Earth.
*ERA is the largest division of Geologic Time Scale, namely Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
*EACH ERA is further divided into period.

HINT OF EVOLUTION FROM COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

*Structures from different species which have similar internal framework, position and embryonic development
are considered to be homologous.
*Homologous structures may perform diff. functions in the species living in the different environment, or it
may have the same origin but diff. functions.
EXAMPLE: FORELIMBS OF DOG, BIRD, LIZARD AND WHALE
*Analogous Structures have similar functions but different origin.
EXAMPLE: WINGS OF BIRDS, BATS AND INSECTS

*The presence of homologous structures is a strong indicator that the organisms evolved from Common
ancestors. This type of evolution is called DIVERGENT EVOLUTION.
*DIVERGENT EVOLUTION is the splitting of an ancestral population into two or more sub-populations that
are geographically isolated from one another.
*Convergence is an increase in similarities among species derived from different ancestors as a result of similar
adaptation to similar environment.

THE GREATER THE SIMILARITY IN AMINO ACID SEQUENCE, THE CLOSER THE RELATIONSHIP OF
THE ORGANISMS. THE ORGANISMS WHICH AE SIMILAR IN STRUCTURE AND ALSO POSSESS
SIMILARITY AT THE BIOCHEMICAL LEVEL COULD PROBABLY HAVE A COMMON ANCESTOR.

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
-JEAN BAPTISTE DE LAMARCK was the first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time
-Was able to develop 3 theories. (The theory of need, the theory of Use and Disuse and the Theory of
Acquired Characteristics)
1. The theory of need- Organisms change in response to their environment.
2. The theory of Use and Disuse- Organs not in use will disappear while organs in use will develop.
3. The theory of Acquired Characteristics- Were believed to be inherited by their offspring’s and propagated
By the next generation of giraffes.

MANY SCIENTISTS REJECTED THE THEORIES OF LAMARCK. THEY UNDERSTOOD THAT IF

THERE WERE CHANGES IN CELL OR BODY STRUCTURE, THERE COULD BE CHANGES IN
GENETIC INFORMATION OF THE SPECIES.

*VARIATION increases the chance of survival of living things.

PPT FOR EVOLUTION
https://l.facebook.com/l.php
?u=https%3A%2F
%2Fapi.edmodo.com
%2Ffiles
%2F992005932%2Fdownloa
d%3Ff
%3D4iygaqm5c6cnfv0qfbvjf
qjpu%26access_token
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE (EDMODO)
Giving Time a Name
The largest sections are called “eons”.
“Eons” are divided into “eras” (the 2nd largest
section).
“Eras” are divided into “periods”.
‘Periods’ are divided into ‘epochs”

Eons
Largest, most general division of time. 2 Eons The eons are: Cryptozoic
(Precambrian) eon and Phanerozoic eon.
Precambrian and Phanerozoic eon both consists of three eras

Eras
Each Eon is broken up into Eras. Major eras in Earth’s history:
Archean (4600 mya - 2500 mya)
Proterozoic (2500 mya - 540 mya)
Paleozoic (540mya - 250mya)
Mesozoic (250 mya - 65.5 mya) Cenozoic (65.5 mya – present)
*mya refers to million years ago.

Periods
Each Era is divided into even more specific blocks of time called periods.
Various geologic events are associated with each period.
Each period is again classified into different epochs.

How is time Divided?

Major changes in Earth’s history mark the boundaries between the sections.
Most sections have been divided because a major organism developed or went extinct in each section.

Cryptozoic eon (Precambrian time)

Lasted from 540 million years ago to 4600 million years ago.
Oldest and longest (covers almost 90% of earth’s history).
simple organisms- bacteria, algae, protozoa were born.
Oldest rocks that we know were found in this eon which dates to about 3.5 billion years old.
Divided into 2 eras: Proterozoic and Archean era.

Archean era
Lasted from 2500 million years ago – 4600 million years ago.
Earliest plants (marine algae) developed.
The first life bacteria came into existence (3800 million years ago).
The oldest rocks (3500 million years ago) were formed in this era.

Proterozoic era
Lasted from 540 million years ago to 2500 million years ago.
Marine invertebrates were probably common, few with shells.
Glaciations took place in this era, probably worldwide.

Phanerozoic eon
Began from 540 million years ago and is continuing today.
Divided into three eras:
i) Paleozoic era (Past life)
ii) Mesozoic era (Middle life)
iii)Cenozoic era (Present life)
Paleozoic Era
Began 570 million years ago and ended 250 million years ago.
Divided into 6 periods (Permian, Carboniferous period, Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician, Cambrian).
For the first time on Earth, organisms had hard parts (shells, exoskeletons).
Evolution and development of pteridophytes, amphibians, reptiles, fishes, wing bearing insects, trilobites etc.
Mesozoic era
Lasted from 250 million years ago to 65 million years ago.
Popularly known as Time of Reptiles.
Divided into three periods: Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
Dinosaurs, mammals and gymnosperms appeared.

Cenozoic era
From 65 million years ago to present days.
Divided into two periods: Tertiary and Quarterly.
Development of modern mammals, angiosperms and human beings.

IMPORTANT PERIODS IN THE HISTORY OF EARTH

i) Carboniferous Period
It lasted from 360 million years to 300 Million years. It is an important period of Paleozoic era.
During this period, first reptiles
and pteridophytes were formed
and coal plants got spread. The
dead bodies got buried in this period forming the coals that we use today.

ii) Permian
It lied between 300 million years to 250 million years. It is also an important period of Paleozoic
era. Largest mass extinction happened in this period. Scientists are not sure what caused this mass extinction
(maybe climate change & volcanoes). 90% of ocean life and 78% of land life died.

iii) Jurassic
Jurassic is an important
period of Mesozoic era. It lasted from 250 million years ago to 200 million years ago. During this period, first
birds and mammals were formed. Gymnosperms were dominating plants. The dinosaurs were formed in
Triassic period reached at their peak in this period.

iv) Cretaceous
It is a period of Mesozoic era which lasted from 150 million years ago to 65.5 million years ago. It marked the
end of the Mesozoic Era and the beginning of the Cenozoic Era. All the dinosaurs and half of the other animals
& plants went extinct in this period. Scientists think an asteroid hit Earth, the dust clouds blocked out the sun.
As a result, plants died, then herbivores, then carnivores.

v) Quaternary period
It is a period of Cenozoic era which has been lasting from 1.8 million years ago to present days. In this period,
the humans evolved as the most intelligent creature of earth and took over. It is divided into 2 epochs namely:
Pleistocene and Holocene.
UNIT 3, MODULE 4: BIODIVERSITY: ECOSYSTEM
*BIODIVERSITY is a term that describes how varied living things are in a specific area.
*ORGANISMS are part of biodiversity and may be economically and ecologically valuable.

Value of species can be divided into various categories

1. Direct Economic value- If their products are sources of food, medicine, clothing, shelter and energy.
2. Indirect Economic value- If there are benefits produced by the organism without using them.
3. Aesthetic Value- May be used for spiritual meditation.

*STABILITY of an ecosystem can be described as the resilience to withstand changes that may occur in the
environment.

*The number of births in a population is called Birth rate.

*The number of organisms that are dying in a population is called Death rate.
YOU ARE CAPABLE OF AMAZING THINGS, GOOD LUCK!