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used to gather and increase the signal integrity of physiologic electrical activity for output to
various sources. It may be an independent unit, or integrated into the electrodes.
Electrocardiography[edit]
Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) records the electrical activity of the heart, across the
surface of the thorax skin. The signals are detected by electrodes attached to the surface of
the skin and recorded by a device external to the body.[5]
The amplitude of ECG ranges from 0.3 to 2 mV for the QRS complex, which is used to
determine the interbeat interval from which the frequency is derived. The typical
requirements for the amplifiers to be used in ECG include:[1]
Design[edit]
Acquiring signals[edit]
Nowadays, mostly digital amplifiers are used to record biosignals. The amplification process
does not only depend on the performance and specifications of the amplifier device, but
also closely binds to the types of electrodes to attach on the subject's body. Types of
electrode materials and the mount position of electrodes affect the acquirement of the
signals.[12] Multielectrode arrays are also used, in which multiple electrodes are arranged in
an array.
Electrodes made with certain materials tend to perform better by increasing surface area of
the electrodes. For instance, Indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes have less surface area than
those made with other materials, like titanium nitride. More surface area results in reducing
impedance of electrode, then neurons signals are obtained easier. ITO electrodes tend to
be flat with a relatively small surface area, and are often electroplated with platinum to
increase surface area and improve signal-to-area ratio.[13]
Digital amplifiers and filters are produced small enough nowadays to be combined with
electrodes, serving as preamplifiers. The need for preamplifiers is clear in that the signals
that neurons (or any other organs) produce are weak. Therefore, preamplifiers preferably
are to be placed near the source of the signals, where the electrodes are adjacent to.
Another advantage for having preamplifiers close to the signal source is that the long wires
lead to significant interference or noise. Therefore, it is best to have the wires as short as
possible.[13]
However, when wider bands are needed, for instance a very high (action potentials) or a
low frequency (local field potentials), they could be filtered digitally, perhaps with second-
stage analog amplifier before being digitized. There may be some drawbacks when several
amplifiers in cascade. It depends on the type, analog or digital. However, in general, filters
cause time-delay and amendments are needed to have signals in sync. Also, as extra
complexity is added, it costs more money. In terms of digital amplifiers, a lot of works that
the laboratories do are feeding back signals to the networks in closed loop, real-time. As a
result, more time is needed to apply on signals when there are more digital amplifiers on the
way. One solution is using field-programmable gate array (FPGA), the “blank slate”
integrated circuit that is written whatever on it. Using FPGA sometimes reduces a need to
use computers, resulting in a speed-up of filtering. Another problem with cascaded filters
occurs when the maximum output of the first filter is smaller than the raw signals, and the
second filter has a higher maximum output that the first filter. In that case, it is impossible to
recognize if the signals have reached the maximum output or not.[13]
Design challenges[edit]
The trend with the development in electrodes and amplifiers has been reducing its size for
better transportability, as well as making them implantable on the skin for prolonged
recording of the signals. Preamplifiers, head-stage amplifiers stay the same except that they
should have different form-factors. They should be lightweight, waterproof, not scratching
skin or scalp from parts that they need to mount themselves, and they should dissipate heat
well. Heat dissipation is a big issue, because extra heat may cause in the temperature of
nearby tissue to rise, potentially causing a change in the physiology of the tissue. One of
the solutions to dissipate heat is the usage of the Peltier device.[13] Peltier device,
uses Peltier effect or thermoelectric effect to create a heat flux between the two different
types of materials. A Peltier device actively pumps the heat from one side to the other side
of the device, consuming electrical energy. Conventional cooling using compressed
gases would not be a feasible option for cooling down an individual integrated circuit,
because it needs many other devices to operate such as evaporator, compressor and
condenser. Overall, a compressor-based system is more for a large-scale cooling jobs, and
is not viable for small-scale system like bioamplifiers. The passive cooling, like heat sink
and fan, only limits the rise of temperature above the ambient condition, while Peltier
devices can actively pull heat right out of a thermal load, just like compressor-based cooling
systems. Also, Peltier devices can be manufactured at sizes well below 8 mm square,
therefore they can be integrated to the bioamplifiers without making them to lose mobility.[
Isolation Amplifier
Isolation amplifiers are known as Pre-amplifier isolation circuits.
An isolation amplifier increases the input impedance of a patient
monitoring system. It also helps to isolate the patient from the
device. Using the isolation amplifier prevents accidental internal
cardiac shock. It provides up to 1012 Ω insulation between the
patient and the power line in the hospital.