A Bioamplifier is an electrophysiological device, a variation of the instrumentation amplifier,

used to gather and increase the signal integrity of physiologic electrical activity for output to
various sources. It may be an independent unit, or integrated into the electrodes.

Electrocardiography[edit]
Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) records the electrical activity of the heart, across the
surface of the thorax skin. The signals are detected by electrodes attached to the surface of
the skin and recorded by a device external to the body.[5]
The amplitude of ECG ranges from 0.3 to 2 mV for the QRS complex, which is used to
determine the interbeat interval from which the frequency is derived. The typical
requirements for the amplifiers to be used in ECG include:[1]

 Low internal noise (<2 mV)

 High Input Impedance (Zin > 10 MΩ)
 Bandwidth ranging from 0.16–250 Hz
 Bandwidth cutoffs (>18 dB/octave).
 Notch filter (50 or 60 Hz, depending on country/region)
 Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR > 107 dB)
 Common mode input range (CMR ± 200 mV)
 Static electricity shock protection (>2000 V).
Electromyography[edit]
Electromyography (EMG) records the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles. It
records various types of muscle signals from simple relaxation by using placing electrodes
on the subject's forehead, to complex neuromuscular feedback during stroke rehabilitation.
The EMG signals are acquired from the electrodes applied over or nearby the muscles to be
monitored. The electrodes delegates signals to the amplifier unit, usually consisting of high
performance differential amplifiers. The usual types of the signal of the interest are in the
range of 0.1–2000 mV amplitude, over a bandwidth of about 25–500 Hz.[1]
Although many electrodes still connect to an amplifier using wires, some amplifiers are
small enough to mount directly on the electrode. Some minimal specifications for a modern
EMG amplifier includes:[1]

 Low internal noise (<0.5 mV)

 High input impedance (>100 MΩ)
 Flat bandwidth and sharp high and low frequency cutoffs (>18 dB/octave).
 High common mode rejection ratio (CMRR > 107 dB)
 Common mode input range (CMR > ±200 mV)
 Static electricity shock protection (>2000 V)
 Gain stability > ±1%
Electroencephalography[edit]
Electroencephalography (EEG) instrumentation is similar to EMG instrumentation in terms
of involving the placement of many surface electrodes on the patient's skin, specifically, on
scalp. While EMG acquires the signals from muscles below the skin, EEG attempts to
acquire signals on the patient's scalp, generated by brain cells. Simultaneously, EEG
records the summed activity of tens of thousands to millions of neurons. As the amplifiers
became small enough to integrate with the electrodes, EEG has become to have the
potential for long term use as a brain-computer interface, because the electrodes can be
kept on the scalp indefinitely. The temporal and spatial resolutions and signal to noise ratios
of EEG have always lagged behind those of comparable intracortical devices, but it has the
advantage of not requiring surgery.[6]
High performance differential amplifiers are used for amplification. Signals of interest are in
the range of 10 µV to 100 µV, over the frequency range of 1–50 Hz. Similar to EMG
amplifiers,[1] EEG benefits from the usage of integrated circuit. The chances of EEG is also
mainly from the asymmetrical placement of electrodes, which leads to increased noise or
offset.[7] Some minimal specifications for a modern EEG amplifier includes:[1]

 Low internal voltage and current noise(<1 mV, 100 pA)

 High input impedance (>108 MΩ)
 Bandwidth (1–50 Hz)
 Frequency cutoffs (>18 dB/octave)
 High common mode rejection ratio (>107)
 Common mode input range (greater than ±200 mV).
 Static electricity shock protection (>2000 V)
 Gain stability > ±1%
Galvanic skin response[edit]
Galvanic skin response is a measurement of the electrical conductance of the skin, which is
directly influenced by how much the skin is moist. Since the sweat glands are controlled by
the sympathetic nervous system, the skin conductance is crucial in measuring the
psychological or physiological arousal.[8] The arousal and the eccrine sweat gland activity
are clinically found to have direct relation. High skin conductance due to sweating can be
used to predict that the subject is in a highly aroused state, either psychologically or
physiologically, or both.[9]
Galvanic skin response can be measured either as resistance, called skin resistance activity
(SRA) or skin conductance activity (SCA), which is a reciprocal of SRA. Both SRA and SCA
include two types of responses: the average level and the short-term phasic response. Most
modern instruments measure conductance, although they both can be displayed with the
conversion made in circuitry or software.[1]
Other[edit]
Electrocorticography (ECoG) records the cumulative activity of hundreds to thousands of
neurons with a sheet of electrodes placed directly on the surface of the brain. In addition to
requiring surgery and having low resolution, the ECoG device is wired, meaning the scalp
cannot be completely closed, increasing the risk of infection. However, researchers
investigating ECoG claim that the grid "possesses characteristics suitable for long term
implantation".[6]
The neurotrophic electrode is a wireless device that transmits its signals transcutaneously.
In addition, it has demonstrated longevity of over four years in a human patient, because
every component is completely biocompatible. It is limited in the amount of information it
can provide, however, because the electronics it uses to transmit its signal (based
around differential amplifiers) require so much space on the scalp that only four can fit on a
human skull.[10]
In one experiment, Dr. Kennedy adapted the neurotrophic electrode to read local field
potentials (LFPs). He demonstrated that they are capable of controlling assistive technology
devices, suggesting that less invasive techniques can be used to restore functionality to
locked-in patients. However, the study did not address the degree of control possible with
LFPs or make a formal comparison between LFPs and single unit activity.[11]
Alternatively, the Utah array is currently a wired device, but transmits more information. It
has been implanted in a human for over two years and consists of 100 conductive silicon
needle-like electrodes, so it has high resolution and can record from many individual
neurons.[6]

Design[edit]
Acquiring signals[edit]
Nowadays, mostly digital amplifiers are used to record biosignals. The amplification process
does not only depend on the performance and specifications of the amplifier device, but
also closely binds to the types of electrodes to attach on the subject's body. Types of
electrode materials and the mount position of electrodes affect the acquirement of the
signals.[12] Multielectrode arrays are also used, in which multiple electrodes are arranged in
an array.
Electrodes made with certain materials tend to perform better by increasing surface area of
the electrodes. For instance, Indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes have less surface area than
those made with other materials, like titanium nitride. More surface area results in reducing
impedance of electrode, then neurons signals are obtained easier. ITO electrodes tend to
be flat with a relatively small surface area, and are often electroplated with platinum to
increase surface area and improve signal-to-area ratio.[13]
Digital amplifiers and filters are produced small enough nowadays to be combined with
electrodes, serving as preamplifiers. The need for preamplifiers is clear in that the signals
that neurons (or any other organs) produce are weak. Therefore, preamplifiers preferably
are to be placed near the source of the signals, where the electrodes are adjacent to.
Another advantage for having preamplifiers close to the signal source is that the long wires
lead to significant interference or noise. Therefore, it is best to have the wires as short as
possible.[13]
However, when wider bands are needed, for instance a very high (action potentials) or a
low frequency (local field potentials), they could be filtered digitally, perhaps with second-
stage analog amplifier before being digitized. There may be some drawbacks when several
amplifiers in cascade. It depends on the type, analog or digital. However, in general, filters
cause time-delay and amendments are needed to have signals in sync. Also, as extra
complexity is added, it costs more money. In terms of digital amplifiers, a lot of works that
the laboratories do are feeding back signals to the networks in closed loop, real-time. As a
result, more time is needed to apply on signals when there are more digital amplifiers on the
way. One solution is using field-programmable gate array (FPGA), the “blank slate”
integrated circuit that is written whatever on it. Using FPGA sometimes reduces a need to
use computers, resulting in a speed-up of filtering. Another problem with cascaded filters
occurs when the maximum output of the first filter is smaller than the raw signals, and the
second filter has a higher maximum output that the first filter. In that case, it is impossible to
recognize if the signals have reached the maximum output or not.[13]
Design challenges[edit]
The trend with the development in electrodes and amplifiers has been reducing its size for
better transportability, as well as making them implantable on the skin for prolonged
recording of the signals. Preamplifiers, head-stage amplifiers stay the same except that they
should have different form-factors. They should be lightweight, waterproof, not scratching
skin or scalp from parts that they need to mount themselves, and they should dissipate heat
well. Heat dissipation is a big issue, because extra heat may cause in the temperature of
nearby tissue to rise, potentially causing a change in the physiology of the tissue. One of
the solutions to dissipate heat is the usage of the Peltier device.[13] Peltier device,
uses Peltier effect or thermoelectric effect to create a heat flux between the two different
types of materials. A Peltier device actively pumps the heat from one side to the other side
of the device, consuming electrical energy. Conventional cooling using compressed
gases would not be a feasible option for cooling down an individual integrated circuit,
because it needs many other devices to operate such as evaporator, compressor and
condenser. Overall, a compressor-based system is more for a large-scale cooling jobs, and
is not viable for small-scale system like bioamplifiers. The passive cooling, like heat sink
and fan, only limits the rise of temperature above the ambient condition, while Peltier
devices can actively pull heat right out of a thermal load, just like compressor-based cooling
systems. Also, Peltier devices can be manufactured at sizes well below 8 mm square,
therefore they can be integrated to the bioamplifiers without making them to lose mobility.[

Why is Bio Amplifier Required?

Generally, biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude and low
frequency. Therefore, to increase the amplitude level of biosignals
amplifiers are designed. The outputs from these amplifiers are used
for further analysis and they appear as ECG, EMG, or any bioelectric
waveforms. Such amplifiers are defined as Bio Amplifiers or
Biomedical Amplifiers.

Basic Requirements for Biological Amplifiers

 1. The biological amplifier should have a high input impedance
value. The range of value lies between 2 MΩ and 10 MΩ
depending on the applications. Higher impedance value reduces
distortion of the signal.
2. When electrodes pick up biopotentials from the human body,
the input circuit should be protected. Every bio-amplifier should
consist of isolation and protection circuits, to prevent the
patients from electrical shocks.
3. Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in millivolts or microvolt
range, the voltage gain value of the amplifier should be higher than
100dB.
4. Throughout the entire bandwidth range, a constant gain should be
maintained.
5. A bio-amplifier should have a small output impedance.
6. A good bio-amplifier should be free from drift and noise.
7. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) value of amplifier should be
greater than 80dB to reduce the interference from common mode signal.
8. The gain of the bio-amplifier should be calibrated for each
measurement.
Types of Bio Amplifiers
1. Differential Amplifier
2. Operational Amplifier
3. Instrumentation Amplifier
4. Chopper Amplifier
5. Isolation Amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier
In biomedical applications, high gain and the high input impedance
are attained with an instrumentation amplifier. Usually, a 3-amplifier
setup forms the instrumentation amplifier circuit. The output from the
transducer is given as input to the instrumentation amplifier. Before
the signal goes to the next stage, a special amplifier is required with
high CMRR, high input impedance and to avoid loading effects. Such
a special amplifier is an instrumentation amplifier, which does all the
required process.

To each input of the differential amplifier, the non-inverting

amplifier is connected. From the figure, the amplifier on the left
side acts as non-inverting amplifiers. They are combined
together to form the input stage of the instrumentation amplifier.
The third op-amp is the difference amplifier, and it is the output
of the instrumentation amplifier. The output from the difference
amplifier Vout is the difference between two input signals given at
the input points. VO1 is the output from op-amp 1 and VO2 is the
output from op-amp 2.

Isolation Amplifier
Isolation amplifiers are known as Pre-amplifier isolation circuits.
An isolation amplifier increases the input impedance of a patient
monitoring system. It also helps to isolate the patient from the
device. Using the isolation amplifier prevents accidental internal
cardiac shock. It provides up to 1012 Ω insulation between the
patient and the power line in the hospital.

The electrical signals are obtained with electrodes. The signals

received goes to the amplifier block, where signals amplification
occurs. After amplification, the signal enters the modulation
block. When either it goes to the isolation barrier, optical cable or
transformer can be used. If in case of optical cable, modulator
output travels to LED. The LED converts electrical signals into
 light energy. If the transformer acts an isolation barrier,
modulator output connects the primary winding of the
transformer. Energy from primary transfers to the secondary
winding based on the mutual induction principle. At the next
stage, secondary output enters the demodulation block. Finally,
the amplified demodulated signal is obtained.
ECG Isolation Amplifier
During ECG measurement, signals generated from all leads are sent to
the low pass filter. This filter is named as Electro surgery filters
because it decreases the interference between electrosurgery and radio
frequency. Next block is the high voltage and overvoltage protection
that can withstand large voltage during defibrillation.
Proceeding further, it goes to Lead Selector Switch block, which
selects the required configuration. Lead selection output goes to the
DC amplifier. We have a transformer, whose primary winding is
connected to the oscillator and secondary to rectifier and filter. ECG
signal is modulated with the Synchronous modulator. The second
transformer delivers the output from the synchronous modulator to
the synchronous demodulator. The output from the demodulator is
fed as input to the power amplifier.
Chopper Amplifier for Biomedical
Instrumentation
When recording biopotentials noise and drift are the two problems
encountered. Noise is due to the recording device and by the patient
when they move. Drift is a shift in baseline created due to various
thermal effects. A DC amplifier has a shift or sudden peak in the
output when the input is zero. Therefore, a chopper amplifier solves
the problems of drift in DC amplifiers. The name Chop means to
sample the data. The amplifier circuit samples the analog signal. So it
is known as chopper amplifier.
The general diagram of a chopper amplifier is as shown below. The
first block chopper accepts the DC input signal and converts them to
an AC signal. The AC amplifier block amplifies the chopped AC
signal.
Next, in the demodulator rectifier block, an amplified chopped AC
signal is converted to amplified DC signal.
Chopper amplifier is classified into two types. Mechanical and non-
mechanical choppers. The chopper converts DC or low-frequency
signal to high-frequency signal. An AC amplifier amplifies the
modulated high-frequency signal. The amplified signal is
demodulated and filtered to obtain the low frequency or DC signal.

Mechanical Chopper Amplifier

From the figure, chopper S1 acts as electromagnetically operated

switch or relay. ‘A’ is the AC amplifier that has an input terminal and
a ground terminal. ‘Q’ acts as reference term. Chopper acts a switch,
so it connects the amplifier input terminal alternatively to reference
term Q. Consider a condition in which chopper S1 is closed. At this
position, the amplifier input terminal connects to Q1. The entire circuit
is short-circuited, so input voltage is zero. Now, let us consider the
reverse operation when chopper S1 is open. The AC amplifier starts
receiving the signal from P terminal. Finally, the amplifier input has
an alternating voltage that varies between zero and input voltage. At
this stage, conversion of DC signal to square wave pulse occurs with
amplification. Diode ‘D’ rectifies the chopped signal.
After rectification, the rectified signal is filtered and amplified. At the
output terminal M and N, the amplified DC output signal occurs.
Chopping or sampling rate determines the chopper response time.

In comparison with mechanical type, a non-mechanical chopper uses

photodiodes or photoconductors for modulation (convert DC signals
to AC signals) and demodulation (convert AC signals to DC signals).
When light is not incident on the photodiode, no current flows
through the circuit. However, when light falls on the photosensor, the
resistance becomes low. So, the current flows through the sensor.
This system is similar to a switching operation.
From the figure, an oscillator has two neon bulbs, which operates on
half cycles of oscillation. PC1, PC2, PC3, and PC4 are photodiodes.
Neon lamp 1 flashes light on PC1 and PC2. Neon lamp 2 flashes light
on PC3 and PC4. When light falls on PC1, its resistance value reduces
making the capacitor to charge. Light falls on PC3 making the input to
flow through it when there is no light on PC1. Therefore, the light
incidence on PC1 and PC3 takes place alternatively to generate a
square wave pulse across the output capacitor. The generated square
wave pulse is the input for the AC amplifier. The amplifier output is
an amplified square wave pulse. The other two photodiodes PC2 and
PC4 are in the output circuit. It recovers DC signal and makes the
capacitor fully charged to the peak value of output voltage. At the
final stage, a low pass filter removes the unwanted noise and ripples.
The output is an amplified DC signal.

A type of chopper used for EEG measurement is a differential

chopper. It has a transformer. A chopper vibrator connects the input
of the transformer. The center tap of the transformer acts as one of the
terminals for the input connector. The chopper switch acts as another
terminal. AC coupled amplifier provides the gain. The output from
this amplifier goes to filter and demodulator block. Finally, an
amplified DC output signal is obtained.