Temperature Measurement PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Determining Appropriate Temperature Measurement

Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning : The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI10105 J.L. Sprague on 874-6414
Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Determining Appropriate Temperature
Measurement Devices For Saudi Aramco Applications
Content Page
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, THERMODYNAMIC

CONSIDERATIONS, TEMPERATURE STANDARDS, SCALES, CONVERSIONS
AND SYMBOLS, AND CATEGORIES OF TEMPERATURE DEVICES .......................... 1
Purpose of Temperature Measurement ...................................................................... 1
Importance of Temperature Measurement...................................................... 2
Typical Saudi Aramco Temperature Control Loop(s)..................................... 2
Thermodynamic Considerations ................................................................................ 4
Classical View of Kinetic Energy Theory ...................................................... 5
Heat and Temperature ................................................................................... 5
Conduction, Convection, and Radiation......................................................... 5
Temperature Standards.............................................................................................. 6
International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) ......................................... 9
Summary of Other ITS Standards .................................................................. 9
Summary of Temperature Scales ................................................................... 9
Terminology and Symbology ...................................................................................11
General Categories of Temperature Devices.............................................................12
Filled Systems ..............................................................................................12
Glass Stem Thermometers ............................................................................13
Bimetallic Thermometer...............................................................................18
Pyrometric Devices ......................................................................................19
Temperature Sensitive Material ....................................................................21
Thermocouples .............................................................................................22
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) ...................................................25
Principle of Operation...................................................................................25
TEMPERATURE DEVICE SELECTION CRITERIA ........................................................29
Application Fundamentals........................................................................................29
Temperature Range ......................................................................................30
Accuracy of the Sensor.................................................................................31
Speed of Response........................................................................................33
Method of Temperature Indication................................................................33
Operating Environment ................................................................................33
Mechanical Size Requirements .....................................................................34

Safety Considerations...............................................................................................34
Proper Sealing and Installation .....................................................................34
Minimizing Risks of Sensor Failure..............................................................35
Avoidance of Glass Stem Thermometers ......................................................35
Metallurgy ...............................................................................................................35
Installation Considerations .......................................................................................36
Protective Housing Needs.............................................................................36
Installation Orientation and Location (Immersion Depth) .............................37
Maintenance and Calibration....................................................................................37
Maintenance needs .......................................................................................37
Calibration Support ......................................................................................38
Compatibility with Existing Process Instruments......................................................40
Economic Considerations.........................................................................................40
Sensor Costs.................................................................................................40
Transmitter Costs .........................................................................................41
Distributed Control System Support .............................................................41
Local Indication Needs .................................................................................41
Technical Direction..................................................................................................41
Sensor usage trends ......................................................................................42
Sensor technology changes ...........................................................................42
Microprocessor-based temperature transmitter..............................................42
SELECTING TEMPERATURE SENSOR DEVICES .........................................................43
Filled Systems..........................................................................................................43
Glass Stem Thermometer..............................................................................43
Filled Thermal Systems ................................................................................47
Performance Comparison of Filled Systems .............................................................49
Bimetallic Thermometer ..........................................................................................49
Pyrometers...............................................................................................................52
Principles......................................................................................................52
Design ..........................................................................................................53
Performance .................................................................................................54
Installation....................................................................................................54
Application...................................................................................................55

Temperature Sensitive Materials ..............................................................................56

Principles......................................................................................................56
Design ..........................................................................................................56
Performance .................................................................................................57
Installation and application ...........................................................................57
Thermocouples.........................................................................................................57
Principles......................................................................................................57
Design ..........................................................................................................60
Performance .................................................................................................70
Installation....................................................................................................70
Application...................................................................................................75
Resistance Thermometry..........................................................................................80
Resistance temperature detector....................................................................80
Thermistor....................................................................................................80
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)...............................................................82
Principles......................................................................................................83
Design ..........................................................................................................84
Performance .................................................................................................87
Corrections ...................................................................................................88
Installation....................................................................................................91
Application...................................................................................................96
Performance Comparison of Thermocouples and RTDs................................97
SELECTING THERMOWELLS .........................................................................................99
Principles .................................................................................................................99
Design....................................................................................................................100
Performance...........................................................................................................101
Installation .............................................................................................................102
SADP-J-400, Section 4.1, installation .........................................................102
SAES-J-400, Section 5, installation ............................................................102
Installation options .....................................................................................103
Immersion depth.........................................................................................103
Installation examples ..................................................................................103
Application ............................................................................................................104

Types of Thermowells............................................................................................105
Flanged thermowells...................................................................................106
Threaded (Screwed) thermowells................................................................106
Socket weld thermowells ............................................................................106
Material Composition and Application Range ........................................................107
Vibrational Considerations: Wake and Wake Frequency Calculations ....................108
Wake frequency occurrence........................................................................109
Velocity ratings ..........................................................................................109
Wake frequency calculations ......................................................................109
Vendor’s role in selection process...............................................................110
Thermal Conductivity of Boundaries and Junctions................................................110
Speed of Response Considerations .........................................................................111
Minimum and Maximum Insertion Lengths............................................................112
Recommended Insertion Lengths ...........................................................................113
SELECTING TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTERS ..........................................................114
Pneumatic Temperature Transmitters .....................................................................114
Principles and design ..................................................................................115
Performance and installation.......................................................................115
Applications ...............................................................................................115
Electronic Temperature Transmitters......................................................................115
Principles....................................................................................................116
Design ........................................................................................................116
Performance ...............................................................................................119
Installation..................................................................................................120
Applications ...............................................................................................121
Microprocessor-based Temperature Transmitters ...................................................121
Principles....................................................................................................122
Design ........................................................................................................122
Performance ...............................................................................................125
Installation..................................................................................................125
Application.................................................................................................131

WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO SELECT TEMPERATURE SENSOR

DEVICES .................................................................................................132
Work Aid 1A: Checklist of Temperature Sensor Data ............................................132
Work Aid 1B: Vendor Data Sheets.........................................................................133
Work Aid 1C: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets ...............................134
Work Aid 1D: SADP-J-400 (Course Handout 1.) ...................................................135
Work Aid 1E: SAES-J-400, Section 4 (Course Handout 2.)....................................136
Work Aid 1F: Vendor Selection Software (Course Handout 3)...............................137
WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO SELECT THERMOWELLS .............................138
Work Aid 2A: Software for Calculating Wake Frequency ......................................138
Work Aid 2D: Checklist of Thermowell Data.........................................................141
Work Aid 2E: SADP-J-400 (Course Handout 1.) ...................................................142
Work Aid 2F: SAES-J-400, Section 4 (Course Handout 2.)....................................143
Work Aid 2G: Technical Alert 05/93: “Vibration Induced Thermowell Failure” ....144
Work Aid 2H: D.W. Beurkel White Paper on Thermowell Vibration .....................145
WORK AID 3: RESOURCES USED TO SELECT TEMPERATURE
TRANSMITTERS ....................................................................................146
Work Aid 3A: Checklist of Temperature Transmitter Data.....................................146
Work Aid 3D: SAES-J-400, Section 4.8 (Course Handout 2.) ................................150
Work Aid 3E: Vendor Selection Software (Course Handout 3) ..............................151
GLOSSARY......................................................................................................................152

Table of Figures Page
Figure 1: Temperature Control for Compressor Cooler............................................. 3

Figure 2: Temperature Measurement in Propane Flow.............................................. 3
Figure 3: Temperature Measurement in Flow, Centrifugal Pump Present ................. 4
Figure 4: ITS-90 Defined Ranges and Fixed Points, Numerically ............................. 7
Figure 5: ITS-90 Fixed Points, Numerically ............................................................. 8
Figure 6: Temperature Scales ..................................................................................10
Figure 7: Drawing Symbols.....................................................................................11
Figure 8: Simple Filled System ...............................................................................12
Figure 9: Example Glass Stem Thermometers .........................................................13
Figure 10: Typical Filled Thermal System...............................................................14
Figure 11: Filled Thermal System Classes...............................................................15
Figure 12: Simple Class I Filled System ..................................................................16
Figure 13: Class II Filled System.............................................................................17
Figure 14: Filled System Temperature Switch .........................................................18
Figure 15: Example Bimetallic Thermometer ..........................................................19
Figure 16: Optical Pyrometer ..................................................................................20
Figure 17: Radiation Pyrometer...............................................................................20
Figure 18: Temperature Sensitive Materials ............................................................22
Figure 19: Thermocouple Measuring Junction.........................................................22
Figure 20: Thermocouple Measuring Circuit ...........................................................23
Figure 21: Thermocouple Inserted in Thermowell ...................................................23
Figure 22: Example Thermocouple Types ...............................................................24
Figure 23: Excerpts from Type E and Type K Thermocouple Tables.......................25
Figure 24: Example RTD Probe ..............................................................................26
Figure 25: RTD Probe Construction ........................................................................27
Figure 26: RTD Inserted in Thermowell..................................................................27
Figure 27: Frequency of Temperature Measurement Usage .....................................28
Figure 28: Practical Temperature Measurement Ranges ..........................................30
Figure 29: Error Limits of Special Quality Type K T/C ...........................................32
Figure 30: Metal Compatibility ...............................................................................36

Figure 31: Liquid-In Glass Thermometer Design.....................................................45

Figure 32: Protected Glass Stem Thermometer........................................................46
Figure 33: Filled Thermal System Example.............................................................47
Figure 34: Performance Comparison .......................................................................49
Figure 35: Thermostatic Bimetal Principle ..............................................................50
Figure 36: Design of Bimetallic Thermometer.........................................................51
Figure 37: Pyrometer Functional Diagram...............................................................53
Figure 38: Temperature Sensitive Material ..............................................................56
Figure 39: Thermocouple Principles........................................................................59
Figure 40: Sheathed Thermocouple Junctions..........................................................61
Figure 41: Cold and Measuring Junction .................................................................62
Figure 42: Extension Wire Type with Polarity.........................................................63
Figure 43: Multi-paired Cable .................................................................................64
Figure 44: Thermocouple References ......................................................................65
Figure 45: Thermocouple Averaging and Differential Approach .............................66
Figure 46: Thermocouple Response Curves.............................................................68
Figure 47: Thermocouple Reference Table Excerpt.................................................69
Figure 48: Surface Thermocouple Probes ................................................................73
Figure 49: General T/C Installation Approaches......................................................74
Figure 50: Probe Lead Configurations .....................................................................76
Figure 51: Wire Tolerances .....................................................................................79
Figure 52: Resistance-Temperature Characteristics .................................................82
Figure 53: RTD Elements........................................................................................86
Figure 54: Traditional Bridge Circuits .....................................................................89
Figure 55: Conventional Corrections for Lead Wire Resistance...............................91
Figure 56: Probe Lead Wire Configurations ............................................................93
Figure 57: General RTD Installation Approaches ....................................................96
Figure 58: Typical RTD Application .......................................................................97
Figure 59: Performance Comparison of T/C and RTD.............................................98
Figure 60: Temperature Sensor in Thermowell......................................................100
Figure 61: Cutaway View of Standard Thermowell ...............................................101

Figure 62 Thermowell Installations .......................................................................104

Figure 63: Thermowell Types ...............................................................................107
Figure 64: Thermowell Metal Compatibility..........................................................108
Figure 65: Installation Options and Respective Tradeoffs......................................111
Figure 66: Minimum and Maximum Lengths ........................................................112
Figure 67: Electronic Temperature Transmitter Principles .....................................116
Figure 68: Dual Compartment Housing .................................................................118
Figure 69: Conventional and Economy Transmitter...............................................119
Figure 70: Principles of Operation.........................................................................124
Figure 71: Performance Comparison .....................................................................125
Figure 72: Mounting Examples .............................................................................126
Figure 73: RTD Wiring Examples.........................................................................127
Figure 74: Thermocouple Wiring Examples ..........................................................128
Figure 75: Access from Distributed Control System ..............................................129
Figure 76: Example Operating Display..................................................................130

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, THERMODYNAMIC

CONSIDERATIONS, TEMPERATURE STANDARDS, SCALES, CONVERSIONS AND
SYMBOLS, AND CATEGORIES OF TEMPERATURE DEVICES
Temperature measurement begins with sound engineering practices that range from the selection
of temperature measurement devices through the installation, application, and interpretation of
the results. This section of the course module introduces the following temperature measurement
topics:
• Purpose of temperature measurement
• Thermodynamic considerations
• Temperature standards
• Scales and conversions
• Temperature symbols
• General categories of temperature devices
Purpose of Temperature Measurement
Accurate temperature measurement is essential to the process control of distillation,

fractionation, storage, and transportation of intermediate and final products. Additionally,
temperature measurement contributes to greater product yield and better quality processing.
Accurate temperature measurement is essential to maximize the efficiency or throughputs of
processing operations. Measuring and controlling temperature also minimizes the reprocessing of
the product because it does not meet the specification requirements.
The purpose of temperature measurement is further illustrated in the following discussion:
• Importance of temperature measurement
• Typical Saudi Aramco temperature control loops
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Importance of Temperature Measurement
Temperature measurement is central to oil processing operations, such as distillation and

fractionation operations. Temperature measurements are fundamental to:
• Conversion and product yields
• Material balances in separation processes
• Product quality and acceptance
• Equipment monitoring, control, and operation
Given these example uses, one can conclude that temperature measurement is a major part of
process plant design and operations.
Typical Saudi Aramco Temperature Control Loop(s)
Typical Saudi Aramco temperature control loops are shown in the following figures. In the
following examples, note the representations for the temperature measurement element (TE),
temperature transmitters (TT or TIT), and temperature controllers (TC or TIC). Figure 1 shows a
temperature control loop for a compressor interstage cooler.
It is customary to cool the hot compressed gas between stages to minimize the higher
temperature realized by the addition of the work of the initial compressor stage. If uncooled
compressed gas was introduced to the next compressor stage, the compressor would be working
on hotter and hotter gas with unwieldy results.

T emperature
I ndicating
C ontroller
T emperature
TIC TIT I ndicating
119 119
T ransmitter
I
P I Current
P neumatic
I nstrument IA TY
A ir 119
T emperature TE T emperature
Y Computing 119 E lement
RTD
8"
Figure 1: Temperature Control for Compressor Cooler
Figure 2 illustrates temperature measurement in a propane flow application.
The Temperature Element (TE) bubble represents a sensor that is affected by the temperature of
the process fluid, propane. The temperature transmitter (TT) bubble symbolizes an instrument
that sends an electric signal (old style Saudi Aramco line symbol) to a computer symbolized by a
hexagon. All of the parts of this temperature loop are numbered 1002.
0-200ÞF
TT TT
1002
1002
TE
1002
Propane To Propane
Shipping Pumps
Figure 2: Temperature Measurement in Propane Flow

Figure 3 illustrates temperature measurement in a fluid flow application. A centrifugal pump is

also in the pipeline.
TI 200 is a temperature indicator in Loop 200, symbolized by a bubble showing a connection to

the propane pumped flow.
TI
200
Figure 3: Temperature Measurement in Flow, Centrifugal Pump Present
Thermodynamic Considerations
Thermodynamics deals with the laws governing changes in the thermal state of materials. The
subject of thermodynamics involves extensive study beyond the scope of this course material;
however, some thermodynamic terms and concepts should be reviewed to have a better
understanding of temperature measurement device selection.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy in a closed system is conserved
(constant). Energy cannot be created or destroyed, energy is converted from one form to another.
The burning of a fuel to release heat is an example of energy conversion from one form to
another. The second law of thermodynamics gives direction to processes. One of the
consequences of the second law is that heat cannot pass from a cooler body to a hotter body. For
example, in a shell and tube heat exchanger, crude oil at 24°C cannot increase the temperature of
150°C gas oil in a pipe still preheat train.
Some additional concepts and terms that should be briefly reviewed include:
• Classical view of kinetic energy theory

• Heat and temperature
• Conduction, convection, and radiation

Classical View of Kinetic Energy Theory
Kinetic energy theory is defined as the energy associated with the motion of a body's molecules
as a whole. When kinetic energy is related to temperature, one can state that the hotter the body,
the higher the activity of the body's molecules.
Heat and Temperature
Heat and temperature are often confused as being synonymous terms. Heat is a form of energy,
while temperature is a measurement of the intensity of heat.
Heat is a form of energy caused by the activity of a substance’s molecules. The molecules are
assumed to always be in constant motion. The motion of the molecules provides heat. The
amount of heat that a process uses (endothermic) or that it gives off (exothermic) tells us a great
deal about what is happening in the process. Thus, it is important to be able to measure the
intensity of heat.
Temperature is defined as the measurement of the intensity of heat. In practice, temperature is

often thought of as the degree of “hotness” or “coldness” of a liquid, solid, or gas. Temperature
is frequently measured on a definite scale, such as degrees Celsius or degrees Fahrenheit.
Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
Several terms that describe heat transfer are the following:
• Heat conduction
• Heat convection
• Heat radiation
Heat Conduction – When a temperature difference occurs in a body, a net transfer of thermal
energy takes place from the warmer areas of the body to the cooler areas. The heat transfer tends
to produce a state of temperature uniformity. The heat transfer is called conduction. Not all
materials conduct heat at the same rate. Metals are considered good conductors because they
transfer heat faster than other nonmetal materials. Silver, which has a thermal conductivity
coefficient of 100, is used as the standard against which all other materials are compared. The
rate of heat transferred through an object depends on the following:
• The thermal conductivity coefficient

• The cross-sectional area through which the heat flows
• The thickness of the material
• The temperature difference between two sides of the material

Heat Convection is defined as the transfer of heat energy through the action of a moving fluid
(gases and liquids). For example, steam is transported by pipe to a reboiler at a unit's distillation
tower to boil an oil product.
Heat Radiation (Thermal Radiation) is defined as a mode of heat transfer between two bodies of
different temperatures. Radiation does not require direct contact between bodies or substances.
For example, the sun's energy warms the earth by radiation. Radiation is not only dependent on a
body's temperature, it is also dependent on the nature of the body’s surface. Dark, rough surfaces
radiate heat more than do smooth, light-colored surfaces.
A practical aspect of thermodynamic laws is that consideration should be given to installations

requiring surface temperature measurement, liquid temperature measurement, or gas temperature
measurement. It is not enough to assume that the temperature at the measuring point is always
the same as the process temperature. Thermodynamic laws state that heat flows from hotter
regions to cooler ones by conduction, convection, and radiation. Thus one objective of a sensor
installation is to ensure that the amount of heat flowing between the point being measured and
the sensor is not enough to change the temperature of the measured point. Additionally,
temperature differences or gradients can exist along a sensor’s protective enclosure. The
gradients are overcome through installation practices that include immersing the sensor to a
proper depth.
Temperature Standards
For precise measurement of discrete lengths, one can refer easily to readily recognized standards.
For temperature measurement, however, the standards must be observable and repeatable. The
International Temperature Scale (ITS) provides such standards and is based upon consistent,
repeatable temperature phenomena. The ITS establishes reference temperatures that can be used
for calibrating temperature measuring instruments. Temperature scales relevant to device
selection are described in the following terms.
These reference temperatures are internationally recognized fixed points of different materials:
Freezing Point (FP)

Melting Point (MP)
Triple Point (TP)
Vapor Pressure Point (VP)
The ITS-90 points are shown schematically on Figure 4 and defined numerically on Figure 5.

Planck Radiation Law

_ 273.15K)
SPRT (T>
SPRT (T>
_ 273.16K)
3
He CVGT
4
He CVGT
4
He VP >T
4
He VP <T
3
He VP
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

H2O TP
Ref: NIST
T90 (K)
Technical Note 1265
Figure 4: ITS-90 Defined Ranges and Fixed Points, Numerically

Materiala Eqilibrium Stateb Temperature (C)

T90 (K) t90
He VP 3 to 5 - 270.15 to
- 268.15
e-H2 TP 13.8033 - 259.3467
e-H2 (or He) VP (or CVGT) 17 256.15
e-H2 (or He) VP (or CVGT) 20.3 - 252.85
Nec TP 24.5561 - 248.5939
O2 TP 54.3584 - 218.7916
Ard TP 83.8058 - 189.3442
Hgc TP 234.3156 - 38.8344
H 2O MP 273.16 0.01
Gac FP 302.9146 29.7646
Inc FP 1234.93 156.5985
Snd FP 505.078 231.928
Zn FP 692.677 419.527
Alc FP 933.473 660.323
Ag FP 429.7485 961.78
Au FP 1337.33 1064.18
Cuc FP 1357.77 1084.62
Figure 5: ITS-90 Fixed Points, Numerically
Temperature scales relevant to device selection are described in the following terms:
• International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
• Summary of Other ITS Standards
• Summary of Temperature Scales

International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) became effective worldwide on January 1,
1990. ITS-90 overcame deficiencies in inaccuracy and reproducibility of the prior International
Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68/75).
Two significant changes were adopted with ITS-90. The two changes are
• The adoption of the triple point of water 0.01°C as a defining fixed point,
replacing the ice point, 0°C. The triple point of water is the temperature at which
water, ice, and water vapor are at equilibrium.
• The use of standard platinum resistance thermometer (SPRT) to replace the type
"S" platinum thermocouple as the temperature standard below the silver point
(961.78°C).
The result of the changes in ITS-90 is that the relationship between degrees Celsius and
temperature expressed in Kelvin is as follows:
T(K) = t(°C) + 273.15, where

t(K) = Kelvin
t(°C) = temperature in degrees Celsius or (C) Celsius
(Note: 273.15 is in°C)
T = absolute – starting at °K
t = relative –°C is freezing point of water
Summary of Other ITS Standards
As early as 1887, temperature standards were proposed for fixed references to ice and steam
points. The first time an international standard was established was in 1927, when the
International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) was adopted. It established fixed points that
can be duplicated under laboratory conditions. The ITS is reviewed periodically. An instrument
engineer should be aware that vendors can reference product data to IPTS-68 and/or ITS-90.
Summary of Temperature Scales
If a substance has no energy, one can say that no molecular activity is occurring and the
substance's temperature would have no value. If the temperature has no value, the existence of an
absolute zero temperature can be assumed. The absolute zero temperature, in fact, becomes the
basis for the Kelvin scale. More commonly used temperature scales are the Fahrenheit scale and
the Celsius scale. Temperature scales (Figure 6) include the following:

• Kelvin scale – The Kelvin scale is also known as the international thermodynamic
scale. The Kelvin scale notes thermodynamic temperature as T, the unit of
measurement is the kelvin, K. By convention, the degree sign (°) is not used with
kelvin temperatures. A change of 1 kelvin is equivalent to a 1 degree change in
Celsius.
• Celsius scale – The Celsius scale, formerly known as the centigrade scale, is
based upon the ice point (0°C) and boiling points (100°C) of water. Celsius is
used worldwide both in commercial and scientific work.
• Fahrenheit scale – The Fahrenheit scale is based upon the temperature of a
mixture of salt and water (0°F) and human body temperature (96°F). The
Fahrenheit scale is used primarily for commercial measurements in English
speaking countries. Scientific and engineering disciplines prefer to use Celsius.
• Rankine scale – The Rankine scale is the equivalent of the Kelvin scale, but
temperature is expressed in Fahrenheit degree intervals.
Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit Rankine

373 100Þ 212Þ 672Þ Steam
Point
H2O
273.15 0Þ 32Þ 492Þ
Triple
Point = 0.01ÞC
0 -273Þ -460Þ 0Þ Absolute

Zero
Conversions
ÞF = (ÞC x9/5) + 32
ÞC = (ÞF - 32) 5x/9
K = ÞC + 273.15Þ
ÞC = K - 273.15Þ
ÞR = ÞF + 459.67Þ
Figure 6: Temperature Scales
(Note: the ITS Scale described earlier is also a temperature scale. ITS is used primarily for
calibration.)

Terminology and Symbology
The terminology and symbology used in temperature measurement is described in terms of the
following:
• Device function
• Drawing symbols as used on P & IDs
• Typical examples
Drawing symbols representing temperature measurements are shown in Figure 7. The symbols
conform to Saudi Aramco requirements specified in SAES-J-004 (Instrument Symbols and
Identification).
Instrument Symbols Instrument Line Symbols

001045 Process Line
TCV
Connections to Process or
Mechanical Link or
Instrument Supply
Self Actuated Bulb
Type Globe Type Instrument Air Header
Temp. Control Valve
Instrument Signal Line
001039 (Electrical/Electronic)
TCV Instrument Signal Line
(Pneumatic)
Instrument Capillary Tube
Diaphragm-Operated Electromagnetic or Sonic

Three-Port Valve Signal (Without Wiring or Tubing)
Instrument Legend
Instrument Legend Examples
TA Temperature Alarm
x TC Temperature Controller
TA TE
RTD TCV Temperature Control Valve
x TE Temperature Element
TS TI TG Thermometer
THS Temperature Hand Switch
x = Miscellaneous Designations TIT Temperature Indicat. Transmitter
H = High TI Temperature Indicator
HH = High High TR Temperature Recorder
L = Low TS Temperature Switch
LL = Low Low TT Temperature Transmitter
Abbreviations Outside of Symbol TW Thermowell
RTD Resistance Temp. Detector TY Temperature Complute
T/C Type @ (@ = K,E)
Figure 7: Drawing Symbols
(Note: the piping symbols for electrical and pneumatic signals as used at Saudi Aramco were the
reverse of instrument society and industry symbol usage.
The latest standard allows existing plants their optimum of anti-ISA or ISA. All grass-roots will
follow ISA.)

General Categories of Temperature Devices
General categories of temperature devices used at Saudi Aramco include the following:
• Filled systems
• Bimetallic thermometers
• Pyrometric devices
• Temperature sensitive materials
• Thermocouples
• Resistance temperature detectors
Filled Systems
Filled systems are so named because they use the thermal expansion of a fill fluid to provide
temperature sensing and measurement. Filled thermal systems can provide local or remote
temperature indication. Figure 8 shows an example filled system. Three categories of filled
systems are the following:
• Glass stem thermometers
• Filled thermal systems
• Temperature switches
Bourdon
Tube
Temperature
Indication
Bulb
Figure 8: Simple Filled System

Glass Stem Thermometers
Glass stem thermometers have a liquid fill fluid in a bulb or reservoir, a hollow glass tube for the
fluid to expand in, and a temperature scale etched along the hollow tube. The fill fluid is usually
mercury or dyed alcohol. The thermal expansion of the fill fluid along the scaled tube section
indicates temperature. Glass stem thermometers are available in protected and unprotected
versions (Figure 9).
ÞC
ÞF ÞC
120 120
240 240
50
110 110
220 220
Water 100
200 Boils 200
90 90
40
180 180
80 80
160 160 70
70
30
140 60 140 60
120 50 120 50
20
100 40 100 40
30 30
80 80
20
10
20
60 60
0
-10
-20
Bare Protected Protected

(Shell Casing) (Brass Tubing)
Figure 9: Example Glass Stem Thermometers
Filled Thermal Systems – The purpose of a filled thermal system is to provide a remote temperature
indication and/or temperature recording. The filled thermal system is similar to a pressure gauge;
instead of the sensing tube responding to changes in pressure, it responds to temperature
changes. The filled thermal system (Figure 10) consists of a temperature sensor bulb connected
by a capillary tube to a readout instrument.

90 100 110
80 120 Readout
40
70 30 50 130 Instrument
20
60 60 140
10
50 70 150
0
ÞC 160
ÞF
Capillary
Temperature
Tube
Sensor Bulb
Figure 10: Typical Filled Thermal System
The Scientific Apparatus Makers Association (SAMA) assigned filled thermal systems to four
classes. Each class is divided into subclasses (Figure 11). The classes are defined according to
the fill fluid used in the device:
• Class I - liquid fill,

• Class II - liquid/vapor fill,
• Class III - gas fill, and
• Class V - mercury fill.

SAMA Sub class Fill fluid Measured temperatures Comments

class
I IA Liquid -87 to 315°C narrow spans
IB
II IIA Vapor above ambient to 316°C fast speed of response
IIB below ambient to -40°C
IIC above and below ambient,
not through
IID above, through and below
ambient
III IIIA Gas -268 to 760°C no pressure head effect
IIIB
V VA Mercury -40 to 649°C most linear
VB
Figure 11: Filled Thermal System Classes
(Note that an earlier SAMA classification included Class IV for mercury filled thermometers, but
that designation now is adopted as Class V. Also note that bimetallic, electrical, and glass stem
thermometers are excluded in these classifications.) The ASME is currently updating the SAMA
documents and will publish in 1997 as ASME documents.
Class I Liquid-Filled Systems are essentially liquid-filled thermometers. The example Class I system
in Figure 12 is completely filled with a liquid and operates on the liquid expansion principle. As
the temperature of the fill fluid increases, the fill fluid expands and increases the internal
pressure. The increase in pressure causes a pressure element to elongate and move a pointer
along a scale. Class I systems have options for temperature compensation of the capillary and
pressure element.

Linkage to
Temperature
Indicator
Liquid Filled Bulb
Capillary Tubing
Figure 12: Simple Class I Filled System
Class II Vapor Systems are essentially vapor-pressure thermometers. Class II systems have a fill
medium that consists of a volatile liquid at equilibrium with its vapor. The liquid/gas interface
must occur in the bulb at all times over the calibrated span of the instrument for the device to
work.

Volatile
Liquid
Vapor
Figure 13: Class II Filled System
Class III Gas-Filled Systems are essentially gas-pressure thermometers. Class III systems use an
inert gas in these systems. The gas is confined to almost a constant volume. When the the
temperature increases, the corresponding internal pressure increases. The increasing pressure
moves a pressure element connected to a temperature indication pointer.
Class V Mercury Filled Systems are similar to Class I systems because both use a liquid fill;
however, Class V systems use mercury as the fill fluid. The mercury fill fluid provides a linear
and faster response to temperature changes than Class I systems.
Temperature switches provide high or low temperature detection, backup existing alarms, actuate
additional equipment for a safety interlock system. Some temperature switches (Figure 14)
consist of a bulb, capillary tubing, and electrical switch elements. The temperature switch’s bulb
and capillary design is classified into one of the filled system classes described earlier. Other
temperature switches can use bimetallic elements as the temperature element.

Bulb Capillary Tubing
Snap
Acting
Switching
Elements
Wiring
Figure 14: Filled System Temperature Switch
Bimetallic Thermometer
A bimetallic thermometer (Figure 15) is so named because the temperature-sensing element

consists of two different metals that have different coefficients of expansion. The two different
metals are bonded or brazed together. When the temperature element is exposed to heat, it bends
towards the metal with the lower expansion rate. Because the bending or deflection is small, the
bimetallic strip is usually in a helix or spiral form. The helix form is the more common type of
bimetallic thermometer sensing element. The bimetallic thermometer’s stem containing the helix
is sometimes filled with a silicone fluid that provides better heat transfer and vibration resistance

Indicating Head
Dial
Stem Helical Coil
Pointer
Figure 15: Example Bimetallic Thermometer
Pyrometric Devices
Pyrometric devices are a noncontacting temperature measurement technology that measure the
amount of radiant energy a heated object emits. Several categories of pyrometric devices are
available; two broad classifications are
• optical pyrometers, and
• radiation pyrometers.
Optical pyrometers measure temperature of materials that emit energy in the visible spectrum. The
temperature is actually inferred by comparing the observed radiant energy with an internal
standard available in the pyrometric device. The human eye is used as the detector to determine
temperature. Light from the object being measured is manually focused with a lens system and
compared with an incandescent source. An operator manually adjusts the pyrometer’s source
current until the object and internal standard appear to have the same brightness (color). The
manual optical pyrometer (Figure 16) is light in weight and can be mounted in place or hand-
held. Applications include checking the temperature of refractories in fired heaters and
incinerators.

Aiming
Objective
Lens
Lens
Human
Eye
Hot Optical
Lamp Filter Adjustable
Object
Eyepiece
Figure 16: Optical Pyrometer
Radiation pyrometers use an electrical radiation detector that can detect from infrared to ultraviolet
wavelengths. The infrared pyrometer operates by comparing the amount of radiation emitted by
the heated object to that of an internal reference. The difference between the reference and the
source is then indicated on a meter and can be transmitted electronically to a control system.
Hand-held units are also available (Figure 17). The hand-held model is useful for field inspection
of hot spots that would otherwise go undetected. For example, hand-held units can be used to
inspect for hot spots in reformer unit reactors or fluid catalytic cracking unit reactor-regenerator
equipment.
Hot
Object
Hand Held
Infared
Pyrometer
Temp
Average
ÞF
Max ÞC
Min
Digital Readout
Temperature Indication
Figure 17: Radiation Pyrometer

Temperature Sensitive Material
Temperature-sensitive materials indicate that a predetermined temperature change has occurred.

Temperature-sensitive materials (Figure 18) include:
• paints and crayons,
• liquid crystals,
• sold state materials, and
• carbon resistors
Paints and crayons are the most common and simplest of temperature sensitive materials. Paints
are applied directly to a processing vessel; the vessel can be at any temperature, cold or hot.
Some paints can go through more than one color change as the temperature continues to change.
When a specific temperature is reached, the color permanently changes.
Crayons are similar to paints in that they have a color change at a specific temperature. The
crayon is wiped on the object or equipment after the item is heated. Process lines, fired heater
shells, and heat exchanges are some example applications where crayons can be used to check
temperature.
Liquid Crystals are another type of temperature indicator that changes color as the temperature
varies. As the color changes, the human observer compares the color to a standard reference
color. Liquid crystals are available for specific ranges of temperature measurement. The main
use of the liquid crystals is in the nondestructive testing of equipment.
Solid State Materials such as germanium and silicon diodes show a change in the diode’s current as
a response to a temperature change. The current versus temperature change is fairly linear.
Carbon Resistors have been used as temperature sensors. Resistance values up to 150 ohms, with a
power rating of 0.1 to 1 watts, can be used in applications such as cryogenic temperature
measurement.

38ÞC 52ÞC 66ÞC
Crayon 100ÞF 125ÞF 150ÞF

Markers
Color Change
Indicator
ÞC Carbon Resistors
15 30 45
59 86 113
ÞF
Liquid Crystal Solid State Materials
Indicator
Figure 18: Temperature Sensitive Materials
Thermocouples
Thermocouples are perhaps one of the most common devices used in process control for
temperature measurement. A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metal wires fastened
together at one end to form a junction. The junction is called the “hot” or measuring junction.
The opposite end of the wires can be joined to form a reference or cold junction.
Measuring
Connection
Junction
Block
(Hot Junction)
Figure 19: Thermocouple Measuring Junction

When heat is applied to the hot junction where the two dissimilar metal wires are joined together,
an electromotive force (emf) is generated. The emf is based upon the temperature at the
measuring junction and the composition of the dissimilar metal wires. The cold junction ideally
is at 32°F or 0°C. This very rarely happens, so a compensating amount of voltage consistent with
the composition of the wires and the ambient temperature is added as “cold junction
compensation.” The emf phenomena is called the Seebeck Effect, named after Thomas Seebeck
who discovered it. Thermocouple operation is based upon the Seebeck Effect.
To use a thermocouple for a temperature measurement, the thermocouple must be connected to a

measuring instrument to form a circuit (Figure 20) through which current can flow. The
measurement units for the emf are in millivolts. The instrument connection point for the
thermocouple wires has an internal reference known as the cold or reference junction.
Indicating
Instrument
Reference
Junction
(Cold Junction)
Measuring
Junction
(Hot Junction) Extension
Connection
Block Wires
Figure 20: Thermocouple Measuring Circuit
In practice, thermocouples are often inserted in a protective casing called a thermowell. The
thermowell is then inserted into the process vessel.
Thermocouple
Leads To Terminals
Insulated
Thermocouple
Extension
Thermowell
Connection
Head
Figure 21: Thermocouple Inserted in Thermowell

The thermowell’s disadvantage is that by existing it slows the speed of response considerably.
For comparison, a bare thermocouple’s time constant is 10 times as fast as a thermocouple in a
thermowell.
Thermocouples are classified by type. The type designation is determined by the dissimilar
metals or alloys used to make the thermocouple. Thermocouple types are shown in Figure 22.
Thermocouple Wire Temperature

Types Alloys Range, ÞF
Min Max
B Pt70-Rh30/Pt94Rh6 32 3300
E Chromel/Constantan -450 1800
J Iron/Constantan -346 2190
K Chromel/Alumenul -450 2500
R Pt87-Rh13/Platinum -58 3200
S Pt90-Rh10/Platinum -58 3200
T Copper/Constantan -450 750
N Nicrosil/Nisil -450 2370
Figure 22: Example Thermocouple Types
The positive wire is always listed first. The negative wire is always covered with a red insulator.
The color of the positive insulation varies depending upon the thermocouple type.
The types frequently used by Saudi Aramco are Type E and Type K. A Type E thermocouple is
constructed by using chromel and constantan. A Type K thermocouple is constructed by using
chromel and alumel. The Type E thermocouple has the highest emf per degree Fahrenheit and
has fairly good linearity. The Type K thermocouple is the most linear of all thermocouple types.
Type E thermocouples are used for temperatures in the -450°F to 1800°F range. Type K
thermocouples are used for temperatures in the -418°F to 2500°F range. An excerpt from the
Type E and K millivolt tables in Figure 23 compares the emf per degrees F.

ÞF 0Þ 100Þ 200Þ ÞF 0Þ 100Þ 200Þ

Millivolts Millivolts
0Þ -0.68 1.52 3.82 0Þ -1.02 2.27 5.87
10Þ -0.47 1.74 4.05 10Þ -0.71 2.62 6.25
20Þ -0.26 1.97 4.28 20Þ -0.39 2.97 6.62
30Þ -0.04 2.20 4.51 30Þ -0.07 3.32 7.00
40Þ +0.18 2.43 4.74 40Þ 0.26 3.68 7.38
50Þ +0.40 2.66 4.97 50Þ 0.59 4.04 7.76
60Þ 0.62 2.89 5.20 60Þ 0.92 4.40 8.15
70Þ 0.84 3.12 5.42 70Þ 1.26 4.77 8.54
80Þ 1.06 3.36 5.65 80Þ 1.59 5.13 8.93
90Þ 1.29 3.59 5.87 90Þ 1.93 5.50 9.32
100Þ 1.52 3.82 6.09 100Þ 2.27 5.87 9.71
Excerpt from the Type K T/C Table Excerpt from the Type E T/C Table
(Ref: LIPTAK P.502) (Ref: LIPTAK p.508)
Figure 23: Excerpts from Type E and Type K Thermocouple Tables
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a general description for any device that senses
temperature by a variation in the resistance of an electrically conductive material.
RTDs are the most accurate method of measuring temperature over wide ranges and are highly
stable over time and temperature cycling.
Principle of Operation
Given a piece of wire of length “l,” area “a,” and resistivity “ρ,” the resistance of this piece of
wire is given as
l
R = ρ
a
where:
ρ = Resistivity in Ω - cm
R = Resistance in ohms (Ω)
l = Length in cm
a = Cross-sectional area in cm2

ρ is a function of the material of the wire and temperature of the wire; e.g., given a piece of
copper wire, l cm long and having an area = a in cm2, the resistance of this wire is now a
function of the temperature.
l
@ T0 R1 = ρ1
a
l
@ T1 R2 = ρ2 T1 > T0
a
R2 ρ2
=
R1 ρ1
And for most conductors (except carbon), ρ changes depend on α, the temperature coefficient of
resistance. α is different for different materials and
Rt ≅ Ro (1 + αt)
Ro = resistance at a reference temperature, to

Rt = resistance at temperature, t
This change in ρ is completely predicable and reproducible for many materials.
The material chosen for an RTD is chosen for its large α, linearity, and temperature range.
The conductive material is most often platinum. The most common configuration of an RTD is a
probe form.
Figure 24: Example RTD Probe
An RTD probe consists of a protective sheath, which is often a closed-end stainless steel tube, a
sensor element, lead wires, and a threaded termination.

Threaded Termination
Lead Wires
Protective
Sheath Wire Wound
Sensor Element
Figure 25: RTD Probe Construction
Although an RTD probe has a protective sheath, it can be inserted into a thermowell for added
protection from process contaminants.
Spring Loaded
Mounting
Thermowell
RTD Probe
Terminal Block
Connection Head
Figure 26: RTD Inserted in Thermowell

The RTD sensor is used to measure temperatures that range from -430°F to 1800°F. Some
manufacturers limit the minimum and maximum temperatures to -328°F to 1562°F for industrial
measurements. Over moderate temperature ranges, RTDs are often preferred over thermocouples
because of their better accuracies, higher repeatabilities, and lack of extra signal conditioning
requirements.
Figure 27 lists usage frequency of temperature measurement devices at Saudi Aramco.
Type of device Frequency of use Comment

Filled systems
•Glass stem thermometer low •local indication only
•Filled thermal system low •local or remote indication
Bimetallic thermometer high local indication only

Pyrometer low high temperature/no contact
Temperature sensitive material low local indication only
Thermocouple high reference junction compensation
Resistance temperature detector high
Figure 27: Frequency of Temperature Measurement Usage

TEMPERATURE DEVICE SELECTION CRITERIA
An engineer would benefit from an approach that narrows the selection choice to a few
temperature measurement devices. An approach that assists the engineer to begin selecting the
device best suited for the process is outlined in the Instrument Engineer’s Handbook, Third
Edition, Process Measurement and Analysis, Chapter 4, Temperature Measurement, by Bela G.
Liptak, Chilton Book Company, 1995. The instrument engineer is encouraged to review the
selection criteria listed in the Instrument Engineer’s Handbook when faced with temperature
measurement-device selection.
After reviewing the initial selection approach, the selection criteria for temperature measurement
devices also includes:
• Application fundamentals
• Safety considerations
• Metallurgy
• Installation considerations
• Maintenance and calibration
• Compatibility with existing process instrumentation
• Economic considerations
• Technical direction
Application Fundamentals
The following application criteria influence temperature device selection:
• Temperature range
• Minimum, maximum span
• Accuracy of measurement
• Speed of response
• Method of temperature indication
• Operating environment
• Mechanical size requirements

Temperature Range
Once an application’s temperature range is known, the type of sensor (or other temperature
measurement device) can be evaluated to see whether the sensor or device can operate within
that temperature range. Practical ranges for temperature sensors are shown in Figure 28.
In general, the operating range for thermocouples is wider than the range for RTDs and
thermometers. A typical industry practice is to use thermocouples for measurements above
1200°F and RTDs for moderate temperature ranges. Where greater accuracy is demanded, RTDs
can be used for narrow spans at higher temperature ranges.
ÞC 0 100 500
ÞF
-500 -300 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 1000 5000
(-321) -200 To 600 (1100) Glass Stem Thermometer

(-100) -80 To 800 (1000) Bimetallic Thermometer
(-450) -300 To 1200 (1400) Filled System
Resistance Thermometer
(-450) -364 To 1382 (1800) • Platinum
(-150) -76 To 356 (600) • Nickel
• Tungsten
-100 To 5000
Thermocouple
32 To 1400 • J
(-418) 32 To 2300 (2500) • K
• E
(-450) -300 To 1600
Pyrometer
0 To 6500 • Infared
1400 To 6300
• Optical
Extremes in Parentheses
Figure 28: Practical Temperature Measurement Ranges
Once it has been determined whether the sensor or temperature measurement device can operate
within the desired range, other factors such as accuracy can be considered. Temperature range
most often becomes a differentiator in device selection when temperature extremes are
encountered.

Accuracy of the Sensor
Accuracy of the sensor can be stated under various terms and conditions. Measured temperature
span, lags, and repeatability are sometimes combined into one accuracy specification. In a
processing environment, repeatability can be the most important criteria. When processing
equipment operates at steady state conditions, the product quality can be controlled and predicted
based upon prior production yields. Usually, the narrower the temperature span (calibrated
range), the better the process control.
When reviewing the accuracy requirements for a sensor during the device selection process,
consider the following accuracy related concerns:
• Tolerance limits of the sensor (interchangeability)
• Total error of the measurement system
• Individual sensor calibration
• Potential for drift
• Accuracy over the temperature range
Tolerance limits of the sensor (interchangeability) are often defined in terms of standard error limits or
“special” ISA quality requirements. A Type E thermocouple, for example, has standard quality
requirements of ± 1/2 % from 600 to 1600°F. The Type K thermocouple also has special ISA
quality requirements ± 3/8 % over a similar range—the special requirements imply that the T/C
is of premium grade quality. The tolerance limits (interchangeability) also specify the
measurement error that could occur if two or more similar sensors are used to make the same
measurement. The tolerance limits are stated because a sensor, such as a T/C, can be made from
wire from different vendors. Some T/Cs have greater tolerances than others. In the case of RTDs,
RTD interchangeability varies slightly when platinum RTDs are selected from different vendors.
An example illustrating the error limits relationship to temperature range for a special quality
Type K T/C is shown in Figure 29.

Error
(ÞF) 8
6
4
2 530 1000 2300
0
-2
-4
-6
-8 + 2ÞF + 3/8%
- -
32 To 530ÞF
Figure 29: Error Limits of Special Quality Type K T/C
Total error of the measurement should be weighed against any sensor’s accuracy specification. The
total error of the measurement system represents more than than the error of the sensor.
Inaccuracies occur as the result of the installation—lead wires, junctions, and noise contribute to
error. A transmitter or other signal-receiving device also contributes errors. A typical error
amount contributed by a transmitter tied to a thermocouple is about 0.1% of span. In conclusion,
the transmitter and sensor must be evaluated together to determine the accuracy of the
measurement system.
Individual sensor calibration can provide better accuracies. The calibration requires corrections to
the measurement instrument, such as a transmitter, through the use of offset tables. In the case of
thermocouples, however, cold junction errors are still possible.
Potential for drift is possible even after sensor calibration. T/Cs and RTDs are subject to
measurement drift that is difficult to predict and detect. T/Cs tend to be much more susceptible to
drift than RTDs. Thermocouples used in process environments at elevated temperatures change
calibration because of contamination of the wires, loss of alloying constituents, or interactions
between wire, insulator, and sheath material. These changes depend on the initial purity of the
system, contaminants introduced from the environment, size of thermoelements, materials used
for sheaths, and thermowells, time, and temperature. Platinum-based T/Cs and RTDs have less
potential for oxidation, so the drift can be as low as 0.1°F per year. If potential for drift exists in
the application, an engineer should compare the vendor’s test data to operating conditions. If a
T/C or RTD is used conservatively, within 75% of its rated range, drift should not be a
significant factor.

Accuracy over the temperature range can vary when comparing an RTD and T/C. An RTD’s
accuracy is greater than T/C’s accuracy at moderate temperatures. For example, at 0°C, the
tolerance of a typical thermocouple may be ± 1°C, while for an RTD the tolerance may be
±0.3°C; however, at higher temperatures (above 350°C), the RTD and T/C difference is slight or
negligible. RTDs are used over narrow spans, therefore have better accuracy.
Speed of Response
The speed of response specification states the time that it takes a sensor to reach a signal level
that corresponds to a change in input state. A speed of response specification must identify the
process medium (liquid or gas) in which the response time is measured as well as the process
medium’s flow velocity. For example, a sensor may have a response time of 2 seconds in a static
liquid, 4 seconds in flowing air, but 40 seconds in still air.
The speed of response specification is often stated as a time constant. For example, a vendor may
choose to specify the response time as “less than x seconds to reach 63% of ultimate
temperature.” Specifications of 50% and 90% response are also expressed. A 90% response is
slightly more than two time constants.
A bare thermocouple has a faster speed of response than an RTD, because an RTD is more
massive. Any concern about response time, however, should be weighed against the sensor’s
installation. When a sensor, such as an RTD or thermocouple, is installed in a thermowell, the
time constants become somewhat negligible for sensor comparison purposes. The time constants
in those cases approach tens of seconds. If speed of response is important to the application,
alternate sensor choices include paste on foil sensors, special shape sensors, and pyrometers.
According to SADP-J-400 Section 4.1, “Grounding the tip of a thermocouple to the well for
good thermal contact also helps to speed response.”
Method of Temperature Indication
When selecting a sensor, the type of temperature indication should be considered. Local
indication from a simple bimetallic or glass stem thermometer may be sufficient. In the case of
local indication, the temperature indication may have to be visible a short distance away. If
remote indication is required, a transmitter that provides a pneumatic, electronic, or digital signal
may be required.
Operating Environment
When selecting a temperature sensor, consider whether the sensing element needs to be protected
from vibration, corrosive gases or liquids, explosive and erosive atmospheres, oxidizing and
reducing atmospheres, and high pressures. Protective housings may be required to enable the
sensor to work properly and reliably.

Environmental considerations to be reviewed in the sensor-selection process are summarized as

the following:
• Chemical resistance of the sensor (T/C or RTD) if sensor is unsheathed
• Chemical resistance of the sensor sheath (if sensor is installed without protective
housing).
• Type of grounding requirements. For example, ground loops can occur if many
instruments are used with a probe that has a grounded sheath.
• Abrasion resistance of the sensor and/or sensor’s sheath material
• Vibration resistance of the sensor
• Immersion depth
Mechanical Size Requirements
The engineer determines whether there is enough space for the sensor to be installed correctly at
the measuring point. Thermocouples and RTDs are very adaptable when small size is important.
Safety Considerations
Safety considerations include the following:
• Proper sealing and installation
• Minimizing risks of sensor failure
• Avoidance of glass stem thermometers
Proper Sealing and Installation
The sensor must be installed securely and withstand the processing conditions through proper
sealing. Leaks from sensors can become the source of fuel for an accidental fire. The selected
sensor should be reviewed for these requirements.

Minimizing Risks of Sensor Failure
Another safety consideration is to account for the possibility that a sensor may fail. For example,
if the thermal measurement system on a self-regulator fails, the engineer evaluates whether the
heating medium could be undesirably supplied at full capacity if the regulator does not shut off.
When temperature transmitters or signal converters are used, consideration as to sensor failure
needs to be addressed. The engineer decides whether to provide a signal transmitter a high or a
low signal. The engineer’s decision is important when the signal is sent to a controller. For
example, the failure mode of the transmitter is configured so that when a control loop loses the
measurement signal, the controller will not generate an incorrect output signal that causes a
process upset.
Avoidance of Glass Stem Thermometers
Glass-stem thermometer usage should be avoided in an industrial plant because of the possibility
of breakage. Toxic fluid, such as mercury, could spill as a result of the breakage.
Metallurgy
The temperature sensor’s metal may not be compatible with the process material. Installing a
sensor in a protective well manufactured from a compatible metal is a common solution.
Protective wells, or thermowells, are made in several different metals and ceramics. The wells
must also meet the pressure requirement of the application in which they are installed.
Refer to Selection Guide for Thermowell Materials in the Liptak reference, Section 4.17. Note
that 304 stainless steel (SS) and 316 SS are frequently recommended. An excerpt from the Liptak
reference is provided in Figure 30.

Application Thermowell Material
Petroleum Type 304, 310, 316, 321, 347

• Dewaxing, Towers, Stainless Steel (SS), Carbon
Transfer Lines, Steel
Fractionating, Bridge-
wall.
Chemical
• Gasoline Type 304 SS, Carbon Steel
• Hydrochloric Acid Hastelloy B, C
• Hydrogen Sulfide Type 316 SS
• Natural Gas 21ÞC (70ÞF) Type 304,316,317 SS
• Oxygen 21ÞC (70ÞF) Steel
• Propane Type 304 SS, Low Carbon Steel
Figure 30: Metal Compatibility
Installation Considerations
Installation considerations that influence device selection include reviewing the sensor’s
• protective housing needs
• installation orientation and location (immersion depth).
Protective Housing Needs
As a standard practice, thermocouples and RTDs are installed in protective housings called
thermowells. Refer to SA Standard Drawing 990J AB 036019 “Thermowell Assembly and
Detail.” When installed in a line, a thermowell is inserted so as not to protrude all the way to the
other side of the line; the thermowell protrudes a very short distance. (Thermowell installation
practices are discussed later in this module.)
Thermowells are installed in tanks, pipes, fired heaters, and other types of processing equipment
that are involved in the temperature measurement of liquids, gases, and solids. The type of fluid
measured and location in the processing equipment determines the installation. Fluid velocities
and erosive considerations, in the case of particulates, need to be considered before installation.

Installation Orientation and Location (Immersion Depth)
As is the case with any process measuring instrument, a temperature sensor’s installed location
and orientation has a critical influence upon its accuracy and performance. Thus, the sensor’s
intended installation should be evaluated during the selection process. For example, thermowell
stem conduction errors can result in a measurement error if the thermowell is not inserted to the
proper depth. A common rule of thumb is to specify an immersion depth of at least 10 times the
sensor’s diameter. A 0.25 inch diameter sensor should have an insertion length of at least 2.5
inches.
Along with evaluating immersion depth, the engineer also reviews whether any vibrational limits
of the thermowell may occur based upon the inserted length. Thermowells can crack and break
off in extreme vibration cases. As part of the selection process, the sensor’s length, natural
vibration frequency of the installed device, and maximum flow velocity of the process material
are evaluated to determine whether the device is acceptable. Avoidance of catastrophic
thermowell failures requires consulting with engineers and vendors to select the proper device.
Maintenance and Calibration
Maintenance and calibration needs influence temperature measuring-device selection. The

following discussion describes these needs in terms of
• Maintenance needs
• Calibration support
Maintenance needs
Maintenance needs are described for the following devices:
• Thermocouples and RTDs

• Bimetallic and glass stem thermometers
• Thermal systems
• Pyrometers
Thermocouples and RTDs require little maintenance or calibration. If a thermocouple should fail,
one of the sensing leads will open and the receiving device no longer has temperature indication.
If a thermocouple junction was not manufactured properly, the measurement data appears erratic.
In that case, the thermocouple is simply replaced. RTDs are similar to thermocouples in their
failure symptoms. Usually, an RTD lead wire opening, as is the case in thermocouples, is the
most likely cause of failure. If an RTD is suspected of not providing the correct temperature
reading, it is simply replaced.

RTD and thermocouple measurement accuracy can be checked in the field without removing
them from the process. A thermocouple checkbox can be used to measure the electromotive
force (emf, in millivolts) and indicate the temperature in digital form. The checkbox is able to
measure and indicate directly in temperature units. Traceability checkboxes for RTDs and/or
TCs vary; some manufacturers offer a certificate of calibration and traceability to current
standards. Additionally, these devices provide a signal output so that the integrity of the signal
lines and the indicator can be verified.
Bimetallic and glass stem thermometers must be field-replaced with a similar thermometer to verify
that they work properly. These thermometers require two temperature "baths" during testing. A
temperature bath is a container of oil or sand held at a constant temperature. When the stem or
bulb of the thermometer is immersed in the bath, the device will or will not be within tolerance.
Two baths are required because of the long cycle time of the bath material. For reasons of safety,
especially at high temperatures, temperature baths using sand material are preferred. When a
temperature below the freezing point of water is required, an antifreeze and water solution are
necessary.
Thermal systems have a long service life if installed properly and not overranged. Overranging can
distort the pressure element, mechanical linkages, and pointers. The thermal bulb, if installed in a
thermowell, requires only periodic inspection.
Pyrometers provide long service life when installed properly. The optical path must be kept clear
and clean. To avoid unnecessary maintenance, portable pyrometers must be used with care, as
rough handling shortens their useful life.
Calibration Support
Calibration support is described for the following
• RTD and T/C

• System calibration
• Thermal system calibration
• Bimetallic and glass stem thermometer calibration
• Pyrometer calibration

System calibration – Calibration of temperature sensors requires a variety of test equipment. If

calibration is done in the field, portable, lightweight instruments are essential. The calibration of
the actual RTD and thermocouple sensor does not involve adjustments to the sensor. What is
called sensor calibration is actually a comparison of a sensor’s temperature data to a known
standard sensor in the same temperature environment. In sensor calibration, as the sensor is
brought through specific temperature points, the data is recorded. Generally vendors recommend
a system calibration—a calibration of both the sensor and temperature instrument that receives
the probe’s signal. If the RTD or thermocouple sensor is connected to a transmitter or converter,
the measurement system is calibrated to a specified range by using the checkbox and digital
multimeter. The manufacturer’s instructions should be followed during the calibration process.
Microprocessor-based instruments greatly simplify the calibration process because their memory
contains the sensor’s temperature curves (millivolts versus degrees).
Thermal system calibration – Thermal systems are calibrated with a temperature bath so that a high,
middle, and low point of the temperature range can be verified. The calibration procedure is best
performed in a plant’s repair facility, where the manufacturer's instructions can be best followed.
Pyrometer calibration is best performed by returning the device to the manufacturer for calibration.
The pyrometer’s manufacturer has the necessary sophisticated equipment and traceable
standards.
Bimetallic and glass stem thermometer calibrations require a temperature bath for verification of
temperature range high and low points. Usually, it is cheaper to just replace a bimetallic
thermometer than to attempt any adjustment to bring the device within calibration. Glass stem
thermometers do not need calibration. A common glass stem thermometer problem is that the
mercury or alcohol fluid sometimes separates. Immersing the thermometer’s bulb in a bath
recombines the fluid.
Many manufacturers comply with ISO 9000 (International Standards Organization)

requirements. Compliance to the ISO 9000 standards means that vendors have common
measurement, calibration, and testing standards.

Compatibility with Existing Process Instruments
Current digital control systems can use various types of electronic transmitters to convert a
temperature sensor’s millivolt signal to an acceptable electrical signal level. Note that
thermocouples and RTDs can be directly connected to a distributed control system (DCS)
system. A filled thermal system can provide either a pneumatic or electrical signal. The filled
thermal system’s pneumatic signal must be converted to a 4-20 mA signal to work with a DCS
system. Optical pyrometers are electrically operated and can provide a 4-20 mA output to a
control system. Portable optical pyrometers, which use an operator's eyesight to match a
reference color to that of a heated object, are not connected to a control system. Obviously, glass
stem and bimetallic thermometers cannot be connected to a control system as they are used for
local indication only. Recall that any electric or electronic device must meet the area's electrical
classification for safety considerations. Thermostats usually have bimetallic thermometers that
are used in on-off control applications.
Economic Considerations
Economic considerations that influence device selection are described qualitatively in terms of
• Sensor costs
• Transmitter costs
• Distributed control system support
• Local indication needs.
Sensor Costs
While the initial costs of thermocouples are generally less than that of RTDs, the installed costs
of thermocouples can be higher. Thermocouples may require compensation, extension wires, and
signal conditioning for long wiring runs. RTDs require less support. Over the lifetime of the
sensor, the costs of thermocouples and RTDs are about the same in many applications. The
lifetime costs include installation, maintenance and calibration, and replacement.

Transmitter Costs
While initial purchase price is an important factor, it is only one of several transmitter costs.
What is often referred to as the “cost of ownership” is also important in transmitter selection.
The cost of ownership—the cost of owning and operating the transmitter over its operating life—
is just as important. Installation, repair and ease of calibration, warranties, quality, and reliability
affect the cost of ownership. For that reason, microprocessor-based temperature instruments tend
to have lower costs of ownership than conventional transmitters.
Distributed Control System Support
Pneumatic and electronic devices can be connected to a pneumatic control system through an
electro/pneumatic converter. The question is not whether it is feasible, but how much will it cost
to install and maintain. Current control systems are often distributed control systems (DCS). The
DCS accepts current or voltage input signals. It would not make much economic sense to use
sensors that do not output an electrical signal because they would require the added cost of signal
converters. If the control system is pneumatic, then the use of a device that is manufactured with
only a pneumatic signal makes sense.
Current distributed control systems can provide field power to a sensor and transmitter
combination. The signal path then becomes a 2-wire loop and does not require additional costs to
wire power to the sensor and transmitter. Some devices, such as pyrometers, require a separate
external supply of electrical power to operate the device.
Local Indication Needs
If the signal needs to be locally indicated, an RTD or thermocouple may not be the best choice.
A simple bimetallic thermometer would be a better device and a less costly option.
Technical Direction
Technical directions that influence current and future temperature device selections are described
in terms of
• Sensor usage trends
• Sensor technology changes
• Microprocessor-based temperature transmitters

Sensor usage trends
As an industry trend, thermocouples are being used in moderate temperature applications but
remain popular for high temperature applications. Thermocouples also remain popular for
installations where vibrations would eliminate an RTD form usage. RTDs are becoming the
preferred sensor for moderate temperature applications, because, compared to thermocouples,
RTDs have better accuracy and similar installed and lifetime costs.
Sensor technology changes
Sensor technology changes include the following trends:
• Increasing acceptance of thin film RTDs
• Introduction of smart sensor probes
Increasing acceptance of thin film RTDs – Thin film RTDs have increased in use because of
continual improvements in the thin film manufacturing techniques. Thin film technology allows
the use of smaller sensing elements near the tip of the probe. Because of the smaller size of thin
film RTDs as compared to current RTD elements, the probe can now be used to solve many
difficult applications where probe size may be a limiting factor. Thin film RTDs are more stable
than wire wound RTD elements in applications that experience vibration. Thin film RTDs have
better accuracy characteristics than traditional RTD elements.
Introduction of smart sensor probes – Smart sensor probes are envisioned as devices that provide
enhanced diagnostic and calibration capabilities. Thermocouples and platinum RTDs are
common types of sensors that could be combined with a microprocessor to provide these
enhancements. Dedicating a microprocessor to a sensor can reduce wiring runs and increase
configurability and conversion capabilities on a per sensor basis. (Refer to the Work Aids for an
example smart sensor probe.)
Microprocessor-based temperature transmitter
In smart transmitters, sensors are combined with microprocessors to provide digital, linearized
voltage, or 4 to 20 mA signals. Smart temperature transmitters accept either RTD or
thermocouple inputs. Smart temperature transmitters can be set for the type of sensor input, span,
and signal output by a hand-held field interface unit. Anywhere along the 2-wire loop to the
transmitter, where terminals are available, the field interface unit can be connected to the loop
through the use of test leads. The smart transmitter’s programs also include a sensor’s parameters
and operating range. Smart temperature transmitters provide remote reranging and calibration
capabilities. Because smart transmitters are so versatile, the numbers of spare units and space
required to store them can be reduced, because fewer temperature transmitters are needed.

SELECTING TEMPERATURE SENSOR DEVICES
The following discussion describes temperature sensors whose vendor data sheets and Saudi
Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets an engineer may be required to interpret. The types of
sensors described in this section include the following:
• Filled systems
• Bimetallic thermometers
• Pyrometer
• Temperature sensitive materials
• Thermocouples
• Resistance temperature detectors
Filled Systems
Filled systems are so named because they use the thermal expansion of a fill fluid to provide
temperature sensing and measurement. Filled systems can be categorized as the following:
• glass stem thermometer
• filled thermal system
Glass Stem Thermometer
Glass stem thermometers are described in the following discussion in terms of principles, design,
performance, installation, and applications.
Principles – The thermal expansion of the fill fluid along the scaled tube section indicates
temperature.
Design – Glass stem thermometers have a liquid fill fluid in a bulb or reservoir, a hollow glass
tube for the fluid to expand in, and a temperature scale etched along the hollow tube (Figure 31).
The fill fluid is usually mercury or dyed alcohol. Glass stem thermometers are available in
protected and unprotected versions. The operation of a liquid-in-glass thermometer depends on
the difference in thermal expansion of the fluid and the glass. For example, the volume
coefficient of expansion of mercury is about eight times that of glass. For a given fluid and type
of glass, the change in the length of the fluid column in the capillary for a given temperature
change depends on the cross-sectional area of the capillary.

Three main types of thermometers are produced.
Partial Immersion Thermometer – A partial immersion thermometer is inserted to a fixed point that
is marked on the stem (the immersion ring). The partial immersion thermometer is the least
accurate type, because the temperature of the stem and the liquid that is above the surface may be
significantly different than the temperature of the immersed portion. This will affect the diameter
of the capillary and the column of the liquid above the surface. Because this temperature may be
quite different in different applications, there is no way to avoid problems by calibration.
Total Immersion Thermometer – In a total immersion thermometer, the thermometer is immersed to

the height of the fluid column (not the whole length of the thermometer). Total immersion
thermometers usually carry no special markings. Sometimes, total immersion thermometers are
unavoidably used in a partial immersion mode. In that case, accurate measurements require a
stem correction. The correction is of the form
∆T = Kn(TB - T)
where:
∆T = temperature correction
K = temperature correction factor
n = number of degrees on the scale between the surface of the fluid
and the end of the fluid column in the capillary
TB = bulb temperature
T = average temperature of the portion of the thermometer between
the fluid surface and the end of the fluid column in the capillary
The correction factor depends on the fluid and the glass. The following table gives the correction
factor for mercury in two common thermometer glasses. The bulb temperature is the best
estimate of the fluid temperature (generally taken as the uncorrected thermometer reading). The
value of T can be obtained with a small auxiliary thermometer attached to the main thermometer.

Mean Temperature (°C) K for “Normal” Glass K for “Borosilicate” Glass

0 0.000158 0.000164
100 0.000158 0.000164
150 0.000158 0.000165
200 0.000159 0.000167
250 0.000161 0.000170
300 0.000164 0.000174
350 — 0.000178
400 — 0.000183
450 — 0.000188
K Values for Normal Glass and Borosilicate Glass
Complete Immersion Thermometer – A complete immersion thermometer (also called full

immersion) is totally submerged in the fluid whose temperature is to be measured. these
thermometers usually bear the inscription “complete immersion.” They can be used in
applications when the scale can be read through a window or port.
Expansion
Chamber
120 ÞC
100
80
60
40
20
Scale
0
-20
Liquid Fill
Bulb
Figure 31: Liquid-In Glass Thermometer Design

The protected model (Figure 32) is ruggedized with a metal frame and a thermowell to protect
the bulb or reservoir. The protected model has a longer response time to temperature changes
than the unprotected model. The protected model’s response time can be up to several minutes.
ÞC
Protective
Casing
Thermowell
Figure 32: Protected Glass Stem Thermometer
Performance – Glass stem thermometers are available that can measure temperatures ranging from
-100°C to 400°C. When a glass stem thermometer is used for higher temperature measurements,
the physical lengths can be up to 405 mm. The glass stem thermometer is best suited for local
measurement and cannot be used for recording or automatic control.
Performance advantages of glass stem thermometers include

• Low cost
• Simple design
• Long life
Performance disadvantages of glass stem thermometers are the following:

• Difficult to read
• Local measurement only
• Subject to breakage
Installation – Glass stem thermometers are installed in thermowells to avoid breakage.

Thermowell options are available to support straight, 90° angle, or multiangle installations.
Applications – Glass stem thermometers are infrequently used in processing applications because
of the risk of breakage. One possible application for a glass stem thermometer is temperature
measurement for manual boiler control. They continue to have use in nonprocessing applications,
such as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.

Filled Thermal Systems
Filled thermal systems are described in the following discussion in terms of principles, design,
performance, installation, and applications.
Principles – A filled thermal system (Figure 33) is basically a temperature indicator with a
pressure gauge similar in shape to a Bourdon tube. The pressure gauge is connected with narrow
capillary tubing, which acts as the means of signal transmission, to a bulb-shaped temperature
sensor. Depending on the type, as the temperature changes, the Bourdon tube responds to either a
volume change (expansion of a liquid) or a pressure change. The gauge itself drives a
temperature indication pointer.
Bourdon
Tube
Temperature
Indication
Bulb
Figure 33: Filled Thermal System Example
Design – Filled thermal systems are divided into four categories.
• Class I, liquid filled thermometers, is a completely filled system that provides a

temperature measurement based upon the liquid’s volumetric expansion. The fill
fluid, usually an inert hydrocarbon, can be toluene, alcohol, pentane, or silicone
fluids. Class I systems are available in versions, Class IA and IB, that compensate
for temperature changes.
• Class II, liquid/vapor or “vapor pressure” thermometers, is a partly filled system
that uses the pressure principles to provide temperature measurement. All Class II
systems use a volatile liquid as the fill fluid. The choice of fill fluid depends on
the temperature range to be measured.

• Class III, gas filled thermometers, operates on the pressure principle. The inert
gas, such as nitrogen or helium, permits extremely low temperature
measurements. Class III temperature compensated versions are available.
• Class V, mercury filled thermometers, has temperature compensated versions.
The range of the device determines the fill fluid, which is the vendor’s concern.
Review the design requirements that are stated in SAES-J-400, Section 4.6. They are briefly
summarized as the following:
• Capillary requirements should be 300 series stainless steel armor.
• Only corrosion-resistant materials are acceptable.
• Overrange protection requirements of at least 150% of full scale.
Performance – When selecting a filled thermal system, the speed of response of a thermal system
is one of the more important factors. The speed of response is an important factor when applying
a filled system to a temperature control loop. Generally, the speed of response for filled systems
is in the range of 4 to 7 seconds. So, for example, if there is a step change in process temperature,
the filled thermal system will show the indicated change 4 to 7 seconds later.
A second performance consideration is whether the system can measure within the application's
temperature range. Of all filled thermal systems, Class III systems cover the broadest range, from
-450°F to 1400°F. A third consideration is the toxicity of the fill fluid, especially if the bulb or
capillary tube fails. Mercury, hexane, butane, and propane can be dangerous if not contained.
The thermal sensing bulb is best installed in a protection tube or thermowell. Note that the
addition of a thermowell slows the speed of response of the Thermal system. A slow response of
measurement is a major problem in temperature control.
Installation – According to SADP-J-400, Section 4.4, “Bare sensitive bulbs should be used
wherever possible, because they permit faster response. The bulb should always be located
where the temperature is representative and where the velocity of the process medium is
adequate for proper heat transfer. Radiation effects should be considered when installing
sensitive bulbs on the side of ovens and ducts.”
For all filled system installations, a thermowell or protective tube is required to protect the bulb.
The sensing element is not designed for high pressures or the impact of fluids or gases in a pipe
installation. Refer to API RP 551, Section 5.6.5, for additional installation guidelines.
Application – Filled thermal systems have low usage in Saudi Aramco temperature measurement
applications. Typical industry applications of filled thermal systems include self-operated
temperature regulating applications, such as tank heaters or vaporizers, or in applications where
close temperature control may not be necessary. Refer to API RP 551, Section 5.6.2, for
additional application guidelines.

Performance Comparison of Filled Systems
The performance of filled thermal systems is summarized in Figure 34.
Filled Range
Advantages
System Disadvantages
Class
Liquid,
• Linear Scale
Class 1 -300 To 700ÞF • Temperature
• Small Bulb Size
Compensation Required
Vapor -300 To 660ÞF • Fast Response
Pressure • Non-Linear Scale
• Temperature
Class II • Erratic Response
Compensation Not Required
Possible at Ambient
Gas, -435 To 1400ÞF • Low and High
Class III • Large Bulb Size
Temperature Extremes
Mercury, -60 To 1200ÞF • Linear

• Temperature
Class V • Linear Compensation Required
• Small Bulb
Figure 34: Performance Comparison
Bimetallic Thermometer
Bimetallic thermometers are one of the most widely used devices for providing local temperature
indication. The bimetallic thermometer is often referred to as a "dial thermometer" because of its
round dial indicating head. Bimetallic thermometers are described in the following discussion in
terms of principles, design, performance, installation, and applications.
Principles – The bimetallic thermometer’s principles are described in SADP-J-400, Section 3.3:
“The fundamental property of all thermostatic bimetals is the ability to bend or change curvature
with temperature change. A bimetal is a constant-movement device. Because the difference in
coefficients of expansion, and therefore the tendency to bend, is constant along the length of the
element, the bending moment is also constant.” A bimetallic thermometer’s (Figure 35)
thermostatic bimetal is a case-compensation mechanism applied in opposition to the change in
output of the filled system to provide a correction for ambient temperature variation experienced
at the instrument’s case.
As the filled system’s reaction to case temperature change goes one way, the bimetal goes the
other way and the resulting difference is less inaccuracy within the case of the instrument.

Helical Coil
Consists of 2
Strips of Metal
with Different
Coefficients of
Expansion
Helical
Coil
Figure 35: Thermostatic Bimetal Principle
Design – The bimetallic thermometer’s design (Figure 36) is described in SADP-J-400, Section
3.3: “The bimetallic thermometer is constructed by fastening one end of the calibrated bimetal
element to the inside of a cylindrical thermometer stem, and attaching a shaft to the other end of
the element. The shaft and the element are centered in the stem by guide bushings. Air space is
minimized to improve dynamic response. A pointer is attached to the top end of the shaft. When
the bimetallic element is formed into a helix (spiral), a temperature change will cause the helix to
wind or unwind, causing a rotational motion of the pointer.”

Indicating Head
Dial
Stem Helical Coil
Length Specified
Pointer From Hex Nut
To Tip Of Stem
Figure 36: Design of Bimetallic Thermometer
Performance – A practical temperature range for this type of temperature indicator is -80°C to
+410°C (-80°F to 800°F). The accuracy can be from ±0.5°C to 10°C.
Performance advantages are the following:

• Acceptable accuracies
• Rugged construction
• Can withstand overranging
• Easier to read than glass stem thermometers
Performance disadvantages are the following:

• May not be linear over complete range, particularly at extremely low temperatures
• Extensive exposure to high temperatures can cause reading errors at range
extremes
Installation – As a general rule, thermowells are required for bimetallic thermometer installations.
According to API RP 551, Section 5.5, “Extra care should be taken to ensure readability of the
dial from a convenient location while protecting it from damage by falling objects and the like.”
Application – The bimetallic thermometer is regarded within the hydrocarbon industry as an

acceptable device for local temperature indication for an application that does not require
control. Bimetallic thermometers experience high frequency of use at Saudi Aramco.

According to SAES-J-400, Section 4.5, “Bimetallic thermometers and wells shall be selected
from AMS Catalog, Class 34. When subject to vibration, thermometers shall be silicone oil-
filled.”
Pyrometers
Pyrometers, also called “radiation thermometers” or infrared (IR) thermometers, are applied in
temperature measurements requiring noncontacting technologies. Through the use of special
ports or sighting windows and lenses, the pyrometer is useful in many applications, and is a
valuable tool for preventive maintenance. In addition to providing a means of noncontact
measurement, another advantage of pyrometers is that they can measure a wide range of
temperatures, from below zero to high temperature extremes.
Pyrometers are described in the following discussion in terms of principles, design, performance,
installation, and applications.
Principles
Pyrometers are based on Planck’s law and Planck’s radiation formula. Because pyrometers are
based upon Planck’s law, the laws become the theoretical basis for measuring the temperature of
a heated body without making contact with the heated body. Planck’s law essentially predicts the
complete radiation emitted by a blackbody. A blackbody represents an ideal object that is a
perfect radiator—it absorbs all radiation it receives and radiates more thermal radiation for all
wavelength intervals than any other body of the same area and same temperature. The blackbody
concept is central to radiation thermometry technology and related pyrometric terminology, such
as emissivity.
Emissivity is defined as the ratio of energy emitted by an object to the energy emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity of a blackbody is 1.0. A nonblackbody object
(or graybody) with an emissivity of 0.8 would emit only 80% of the available energy, causing the
temperature reading to be lower than the actual temperature. To compare to near perfect
emissivity, manufacturers install compensators that amplify for energy lost when emissivity is
less than 1.0. For most materials, emissivity does not vary with wavelengths. Most metallic
objects’ emissivities improve inversely with wavelengths.
Because a heated object emits radiation within the infrared portion of the band, a pyrometer can
measure temperature based upon the emitted energy. Radiation thermometers make their
measurements using the 0.5 to 20 micron wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. (Visible
light is from 0.4 to 0.7 microns, while infrared is from 0.7 to several hundred microns.)

Design
The design of pyrometers varies and is often placed into five categories:
• Wideband or broadband instruments – These devices have a wide wavelength
response, are simple in design, and measure the greatest fraction of total emitted
radiation.
• Narrowband instruments – These devices have a narrow wavelength response for
special temperature measurement applications.
• Ratio or “2-color” instruments – These devices essentially are two pyrometers in
one housing. A change in ratio of the two measured wavelengths represents a
change in temperature.
• Fiber optic instruments – These devices add fiber optic technology to a traditional
pyrometer and are useful in applications where the pyrometer’s electronics must
be kept away from the heated object.
• Optical pyrometer – These devices allow an operator to make a match between a
heated object and internal lamp.
A block diagram in Figure 37 shows the design of a typical infrared pyrometer. The infrared
pyrometer consists of an optical lens, reference temperature source, detector, and amplifier.
Signal indication can be provided both locally to the operator and conditioned for remote
indication.
Analog (Or
Digital)
Indication
Optical
Lens
AMP
Infared
Radiation Detection
And
Heated Comparison
Optional
Object
Output To
Controller
Figure 37: Pyrometer Functional Diagram

Because Planck’s law established the relationship of radiation emitted per unit surface area, it
follows that a known area must be measured to determine a temperature measurement. In
practical terms, the instrument’s field of view or “target size” becomes important in making the
temperature measurement. To correctly use a pyrometer, a target size versus distance chart must
be followed. The object of measurement must fill the required target size at a known distance.
Performance
In specifying pyrometers, consideration should be given to the following:
• Response time – Pyrometers have response times that are very good; times range
from 100 milliseconds to 1 second.
• Operating environment – The devices should be protected from flames, dust, or

mist interference.
• Compatibility with other instruments – Signal processing devices are available

that can send outputs to controllers and recorders.
• Viewing port applications – If a temperature must be measured through a window

or port, evaluate whether the window will pass the energy at measurable
wavelengths to the pyrometer.
Pyrometers have advantages in their fast response times. Small target sizes are possible, as well
as the ability to measure the temperature of moving objects. The pyrometer measures
temperature well beyond the high temperature limits for thermocouples. Usually, pyrometers can
measure across a wide temperature range.
The major disadvantage of a pyrometer is its high cost. Care must be used when selecting the
type of pyrometer for the application. In harsh environments, special housings may be required
that increase the cost of installation.
Installation
Installation considerations are described in terms of
• Physical mounting requirements
• Viewing port requirements
• Environmental considerations

Physical mounting requirements include:
• The pyrometer’s sensing head must fit into the available space for sighting the
object.
• Power sources (AC or DC) must be available for the pyrometer .
• Output signals (mA, millivolt, RS-232C, etc.) for display and/or control are
specified.
Viewing port requirements include:
• The port or viewing window must be able to pass energy at the wavelength
measured by the pyrometer.
• When local visible sighting is required, the port or viewing window must be able
to pass both visible and infrared wavelengths.
Environmental considerations include following:
• The pyrometer location is reviewed against the minimum and maximum

acceptable range for the target and IR thermometer.
• Any materials—air, quartz windows, glass, dust—between target and

thermometer are identified.
• Ambient temperatures are reviewed. Source of heat may require remote mounting
of pyrometer electronics.
Application
Both fixed-mount pyrometers and portable pyrometers have several applications. Fixed-mount
pyrometers are useful when the temperature must be continuously monitored and controlled. For
example, the refractory temperature in a boiler, incinerator, or special purpose furnace can be
continuously monitored. In the oil refining environment, the infrared pyrometer can be used to
monitor the refractory in a sulfur unit incinerator to help ensure that the equipment does not
overrange and cause equipment damage.
Portable pyrometers are useful for maintenance diagnostics, quality control checks, and periodic
preventive maintenance checks in critical processes. The portable, hand held-model is good for
field work in detecting equipment hot spots that otherwise may not be detected. For example, the
reformer unit reactors or fluid catalytic cracking unit reactor-regenerator equipment can be
periodically checked. Pyrometers experience low usage at Saudi Aramco.

Temperature Sensitive Materials

The family of temperature-sensitive materials called “fusible indicators” is described in the
following discussion in terms of principles, design, performance, installation, and applications.
Principles
Temperature-sensitive materials are essentially heat-sensitive fusible materials that are made up
from crystalline solids. When heated to a predetermined temperature, the solid changes to a
liquid. The change to the liquid state indicates the predetermined temperature has been reached.
Design
Temperature-sensitive materials have several designs (Figure 38):
• Crayons – Each crayon has a specified melting point.
• Lacquers – The dull lacquer turns glossy at the predetermined temperature.
• Pellets – Tablet-shaped indicators melt at a predetermined temperature.
• Labels – Adhesive label with heat sensitive monitors under sealed windows
change color from white to black.
38ÞC 52ÞC 66ÞC

Crayon
Markers
100ÞF 125ÞF 150ÞF
Color Change
ÞC Indicator
15 30 45
59 86 113
ÞF
Liquid Crystal
Indicator
Pellets
Thermcoat
Figure 38: Temperature Sensitive Material

Performance
Temperature-sensitive materials have the following performance considerations:
• Temperature indications are surface indications, and indicate only the temperature
of the surface they are applied to.
• Temperature-sensitive materials have no delay in obtaining an indication (heat is

not conducted away from the surface).
• Temperature-sensitive materials are simple and easy to use.
• Extended heating periods may oxidize some materials.
• Change (to a liquid or different color) is irreversible for some temperature-

sensitive materials.
Installation and application
Temperature-sensitive materials are useful when it is necessary to provide local indication that a
predetermined temperature has been reached. For example, pellet indicators can be used to
monitor air space temperatures (heat zones) in a furnace. Temperature-sensitive materials are
used infrequently at Saudi Aramco.
Thermocouples
Thermocouples are one of the most common types of temperature-measuring sensors currently
used in industry and at Saudi Aramco when a remote indication or measurement is required for a
control loop. Thermocouples are described in the following discussion in terms of principles,
design, performance, installation, and applications.
Principles
The principles of operation are described in SADP-J-400, Section 3.1: “The thermocouple (T/C)
consists of two dissimilar metal or alloy wires joined together at one end, the so-called
measuring (or “hot”) junction. The free ends of the two wires are connected to the measuring
instrument to form a closed path in which current can flow. The point where the T/C wires
connect to the measuring instrument is designated as the “reference” (or “cold”) junction.

Applying heat to the measuring junction causes a small emf to be generated at the reference
junction. When a readout device is employed, it converts the emf produced by the temperature
difference between the measuring and the reference junctions to record or otherwise display the
temperature of the measuring junction. When the reference temperature is known (usually 0°C)
and the measuring junction is exposed to an unknown temperature, the emf developed will vary
directly with changes in the unknown temperature.”
Thermocouple operation requires a discussion of several principles (Figure 37), which are the
following:
• Seebeck Effect
• Peltier Effect
• Thomson Effect
Seebeck Effect – When two wires consisting of dissimilar metals are bonded at both ends and one
of the ends is heated, a continuous current will flow in a circuit, called a “thermoelectric circuit.”
The current flows whenever there is a temperature difference between the two junctions. This
phenomena is called the Seebeck Effect, named after Thomas Seebeck who discovered the
existence of thermoelectric circuits. If you were to break open the thermoelectric circuit and
measure the voltage at one end, the voltage would be a function of the junction temperature and
composition of the metal wires. This voltage is called the Seebeck voltage. All dissimilar metals
exhibit this effect.
Peltier Effect – The Peltier effect, states that when electric current flows across a junction of two
dissimilar metals, heat is either liberated (if current is in same direction as the Seebeck current)
or absorbed (if current is in opposite direction as the Seebeck current).
In a thermocouple installation, a secondary effect of the connection from a thermocouple to

extension wires to the measuring instrument is that at every terminal connection an emf is
developed because of dissimilar metals. Each connection either emits or absorbs heat. This effect
is caused by the Peltier Effect. Whether the connection emits or absorbs heat is determined by
the direction in which electrical current flows through the connection.
The Peltier Effect is the basis for thermoelectric heating and cooling. A common example of the
Peltier Effect is seen in portable, battery-powered recreational heaters/coolers.
Thomson Effect – The Thomson Effect states a temperature gradient in a metallic conductor has a
small voltage gradient whose magnitude and direction depend upon the particular metal. For
example, if a single wire is heated at its midpoint, the temperatures at the end points, T2, will
obviously be lower than the temperature a T1. When current flows through the wire from P2 to
P1, electrons absorb energy at one end of the wire and release energy at the opposite end of the
wire. Because the gain and loss of energy are equal, no net effect occurs along the wire.

A practical result of the Thomson effect is that the application of heat to a single homogeneous
wire does not create a thermoelectric voltage. Thus, the Thomson effect becomes the basis for
connecting thermocouples with copper wires, because the wires themselves do not add voltage to
the circuit.
In a thermocouple circuit used in temperature measurement, the high impedance of the

potentiometer does not allow any current flow; therefore, only the Seebeck Voltage, VAB, is of
importance.
Heat Heat
Absorption Liberation
Peltier Effect
Current
Metal Alloy "A"
Metal Alloy "B"

Seebeck Effect
+
Hot Metal Alloy "A"
Measuring "Cold
VAB Reference
Junction
Junction"
-
Metal Alloy "B"
Seebeck Voltage = VAB
T T T
2 1 2
Current, I
P P
2 Thomson Effect 1
Figure 39: Thermocouple Principles

Design
The design of thermocouples is described in terms of
• Types of sheathed thermocouple junctions
• Electromotive force (emf)
• Importance of reference junction
• Extension wires
• Average and differential temperatures
• Design variations
• Thermocouple reference tables
Types of sheathed thermocouple junctions are manufactured as one of the following:
• Exposed junction – The exposed junction offers the fastest speed of response. The
exposed junction is used in the measurement of static or noncorrosive gas flows
where a fast response time is needed. The junction extends past the protective
sheath to provide fast response. The sheath is sealed to prevent penetration of
process materials.
• Ungrounded junction – The ungrounded junction is used in the temperature

measurements within corrosive environments where it is necessary to isolate and
shield the thermocouple element in critical electrical applications. The welded
thermocouple wire is insulated from the thermocouple sheath by a magnesium
oxide powder or its equivalent.
• Grounded junction – The grounded junction is used in the temperature

measurement of static or flowing corrosive gases and liquids, as well high-
pressure applications. The junction is called grounded because it is welded to the
thermocouple’s protective sheath. A grounded junction has a faster speed of
response than an ungrounded junction.

Protective Sheath
Exposed
Junction
Protective Sheath
Ungrounded
Junction
Protective Sheath
Grounded
Junction
Figure 40: Sheathed Thermocouple Junctions
Electromotive force – Electromotive force is defined in SADP-J-400 as “The amount of energy

derived from an electrical source per unit quantity of electricity passing through the source (as a
cell or generator).” In other words, emf represents a rise in electrical energy. The principal
measurement unit of the EMF is the volt. If a direct measurement could be made of a
thermocouple’s voltage, the voltage would be called the “Seebeck voltage.”
Importance of reference junction – A direct measurement of the Seebeck voltage requires that the
measuring instrument use a reference junction. If, for example, a voltmeter’s leads are directly
connected to a thermocouple, a new thermoelectric circuit is created because a voltmeter’s
copper terminal to thermocouple’s noncopper wire connection is made. To avoid creating an
additional thermal emf from the copper to noncopper connection, a reference
(“cold”) junction is used. The reference junction provides a way for measuring instruments to
compensate for any EMF at an instrument’s input terminals, thus providing a measurement of
temperature at the measuring (“hot”) junction.

The “cold” reference is important because the Seebeck voltage is based upon characteristics of
the dissimilar metals and the temperature difference between the hot-measuring junction and
cold-reference junction. In a lab environment, an ice bath is used as the reference junction. In
process instrumentation, the cold-junction temperature reference is provided by a cold-junction
compensation resistor or other digital means. The cold junction compensation uses the concept of
the law of intermediate temperatures (Liptak page 490). The voltage (consistent with the style of
the thermocouple) of an imaginary thermocouple with junctions at 32°F and ambient is added to
the measuring thermocouple to develop the voltage between 32°F and the measuring junction.
The purpose of these approaches is to provide a constant emf to the measuring instrument while
compensating for temperature changes at the reference junction.
In practice, it is not always practical to connect the thermocouple directly to an instrument.

Extension wires are often run from the terminal of a thermocouple assembly’s connection-head
to the measuring instrument. Extension wires are constructed of the same materials or of
materials with similar thermal characteristics as the thermocouple. Selected extension wires must
have the same accuracy and temperature characteristics as the T/C’s.
Extension
Measuring Wires Insulation
Instrument
+ + +
- - -
Cold
Reference Hot
Junction Thermocouple
Measuring
Wires
Sheath Junction
Connection
Head
Figure 41: Cold and Measuring Junction
Extension wires are described in SADP-J-400, Section 3.1, in the following manner: “The
[temperature] measuring instrument is usually located away from the point at which the
temperature is measured. Because the temperature-sensing resistor for maintaining a constant
reference junction emf can be most conveniently located in the instrument as a part of its circuit,
it is necessary to locate the reference junction itself in the instrument. Therefore, the
thermoelectric circuit must be extended from the measuring junction, at the point where the
temperature measurement is desired, to the reference junction in the instrument. This is done
through the use of extension wires (Figure 42).

Extension wires theoretically extend the [thermocouple] T/C to the reference junction in the
instrument with similar thermal characteristics as the thermocouple. This wire is generally
furnished in the form of a matched pair of conductors. The simplest procedure is to use the same
types of wire that the T/C itself is made of; however, in installations with noble-metal T/C where
several hundred feet of extension wire must be used, or where numerous T/C are employed, such
a procedure may become too expensive. In such cases alternative, lower-cost materials with
similar characteristics at lower temperatures are available.”
The thermocouple’s signal is often sent to a remotely located instrument. The connection is made
through the use of thermocouple extension wire. Extension wire is often made from the same
type of material as the thermocouple. For example, Type J extension wire is used with a Type J
thermocouple only, and likewise for other types of extension wire and thermocouples. At one
time, it was a common industrial practice to install the extension wire from the thermocouple to
the measuring instrument, ideally in one continuous wiring length.
Black
Type J + Positive Wire: White
Extension -
Wire Negative Wire: Red
Type T Blue +
Positive Wire: Dark Blue
Extension
-
Yellow +
Type K
Positive Wire: Yellow
Extension
-
Type E Purple + Positive Wire: Purple

Extension -
Figure 42: Extension Wire Type with Polarity

A standard practice in industry today is to use extension wire from the thermocouple to a local
junction box dedicated to thermocouple signals. The use of a 16 gauge extension wire is a
standard industry practice. A multipaired cable (Figure 43) is used from the local junction box to
the the indicating instrument. Each cable pair is twisted and individually shielded. Multipaired
cables are available with up to 50 pairs of wires manufactured to the same calibration as the
thermocouple. Cables are made for only one type of extension wire in a cable. For example, a
cable is made for all Type J thermocouples or all Type K thermocouples. Cables are not made
with two different types of extension wire as a standard industry practice. In a local junction box,
for example, two different types of cables, one Type J and one Type K may be needed. When
this occurs, 16 or 24 paired cables are generally used.
Aluminum Wrap (Shield)

Vinyl Jacket
Color Coded
Twisted Pair
Extension Wires
(Up to 50 Pairs)
Bare Copper Drain
Figure 43: Multi-paired Cable
As mentioned previously, if a noble metal is used, such as a platinum T/C, the cost of the
extension wire to a readout device could be cost-prohibitive. In this instance, an extension wire
with similar characteristics to noble metals is available. (An alternative to using noble-
compatible extension wire is to use a transmitter/converter for transmitting the signal to the
measuring instrument or controller.)
Two classes of extension wires are available for thermocouples:
• Thermocouple wire, which is essentially the same material as the thermocouple’s

wires.
• Compensating lead wire, which is used with noble metal (platinum)

thermocouples.

It is important to select the correct extension wire, because the use of an incorrect extension wire
will cause errors in temperature readings. The errors are caused by the creation of extra
thermocouple junctions at the terminal blocks or in the measuring instrument. The engineer is
encouraged to review the additional references for extension wires listed in Figure 44.
Reference Reason for use Summary

SAES-J-400, Installation SAES-J-902 must be followed
Section 5.3
SAES-J-400, Type of wire Should conform to 34-SAMMS-913
Section 3.2
SAES-J-902, Separation between Separation between cables listed in Table 2 of
Section 7.7 cables SAES-J-902
34-SAMMS-913 Specification for •Materials of construction
thermocouple cable
•Markings
•Inspection and test
API RP 55, Usage guidelines General guidelines
Section 5.3.5
ANSI MC 96.1 Thermocouples List limits of errors with thermocouples
Figure 44: Thermocouple References
Averaging and differential temperatures – Thermocouples can be connected to average or to find the
difference of temperatures (Figure 45). To measure an average temperature, a series of
thermocouples can be configured in parallel. The voltage at the temperature-measuring
instrument is the result average from the number of thermocouples used. The thermocouples (and
extension wires) that are used in this configuration should have the same resistance for an
accurate measurement to occur. Thermocouple-averaging methods find less use today because
temperature averaging is now performed in computer control systems.
Differential temperatures can be measured between two points through the use of two
thermocouples. The voltage generated in this approach represents the difference in temperature.

Indicator
+ +
T/C1
-
-
+
T/C2
-
+
T/C3
-
T/C Connections For Averaging

• All T/Cs Must Have Same Calibration
• All T/Cs Must Have Ungrounded Junctions
Indicator
+ +
T/C1
-
-
-
T/C2
+
T/C Connections For Differential

• All T/Cs Must Have Same Calibration
• All T/Cs Must Have Ungrounded Junctions
Figure 45: Thermocouple Averaging and Differential Approach
Design variations – The various kinds of thermocouples are classified by type. From a cursory
review of the various types, one could safely conclude that a “universal” type thermocouple is
not available. Because a “universal” type does not exist, the evaluation of thermocouple for a
special, unique application can require some degree of experience. Each thermocouple has its
own unique response curve (Figure 46). Note that Saudi Aramco has standardized on using Type
E and Type K thermocouples for most applications that require thermocouples.

Some general evaluation comments about several thermocouple types can be made
• Type J thermocouples are used in temperature ranges from approximately 32°F to

1400°F. Type J thermocouples are the most economical and widely used
thermocouples in industry. Type J thermocouples have fairly uniform sensitivity
(millivolts per temperature degree change).
• Type K thermocouples are used in temperature ranges from -418°F to 2500°F.

Type K thermocouples are useful for high temperature measurements in oxidizing
atmospheres. Type K thermocouples are often used in fired-heater applications.
Some Type K thermocouples should not be used in reducing atmospheres because
some versions may be susceptible to green rot. Green rot, caused by migration of
chromium, causes the calibration to shift. Thermowell ventilation may be
required. Newer Type K thermocouples use alloys that resist green rot. Type K
thermocouples are moderately expensive.
• Type E thermocouples are used in temperature ranges from -450°F to 1600°F.

Type E thermocouples are particularly useful for short ranges or differential
temperature measurements . Type E thermocouples have the highest millivolt
output per degree temperature change, which provides excellent sensitivity. Type
E thermocouple should not be used in reducing atmospheres and protection is
required when used in sulfurous applications.
• Type S thermocouples are used in temperature ranges from 32°F to 2700°F. Type
S thermocouple consist of platinum 90%/rhodium 10%. The Type S thermocouple
is used to define the International Temperature Scale. Type S thermocouples are
more expensive than other thermocouples. Type S thermocouple have excellent
resistance to oxidizing atmospheres.
Note that thermocouples are defined by not only calibration type but by the junction types—
exposed, grounded and ungrounded—described earlier in this section.

70 Type E
60 Type K
50
Type J
Millivolts 40
30
20
Type S
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
FÞ
Figure 46: Thermocouple Response Curves
Thermocouple reference tables list the temperature versus emf characteristics for a particular
thermocouple. Note that reference tables will specify an emf of zero at 0°C (32°F). A zero emf
reading implies that the table is based upon a cold- or reference-junction temperature of 0°C
(32°F) for all of its values. The temperature reference tables are useful for several calculations:
• Derive measuring (hot) junction temperature based on cold junction emf.
• Use an emf to check an instrument’s calibration.
• Check the calibration of a thermocouple.

The instrument calibration techniques relying on manually calculated values from tables
(excerpts in Figure 47) are minimized with microprocessor-based transmitters. Microprocessor-
based transmitters contain the characterization curves in their database.
ÞF 0Þ 100Þ 200Þ ÞF 0Þ 100Þ 200Þ
Millivolts Millivolts
0Þ -0.68 1.52 3.82 0Þ -1.02 2.27 5.87

10Þ -0.47 1.74 4.05 10Þ -0.71 2.62 6.25
20Þ -0.26 1.97 4.28 20Þ -0.39 2.97 6.62
30Þ -0.04 2.20 4.51 30Þ -0.07 3.32 7.00
40Þ +0.18 2.43 4.74 40Þ 0.26 3.68 7.38
50Þ +0.40 2.66 4.97 50Þ 0.59 4.04 7.76
60Þ 0.62 2.89 5.20 60Þ 0.92 4.40 8.15
70Þ 0.84 3.12 5.42 70Þ 1.26 4.77 8.54
80Þ 1.06 3.36 5.65 80Þ 1.59 5.13 8.93
90Þ 1.29 3.59 5.87 90Þ 1.93 5.50 9.32
100Þ 1.52 3.82 6.09 100Þ 2.27 5.87 9.71
Excerpt From The Type K T/C Table Excerpt From The Type E T/C Table
Figure 47: Thermocouple Reference Table Excerpt
The Thermocouple Table excerpts have some features that are noteworthy. Compare the curves
of Figure 46 with the numbers of Figure 47. Type “E” shows a steeper curve than type “K,” as
well as higher absolute numbers in both the positive and negative regions. The curves and
tabulated numbers do not have uniform intervals; however, interpolation, graphical or numerical,
can be used for small differences. The maximum millivoltage shown in the 200°F column
crossing the 100°F row (300°F) is 9.71 for a type “E” T/C.
The Figure 46 curve shows a maximum 60+ mV for type “E” and 50+ mV for type “K.” Type
“K” can be used at higher temperatures than type “E.” The T/C tables are standardized for
uniformity but higher millivolt values are obtainable in the field at higher temperatures—just not
consistently reproducible.
The maximum 10°F temperature difference millivoltage shown for type “E” is 0.39 mV or 390
µV. Dividing by 10 yields 39 µV/°F, which is a very small number.

Performance
The performance of thermocouples is described in general terms of
• Performance advantages
• Performance disadvantages
Performance advantages include the following:
• Moderate accuracy.
• Wide temperature range, -190 to 1820°C (- 310 to 3300°F), supported.
• Rugged construction resists vibration.
• Support remote and versatile mounting arrangements.
• Moderate cost.
• Faster response than RTDs.
Performance disadvantages include the following:
• Outputs low signal levels (millivolts).

• Calibration changes with contamination.
• Electrical interference can be a concern.
• Higher installation costs (compared to RTDs) because of extension wires.
• Calibration is nonlinear over normal operating spans.
Installation
Installation considerations that influence thermocouple evaluation are the following:
• Installation approaches for fluids and gases
• Sheathing considerations
• Styles of thermocouples
• General installation approaches

Installation approaches for fluids and gases – As stated throughout this course, proper installation has
a major influence on measurement accuracy. Consideration should be given to installations
requiring surface measurement, liquid, or gas temperature measurements. It’s not enough to
assume that the temperature at the measuring (“hot”) junction is always the same as the process
temperature. Thermodynamic laws state that heat flows from hotter regions to cooler ones by
conduction, convection, and radiation. Thus the objective of a thermocouple installation is to
ensure that the amount of heat flowing between the point being measured and thermocouple
junction is not enough to change the temperature of the measured point or cause temperature
differences between the measuring (“hot”) junction and measured point. This can be illustrated
in liquid, solid surface, or gas temperature measurement.
• Assume that a thermocouple, inserted in a thermowell, is used to measure the

temperature of a liquid. If the thermocouple assembly is immersed to a depth of
12.7 mm (0.5 inch), the thermocouple’s measuring junction is probably colder
than the liquid because a temperature gradient occurs along the length of the
thermowell. As the immersion depth increases, the temperature of the measuring
junction more nearly equals that of the process liquid because less heat is flowing
in the measuring junction region. As a general guideline, the immersion depth of a
thermocouple's protective enclosure (thermowell or protective tube) should be at
least 10 times the diameter of the enclosure to avoid temperature differences.
• Heat conduction must also be avoided in solid surface temperature measurements.

In a surface temperature measurement, the thermocouple’s measuring junction is
welded (or bonded) to a metal’s surface. Heat can flow along the thermocouple
wire when the measuring junction is welded to a surface. The temperature can
actually rise or fall at the point of measurement, depending upon whether the
thermocouple is hotter or colder than the metal surface.
Proper installation prevents the heat conduction from occurring by making sure a
significant length of the thermocouple wire is at the same temperature as the
measuring junction. For a pipe installation, the wire is wrapped around the pipe,
welding a significant section of thermocouple to the pipe.
• For a gas measurement, the immersion of the assembly must be to a proper depth,
just as in liquid temperature measurements; however, an additional concern is gas
flowing in a duct. The duct walls may be cooler than the gas. The thermocouple
can read lower because of heat radiating form the thermocouple assembly to the
cooler walls. An approach that minimizes this radiation is to place a protective
shield around the thermocouple. Because the shield is exposed to the gas, the
shield is at nearly the same temperature as the thermocouple’s measuring
junction. As a result, the amount of heat radiated to the shield is much lower.

Sheathing considerations – A thermocouple that consists of a packed, mineral-insulated

thermocouple cable along with a protective coating, such as stainless steel, is called a “sheathed
thermocouple.” Note that the term “sheathing” may also be used to describe the configuration of
a thermocouple placed inside a protective enclosure, such as a protective tube or thermowell.
When a thermocouple is installed in protective sheathing, the thermocouple’s speed of response
is decreased. An industry practice is to use probe “pencil type” thermocouples with a Type 304
stainless steel (ss) sheath. In the oil industry, a pencil-type thermocouple assembly is used in
most of the applications requiring thermocouples.
Thermocouple sheath materials are categorized as the following:
• Metallic – Stainless steel-types and Inconel are common choices. Special

materials such as tantalum, molybdenum, and platinum alloys are available for
high temperature extremes up to 2482°C (4500°F).
• Ceramic – Another type of thermocouple sheath is a ceramic insulator that covers

the thermocouple above the measuring junction. This arrangement is used mainly
in longer thermowells, the T/C itself may be made from 18 or 14 gauge wire.
Ceramics materials include silicon carbide, alumina, and porcelains.
Styles of thermocouples – Thermocouples are made in different styles to support different

applications. For typical industry installations, the probe or “pencil-type” thermocouple, either
Type J or Type K, is used along with a protective thermowell. As mentioned previously, other
types are available and are matched to the specific application’s requirements.
Installations requiring surface measurement use special styles of thermocouples called surface
probes or “skin-type.” Surface probes are, as the name indicates, for the surface or "skin" of a
vessel, pipe or tube. The metal-sheathed surface probe can be manufactured to as small as 0.25
mm (0.01 inch), wire probes as small as 0.013 mm (0.0005 inch). Installation requires welding
and may require stress relieving or special welding procedures, especially when installed on fired
heater tubes and alloy piping. Type K and E surface probes are common surface probes. Type E
is preferred because of its high accuracy in most low-temperature applications. Type K surface
probes are used in high-temperature measurement applications.
Surface thermocouples are also available in a cement on style. The cement on style provides fast
response and convenient installation.

Figure 48: Surface Thermocouple Probes
General installation approaches are shown in Figure 49. The T/C may be either directly wired to a
receiving device, or connected to a 2-wire or 4-wire transmitter.

• Direct wiring – The T/C requires special extension wire. Shielded wire is
recommended. Long lengths in excess of 30 meters (100 feet) can be expensive.
Electrical noise pickup is a concern when 1-thousandth of a volt can represent a
50°F error. Thermocouple wire is not easy to pull through conduit.
• Two-wire transmitter – When lengths from sensor to receiving device exceed 30

meters (100 feet), 2-wire transmitters are preferred. The installed wiring costs are
lower. The power requirements are low (4 to 20 mA). The 2-wire transmitter
offers good noise immunity.
• Four-wire transmitter – Two transmitter wires are for power, the remaining two
wires are for the signal. Generally used when a 0 to 5 volt output is required, the
4-wire transmitter is not as widely used as the 2-wire transmitter.
T/C Wire Or Extension Wire
T/C
Line
Power
Remote
Receiving
Device
Power
T/C Supply
Two Wire
Temperature Remote
Transmitter Receiving
Device
Power
T/C
Four Wire
Temperature Remote
Transmitter Receiving
Device
Figure 49: General T/C Installation Approaches

Application
Application considerations that influence thermocouple evaluation are the following:

• Techniques of thermocouple measurement
• Probe-lead configurations
• Causes of incorrect measurements
• Precautions that improve thermocouple systems
• Diagnosing thermocouple errors
Techniques of thermocouple measurements – Several techniques making thermocouple measurements

with voltmeters can be used to reduce interference from noise. The techniques include
• Tree switching – The tree-switching technique is a method of organizing channels
of a scanner into a group, each with its own switch; otherwise, stray capacitance
from each input could add noise.
• Guarding – The guarding techniques reduces noise that is common to both
measurement leads by tying the shield to voltmeter’s metal box.
• Integration – The integration technique uses an A/D conversion to average noise.
The averaging techniques greatly reduces power-line related noise and its
harmonics.
Probe lead configurations are shown in Figure 50. The combinations are
• Single-thermocouple wire, grounded

• Single-thermocouple wire, ungrounded
• Dual-thermocouple wires, ungrounded and isolated
• Dual-thermocouple wire, grounded and unisolated
• Dual-thermocouple wire, ungrounded and unisolated
Dual thermocouple wires, also called dual elements, allow users to support applications that
require
• Two sensor readings

• Average measurements
• Built-in backup (redundancy)
• Continuous monitoring and control

++
--
Single Element, Grounded
++
--
Single Element, Ungrounded
+-
+
-
Dual Element, Ungrounded And Isolated
++-
-
+
+-
-
Dual Element, Grounded And Unisolated
+
-
+
-
Dual Element, Ungrounded And Unisolated
Figure 50: Probe Lead Configurations
Causes of incorrect thermocouple measurements are the following:
• Noise rejection – Proper shielding, filtering, and grounding corrects this problem.
• Poor junction connections – Vendors weld measuring junctions on sophisticated

machinery to ensure proper welds and uniform products. When personnel make
their own T/Cs, the improper welding of a junction can actually degrade and
change the junction’s characteristics.
• Decalibration – Decalibration represents a process of unintentionally altering the

characteristics of the T/C through rough handling, vibration, aging, or exposure to
temperature extremes. The T/C, in a decalibrated mode, appears to read correctly
for some temperature values, erroneously for others.

• Galvanic action – Dyes used in insulation can form electrolytes in water, causing
high readings. Protecting T/Cs from harsh environments prevents galvanic action.
• Thermal shunting – Thermal shunting is the effect of diverting heat away from the
thermocouple. Extension wire minimizes this effect.
SADP-J-400, Section 3, describes error sources in the following manner: “Error Sources –
Electrical noise pickup by instrument circuits will cause errors. The following types of noise can
be distinguished:
• Static noise may be introduced into T/C circuits by adjacent wires carrying AC
power or rapidly varying (pulsating) DC. The T/C extension wires are
capacitively coupled to the electric field.
Remedy: Minimize the resultant noise by shielding each pair of extension wires
and grounding the wire shields. Never run T/C wires in the same conduit with
electric power wires.
• Magnetic noise may be induced into a T/C circuit any time the extension wires are
subjected to a magnetic field and a current is produced to oppose the magnetic
field.
Remedy: Minimize the noise by twisting each pair of T/C extension wires.
• Crosstalk noise between adjacent wire pairs in the same conduit may occur.
Remedy: Shield each pair of extension wires.
• Common-mode noise in the circuit between measuring junction and transducer

may occur when the circuit is grounded in more than one place, or when different
grounding potentials exist along the wire path.
Remedy: Minimize by proper grounding. T/C circuits usually are grounded at the
measuring junction. Shield each pair of extension wires and ground the shields at
the T/C only. Use differential input measuring devices.”
Precautions that improve integrity of thermocouple systems start with the initial selection process. The
precautions, implied throughout this course module, are summarized as the following:
• The temperature high and low limits of the application should be known to select
the proper sensor. A misapplied T/C over the wrong range or atmosphere
(oxidizing or reducing) can rapidly degrade the T/C.

• Premium grade T/Cs offer the best accuracy (Figure 51).
• Grounding requirements are reviewed. A grounded probe, for example, will

experience ground loop problems if used with many receiving instruments.
• The chemical resistance of the sheath or T/C is reviewed against the application
requirements.
• The correct immersion depth is specified.
• The thermocouple’s vibration resistance is reviewed.
• Protection is provided if abrasive environment is expected.
• The thermocouple element’s wires should be properly insulated from each other
and the environment.
• When extension wire is used, the connection where extension wire mates with
thermocouple wire should be as far away from the heat source as design permits.
• The environment around a T/C should be kept as clean as possible. Sulphur

bearing oils and phosphorous are detrimental to most thermocouples.
• Cold working – for example, roughly pulling thermocouple wire through conduit
should be avoided because it changes a thermocouple calibration.
• Periodic calibration checks of T/Cs can be done in situ (i.e., thermocouple

installed) with portable calibrators. Calibration checks are important, because a
thermocouple’s calibration will change as it ages. Typical periods for checks are
on an annual or semi-annual basis.

Limits Of Error*
(Interchangeability)
Type Alloy Range* Standard Premium
J Iron/ 0 To 800ÞC +2.2ÞC +

(- 4ÞF) +1.1ÞC +
(- 2ÞF)
- -
Constantan (32 To 1400ÞF) +
Or - 3/4% Or 1/3%
K Chromel/ 0 To 1150ÞC +2.2ÞC +( 4ÞF) + 1.1ÞC +

(- 2ÞF)
- - -
Alumel (32 To 2100ÞF) Or +- 3/4% Or +- 3/8%
E Chromel/ 0 To 900ÞC +1.7ÞC +( 3ÞF) + 1.1ÞC +( 2ÞF)

- - - -
Constantan (32 To 1650ÞF) Or +- 1/2% Or +- 3/8%
T Copper/ 0 To 350ÞC +1.1ÞC +(- 2ÞF) + 0.5ÞC +

(- .9ÞF)
- -
Constantan (32 To 660ÞF) Or +- 3/4%
+
Or - 3/8%
* Specifications Vary Vendor To Vendor. Error Limits In Terms Of

+ ÞC Or+ %, Whichever Is Greater. Sub-Zero Errors Specifications
- -
Also Available
Figure 51: Wire Tolerances
Diagnosing thermocouple errors is accomplished through several techniques. The following checks
can be performed on a suspect thermocouple:
• Resistance checks can identify problems. Low resistance usually means the T/C is
OK, high resistance could mean the T/C is open or has a loose connection.
• Polarity of connections is very important. An extension wire’s positive connection

must be made to the positive connection of the sensor. A large temperature error,
up to 100°C on a Type K thermocouple, can occur if polarity is reversed. Because
the Type K’s positive connection is magnetic, and the negative connection is
nonmagnetic, polarity can be checked with a small magnet.
• Visually examining the hot junction, the extension wires, and connectors can
reveal trouble spots.
• Portable calibrators can verify signal integrity.

Resistance Thermometry
The concept that a metal’s resistance varies as the metal’s temperature changes is the basis for
resistance thermometry. Resistance thermometry has made advances over the last 100 years to
the point where commercially available materials have been found to provide consistent and
accurate response to temperature changes. Resistance thermometers are the primary temperature
sensors in industrial applications when reproducibility, accuracy, and stability are critical. Two
forms of resistance thermometers are the following:
• Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Thermistor
Resistance temperature detector
A resistance temperature detector is a sensor whose electrical resistance change is a function of

temperature change. Certain materials have been identified that provide a predictable and stable
relationship between resistance and temperature. Only a few metals—such as platinum, copper,
or nickel—have those properties necessary to make an RTD. Platinum is especially suited for
RTD construction. In fact, the platinum resistance temperature detector (PRTD) is used as the
international standard for temperature measurements between the triple of hydrogen at 13.8
Kelvin and the freezing point of antimony at 730.75° Celsius. Platinum resistance temperature
detectors (PRTD) are the most stable and repeatable of RTDs. For that reason, the PRTD is the
most commonly used RTD. The industrial version of the PRTD adds ruggedness to the RTD to
make it suitable for industrial applications. According to SAES-J-400, Section 4.4, “When
performance superior to that of T/C [thermocouple] is justifiable, resistance temperature
detectors (RTD) shall be used.” RTDs experience high frequency of use in Saudi Aramco
applications.
Thermistor
Thermistors are temperature sensors made up of semiconductor material that gives an extremely
high change in resistance for a small change in temperature. Unlike an RTD, a thermistor’s
resistance decreases in response to a temperature increase. The extremely high nonlinear
response in resistance to a small temperature change means that the thermistor has an extremely
high temperature-resistance coefficient. Because the temperature-resistance coefficient is
extremely high, the thermistor is useful for narrow spans. At Saudi Aramco, thermistors are used
in industrial motor protection circuits that determine temperature limits or overload conditions in
motor windings. Most thermistors are in the shape of a disc, although some look like a standard
resistor.

Although thermistors are small, have high sensitivity and fast response, they are not widely
applied in process measurements for several reasons. The nonlinearity characteristics of
thermistors make them impractical to use over a wide temperature range; the thermistor's
operating range must be narrow. Thermistors also have limitations on interchangeability,
accuracy, calibration, and stability that makes their use in process control applications
impractical because more suitable RTD and thermocouple sensors are available. For that reason,
the remainder of this section will focus on RTDs as the preferred resistance thermometer to use
in process measurements.
The thermistor (thermally sensitive resistor) is a semiconductor element that exhibits resistance
changes with temperature.
They are similar to wire-wound RTDs, except that RTDs have positive temperature coefficients
and fairly linear responses curves while thermistors have large negative temperature coefficients
and nearly exponential curves. A temperature increase will cause the thermistor resistance to
decrease.
-1 -1
R = RoeB(T - To )
Ro = R value at reference temperature, To °K

R = resistance at any other temperature, T1 °K
B is approximately a constant over moderate temperature ranges and depends on
composition and process of manufacture.
∆R
α = = -BTo-2
∆T
A thermistor typically is made from oxides of nickel and manganese with other metal oxides
added to alter sensitivity and resistivity.
In most cases, a thermistor’s resistance changes by several orders of magnitude over a fairly
narrow temperature range. Sensitivities of 4% - 5%/deg. are common.
Typically, thermistors offer resistances from 0.5 Ω to 8 Ω. Standard forms include beads, discs,
or rods, although they can be made into other shapes for special applications.

Figure 52 show a compares the resistance-temperature characteristics of resistance thermometry

devices.
5.0 Nickel
Copper
Thermistor
4.0
Relative Platinum
Resistance
3.0
(RTotal /
R at 0ÞC)
Positive Temperature
Coefficient (PTC)
2.0
1.0
Negative Temperature
Coefficient (NTC)
0
0 200 400 600 800
CÞ
Figure 52: Resistance-Temperature Characteristics
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Resistance temperature detectors, as mentioned previously, use noble metals or specific alloys
that increase in resistance in response to a temperature increase. RTDs are described in the
following discussion in terms of principles, design, performance, installation, and applications.

Principles
RTD principles are described in terms of:
• Temperature-resistance relationship
• Temperature coefficient of resistance
Temperature-resistance relationship – For an RTD to be useful in a process measurement, its

relationship to a temperature change must be useful and predictable. The resistance of the RTD
must be high enough so that resistance can be measured. The RTD must also show measurable
changes in resistance to temperature changes. The material must be commercially available so
that RTDs are uniformly available. Several common metals provide these properties for an RTD;
those metals are nickel, copper, and platinum. Their relationship of resistance to temperature
change is shown in Figure 52. Less common metals are used in RTD construction; those metals
are iron-nickel alloys, tungsten, and iridium.
Temperature coefficient of resistance – The temperature coefficient of resistance (α) represents the
change in resistance versus temperature over a specific temperature range. The specific
temperature range is from ice point to boiling point of water. The temperature coefficient of
resistance is expressed as per cent per degree of temperature. Although different standards
organizations have adopted different temperature coefficients as their standard, the industry-
accepted standard is the DIN (Deutsche Industrie Normung) standard of platinum 100 ohm at
∆R
0°C with a temperature coefficient of 0.00385 ohms per ohm-degree Celsius, α = . The
R(∆t)
coefficient for platinum 100 is derived as follows
• Resistance at boiling point, 100°C = 138.50 ohms

• Resistance at ice point, 0°C = 100.0 ohms
• Coefficient = (138.50 -100.00 ohms)/100°C/100 ohm = 0.00385
Note that temperature coefficients are average values over the temperature range of 0°C to
100°C. The temperature coefficient is not meant to imply that RTDs are completely linear over
the whole range.
It should also be noted that some measurement instruments were somewhat dependent on a
specific coefficient in order for them to properly indicate temperature. Since the introduction of
solid state electronics, the requirement that instruments and RTDs have the same temperature
coefficient is not as critical as it once was; however, when ordering or replacing an RTD, the
same temperature coefficient should be used for the replacement or for new applications so that
lengthy recalibration of transmitters or indicating instruments is not required.

Design
RTD designs are described in terms of
• Description of typical RTD assembly
• Design parameters
• Element styles
Description of typical RTD assembly – An RTD is a general description for a device that senses
temperature as a result of resistance change. RTDs come in several forms, but most often appear
in a sheathed enclosure and are referred to as an RTD probe. The probe itself is an assembly that
consists of an element, a sheath, lead wires, and termination.
• Element – The element is the actual temperature sensing unit. The element is
often confused with the probe. The element is either constructed as a wire-wound
or thin-film unit.
• Sheath – The sheath represents a protective enclosure, most often a tube made of
stainless steel. The sheath protects the element from moisture, the operating
environment, and vibration. The sheath also protects and stabilizes the lead wire
to element wire transition.
• Lead wires – The lead wires are available in one of four configurations. A lead
wire-configuration selection must be compatible with the receiving instrument.
• Termination – The probe’s lead wires can be terminated in either a connector

head, “quick disconnect” connector, terminal block, or can be connected to
extension wire.
Design parameters that influence RTD selection are the following:
• Element material – The purity of the element’s material affects its performance
characteristics. For that reason, platinum tends to be the most frequently used
metal because its purity helps provide excellent linearity.
• Nominal resistance – Nominal resistance specifies the resistance value at a given

temperature. Most standards use 0°C as their reference.
• Temperature range – Temperature range specifies the operating range for the
RTD. The range can vary if the RTD has a thin-film or wire-wound element.

• Accuracy – Two classes of accuracy, Class A and Class B, are defined by IEC
751 for platinum resistance-temperature detectors. Class A standards are tighter
than Class B. Commercially available sensors generally have accuracies that meet
Class B standards.
• Response time – Because an RTD is more massive than a thermocouple, RTD

response times are usually slower than a T/C’s. Vendors specify 50% or 90%
responses. Occasionally the time constant—the time to measure a 63% process
step change—is specified. A 90% response is just over two time constants. The
response time also specifies the medium, such as flowing water or moving air. For
example, an RTD that experiences a 90% response in 0.7 seconds in flowing
water experiences the same 90% response in 50.0 seconds in moving air. Time
constants approach tens of seconds when the RTD is installed in a thermowell.
• Self heating – Temperature measurement requires that a direct current be passed

through the resistance element. The current produces heat that unavoidably raises
the resistance. Conventional electronics use currents of less than 1 mA, so in
those applications, self-heating effects with standard 100 ohm platinum RTDs are
negligible. Conventional electronic transmitters, for example, are available that
can correct for this error.
Element styles – An RTD element is either one of two styles—wire wound (bifilar) or thin film
(Figure 53).
• Wire wound – Platinum wire is wound around a ceramic or glass core, and then
sealed within a glass or ceramic capsule. Platinum wire provides the most precise
measurements. As a result, platinum wire elements find greater use in RTDs than
copper and nickel wire elements. The element is packed into the sheath with
ceramic powder, which eliminates any low thermal conductance air pockets. The
lead wires are a nickel or nickel alloy, suitable for the desired temperature range.
The lead wires are insulated from each other and the sheath by a ceramic
insulator.
• Thin film – Platinum is deposited as a film on a substrate and then encapsulated.

Thin-film RTDs have resistors that are trimmed to the desired resistance value by
automatic production equipment. Thin-film elements have made the use of nickel-
and copper-based RTDs nearly obsolete.
Platinum elements tend to be the most frequently used RTD. Nickel and copper RTDs tend to be
used on an exception basis, or when an existing installation requires them as a replacement.
RTDs are available in different forms to suit different applications, such as surface
measurements; however, the RTD used in process measurements is most often a probe “pencil
type” assembly installed in a thermowell. The probe RTD, when installed in a thermowell, is as
rugged as a T/C installed in a similar thermowell.

Platinum Internal External

Element Leads Leads
RTD
Probe
Protective Sheath, Ceramic Insulator

Stainless Steel Typical
Wire Wound
RTD Element Leads

Resistance
Pattern
Element Substrate
Resistance
Trimming
Thin Film
Figure 53: RTD Elements

Performance
RTD performance is described in terms of
• Performance advantages
• Performance disadvantages
Performance advantages include the following:
• Expected accuracy is higher than T/Cs, greatest over the widest span. Installed
accuracy is generally ±0.5°C ( ±0.9°F).
• Repeatability using platinum RTDs is within hundredths of a degree.
• Compensation, as is the case with T/C, is not necessary.
• Reproducibility not affected by temperature changes.
• Relatively narrow spans, 5.6°C (10°F), can be measured.
• Relatively small size eases installation.
• Measures lower cryogenic temperatures better than T/Cs.
• Higher-output voltage-bridge value can make the recording, monitoring, and

controlling of temperature simpler.
Performance disadvantages include the following:
• Less rugged than T/Cs when high temperatures and vibration are encountered.
Vibration more of a factor to wire-wound elements than to thin-film elements.
• Self-heating errors can be a problem unless low current levels are used or the
receiving device’s electronics compensates for self-heating.
• Limited to a temperature high limit of about 870°C (1600°F).

Corrections
When an RTD is connected to a measurement instrument, it becomes a leg of a resistance bridge

circuit. The lead wires from the RTD add resistance to the measurement circuit. To have an
accurate temperature measurement, the effects of lead wires must be cancelled.
Conventional electronic devices, such as temperature transmitters, provide the constant current
source and the equivalent legs of the resistance bridge circuit. A brief review of traditional bridge
circuits aids in understanding the various RTD probe lead configurations. Note that RTD probe
leads are available in 2, 3, and 4 wire configurations, with 3 wire being the most common
configuration.
In the bridge circuit shown in Figure 54, the lead-wire resistance from two lead wires has been
added to the circuit. From inspection, one can observe that the total resistance is equal to the
RTD element’s resistance plus the lead wire’s resistance. If the lead wires, for example, are #16
gauge copper wires that are 76 meters in length, they will add 2 ohms to the circuit. At 100°C,
the lead wires can add a 5% measurement error.
By using a 3- or 4-wire bridge circuit, one can observe that the lead wires are in opposite arms of
the bridge. The resistance that the first two lead wires provide is cancelled in this arrangement.
The third lead wire is in series with the input voltage and cannot unbalance the bridge. A 4-wire
bridge (not shown) can provide even greater accuracy.

+ -
V Out
Power
Supply
R Lead
R Lead
R Element
Traditional 2 Wire Bridge
+ -
V Out
Power
Supply
R Lead
R Lead
R Element
Traditional 3 Wire Bridge
Figure 54: Traditional Bridge Circuits

In conventional electronics, the corrections for lead-wire resistance occurs in an approach shown
in Figure 55 (a). A constant current source (CCS) provides current through Relement + Rlead wire 3
+ Rlead wire 1. Voltage detection circuitry reads the voltage at BC that is proportional to Relement +
Rlead wire 1 and the voltage at AC that is proportional to Relement + Rlead wire 1 + Rlead wire 3. The
difference in voltage (VAC - VBC) is proportional to Rlead wire. To obtain a measurement
proportional to just Relement, the effects of the lead wires are cancelled by using VBC - VAC +
VBC.
A simpler way of looking at this (Figure 52 (b)) is to again assume that Rlead wire 1 = Rlead wire 2 =
Rlead wire 3. If one measures the resistance through lead wires 1 and 2, total resistance is measured
as Relement + Rlead wire 1 + Rlead wire 2. If the resistance is measured through lead wires 2 and 3,
resistance is measured as Rlead wire 3 + Rlead wire 2. Because all lead wire resistances are assumed
to be equal, subtracting the lead wire resistance (Rlead wire 3 + Rlead wire 2) from the total resistance
(Relement + Rlead wire 1 + Rlead wire 2) leaves just the resistance of the RTD, Relement .
In a 4-wire configuration (Figure 55 (c)), a constant current source is passed through the outer
lead wires 1 and 4. Because the voltage drop is measured across lead wires 2 and 3 (i.e., no
current flows through lead wires 2 and 3), all that is measured is the resistance of the element,
Relement.

R Lead Wire3
Constant
Current
R Lead VAC
Wire2 Source
VBC
R Element (CCS)
R Lead Wire1
(a)
R Lead Wire3
R Lead Wire2
R Element
R Lead Wire1
(b)
R Lead Wire4
Constant
R Lead Wire3
Current
R Element V
R Lead Wire2 Source
(CCS)
R Lead Wire1
(c)
Figure 55: Conventional Corrections for Lead Wire Resistance
Installation
RTD installation considerations are described in terms of
• Probe lead wire configurations
• Installation precautions
• General installation approaches

Probe lead wire configurations are shown in Figure 56. RTDs are generally used in a sheathed form
with either 2-, 3-, or 4-wire lead configurations. The lead wires provide an additional resistance
between the RTD element and measurement instrument. The resistance must be compensated
for, otherwise an accurate measurement will not occur. Fortunately, conventional
instrumentation provides the necessary electronics that perform the compensation. An awareness
of what the probe lead configurations represent will assist the engineer in the evaluation and
selection of an RTD.
• Two-wire lead configuration provides connection to both ends of the RTD

element (sensor). The usage of 2-wire lead configurations assumes that the lead
wire resistance is a constant and that ambient temperature effects can be ignored.
When 2-wire RTDs are used, significant errors (>±0.1°C) can occur if the lead
lengths are greater than 0.3 meter (1 foot).
• Three-wire lead configuration is the most commonly used and is considered as a

standard configuration. Two leads provide connections to both ends of the RTD
element. The third lead is designed to be connected to a measurement instrument
that can accept the third wire. The receiving instrument then compensates for lead
wire resistance and changes in lead wire resistance caused by temperature
changes.
• Four-wire lead configuration provides the highest precision. For example, an

accuracy of a 4-wire configuration that reached 0.03°C would have an accuracy of
±0.1°C as a 3-wire configuration. In a 4-wire configuration, two lead wires are
connected to each end of the RTD element. The configuration measure just the
resistance of the element. Four-wire configurations have an advantage over 3-wire
leads when dissimilar lead wires are used, which is a rare occurrence. Null-
balance configured Wheatstone bridges are designed to minimize the errors
associated with currents flowing in the measuring circuits. Using a 4-wire null-
balance bridge and a triple-pole double-throw switch, the resistance of the
measuring RTD is the average of the values of the balancing resistors obtained in
both switching positions. (See Liptak page 473.)
• Lead-resistance loop configurations are similar to 3-wire configurations except

that a separate loop is added. The separate pair of wires compensates for lead
resistance and ambient temperature effects upon lead resistance. This
configuration is rarely used.

Black
Black
Black
Element Element
Red Red
Style 1, Style 2 (Standard),
2 Wire Configuration 3 Wire Configuration
Black Black
Element
Black
Element Red
Red
Red Lead
Red
Resistance
Black
Style 3 Loop
(Most Precise), Style 4,
4 Wire Configuration 2 Wire Configuration,
Plus Loop
Figure 56: Probe Lead Wire Configurations
Installation precautions are described in SADP-J-400, Section 3.2 in the following manner: “
Inaccuracy may result from the following:
• Slow Dynamic Response – The RTD sensing element consists of an encapsulated

wire cut to a length that gives a predetermined resistance at 0°C. The temperature-
sensitive portion of the probe, which depends on the length of the sensing
element, is from 0.5 to 2.5 in. The RTD is thus considered to be an area-sensitive
device, and has a significantly slower dynamic response than point-sensitive
devices (like T/C).
Remedy: This problem is of little importance. RTDs are invariably installed in

thermowells. Because these thermowells represent a major contribution to the
slowing of the dynamic response, the minor differences between RTD and other
sensors are insignificant. TCRTD + TCthermowell ≈ TCthermowell.

• Self-heating Effect – The RTD is a passive resistance element, and a current must
be applied to it to develop an output signal. This current generates heat, which
becomes objectionable when it is sufficient to significantly change the
temperature to be measured.
Remedy: Use only a limited amount of power to produce the output signal;
however, the self-heating effect is difficult to specify quantitatively, because the
heating depends on the configuration of the RTD element, and its environment
(e.g., fluid velocity past the element).
• Lack of Standardization among manufacturers concerning the relationships

between resistance and temperature may cause an accuracy problem when RTDs
of several manufacturers are used in a single system, or when the element of one
manufacturer is replaced with the element of another manufacturer.
Remedy: Do not mix RTDs with different temperature vs. resistance curves.
• Copper Lead Wire for connection of an RTD to the transducer, although a

satisfactory trade-off between cost and resistance, represents a resistance in series
with the RTD and thus is a source of inaccuracy. For long transmission distances,
ambient temperature effects can cause appreciable errors.
Remedy: Compensate for lead wires and connection effects by designing the RTD
as a 3- or 4-terminal device.”
Other precautions, remedied with common-sense installation practices, include the following:
• Fragile construction – The RTD is considered more fragile than a thermocouple.

Proper handling is required to protect the device.
• Thermal shunting – Thermal shunting refers to the temperature measurement

being changed by the addition of a measurement instrument. A high-impedance
instrument is the solution.
• Thermal EMF – Platinum-to-copper wire connections cause a thermal offset

voltage to occur during measurement.

General installation approaches are shown in Figure 57. The RTD may be either directly wired to a
receiving device, or connected to a 2-wire or 4-wire transmitter.
• Direct wiring – The RTD does not require special extension wire like the T/C, but
the 3- or 4-wire lead configuration described earlier must be used. Shielded wire
is recommended. Unbalanced lead lengths can create measurement errors. Long
lengths can be expensive to install and maintain.
• Two-wire transmitter – When lengths from sensor to receiving device exceed 30

meters (100 feet), 2-wire transmitters are preferred. The installed wiring costs are
lower. The power requirements are low (10 to 50 Vdc with the usually available ≈
24 Vdc power supply depending upon loop load). The 2-wire transmitter offers
good noise immunity.
• Four-wire transmitter – Two transmitter wires are for power, the remaining two
wires are for the signal. Generally used when a 0 to 5 volt output is required, the
4-wire transmitter is not as widely used as the 2-wire transmitter.

2,3, or 4 Copper Lead Wires
Line Power
RTD
Remote Receiving Device
Power
Supply
RTD
Two Wire
Temperature
Transmitter Remote Receiving Device
Power
RTD
Four Wire
Temperature
Transmitter
Remote Receiving Device
Figure 57: General RTD Installation Approaches
Application
RTDs are becoming the preferred sensor in typical industry applications where moderate
temperatures are encountered. If vibration is anticipated, thin-film element RTDs or
thermocouples are an alternative as they provide more resistance to vibration than wire-wound
element RTDs.
An example application is shown in Figure 58. In the example, the RTD provides a temperature
measurement of the heat media to the stabilizer reboiler.

TIT TIC
200 200
TE
RTD 200
Heat Media To
150 - 1200ÞF Stabilizer Reboiler
Figure 58: Typical RTD Application
Performance Comparison of Thermocouples and RTDs
Of all the sensors described in this section—thermocouples (T/Cs), resistance temperature

detectors (RTDs), glass stem thermometers, filled systems, bimetallic thermometers—
thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors are used more than all other sensors
combined. The reasons for their popularity include the wide range of temperatures and variety of
applications the sensors support, as well as the sensor’s stability and reliability. Although both
sensors continue to be widely used, an industry trend is to prefer RTDs over T/Cs. The RTDs
have better accuracies and support easier installation (i.e., compensation and extension wire are
not required). The RTD accuracies complement the improved accuracies gained in
microprocessor-based measurement devices. That does not mean the T/C will no longer be used.
For example, the T/C continues to be popular for high temperature measurement applications.
Figure 59 shows a performance comparison of thermocouples and RTDs.
The following performance comparison does not imply that selection should be base upon
performance alone. Cost considerations for a T/C may be lower for the sensor, but comparable to
an RTD once installed costs of extension wires are factored in. It is also possible that one site
may be standardized on T/Cs while another site prefers RTDs. The selection is dependent upon
the application, desired accuracy, materials compatibility, heat transfer characteristics, resistance
to contaminants, and vibration.

RTD advantages T/C advantages

High accuracy , greatest over the widest Moderate accuracy. Installed accuracy is
span. Installed accuracy is generally generally ±0.1°C ( ±0.2°F). Accuracy is
±0.05°C ( ±0.09°F). dependent on the overall system because two
measuring junctions (cold and hot) are used.
Relatively narrow spans, 5.6°C (10°F), Supports wide temperature range,
can be measured. -280°C to 2750°C (-440°F to 5000°F)
Repeatability using platinum RTDs is Rugged construction resists vibration
within hundredths of a degree.
Excellent stability, less than 0.1% drift in
five years.
No reference junction compensation is Supports remote and versatile mounting
required. arrangements
Higher bridge output (in ohms), which Faster response than RTDs. Note: response
can make the recording, monitoring, and time comparisons are not relevant if T/C
controlling of temperature simpler installed in thermowell.
Moderate sensitivity, 0.1 to 10 ohms/°F. Low sensitivity, 5 to 50 µV/°F.
RTD disadvantages T/C disadvantages
Less rugged when high temperatures and Outputs low signal levels (millivolts).
vibration are encountered.
Limited to a temperature high limit of Electrical interference can be a concern.
about 970 °C (1800°F).
Self heating errors can be problem unless Calibration is nonlinear over normal
low current levels are used or operating spans.
the receiving device’s electronics Reference junction compensation is
compensates for self heating. required.
Figure 59: Performance Comparison of T/C and RTD

SELECTING THERMOWELLS
On many occasions in processing industries, it is not possible or desirable to insert a temperature

sensor—that is, a thermocouple, RTD, bimetallic thermometer, glass stem thermometer, or filled
system bulb—directly into the process material. A protective enclosure, called a “thermowell” or
“well,” must be used to protect the sensor from the process. In addition to protecting the sensor,
the thermowell permits temperature sensor removal during processing operations.
The following discussion describes thermowell considerations in terms of
• Principles
• Design
• Performance
• Installation
• Applications
• Types of thermowells
• Material composition and application range
• Vibrational considerations: wake frequency calculations
• Thermal conductivity of boundaries and junctions
• Speed of response considerations
• Minimum and maximum insertion lengths
• Recommended insertion lengths
Principles
A thermowell helps protect a temperature sensor from a process fluid’s pressure, corrosive or
erosive effects, or mechanical damage from the impact of flowing fluids. A thermowell is
constructed as a sturdy, metallic, tube-shaped enclosure. Some industrial users have been known
to fabricate their own thermowells by machining bar stock for demanding services. Fortunately,
it is not necessary to make your own unique thermowell. Industry standards, such as ISA S1.2
and ISA S19.3, define thermowells that permit interchangeability among bimetallic
thermometers, thermocouples, and RTDs. SAMA: PMC 17-10-1963 defines bushings and wells.
The thermowells constructed to these standards are engineered to give the best combination of
strength and speed of response.

The thermowell is often specified along with the temperature sensor and related assemblies to
make sure that the sensor fits within the thermowell. Figure 60 shows an RTD assembly—
consisting of a connection head, extension, and RTD probe—inserted into a thermowell. The
illustrated sensor probe is one that is called “spring-loaded;” spring-loading applies a constant
pressure to keep the probe’s tip against the thermowell end.
Spring Loaded
Mounting
Thermowell
RTD Probe
Terminal Block
Connection Head
Figure 60: Temperature Sensor in Thermowell
Design
Thermowells are relatively simple in design. Figure 61 shows several relevant specifications on a
thermowell:
• Lagging extension – Thermowells can be purchased with an optional lagging

extension. A lagging extension provides added length to the thermowell so that
heat transfer to the connections or temperature indicator is minimized. A lagging
extension is also needed for installations where an insulation layer is thick.
• Stem or element length “A” – Sensor element or stem length is represented as

dimension “A”. The lengths are consistent with industry standard lengths for
sensors, such as thermometers, and permit interchangeability between sensors.
The lengths, also referred to as “bore depths,” are often 2.5, 4, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18,
and 24 inches.

• Insertion length “U” – The insertion length is from the tip of the thermowell to the
underside of the thread. Ideally, best accuracy is achieved when the length is long
enough to allow the entire temperature sensitive part of the sensor to project into
the process material. The insertion length also must account for any extra length
(“dead length”) required when the thermowell passes through nonprocess media
such as walls and pipe fittings.
• Bore size – A thermowell with a standard bore size permits flexibility within a
plant because the thermowell can accommodate a thermocouple, an RTD, or a
thermometer. Common bore sizes such as 0.260 inch (6.6 mm) diameters accept
bimetallic thermometers and #20 gauge thermocouples, while 0.385 (9.8 mm)
diameters accept #14 gauge thermocouples.
Lagging
Extension
"U" = Insertion
Length
"M" Overall
"A" Stem Or Element

Length
Bore
(Diameter)
Size
Figure 61: Cutaway View of Standard Thermowell
Performance
Although the thermowell does add cost to an installation and delays the sensor’s speed of
response, a thermowell is essential to ensure that the process material does not damage the sensor
element. The thermowell factors that improve accuracy and speed of response are those that
reduce thermowell strength of construction. For example, general purpose, straight-shank,
standard thermowells are used in industrial applications where a sturdier, tapered thermowell is
not required. Standard thermowells permit a sensor to have faster speed of response than the
sturdier, tapered thermowells.

Speed of response can be improved through the method by which the sensor element is installed
in the thermowell. For example, a spring-loaded assembly makes a thermocouple’s measuring
(“hot”) junction rest against the tip of the thermowell, which improves speed of response.
Spring-loaded assemblies are available for RTDs.
Thermowell-sizing calculations are available that can assist an engineer select a thermowell to
give acceptable strength for given process conditions. The engineer must also account for
vibrational effects that a thermowell may encounter, which are more dangerous and less familiar
to users than thermowell strength calculations. Vibrational effects are described later in this
section.
Installation
Installation considerations are described in terms of
• SADP-J-400, Section 4.1, installation

• SAES-J-400, Section 5, installation
• installation options
• immersion depth
• installation examples
SADP-J-400, Section 4.1, installation
SADP-J-400, Section 4.1, states the following regarding installation practices: “Air space
between the sensing element and its protecting well causes additional lag in response of the
element. The clearance between the well and the protecting tube, and the protecting tube and the
element should be as small as possible. (Grounding the tip of a T/C to the well for good thermal
contact also helps to speed response).
Insufficient immersion depth of a thermowell (or exposed T/C) causes inaccuracy (low readings)
and additional response lag. The immersion depth should be typically four times the outside
diameter of the protecting tube or well. Wells with high thermal conductivity generally must be
immersed even deeper (typically 10 times the outside tube diameter), with proper insulation at
the assembly head.”
SAES-J-400, Section 5, installation
SAES-J-400, Section 5, states the following: “Thermowells shall not be located in lines
downstream of suction screens of pumps, compressors, or turbines.”

Installation options
Installation options are available to ensure compatibility between the sensor element and
thermowell. For example, thermocouples and RTD probe assemblies (“pencil-type”) have
adapter fittings that are used to secure the elements in the thermowell. The tube-like fitting is
bored out to allow the element to pass through it. When the element is seated in the well, the
fitting is tightened. If the well should break, the fitting traps the element and prevents process
fluid from escaping.
Immersion depth
Immersion depth (not to be confused with the “insertion length” specification described earlier)
represents the length of the thermowell that is actually exposed to the process material.
Immersion depth is measured from the tip of the thermowell to the point the thermowell is in
contact with the process material. The immersion depth has a direct bearing on accuracy and
speed of response. An immersion depth that is too small may result in errors because heat is
conducted to or away from the sensitive thermowell end. An immersion depth that is too large in
a high velocity application can literally cause the thermowell to break.
Immersion depth is determined after reviewing the type of sensing element, space, mechanical
connections, and desired thermowell strength. Immersion depth is also dependent upon heat
transfer properties between the process material and thermowell. (For more details, refer to Saudi
Aramco Drawings AB-036559 and AB-036019. )
A general industry guideline for immersion depths is that the depth should be equal to 10 times
the sensor’s protective sheath diameter. For example, if a thermowell is 0.75 inches in diameter,
a 7.5 inch immersion depth would be effective and avoid errors caused by temperature gradients.
(Note, however, that the “10 times” guideline is one that is subject to some debate. According to
research by Exxon, the problem is more complex. The avoidance of temperature gradients along
a protective sheath has to do more with installation geometry than immersion depth. Refer to an
article by W.C. Behrmann, “Thermocouple Errors Due to Sheath Conduction,” InTech, Aug
1990, pp 36-39).
Installation examples
General installation examples are shown in Figure 62. The examples show
• Normal line installation,

• Elbow installation,
• Tee installation.
• Angled installation.

Thermowell
Elbow
Flow Flow
Normal
Thermowell
Thermowell
Flow Tee Angled

(Narrow Flow
Pipes)
Thermowell
Figure 62 Thermowell Installations
For more specific details of installations, refer to Saudi Aramco Drawings AB-036559 and AB-
036019.
Application
According to SAES-J-400, Section 4.2, “All temperature sensing elements shall be furnished
with a thermowell. Exceptions are elements used for temperature measurements of bearings,
motor windings, and furnaces.” Thermowell applications are listed in SADP-J-400,
Commentary. The commentary states the following: “To allow for satisfactory testing of the
installation, test thermowells shall be located as indicated for the following equipment or service.
• INLET HEADERS (GOSP): in gathering headers of flowlines to test traps, and

production traps downstream of ESD valve
• TRAPS (GOSP): in gas-out piping, liquid-out piping, and inlet piping
• SPHEROIDS: in gas-out piping, liquid-out piping, and inlet piping

• HEAT EXCHANGERS:
In Series:
– PROCESS STREAM: initial inlet, each intermediate point and final outlet
– HEATING MEDIUM: first inlet, each intermediate point and final outlet
– COOLING WATER: first inlet, each intermediate point and final outlet
Parallel Bank
– PROCESS STREAM: combined inlet to all banks, final outlet each bank
– HEATING MEDIUM: combined inlet to all banks, final outlet each bank
– COOLING WATER: final outlet each bank and combined inlet
Note: Thermowells on exchanger nozzle are acceptable when a 1-in. boss has already
been supplied as standard on the exchanger nozzle and an additional piping spool
piece would be required to locate the thermowell external to the exchanger.
• PUMPS: in discharge piping
• VESSELS: in bottom section
• STEAM: in main header at least 50 diameters upstream, or 10 diameters
downstream of orifice
• CONDENSATE: in all condensate outlet piping of vessels or exchangers
• COLUMNS: in bottom section, in all bottom trays, in top vapor space (in vapor
piping as close to column as possible), in alternate trays between bottom and top
sections, in reflux inlet piping, in side inlet piping, every fifth tray in fractionation
columns (depending upon location of ladders and platforms).
HP strippers may have fewer thermowells. Thermowells indicated on the P&ID

just above a particular tray should be physically located in the downcomer from
the tray immediately above.
• FURNACES: in each outlet and inlet pipe
• FLOW METERS: downstream
• PLANT/UNIT FEEDS AND PRODUCTS
• COMPRESSORS: in suction upstream of demister.”
Types of Thermowells
Several different types of thermowells are available, which are categorized as the following
• Flanged
• Threaded
• Socket weld types

Currently the threaded (screwed) well is the preferred type for use in Saudi Aramco installations;
the thermowell specification is under review to include usage of other types. The various types of
thermowells are shown in Figure 60.
(Another thermowell type, called a “ground joint” thermowell, has limited use and design
advantages. Ground joint-types are usually replaced with standard flange designs.)
Flanged thermowells
Flanged thermowells are typically used in processing applications when piping specifications
require them. Flanged thermowells are used in corrosive applications where a threaded
thermowell’s screw connections would be exposed to corrosive attack. Flanged thermowells are
used when pressure exceeds 1000 psi, in hydrogen services, and in lined piping services.
Threaded (Screwed) thermowells
Threaded thermowells tend to be the most frequently used thermowells in typical processing
applications. Threaded thermowells are easy to install and remove. Threaded thermowells are
generally used in noncorrosive environments.
Socket weld thermowells
Socket weld thermowells are used when boiler and pressure vessel standards require welded
connections. Socket weld thermowells are also used in extremely high pressure and/or flow
velocity applications. Socket weld thermowells may also appear in applications where the
thermowell is intended to be permanent.

Lag
Extension
"U"
Insertion
Length
"U"
Stem Insertion
Length Length
Threaded Threaded
(Standard) (Tapered)
"U"
Insertion
Length
Socket Weld Flanged Flanged

(Van Stone)
Figure 63: Thermowell Types
Material Composition and Application Range
Thermowells generally consist of Type 304 or Type 316 stainless steel (ss). Wells of this
material are usable to approximately 1200°F. The Type 304 or Type 316 ss wells are common in
most typical industry applications. Some of the other well-type materials are carbon steel, brass,
and ceramic. When selecting a thermowell, be sure to refer to a chemical compatibility chart to
see if the well material is compatible with the application’s fluid. The brass well is suitable for
air and water applications.

The ceramic well is usable in temperatures above 1200°F. Ceramic wells are fragile and require
careful installation. Ceramic wells are not used in very high pressure applications. When a
process is starting up, the well must be warmed up to operating temperatures slowly in order not
to crack or fracture the well.
According to API RP 551, Section 5.2.4, “For general services in which carbon steel piping is
normally used, the minimum quality material usually specified is Type 304 or Type 316 stainless
steel. Thermowells in certain corrosive services (such as dilute acids, chlorides, and heavy
organic acids) require well materials suitable for the specific corrosive media. Thermowells for
use in hydroflouric acid alkylation, catalytic reforming (hydrogen service), hydrocracking, and
fluid catalytic cracking units require special engineering attention when materials of construction
are selected.”
Figure 64 summarizes thermowell metal compatibility characteristics.
Material Range (reducing or Remarks

oxidizing atmosphere)
Carbon steel 540°C (1000°F) Noncorrosive application only
304 and 316 980°C (1800°F) Stainless steel provides resistance to corrosion
stainless steel and oxidation
446 stainless steel 980°C (1800°F) Stainless steel provides excellent resistance to
corrosion and oxidation. Used in sulfurous
atmospheres.
Inconel 1205°C (2200°F) Good resistance to corrosion and excellent
resistance to oxidation at high temperatures.
Not advisable in sulfurous atmospheres above
540°C (1000°F).
Figure 64: Thermowell Metal Compatibility
Vibrational Considerations: Wake and Wake Frequency Calculations
When a well is installed in a line, the velocity of the fluid and the installation technique has to be
considered. At certain fluid velocities, wake frequencies can occur and they may cause a
vibration and resonance of the well that, if allowed to exist for a period of time, will cause the
well to snap off. Process fluid could leak out and cause a fire, or thermowell debris could travel
downstream to pumps or compressors and cause equipment damage.

The following discussion describes these considerations in terms of
• Wake frequency occurrence
• Velocity ratings
• Wake frequency calculations
• Vendor’s role in selection process
Wake frequency occurrence
A dangerous phenomena that can occur in a high velocity application is the potential catastrophic
results of vibrational effects upon a thermowell. When a process fluid flows past a thermowell, it
leaves a turbulent wake. The turbulent wake—called a “Von Karman trail”—has a specific
frequency that is the result of the thermowell's diameter and fluid's velocity. If the natural
frequency of the well should match the frequency of the turbulent wake, the thermowell will
vibrate until it is destroyed. The thermowell tends to break below the mounting in these cases.
To avoid the risk of thermowell failure, several approaches are used. A common approach is to
select a tapered thermowell for high velocity applications. The tapered well provides maximum
support. The tapered design does not have the standard well’s sharp contours, which minimizes
points of stress concentration. Another approach is to review a well’s velocity ratings.
Velocity ratings
Velocity ratings can be found in vendor’s specification sheets based upon a thermowell’s length
and material. Because the velocity rating derivation can be complex, note that a vendor may
simplify the rating based upon a specified operating temperature. The stated velocity ratings
should be considered as a guideline. A vendor, for example, may state a velocity rating
considered safe for water, steam, air, or gas applications where high velocities do not occur. If
high velocities are expected, a vendor may also provide estimated ratings for those applications
on the specification sheet.
Wake frequency calculations
A typical industry procedure is to perform a detailed analysis, called a “Murdock analysis,” only
when a high velocity application is expected. In many typical applications, thermowells can be
selected from standard configurations. Several vendors provide calculation programs (example
programs are available in this course) that can be ran on your personal computer. These
programs are based upon ASME PTC 19.3.

A wake frequency calculation requires the following thermowell parameters:

• Support diameter
• Tip diameter
• Bore diameter
• Tip thickness
• Length below support
• Thermowell material
• Operating temperature
• Flow velocity
• Specific volume of media (cubic ft/lbs)
• Operating pressure
The engineer should review Saudi Aramco Technical Alert 05/93, “Vibration Induced
Thermowell Fatigue Failure” when selecting thermowells for high velocity applications. (The
technical alert is provided as a Work Aid.)
Vendor’s role in selection process
Several vendors provide assistance in selecting thermowells where vibrations are expected;
however, all vendors place responsibility for the thermowell selection upon the customer and
assume no responsibility for thermowell failure caused by improper selection. For that reason, it
is important to have an understanding of the intended application's operating conditions. General
values that are given in vendor’s selection guides (and even values derived from thermowell
programs) are intended primarily as initial estimates. To be sure, an engineer should check the
thermowell selection with calculations or review the selection with senior engineers.
Thermal Conductivity of Boundaries and Junctions
In some cases, a temperature gradient can occur along the length of the thermowell. The
gradients are caused by temperature gradients from the surrounding process fluid or from
differences in sensor mounting and fluid temperatures. The thermal gradients that occur along
the thermowell can cause temperature reading errors. Systematic analyses are available that can
predict the amount of error. The errors can occur when the thermowell (or protective sheath) is
mounted in a way that temperature gradients occur. Fortunately, if sheath conduction errors are
suspected, the reading errors caused by sheath conduction are minimized in the following ways:
• Use long small-diameter thermocouples
• Use sheath materials having low thermal conductivities

• Provide high-convective heat-transfer coefficients between fluid and

thermocouple.
• Install thermocouples in an angled, bent, or curved fashion. Figure 65 shows these

installation options and their respective tradeoffs. Improvements in sheath
conduction errors come with increasing installation difficulty.
Thermocouple Errors Due Difficulty Of

Configuration To Sheath Installation
Conduction
Normal, Side Highest Lowest

Entry T/C
Angled T/C
Curved T/C
90ÞBend T/C Lowest Highest
Figure 65: Installation Options and Respective Tradeoffs
Speed of Response Considerations
Thermowells that have improved speed of response are those that generally have less strength of
construction. For example, general purpose, straight-shank, standard thermowells are used in
industrial applications where a sturdier, tapered thermowell is not required. Standard
thermowells provide a faster speed of response than the sturdier, tapered thermowells. If rapid
speed of response is desirable in a typical industrial application, there are two ways to do this:
• Use a thermowell that has the minimum wall thickness permitted by operating
conditions. (Review the vibrational, materials of construction, and pressure
factors mentioned earlier.)
• Install thermocouples and RTDs with spring-loaded assemblies so that the tip of
the sensor seats at the bottom of the well. This approach improves thermal
conductivity.

Minimum and Maximum Insertion Lengths
The well must be long enough to contact the process flow in a line or immersed in a vessel or
tank so as not to cause response lags or inaccurate measurements. SADP-J-400, Section 4.1,
gives a general requirement for wells. The insertion length of the well depends on the
installation. Manufacturers offer wells from 2.5 inches to 24 inches as standard sizes, with longer
lengths as a specially ordered options. Insertion lengths are specified on Saudi Aramco Drawings
AB-036559 and AB - 036019. The lengths are summarized in Figure 66.
Nom. Pipe Size Horizontal Process Lines Vertical Process Lines

In Which Well Size Of Well
Is To Be Used "U" "M" "U" "M"
11/2
See Detail 4
2
3 89 (31/2") 140 (51/2") 89 (31/2") 140 (51/2")
4 89 (31/2") 140 (51/2") 152 (6") 203 (8")
6 152 (6") 203 (8") 229 (9") 279 (11")
8 203 (8") 254 (10") 254 (10") 305 (12")
10 And Larger 254 (10") 305 (12") 254 (10") 305 (12")
Thermowells With Lagging Extension May Have Overall Length 'M' Larger
Than 305mm (12") Insertion Length 'U' Shall Never Be Larger Than 254mm (10").
Thermowells With 3/4 Inch Thread
Nom. Pipe Size Horizontal Process Lines Vertical Process Lines

In Which Well Size Of Well
Is To Be Used "U" "M" "U" "M"
11/2
See Detail 4
2
3 89 (31/2") 140 (51/2") 114 (41/2") 165 (61/2")
4 89 (31/2") 140 (51/2") 114 (41/2") 165 (61/2")
6 114 (41/2") 165 (61/2") 165 (61/2") 216 (81/2")
8 191 (71/2") 241 (91/2") 191 (71/2") 241 (91/2")
10 And Larger 267 (101/2") 318 (121/2") 267 (101/2") 318 (121/2")
Thermowells With Lagging Extension May Have Overall Length 'M' Larger
Than 318mm (121/2") But Insertion Length 'U' Shall Never Be Larger Than 267mm (101/2").
Thermowells With 1 Inch Thread
"U" = Insertion Length "M" = Stem Length Detail 4 Specifies Tee Fitting
Figure 66: Minimum and Maximum Lengths
SAES-J-400, Section 4.2 states that “All thermowell lengths shall be manufacturer’s standard.
Refer to Standard Drawings AB-036019 and AB-036175. The maximum thermowell length for
column or vessel applications shall be 600 mm (24 in). Wells for test purposes only shall be per
Standard Drawing AB-036019.”

Recommended Insertion Lengths
Vendors often recommend the insertion lengths to obtain best performance from the inserted
sensor. The goal is to provide a length that permits the temperature-sensitive part of the sensor to
project into the process material. For liquid applications, an element should project into the
liquid by an amount equal to its sensitive length plus one inch. For air or gas applications, an
element should project into the liquid by an amount equal to its sensitive length plus three inches
or more.
The following recommendations are on a per sensor basis:
• Thermocouples have short sensitive insertion lengths and can be used with shorter
insertion-length thermowells.
• Bimetal thermometers, resistance thermometers, glass stem thermometers have

sensitive insertion lengths between one and two inches long. A minimum
insertion length of 2.5 inches applies.
• Filled system insertion lengths vary, depending upon the bulb’s sensitive length.

SELECTING TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTERS
In many hydrocarbon processing applications, the temperature of a remotely located process

must be monitored and/or controlled. Temperature sensors such as RTDs and thermocouples
provide very small signal levels. To provide these signals from a remote location to a control
system, the sensors are connected to transmitters so that the sensor’s signal is amplified and
conditioned. After the signal conditioning takes place, the signal is transmitted to other
equipment such as chart recorders, data loggers, meters, and distributed control systems. This
section of the course material describes the signal conditioning devices more commonly called:
• Pneumatic temperature transmitters
• Electronic temperature transmitters
• Microprocessor-based temperature transmitters
Transmitters are frequently used for two reasons. The first and most important reason is that the
transmitter is often an integral part of a temperature control scheme. A second reason for
transmitter usage is that the signal may be required by a distributed control system; current
distributed control systems can accept a transmitter’s digital signals that can contain more than
just the measured temperature.
While transmitters are frequently used in temperature-measurement applications, it should be

noted that in a typical plant there are often more measuring points used without transmitters than
with transmitters. Occasionally, in a typical plant, the decision comes down to one of cost. If a
small mV to I (millivolt to current) style transmitter, which can be installed in a weather head
enclosure, costs less than the installation of sensor extension wire and cable, the use of a
transmitter (or signal converter) becomes more common. Depending on the size and amount of
points to be monitored, some industrial plants prefer using a signal converter for many
temperature points. Generally, when a temperature measurement is required, it is better to have a
higher level signal, such as 4-20 ma, than a millivolt signal or a pneumatic signal. The
transmitter requirements are briefly stated in SAES-J-400 as the following: “Where field-
mounted transmitters are used, linearization and compensation for temperature variations shall be
incorporated.”
Pneumatic Temperature Transmitters
Although pneumatic transmitters continue to have limited use, pneumatic transmitters have
become unfavorable because of their cost, instrument air supply requirements, and the
prevalence of distributed control systems (DCS) that use more robust measurement data from
microprocessor-based instruments.

Principles and design
Pneumatic transmitters, like most pneumatic devices, operate on force balance principles. The
transmitters also incorporate a filled thermal system design to sense temperature. The change in
temperature causes the internal thermal system to change in pressure. The change is also sensed
by the force bar mechanism. The force balance mechanisms attempt to keep the air flow
constant. In doing so, the output signal from the transmitter produces a 3 to 15 psi signal that is
proportional to the sensor’s temperature.
Performance and installation
Pneumatic transmitters can measure temperatures up to approximately 750°C (1380°F).

Generally, signal transmission lengths exceeding 100 meters (300 feet) are considered long.
Pneumatic transmitters have a disadvantage in their inherent delay time caused by the pressuring
or depressuring of the signal tubing to the receiving instrument. Long lengths of tubing can
contribute to control problems caused by the delays. For example, if the measured temperature is
cycling at faster rate than the controller can sense, the controller could continuously change its
output from maximum to minimum.
Applications
An application for a pneumatic transmitter is one that requires field-mounted indication and local
control. (Pneumatic temperature transmitters used for local indication/control are sometimes
replaced by an electronic controller that accepts a thermocouple or RTD input. The instrument
uses a small turbo-generator to provide the required electric power for operation.) Applications
where intrinsic safety is required may also experience some limited use of pneumatic devices.
Electronic Temperature Transmitters
The following discussion regards an electronic temperature transmitter as a 2- wire transmitter

that is capable of converting an RTD or thermocouple input to a 4 mA to 20 mA output signal.
The 4 mA to 20 mA signal is then transmitted over ordinary copper wiring to other receiving
devices and/or control systems. Because a 4 mA to 20 mA signal represents the temperature
variable, some users may refer to the transmitter as an “analog” transmitter.

Principles
The principles of electronic temperature-transmitter operation (Figure 67) are easy to understand.
Electronic temperature transmitters draw their operating current from a remote DC supply. The
remote DC power can be provided by the distributed control system (DCS). The amount of
current that is drawn is in proportion to the temperature sensor’s input. The actual signal that is
transmitted back to the receiving device, such as a DCS, represents a change in the power supply
current.
For example, a thermocouple connected to a 2-wire transmitter draws a 4 mA current from the
DC power supply when it measures the lowest temperature. As the temperature increase, the
sensor draws more current. At the highest temperature, the sensor draws 20 mA of current. The
transmitter has internal circuitry—consisting of amplifiers, regulators, D/A and A/D
converters—that cause an output signal to follow the temperature range.
A Current
Source
(CJC) Cold Power
+
Block Junction Conversion
- Compensation And
Modulation
(T/C (CJC) And Regulation
-
Only) Amplification
+ DC Power
10 To 50 VDC
Thermocouple Signal
A
Resistance
Bridge
Circuit
3 Wire RTD
Figure 67: Electronic Temperature Transmitter Principles
Design
Electronic two wire transmitters fall into two categories:

• Conventional
• Economy

Conventional transmitters are very common. Conventional transmitters offer good performance,
are familiar to most engineering and maintenance personnel, and have numerous options—such
as local display meters, interchangeable circuit boards (for repair/configuration purposes), and
weather resistant housings.
Conventional transmitter designs include the following functional, performance, and physical
specifications that bear on transmitter selection:
• Functional specifications include the following:

– Type of inputs – Conventional transmitters accept standard RTD and
thermocouple inputs. The sensor spans and types are specified by the vendor.
– Outputs – Signals are usually a 4 mA to 20 mA signal, although some options
can provide a 1 Vdc to 5 Vdc signal.
– Span and zero adjustments – Adjustments are often accessible at the transmitter.
– Temperature limits – The limits define the conditions under which the
transmitter can perform within vendor’s specifications.
– Sensor loss of signal – Also called burnout detection, the transmitter typically
generates a high, upscale signal. The low, downscale signal is optional.
• Performance specifications include the following:

– Accuracy – Conventional transmitters are typically ±0.2% of calibrated span.
Accuracy specifications may include effects of repeatability, hysteresis, and
linearity, but do not include sensor errors.
– Stability – This specification refers the transmitter performance to calibrated
span over a period of time, usually 6 months.
• Physical specifications include the following:

– Housing – Options include weather-resistant housings and dual-compartment
housings. Dual-compartment housings (Figure 68) permit the electronics of the
transmitter to be separate from the output signal, sensor wiring, and zero and span
adjustments.
– Sensor assembly – The transmitter can be ordered along with the RTD or
thermocouple sensor and/or thermowell.
– Accessories – LCD (liquid crystal display) or analog meters for local indication
are available as options. Mounting brackets are also available for DIN mounting
or 2-inch pipe mountings.

Optional Conduit Or
Analog Or Sensor Connection
LCD Meter
Terminal Transmitter
Connections Circuitry
On This Side This Side
(Transmitter Side View)
Figure 68: Dual Compartment Housing
Economy transmitters (also called “throwaway” or “disposable”) are small, inexpensive

transmitters. They provide acceptable performance over a fixed temperature range, typically
±0.1% to 0.2% of full scale. Economy transmitter designs are less than 50 mm (2 inches) in
diameter and 28 mm (1.2 inches) in height. The specifications (such as burnout indication,
outputs, housings) are not as versatile as conventional transmitters

100mm
(4 inch) Thermowell
Typical And Sensor
Optional
Optional Analog
Or LCD Meter
Conventional
50mm (2 inch) Typical

+IN
+PS
-PS
(Height: 38mm (1.5 inch) Typical)
Economy
Figure 69: Conventional and Economy Transmitter
Performance
Conventional electronic temperature transmitters are typically used in applications where the
reliability and repeatability are important to temperature control. The higher accuracy of a
microprocessor-based temperature transmitter may not be needed in these same applications.
Economy temperature transmitters are used in applications where accuracy and rangeability are
not important factors. Their small size permits them to be mounted in either a control room or a
remote location, occasionally on a DIN rail. (DIN is an acronym for “Deutsches Institute for
Normung,” the German Institute for standardization.) Their low cost supports a “repair by
replacement” philosophy—the faulty transmitter is just thrown away.

Installation
The installation guidelines provided in the vendor’s documentation should be followed.

Electronic temperature transmitters have the following common installation considerations:
• Environmental
• Power
• Sensor mounting
• Sensor connection
• Grounding
Environmental considerations include accounting for certification requirements. The ambient

temperature conditions and extremes should be known. Lightning protection devices may be
required.
Power considerations include knowing what power is available. Often the power is provided by
the DCS. Any loading requirements, such as loop resistance caused by lengthy wiring runs,
should be reviewed according to the vendor's supply versus load resistance charts. Relevant
standards, such as SAES-J-902 and 34-SAMMS-913, should be followed.
Sensor-mounting considerations include determining whether it is acceptable to mount the sensor

directly to the transmitter. If the sensor is mounted directly to the transmitter, you should review
whether high process temperatures can transfer through the sensor to the transmitter. If that
should happen, the transmitter's operating limits can be exceeded, damaging the transmitter.
Sensor-connection considerations are dependent upon whether the sensor is an RTD or

thermocouple.
• Thermocouple connections, when extensions are necessary between the sensor

and transmitter, require the correct type of thermocouple extension wire. Note that
a thermocouple can be directly connected to the transmitter. For long wiring runs,
shielding practices should be followed.
• RTD sensors have various configurations; each configuration compensates for the
effects of lead-wire resistance. The RTD configurations include 3-wire, 4-wire,
and compensation loop designs. RTD configurations that are 3-wire and 4-wire
designs typically operate with up to 2 ohms of leadwire resistance—equivalent to
61 meters (200 feet) of #20 gauge wire.

Grounding considerations include where to ground the signal connections. A transmitter can
operate with the signal current loop ungrounded (“floating”) or grounded; however, because
many receiving devices can be detrimentally affected by noisy signals, the current signal loop is
often grounded at a single point. A single point is chosen for the ground to avoid occurrence of a
“ground loop,” which causes additional erroneous current to be present in a loop because of
voltage differences between two or more grounds.
To prevent ground loops, temperature transmitters are available that are able to opto-
electronically isolate the sensor signal from the output current loop. The isolation allows you to
ground both the sensor and one side of the current loop.
A typical thermocouple transmitter is isolated, which allows the input circuit to be grounded at
any single point and the signal loop to be grounded at any point. A typical RTD transmitter is not
isolated, which means there should be no grounds in the RTD circuit. Because transmitter
options vary, review the transmitter specification to see whether the device is nonisolated or
isolated to determine grounding requirements.
Applications
Conventional electronic temperature transmitters are very common in hydrocarbon processing,

particularly in oil/water separation processes. Initial crude oil processes, as well as refinery
processes, encounter hydrocarbon products that contain water. The water is removed in
separation processes that often occur at elevated temperatures. Electronic temperature
transmitters are frequently used in these types of applications.
Microprocessor-based Temperature Transmitters
The addition of the microprocessor to the temperature transmitter improves the performance of
the transmitter. The most important feature is that the transmitter can accept more than one type
of T/C or RTD as an input, in some cases, even millivolt or ohms input. The wide range of inputs
causes the microprocessor-based transmitter to be regarded as a “universal” input model.
Typically the input signal is linearized. Remote calibration, testing, reconfiguring, and tagging of
the transmitter are possible from either the DCS or hand-held field communicator. The
configuration data is maintained within the transmitter's database.

Principles
As shown in Figure 70, a microprocessor-based transmitter is powered in the same fashion as a

conventional transmitter, which is through a 2-wire, 10 Vdc to 50 Vdc power supply. Both the
input and output sides of the transmitter have a microprocessor. Each microprocessor also has
memory associated with it. The memory of the input microprocessor has the characteristics for
the various sensor types. The memory of the output microprocessor has the ranging and
communication data necessary for the application's configuration.
The input signals are sampled several times per second. The A/D converter digitizes the signals,
linearizes the signals, compensates the signals (cold-junction compensation for T/Cs, lead-wire
resistance for RTDs), and then transfers the signals across the galvanic isolation interface. Both
power and signal are galvanically isolated.
On the output side of the block diagram, the digital data is ranged to the lower and upper range
values (LRV and URV) that are held in nonvolatile memory. The output signal is converted back
to an analog 4 mA to 20 mA signal. Note that the transmitter can be configured to communicate
in a direct digital communication mode. For the Honeywell example shown in Figure 70, the
digital communication protocol is called “DE” (digital enhanced).
Design
Microprocessor-based temperature transmitter designs include the following functional,

performance, and physical specifications that bear on transmitter selection:
• Functional specifications include the following:

– Type of inputs – The sensor inputs that the transmitter can accept are specified.
– Outputs – Signals are either a 4 mA to 20 mA signal or a proprietary digital
protocol. Honeywell DE and HART protocol are two examples.
– Span and zero adjustments – Adjustments are often accessible at the transmitter.
– Temperature limits – The limits define the conditions under which the
transmitter can perform within vendor’s specifications.
– Sensor loss of signal – Also called burnout detection, the transmitter’s upscale
or downscale signal is user-selectable. Critical status messages can also be
configured to appear.

• Performance specifications include the following:

– Accuracy – Accuracy specifications are specified on a sensor basis, ± 0.1 °C for
an RTD, to ± 0.5 °C for a Type K thermocouple.
– Stability – This specification refers the transmitter performance to calibrated
span over a period of time, usually 6 months.
• Physical specifications include the following:

– Housing – Options include weather-resistant housings and dual-compartment
housings. Dual-compartment housings permit the electronics of the transmitter to
be separate from the output signal, sensor wiring, and zero and span adjustments.
– Sensor assembly – The transmitter can be ordered along with the RTD or
thermocouple sensor and/or thermowell.
– Accessories – LCD (liquid crystal display) or analog meters for local indication
are available as options. Mounting brackets are also available for DIN mounting
or 2-inch pipe mountings. The hand held field communicator is regarded as an
accessory (Note that reranging can be accomplished from the DCS, as in the case
of Honeywell’s STT 3000 transmitter.)

Thermocouple Resistance Thermometer

or mV inputs or Strain Gage
- +
Lo Hi
1 2 3 4 1 2 3
CJC Input Amplifier -V 0V +V
Input
Microprocessor A/D Converter
PSU
Opto Isolators
Galvanic Isolation
Output D/A and Output +V

0V PSU
Microprocessor Amplifier
5 6 7 8 CJC: Cold Junction

- + Compensation
Link for upscale To 10-50 Vdc PSU: Power Supply
failsafe Remove link Supply Unit
for downscale failsafe
Figure 70: Principles of Operation

Performance
The performance of microprocessor-based transmitter is best described by comparing it to a

conventional electronic temperature transmitter. Refer to Figure 71 for this comparison.
Function Conventional Microprocessor-based

4 mA to 20 Ma output yes yes
digital communication no yes
type of sensor inputs standard RTD and T/Cs wide range of RTD, T/C inputs.
Millivolt, ohms and custom inputs
available.
accuracy good, ±0.2% of span excellent, ±0.1°C typical for RTDs.
typical
isolation varies yes
precise linearization no yes
remote configuration no yes
self diagnostics no yes
temperature compensation varies excellent
rangeability adjustable universal
Figure 71: Performance Comparison
Installation
The installation guidelines provided in the vendor’s documentation should be followed.

Microprocessor-based transmitters have the same installation considerations as electronic
temperature transmitters. These common considerations were described in the previous section.
An additional comment regarding grounding is that microprocessor-based transmitters provide
isolation.
Example installations are shown below in terms of
• Mountings
• RTD wiring
• Thermocouple wiring
• Remote database access

Mountings supported by microprocessor-based transmitters include direct process mounting and

2-inch pipe mounting as shown in Figure 72.
Hot Process Extension
Thermowell Couplings Cable Gland
Signal Cable
Vessel Wall Insulation
420-211A
Direct Process Mounting
Explosion-Proof Housing
Pipe
Mounting 1/2" NPT
Bracket (Both
Sides)
2 Inch Pipe
STT 3000
2 Inch Pipe Mounting
Figure 72: Mounting Examples

RTD wiring supported by microprocessor-based transmitters include 2-, 3-, and 4-wire lead
configurations shown in Figure 73.
• Keep Resistance of all leads equal

1 2 3 4
1 4
- + NC
T/C 3-Wire Resistance Temperature
STT 3000 RTD
Honeywell Detector Connections
Transmitter INPUT
STT 3000
Module
1 2 3 4
1 4 • Keep resistance of all leads equal
- + 1 2 3 4
NC
T/C 1 4
RTD 2-Wire Resistance Temperature
- + NC
INPUT
Honeywell
STT 3000
T/C Detector Connections
RTD
Honeywell
OUTPUT STT 3000
INPUT
5 8
5 6 7 8
• Keep resistance of all leads equal

1 2 3 4
1 4
-
T/C
+ NC 4-Wire Resistance Temperature
RTD Honeywell Detector Connections
STT 3000
INPUT
Figure 73: RTD Wiring Examples

Thermocouple wiring (as well as millivolt source wiring) supported by microprocessor-based

transmitters include configurations shown in Figure 74.
Thermocouple Extension Cable -

Thermocouple
1 2 3 4 +
1 4 Thermocouple Connections
- + NC
STT 3000 T/C with internal Cold Junction
RTD
Transmitter Honeywell Compensation
INPUT STT 3000
Module
Thermocouple Extension Cable
1 2 3 4
Copper Wire - T/C
- Thermocouple
1 4 Ref
1 2 3 4 + +
- +
T/C NC 1 4 Thermocouple Connections
RTD
- +
Honeywell
STT 3000
T/C NC with external Cold Junction
INPUT RTD
Honeywell Compensation
INPUT STT 3000
OUTPUT
5 8
5 6 7 8
- mV
Source
1 2 3 4 +
1 4
- +
T/C NC Millivolt Connections
RTD
Honeywell
INPUT STT 3000
Figure 74: Thermocouple Wiring Examples

Remote database access for a microprocessor-based transmitter is represented in Figure 75. The
diagram illustrates that a transmitter’s database can be changed from the distributed control
system or in the field. The transmitter’s database can then be saved to the control room system’s
storage media. Both the transmitter and control system maintain a copy of the transmitter's
database.
Global
User Station: Windows NT Network
View/Change
Transmitter
Database
Parameters
Configuration
Local Database
Control Network
Transmitter's
Operating
Characteristics
Download
Network Process Manager
Interface or Advanced
Upload
Module Process Manager
Universal
Control
Network
Configuration
FTD Database
Field
Termination Transmitter's
Assembly Operating
Characteristics
STT 3000
Smart Field Communicator
(View/Change Transmitter Database)
Figure 75: Access from Distributed Control System

A typical control room system display is shown in Figure 76. The microprocessor-based
instrument's database is accessible from the operating point’s display.
24 MAR 14:02:50 5
FEED TEMP 18 UNIT 18 CONFIG PAGE
CONFIGURATION DATA
PVFORMAT D1 PVCHAR JTHERM PVLOPR LOW
PVSRCOPT ALL SENSRTYP STT PVROCPPR NOACTION
PVCLAMP NOCLAMP PIUOTDCF ON PVROCNPR NOACTION Controller
PVALDB ONE BADPVPR LOW Database
PVALDBEU 1.99000 PVHHPR NOACTION
INPTDIR DIRECT PVHIPR LOW
LOCUTOFF ----------- PVLLPR NOACTION
SMART TRANSMITTER DATA
STITAG TI3012 PVRAW 83.1451 SECVAR 24.7017

SENSRTYP STT URL 1200.00 DAMPING 0.00000
PVCHAR JTHERM URV 38.0000 SERIALNO 66419257
CJTACT ON LRV 9.00000 STISWVER 2.1
PIUOTDCF ON LRL -199.997 STATE OK
DECONF PV_SV_DB STI_EU DEG_C COMMAND NONE
TRANSMITTER SCRATCH PAD :

TRANSMITTER STATUS : STATUS OKAY
Microprocessor Based Transmitter Database
STITAG - Tag Name Of Field Device

SENSRTYP - Type Of Transmitter, "STT" Represents Smart Temperature Transmitter
PVCHAR - PV Characterization, J Thermocouple Is Shown
CJTACT - Cold Junction Temperature Compensation
PIUOTDCF - Open T/C Detection
DECONF - Communication Mode For DE Protocol
PVRAW - PV In Per Cent
URL - Upper Range Limit
URV - Upper Range Value
LRV - Lower Range Value
LRL - Lower Range Limit
STI-EU - Engineering Units
SECVAR - Secondary Variable
DAMPING - Damping Time
STISWVER - Software Version
STATE - Database Status
COMMAND - Used To Upload/Download Database
Figure 76: Example Operating Display

Application
Microprocessor-based transmitters, while suitable for almost all temperature measurement

applications, are best used in applications where a high degree of accuracy and/or remote
communication capability is required. In some process areas, where access is difficult,
microprocessor-based transmitters are very useful.
A typical application for a microprocessor-based transmitter is in a fluid catalytic cracking unit

(FCCU). The process converts gas oil products into lighter products. Temperature measurement
is critical in this application. The reactor temperature mainly determines the product state. The
reactor temperature is controlled by the rate at which hot catalyst is combined with fresh gas oil
feed. The accuracy that a microprocessor-based temperature transmitter provides is essential to
controlling this process.

WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO SELECT TEMPERATURE SENSOR DEVICES
Work Aid 1A: Checklist of Temperature Sensor Data
The following summarizes criteria for temperature sensor selection.
Checklist:
• Overall application requirements. (Note: The individual factors should be
reviewed in case they interact with each other and not meet the application
requirement. For example, do sensor protection requirements make the speed of
response unacceptable?)
• Temperature.
– Maximum operating temperature – (Note: Often the maximum operating
temperature determines device selection.)
– Total temperature range of operation
• Time of operation
• Environmental restraints
– Contacting versus noncontacting requirements
– Protection versus installed
• Accuracy
• Calibration stability
• Response time (speed of response)
• Sturdiness
• Cost
References
The following references assist the engineer in selecting a sensor:
• SADP-J-400
• SAES-J-400, Section 4
• “Process Measurement and Analysis,” Section 4.1, Liptak
• “Process Measurement Instrumentation, ” Section 5.3 to 5.7, API RP 551

Work Aid 1B: Vendor Data Sheets

Work Aid 1C: Saudi Aramco Instrument Specification Sheets

Work Aid 1D: SADP-J-400 (Course Handout 1.)

Work Aid 1E: SAES-J-400, Section 4 (Course Handout 2.)

Work Aid 1F: Vendor Selection Software (Course Handout 3)

WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO SELECT THERMOWELLS
Work Aid 2A: Software for Calculating Wake Frequency

ThermoElectric Wake Frequency Program
Rdf (Honeywell) Wake Frequency Program



Work Aid 2D: Checklist of Thermowell Data
Summary
The following summarizes criteria for thermowell selection.
Checklist
• Material of construction
– Ability to withstand any corrosion conditions
– Material strength requirements, if any, for high-pressure service
– Whether any tradeoffs must be made of corrosion versus material strength.
• Connection to the process
– Threaded wells
– Flanged wells (standard versus Van Stone types)
– Socket weld wells
• Insertion length
– Liquid sensitivity requirements
– Gas or air sensitivity requirements
– Any dead length (i.e., vessel or pipe wall thickness) considerations
• Bore size (Accommodates T/C or thermometers)
• Tapered versus straight well needs (tapered are stiffer)
• Velocity ratings of wells (vibrational effects). Note: any selection must comply
with accepted Saudi Aramco procedures for calculating vibration effects.
Selections are the responsibility of the engineer, and selection review by senior
engineers and/or vendors is strongly encouraged.
References
The following references assist the engineer in selecting a thermowell:
• SADP-J-400
• SAES-J-400, Section 4
• Technical Alert 05/93: “Vibration Induced Thermowell Failure”
• D.W. Beurkel White Paper on Thermowell Vibration
• “Process Measurement Instrumentation, ” Section 5.2, API RP 551

Work Aid 2E: SADP-J-400 (Course Handout 1.)

Work Aid 2F: SAES-J-400, Section 4 (Course Handout 2.)

Work Aid 2G: Technical Alert 05/93: “Vibration Induced Thermowell Failure”

Work Aid 2H: D.W. Beurkel White Paper on Thermowell Vibration

WORK AID 3: RESOURCES USED TO SELECT TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTERS
Work Aid 3A: Checklist of Temperature Transmitter Data
Summary
The following summarizes criteria for temperature transmitter selection.
Checklist
• Inputs
– direct mounting of sensor versus remote mounting of sensor
– versatility in accepting RTD, T/C, or custom inputs
• Rangeability
• Output
– compatibility with other devices, such as controllers
– 4 mA to 20 mA versus digital signal
• Accuracy requirements
• Remote communication needs
• Environmental protection requirements
– hazardous area requirements
– lightning protection needs
– noise immunity
• Operating considerations
– ambient temperature-compensation requirements
– long term stability
– self diagnostics
• Cost (price range):
– smart, conventional 4 mA to 20 mA, or “throwaway” economy are the
price tiers, highest to lowest in cost.
– repairability

References
The following references assist the engineer in selecting a temperature transmitter:
• SADP-J-400
• SAES-J-400, Section 4.8
• Vendor selection software
• “Process Measurement Instrumentation, ” Section 5.3 to 5.6, API RP 551



Work Aid 3D: SAES-J-400, Section 4.8 (Course Handout 2.)

Work Aid 3E: Vendor Selection Software (Course Handout 3)

GLOSSARY
Alumel An aluminum nickel alloy.
ambient compensation Instrument designs that minimize effects of temperature
changes upon the overall measurement.
ANSI American National Standards Institute
AWG American Wire Gauge
calibration The act of adjusting an instrument to a known standard or
creating a deviation table for comparing to a known standard.
Chromel A chromium nickel alloy.
Constantan A copper nickel alloy.
cryogenics Temperature measurements below -200°C.
DIN Deutsche Industrie Normung, engineering and dimensional
standards by a German agency also abbreviated DIN.
duplex wire Insulated wire pair that has an insulated outer jacket.
endothermic Absorbs heat.
exothermic Gives off heat.
FM Factory Mutual Research corporation
Inconel A nickel iron chromium alloy.
interchangeability error A measurement error that can occur if two or more sensors are
used to make the same measurement. The difference is caused
by slight differences.
NPT National Pipe Thread
optical isolation Signal connections made between LED transmitter and
photoelectric receivers. No electrical continuity occurs between
transmitter and receiver.
probe Generic term that is often confused with a sensor. Although
used to describe a sensor, the probe is the assembly that
includes sensor, sheathing, terminations, and lead wires.
protection tube A metal or ceramic tube enclosure that a sensor is inserted into.
Protection tubes are not the same as thermowells, which are
more rugged enclosures.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Determining Appropriate Temperature Measurement

Chapter : Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, THERMODYNAMIC

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Temperature Sensitive Materials ..............................................................................56

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO SELECT TEMPERATURE SENSOR

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Table of Figures Page

Figure 1: Temperature Control for Compressor Cooler............................................. 3

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 31: Liquid-In Glass Thermometer Design.....................................................45

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 62 Thermowell Installations .......................................................................104

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT: PURPOSE, THERMODYNAMIC

• Purpose of temperature measurement

• Scales and conversions

• General categories of temperature devices

Purpose of Temperature Measurement

Accurate temperature measurement is essential to the process control of distillation,

The purpose of temperature measurement is further illustrated in the following discussion:

• Importance of temperature measurement

• Typical Saudi Aramco temperature control loops

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Importance of Temperature Measurement

Temperature measurement is central to oil processing operations, such as distillation and

• Conversion and product yields

• Material balances in separation processes

• Product quality and acceptance

• Equipment monitoring, control, and operation

Typical Saudi Aramco Temperature Control Loop(s)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Figure 1: Temperature Control for Compressor Cooler

Figure 2 illustrates temperature measurement in a propane flow application.

Figure 2: Temperature Measurement in Propane Flow

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Figure 3 illustrates temperature measurement in a fluid flow application. A centrifugal pump is

TI 200 is a temperature indicator in Loop 200, symbolized by a bubble showing a connection to

Figure 3: Temperature Measurement in Flow, Centrifugal Pump Present

• Classical view of kinetic energy theory

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Classical View of Kinetic Energy Theory

Heat and Temperature

Temperature is defined as the measurement of the intensity of heat. In practice, temperature is

Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

Several terms that describe heat transfer are the following:

• The thermal conductivity coefficient

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

A practical aspect of thermodynamic laws is that consideration should be given to installations

Freezing Point (FP)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Planck Radiation Law

0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Figure 4: ITS-90 Defined Ranges and Fixed Points, Numerically

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Materiala Eqilibrium Stateb Temperature (C)

Figure 5: ITS-90 Fixed Points, Numerically

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8