Tall buildings

Tall buildings are those buildings having a height greater than 45 m, but less than 250
m, normally intended for use as residential office and other commercial buildings. Rapid growth
of population in urban communities, presence of the limited land area and expensive land prices
are major reasons contributing to the development of tall buildings. Optimum utilization energy
and natural resources are other factors that support tall buildings. Major loads which a tall
building structures are subjected to are given below.

1.Gravity loads - Gravity loads consist of dead load and live loads. Dead loads are due
to the weight of every element within the structure as well as live loads that are acting
on the structure when in service.

2. Wind load - On a tall building, wind load acts on a large surface area and also with
greater intensity. Buildings of up to 10 storeys, designed for gravity loading can
accommodate wind loading without any additional reinforcement. Usually, buildings taller than
10 storeys would generally require additional reinforcement.

3. Earthquake load - Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and horizontal forces on the
building. Earthquake load in the vertical direction does not have much effect on the building, but
the earthquake load in the horizontal direction during earthquake is to be considered while
designing.

Framed building
Framed buildings are comprised of series of framed structures. These frames are
formed of columns which are connected by means of beams at floor and roof levels. In framed
buildings, the load from the roof and floors is transferred to the foundation through columns and
footings. Within these frames, walls are constructed. Walls serve as partitions only. They may
be removed and alterations may be made at any other time without putting the building in
danger. Framed structures are suitable for multistoried buildings.
Table below shows the comparison between load-bearing and framed buildings.

Sl. Load bearing structure Framed structure

No.
1 Load from roof and floors are transferred to
foundations by walls.
2 walls need foundations throughout their run
3 Plans for different floors of buildings remains
same
4 Too many openings for doors, windows and
ventilators are not permissible.
Load from roof and floors are
transferred by columns and footings
Footings are required for columns only.
Walls may be built on beams or floors
Plans for different floors of buildings are
different.
There is no such restriction. Entire
space between two columns may be
kept open.

5 Walls should not be dismantled for Walls may be dismantled for

alterations. alternations.

6 Suited for 1 or 2 storey buildings. Suitable for multistoryed buildings.

Advantages of framed structures
1. Speed of construction of framed buildings is more.
2. It is possible to change the position of panel wall to meet the requirements at any time
3. Framed structures can resist vibrations effectively and hence are ideal for buildings in
4. seismic zones and factory building.
5. This form of construction requires thin panel which in tum increases Hoor area.
6. These structures are economical filled and soft grounds when compared to ordinary
walled structures.
Materials such as wood, steel, and reinforced concrete, which are strong in both tension and
compression, make the best members for framing.

Timber framed buildings

Light wooden framed construction is one of the most popular types of building methods
for homes in European countries, but not widely used in India. In wooden framed buildings, the
walls are conventionally built with slender studs. In a similar way, joists and rafters are
supported on the walls. Timber framed structures differ from those constructed of traditional
brick and block work because the structural frame members are fabricated from wood.
Advantages of timber framed structures
1. It is light, and allows quick construction with no heavy tools or equipment.
2. Variety of range of finishes can be provided for decorative and protective purposes.
3. There are a huge variety of products and systems tailored to this type of construction.
4. Timber is the only truly renewable construction material.
Disadvantages of timber framed structures
l. It is not strong enough to resist wind and fire events.
2. It is not fireproof, as it is made of wood.

Steel framed buildings

Buildings which are of industrial nature and consist of many storeys are made up of steel
frame work. Steel framed buildings are made of steel framework which supports all the loads.
The columns, beams and girders in these buildings are made of steel sections. These buildings
should be adequately braced in order to resist the wind and earthquake forces. The partitions
and exterior walls are constructed of other light and fire proof materials. Steel framed buildings
are Similar to reinforced concrete framed buildings (RCC). In steel framed buildings, the
columns. Beams and girders consist of steel sections. Steel being stronger than all forms of
masonry, is capable of sustaining greater load in given space with columns properly spaced to
provide support for the beams spanning between them. Column supporting upper floor load
should be continuous from the basement. They should be so placed as to support directly the
girders and beams carrying heavy walls. The girder should be connected directly into columns.

Erection of steel work

Erection of steel work structures is the process by which the fabricated structural
members are assembled together to form the skeletal structure. The erection is normally carried
out by the erection contractor. The erection process requires considerable planning in terms of
material delivery, material handling, member assembly and member connection. The structural
components received for erection should be stacked in such a way that erection sequence is not
affects U6 to improper storing. For the guidance on general fabrication and erection of structural
steel work, IS 800: 2007 must be followed. As far as safety is concerned guidance could be
obtained from Indian safety code for structural steelwork IS 7205 1974. The erection process
requires considerable planning in terms of material delivery, material handling, member
assembly and connection Generally the steps that are involved in the erection of steel structures
are as below.

1. Receiving material from the shop and temporarily stacking them, if necessary.
2. Lifting and placing the member and temporarily holding in place. Steel work is erected
with the aid of derricks (a kind of crane with a movable pivoted arm), slings, guys cranes, etc.
3. Temporarily bracing the system to ensure stability during erection
4. Aligning and permanently connecting the members by bolting or welding
5. Connecting cladding to the steel structural skeleton
6. Application of a final coat of painting

Advantages of steel framed structures

Steel structures have the following advantages

1. They are super-quick to build at site, as a lot of work can be pre-fabricated at the factory.
2. They are flexible, which makes them very good at resisting dynamic (changing) forces such
as wind or earthquake forces
3. A wide range of ready-made structural sections are available, such as I, Channel. and
angle sections. .
4. They can be made to take any kind of shape and clad with any type of material. A wide
range of joining methods is available, such as bolting, welding, and riveting

Disadvantages of steel framed structures

1. Analysis approach and assumptions should be quite clear prior to structural system
formation. .
2. Skilled laborers are required. .
3 Steel can soften and melt with exposure to extremely high temperatures
4. They are prone to corrosion in humid or marine environments. Therefore, they need
consistent maintenance.
Application of steel framed structures

1. Steel framed construction is most often used in high-rise buildings because of its strength,
low weight, and speed of construction.
2. Industrial/warehouse buildings because of its ability to create large span at low cost
3, Residential buildings.
4. Temporary structures as these are quick to set up and remove.

Concrete framed structures

Concrete framed buildings or RCC famed buildings are very common type of modem building
internationally. Concrete framed buildings consists of a frame which are formed by
interconnecting CDIUHIIIS (vertical members) and beams (horizontal members) at floor and roof
levels so as to form a grid. The floor slab which is flat plane of concrete, is supported on beams.
The beams, in turn are supported by the girders and the girders are supported by the columns
to which they connect. Walls also known as panels or screen walls are constructed within these
frames. Shear walls are essentially very large columns making them appear like walls rather
than columns. Their function in a building is to help take care of horizontal forces on buildings
like wind and earthquake loads. Thus in a framed building, the loads of the floors, roofs and
panel walls are supported by the beams and girders, which in tum, transfer these loads to the
column below and these columns finally carry the whole weight of the structure to the
foundations. The framing details of RCC multistoryed building is shown in the figure. lt can be
seen that slabs, beams, girders and columns are built monolithically and rigidly with each other
at their junctions.

In RCC framing, the form work for different members to be cast is first installed or erected in
position, the reinforcement is then placed. The reinforcing steel is held in position by wiring bars
together at their Intersections. Finally, the concrete is poured. After the concrete has sufficiently
set, the form work is removed. lt is obvious that the concreting of the entire building cannot be
practically done is single operation and hence construction joints required to be provided at
intervals. In framed construction, the joints should be at the points of minimum shear.

Advantages of RCC framed structures

1. RCC framed structures have good fire and weather resistance.

2. RCC structures is more durable than any other building system.
3. The maintenance cost of RCC framed structures is very low.
4. Compared to the use of steel in structure, RCC framed structures require less skilled
are labour for the erection of the structure.

Disadvantages of RCC framed structures

1. RCC structures are heavier than structures of other materials like steel and wood.
2. RCC needs lot of form-work.
3. Concrete takes time to attain its full strength. Thus, RCC structures can’t be used
immediately after construction unlike steel structures.

5.3 Form work

Concrete bein y . .
till it gains strength, This 8 8 tem p p l or a a s r t y ic mat structu r r i
e a . which has to be built for any concrete . member IS
C I in the green state, has to be kept within an enclosure
galled formwork or shuttering. The material most commonly used for
form work are timber,
plywood and steel. Timber formworks are generally used for small
works, where repetitive LlS€
is limited. Instead of seasoned wood, use of plywood is becoming
popular because it gives d
smooth surface. Plywood formworks can be used more number of
times (20-25) than timber
tbrmworks (10-12 times). The initial cost of steel formwork is high, but
the advantage IS that it
can be reused several times. The erectioh and removal of steel
formwork are simple and fast.
Steel also gives a smooth surface. Hence, steel formworks can be
used wherever several
repetitions are required. Steel formwnrk does not absorb water from
concrete. With the use of
steel form work, there is no danger of shrinking of the formwork.
Requirements of form work
Forms for concrete structures should satisfy the following
requirements.
1. It should be strong enough to resist the pressure or weight of the
fresh concrete and the
superimposed loads due to equipment, men, etc., if any.
2. It should be rigid enough to retain the shape without undue
deformation.
3. It should not allow the cement paste to leak through the joint.
4. The form should not warp, bend or bulge.
5. The inside surface of form work should be smooth so as to give good
appearance to the
resulting concrete surface.
6. Form work should be made that it can be removed easily without
causing the least injury
to the surfaces or edge of the concrete structure.
7. As the formwork does not contribute anything to the stability of the
finished structure, it
should, therefore, be made economical by reducing the cost through
proper design,
construction and use of form work.
i3.I Form work for dwzrenf structural members
The usual form works for the following structural members are
discussed below
I. Form workfor column footings -.. There are
/ Cross connecting
various types of forms used for column tension wires
9
Q,
footings depending up on the size shape and . ,Planks
Z
nature of columns construction required.
The figure shows the isometric view of the
form work for a typical rectangular/square
shape. The box of required dimension is
made from the planks in such a way that Braces on
Clears on
four side>
two ends are fixed with cleats. Suitable
either sides planks
braces are provided to make the box rigid
Form work for simpfefooting
and strong. To ensure further safety, the

Cu I1sfllll(.'lioI1 Technology
,'l4rldn/0 - V -142
f orm work for columns - Reinforced concrete column
arms arc subjected to lateral pressure because of their
small cross section, large heights and relatively high
rates of concrete placement. Thus. in is necessary to
provide tight joints and strong support to the formwork.
Planks
Rectangular and square column forms are usually made sheathing
of wood. Round column forms arc made of steel.
Yokes
Conventional formwork for columns is made of
sheathings nailed together to form rigid sides. As the
sizes of concrete column increases, the stiffness of the
formwork must be increased by either increasing
thickness of sheathing or providing vertical stiffeners to ,.
prevent sheathing deflection. Sheathing forms the
Al)pic'alc1Ilumnforwark
surfaces of the concrete. It should be as smooth as possible. The
sheathing materials
typically would consist of timber planks or plywood sheets, or steel
plates. Column
form sides are held together by yokes or clamps. Another function of
these yokes is to
prevent the buckling of sheathing resulting from the lateral pressure
when the fresh
concrete is placed. The form work details for a rectangular/square
column are shown
in the figure.
Shcalhing (planks) Slab form
3. Form work for RCC beam and slab floor
,
.l i
construction - Beam fOrmwork consists of
open through section and because it is not
closed at the top requires more supporting Beam
Ledgers Head tree
fromm
framework to restrain the sides. Beam forms
I
must be shored up at frequent intervals to
JI
prevent sagging under the weight of fresh
concrete. In monolithic construction, beams or
Braces
girders and slabs are cast as a single unit. This
or
4 Shoring or
means that beam for work will be continuous
brackets
posts
with that of slab form work. Sheathing .-
consists of plywood or timber planks. The A
gpicalheamandslabfloorfonrn work
beam form is supported on a head tree. Side forms are held in place by
ledger strips.
The vertical posts or shores, braces, lateral supports, etc., provides a
strong centering
to beam and slab floor forms to bear all the loads due to them. The
form work for
beam and slab floor construction should be strong enough to support
the weight of the
concrete plus the additional load to account for labour, storage of
materials, etc.
Form work for slab j10or - Floors require a large area of formwork to be
provided
4.
usually from beam to beam. Timber floor formwork consists of timber
boards or
plywood sheets supported on a frame work and resting on a series of
timber joists.
Timber and metal posts can be used for vertical supports. Metal panels
can be used
which are bolted or clipped together and held in place by a system of
metal beams.
Sleelforms compared with timberformwork
1. Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber
formwork.
To, Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and
speed.
Ln 1 1i' l' 11 (ll'
moo] finns is flood.

Construction Technology
are construction joints and expansion and contraction joints. 5.4.1 Construction joints
As it is not generally possible to place concrete in one
operation it is necessary to develop a suitable means to join
the old and the new concrete properly (i.c., to join portions of
concrete constructed at different times). Construction joints,
are placed where they will cause the minimum amount of
weakness to the structure and where the shearing stresses and
bending moments are small or where the joints will be
A1114/ll/e' .. V -I43 Two types of joints are to be provided in concrete work or concrete
structures. They
5.4 Joints in concrete work
r1
II |I
4:6--Continuity of
I I rcinfurccmcnt
n ,, _Prepared joinl :: :: surface
H II
" . "..
   supported by other members. The construction joints may be
either vertical or horizontal as the case may be and should not be inclined. The position and
arrangement of all construction joints should be predetermined by the engineer. Consideration
should be given to limiting the number of such joints. The figure shows a typical construction
joint. The construction joint may be either vertical or horizontal depending up on the type of
structure.
5.4.2 Expansion and contraction joints
Joint fill
..
Reinforcing bars
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    An expansion joint allows the concrete to
expand or contract with daily temperature variations.
During expansion (due to increase in temperature)
unless there is a provision for expansion, the concrete
may buckle outwards and break. An expansion joint is a gap in the building structure provided
to allow for the movement of the building due to temperature changes. Expansion joints
permits thermal contraction and expansion without inducing stresses into the elements. For
example, if a slab is located between building walls, an expansion joint is essential to
separate slab from building wall to accommodate expansion and contraction. Concrete
expansion joints in roads and bridges are created in asphalt or concrete to allow material
expansions and contractions due to the road concrete expansion joints changes in
temperatures, or due to road or bridge movement. The joints are cut at similar intervals in the
structures to prevent development of cracking or splitting. Material generally known as joint
filler, such as buren felt, metal strips, fibre board, is used in expansion joints.
A contractionjoint or eontroljoint isajointthat
is put in the concrete to control cracking due to
temperature change causing shrinkage of concrete.
Contraction joint are cuts or grooves made in concrete or
asphalt at regular intervals. These joints are made at
locations where there are chances of cracks or where the
Sawcut
l
Erpansionjoin!
 Induced crack
.K
  concentration of stresses are expected, so that when a concrete does crack the location
will b
known to you. In such a way concrete will not crack randomly but . ' a straight line (i.e.e,
control joint). In other words contrac.t.ion j.oints are pre-planned crack.s.lC.o.ntraction joints
are made by saw cutting or tooling a joint IH the concrete. A contraction joint may be either
complete contraction joint or partial contraction joint. A complete contraction joint is one in
which both steel and concrete are mtemipted and a partial contraction joint is one in which _ .
. . . . .__-.-_,| nm »-pmtnrruno steel mnmno thrnlmh M ._\....._ .1 ,c
:::;=;:=~=;+~~- -- -
Contractiunjoint