ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR ROCK MECHANICS

COMMISSION ON APPLICATION OF GEOPHYSICS TO

ROCK ENGINEERING

SUGGESTED METHODS FOR

LAND GEOPHYSICS IN ROCK ENGINEERING

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................ 886
2. SEISMIC REFRACTION................................................................................................................................ 887
3. SHALLOW SEISMIC REFLECTION............................................................................................................ 891
4. ELECTRICAL.................................................................................................................................................. 895
5. ELECTROMAGNETIC................................................................................................................................... 899
6. GROUND PENETRATING RADAR............................................................................................................ 903
7. GRAVITY........................................................................................................................................................ 906
8. RADIOMETRIC.............................................................................................................................................. 911

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT....................................................................................................................................... 913
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................................ 914

Co-ordinator
T. Takahashi (Japan)

1365-1609/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2004.02.009
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914

ISRM Suggested Methods for land geophysics in rock engineering

T. Takahashi*,1
Tsukuba Technical Research and Development Center, OYO Corporation, 43 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0841, Japan
Accepted 19 February 2004

1. Introduction In ‘‘Recommendations of site investigation techni-

In recent years, geophysical applications have been
expanding from natural resources exploration to the
fields of civil engineering, disaster prevention and
environmental preservation. Their applications to rock
engineering are also growing significantly. Geophysical
technology itself has been advancing very rapidly. New
technologies have been developed and new improve-
ments have been accomplished in many geophysical
methods. As a result, accuracy and reliability of
geophysical images of underground have been increased.
As advances are made in geophysics, it becomes more
important to make an optimal survey plan and interpret
its result correctly. There are many procedures in
geophysical applications such as planning, data acquisi-
tion, data processing, interpretation and reporting.
Therefore, to use geophysical methods more effecti-
vely in rock engineering projects, suggestions or
recommendations for the procedures of geophysical
applications are needed.
To promote geophysical methods in rock engineering,
the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM)
has, therefore, organized and published the following
suggested methods for geophysics:
(1) ‘‘Suggested Methods for Geophysical Logging of
Borehole’’ by Commission on Standardization of
Laboratory and Field Tests (1981),
(2) ‘‘Suggested Methods for Seismic Testing within and
between boreholes’’ by Commission on Testing
Methods (1988).
*Tel.: +81-298-51-6621; fax: +81-298-51-5450.
E-mail address: takahashi-toru@oyonet.oyo.co.jp (T. Takahashi).
1 sical methods such as the magnetic method. Since they
Please send any written comments on this ISRM Suggested
Methods to Prof. K. Sassa, President of the ISRM Commission
on Application of Geophysics to Rock Engineering, 41 Ohmiya
Nakabayashi, Kita-Ku, Kyoto 603-8404, Japan.
ques’’ published in 1975 by the ISRM, general
recommendations on the use of geophysical methods
were described in Chapter 4. This recommendation
describes the general use of geophysics in various stages
of the investigation, such as planning, design, construc-
tion and maintenance in rock engineering projects.
Geophysical methods are divided into two categories,
land geophysics and borehole geophysics, by the
observation geometry used in the method. In land
geophysics, the ground surface is used for its observa-
tion, while borehole geophysics uses the borehole(s) for
its observation. Existing suggested methods above
described the methods and the procedures used in
borehole geophysics. Recently, many land geophysical
surveys have also been used at various stages in civil
engineering applications. Therefore, the suggested
methods describing land geophysical methods and
procedures used in rock engineering applications are
needed for their practical and effective uses.
These suggested methods describe the following seven
land geophysical methods: seismic refraction, shallow
seismic reflection, electrical, electromagnetic, ground
penetrating radar, gravity and radiometric. Although
seismic refraction, electrical and radiometric methods
were already described in the Recommendations men-
tioned above, new computer-aided technologies have
been developed and used in rock engineering applica-
tions. These new technologies are included in the new
suggested methods. Seismic reflection, electromagnetic,
ground penetrating radar and gravity methods have been
recently employed in rock engineering applications such
as characterization of rock mass and detection of shallow
subsurface cavities. There are some other land geophy-
have not been applied very much to rock engineering
investigations as compared to seven methods above, they
are not included in this version of the suggested methods.

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doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2004.02.009
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
These suggested methods are intended to assist
geophysicists or rock engineers to use geophysics
properly and obtain solutions required in rock engineer-
ing projects. Therefore, suggestions for all procedures
from planning to reporting in geophysical applications
are described in the suggested methods. Suggestions for
the planning stage are especially emphasized, because it
is most important how to select and integrate geophy-
sical methods for obtaining optimal solutions to meet
engineering requirements.
The suggested methods are each composed of the
following seven sections:
(1) General: The principle and general features of the
method are described. Standard techniques and their
variations are also described. A schematic diagram
explaining the principle and measurement configura-
tions of the method is presented.
(2) Applicability: General applicability of the method
is described. Various limitations and conditions in
application of the method are described in general.
Typical exploration targets and recent applications of
the method are also included.
(3) Planning: Key items to be studied in planning a
survey are listed up and notes for each item are
described. Key items commonly described in each
method are as follows:
1. Study of existing information and data: Information
and data to be reviewed and studied in making a
survey plan are recommended. It is also explained
how to analyse the data.
2. Selection of the optimal technique and equipment: It
is suggested how to select the optimal technique and
equipment. Although it depends on the objectives
and the requirements of the survey, guidelines are
described.
3. Design of a survey line layout and data acquisition
parameters: It is described in general how to design a
survey line layout and data acquisition parameters.
Standard layout and parameters are also presented.
4. The depth of investigation and resolution of the
method: The depth of investigation, resolution and
accuracy expected by the method are described in
general. Their relationships to the method and
equipment used are also outlined.
(4) Field operation: In this section, the following key
items to be considered in a field operation are described:
1. Types of equipment: Types of equipment commonly
used in the method and how to check them in
advance of the measurement are described. There are
some remarks in selection of equipment to be used.
2. Positioning of the measurement locations: There are
some remarks to be noted in setting up the measure-
ment points and lines.
887
3. Field parameter tests and quality control (QC) of the
acquired data: There are remarks on what parameters
and data should be tested before, during and after
measurements in the field.
4. Measurement procedures: Standard and commonly
used measurement procedures in the method are
described. There are also some remarks about field
techniques for acquiring higher quality data.
(5) Data processing: Standard and commonly used
data processing procedures for the method and a brief
explanation are described. A schematic diagram is also
presented for its better understanding. There are some
remarks on data processing and the QC of the processed
data.
(6) Interpretation: Techniques and procedures for
interpretation of the processed data are briefly de-
scribed. There are some remarks on key items in
interpretation of the data. An example of the interpreted
profile is also presented for demonstrating an example
of the output of a survey.
(7) Output and report: Standard outputs of the
application of the method and minimum requirements
for the survey report are listed.
There are many factors and options to be examined in
application of geophysical methods to rock engineering.
Therefore, the suggested methods should not be
automatically employed as a manual for geophysical
applications. They should be used as a guideline for
geophysicists and rock engineers to optimally apply
geophysical methods to rock engineering and to
obtain useful and valuable outputs for rock engineering
projects.
2. Seismic refraction
2.1. General
The seismic refraction method is a geophysical
method to determine the subsurface velocity structure
through an analysis of the seismic waves that return to
the ground surface after refraction at the boundaries of
subsurface layers with different seismic velocities. It has
been widely used for many years in civil engineering
applications. Although there are several types of seismic
refraction methods depending on the survey objectives
or targets, the most common methods are based on the
first arrivals of P-waves. The digital measuring equip-
ment for seismic refraction surveying is becoming
increasingly more compact and offers multi-channel
recording capability. Data processing techniques in-
creasingly employ automated analysis. In addition,
seismic tomographic data processing techniques have
been recently applied to seismic refraction data in order
to derive more detailed velocity structures. Fig. 1 shows
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888 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the seismic refraction method (SEG
Japan, 2000) [1].
the schematic diagram of the seismic refraction method
using dynamite as a seismic source.
2.2. Applicability
The seismic refraction method is applicable in
situations where the P-wave velocity increases with
depth. Since this is the usual situation in the near surface
in a rock site, the method has been used widely for site
characterization in road construction, dam construction
and tunneling projects. The depths to the various layers
can be determined and the seismic velocities estimated
by the method can be utilized to determine lithology,
rock strength, crack density, degree of weathering or
metamorphism, and locations of fault zones. The
method may not be useful in situations when the seismic
velocity does not increase with depth (velocity inver-
sions) and when the velocity and thickness of some
layers are such that they do not give rise to seismic first
arrivals (the blind zone problem).
2.3. Planning
2.3.1. Planning the survey
1. The survey needs to be planned in consultation
with the client so that any issues concerning land
access and environmental restrictions are properly
managed.
2. The client also needs to understand what is involved
in conducting the survey and the likely results.
Responsibilities for different aspects of the survey
need to be clearly understood between the client and
contractor.
3. Reporting requirements and time frames need to be
established.
4. The supply of supplementary information that will
assist in interpretation and validation of results
should also be considered. This information can
come from the use of other geophysical methods and
from existing or additional drilling.
2.3.2. Study of existing information
In planning a survey, a review should be made of
existing information including borehole data, the
topography, the geology, the depth to the water table,
the degree of weathering, the possibility of thin layers
and layers associated with velocity inversions, and dips
of possible faults at the survey site.
2.3.3. Arrangement of the survey line(s)
1. The survey lines should be prepared in consideration
of the survey objectives, the depth of investigation,
the geological conditions and the topography. The
location and length of the survey lines, the source and
receiver intervals and the maximum offset distance
between sources and receivers are basic parameters in
planning a seismic refraction survey.
2. The seismic refraction method can accommodate
rough topography but it is desirable to arrange
survey line(s) to avoid extremely rough terrain.
3. Because the seismic refraction method derives
two-dimensional (2-D) depth profiles, the survey
lines should be arranged perpendicular to the
strike of the target geological structures and bound-
aries. Setting up a survey grid will provide tie-
lines and facilitate delineation of targets in three
dimensions.
4. The minimum length of the survey line is deter-
mined by the depth of the expected targets and the
velocity structure. As a rule of thumb, this is
generally around 5–10 times of the depth of
investigation. If the survey line cannot be made to
have sufficient length, then it is desirable to compen-
sate for this by arranging remote shot points along
the extension of the survey line or by arranging shot
points in deep boreholes at the end of the survey line.
2.3.4. Intervals of source and receiver points
1. In most civil engineering applications for the seismic
refraction method, the depth of investigation is
within several tens of metres. In these cases, 10-m
geophone intervals are usually adequate but for
shallower targets, this interval can be reduced to
5 m or less.
2. During the survey, the geophones will be arranged in
spreads of typically 12 or 24 geophones. These will be
used to simultaneously measure the seismic waves
arriving from a single source. For long lines, spreads
should be run end to end.
3. Within each spread, the location of sources and
the remote (far) source points should be planned
so that there will be first arrivals from each of
the layers present along as much of the spread
as possible. For the deepest layer (the main refractor),
this coverage is mainly achieved by the remote
shots. For the intermediate layers, the coverage is
obtained using sources within the spread. It is
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
generally recommended that these source points
should be at intervals of 30–60 m. Additional source
points can be considered when the structure is
complex. In all cases, coverage needs to be obtained
in forward and reverse directions along the spread.
2.3.5. Types of seismic sources
1. Dynamite is an excellent seismic source, especially
for deeper exploration. Shots need to be buried
to ensure maximum coupling of energy into
the ground and to ensure that there is no
blow-out causing surface damage and creating
safety issues. As the timing of seismic signals needs
to be accurate to millisecond accuracies, non-delay
electric detonators of the ‘‘instantaneous’’ type are
required.
2. During last two decades, powerful mechanical seismic
energy devices like weight drops accelerated by
rubber bands or vacuum and mini-vibrators have
been developed. These devises may be used for
surveys where the depth of investigation is up to
several hundreds of metres.
3. In case of shallow surveys where the depth of
investigation is less than 20 m, hammers and weight
drops can be used as alternate, non-explosive sources.
With such sources it is possible to repeat the impact
and sum (stack) the results to build up signal
strength.
2.4. Field operation
2.4.1. Equipment
1. Survey equipment generally consists of geophones
(receivers), geophone cables with connecting take-
outs, extension cables, a data acquisition system
(including amplifiers, display and recording facilities),
and a detonating box (blaster). Geophones typically
have a natural frequency of 30 Hz or less and are
damped to ensure that there is not a strong resonance
at the natural frequency. For a high-resolution survey
with a short measurement line in a hard rock, higher
natural frequency geophones or accelerometers
should be used for high precision travel time
measurements.
2. All instruments should undergo routine checks
prior to use. Checks on the level and waveforms
of geophone output, cable continuity and leak-
age, safety of the detonator, and functions of
the data acquisition system are particularly impor-
tant.
2.4.2. Positioning of the survey line
1. The locations and elevations of the survey line, the
geophones and shot points need to be determined by
appropriate surveying.
889
2. If there is more than one spread of geophones in
a line, the ends of each spread should overlap so
that continuity in the travel time data can be
preserved.
2.4.3. Preparation for the measurement
1. To obtain good signals, all geophones should be
planted firmly into the ground. They should be
connected via take-outs to the geophone cable so that
there is the same polarity for all geophones.
2. The instant of shot detonation starts the recording
process. This time can be transmitted from the shot
point via radio or via a cable. Prior to giving
the shot fire command to detonate the shot, the
operator of the recording equipment (the seismic
observer) needs to monitor the background noise
level and to ensure that noise from wind, from
road traffic, from drills, from aircraft, etc., is at a
minimum.
2.4.4. Measurement
1. The observer needs to maintain an observer’s log
detailing the locations of all geophones within a
spread, the locations of the shots, the shot record
numbers and the depth of each shot hole.
2. The observer needs to monitor amplifier gains and/or
filtering parameters to ensure the quality of the
recorded data. If necessary, repeated measurements
should be made to obtain better quality data.
2.4.5. Completion of survey
At completion of the survey, all equipment needs to
be retrieved and cleaned. The site needs to be
rehabilitated in accordance with the client’s require-
ments. The observer needs to ensure that all seismic
data, observer’s logs and relevant survey information is
properly archived and available for data processing and
interpretation.
2.5. Data processing
2.5.1. Arrangement of the field data
All field data—seismic recordings (shot records),
observer’s logs and survey information need to be
organized and compiled for a processing sequence of the
type illustrated in Fig. 2. This is a standard processing
sequence. There are other ways of processing and
interpreting data, for example by using ray tracing
techniques and through tomographic inversion. These
alternative techniques are not yet widely practised and
are not described in this document.
2.5.2. Picking first arrivals
First of all, the first arrival times of the refracted
P-waves are picked on the shot records in order to
construct travel time curves. Usually, first arrival times
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890 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Observed waveform records
Preparation of waveforms
First arrival time picking
Preparation of travel time curves
Check and adjustment of travel time curves
Selection of travel time curves
Calculation of velocity - travel time curves
Calculation of depth - travel time curves
Velocity profile/depth section
Correction for layer dips (migration)
Verification with ray path calculations
Fig. 2. Flow chart for the standard data processing of seismic
refraction data (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
are picked with a time resolution of around 1 ms. For a
high precision survey, time resolution is often less than
0.1 ms. Picking can be done manually on printed seismic
records or using automatic and interactive computer
techniques. An uphole correction is required to com-
pensate for the burial of the shot.
2.5.3. Construction of the travel time curves
Based on the distance along the survey line, the
receiver intervals (the geophone spacing) and the first
arrival times, travel time curves are plotted with the
horizontal axis being distance and the vertical axis travel
time. For hard copy travel time curves, typical scales are
1 1
500 or 1000 for the distance axis and 5 or 10 ms to the cm
for the vertical axis, see Fig. 3.
2.5.4. Checking of the travel time curves
The travel time curves should be checked and
corrected if necessary, on the basis of the following:
1. Reciprocity of the travel times. (Travel times between
a pair of shot points should be equal.)
2. At each shot point, coincidence of intercept times
from each of the refractors.
3. Parallel travel time curves when different shots
provide travel times to the same refractor at the
same locations.
Bulk shifts in travel times can be used if it is decided
that there is a constant delay, due to errors in the uphole
correction. Individual travel times may need to be
adjusted after further consideration of the shot records.
2.5.5. Derivation and verification of the velocity profile
The number of refractors present in the travel times is
determined on the basis of the number of changes in
slope and the degree of parallel behaviour observed on
the travel time curves. The 2-D velocity profile (depth
section) under the survey line is then obtained by
analysing the travel time curves using techniques such as
the generalized reciprocal method (GRM) and Hagi-
wara’s method. An intermediate step for these methods
involves determining the velocities of the P-waves in
each of the refracting layers present.
Verification of the depth section using ray tracing to
calculate synthetic travel time curves is desirable. These
can be plotted on the corresponding observed travel
time curves.
2.6. Interpretation
1. The depth section thus obtained is generally inter-
preted in consideration of the survey objectives,
existing data and additional or supplemental profiles
if available.
2. If the travel time curves can be interpreted by two or
more different models, it is desirable to report on all
possible interpretations. These situations typically arise
when hidden layers and velocity inversions are present.
3. The P-wave velocities obtained with a seismic
refraction survey can be used as an indicator of rock
quality for designing a construction such as a tunnel
and a dam in rock engineering applications.
4. Fig. 3 shows an example of travel time curves and the
resultant depth section.
2.7. Output and report
Outputs of a seismic refraction survey should include
at least the following:
1. location map of the survey site;
2. layout of survey lines;
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914 891

Fig. 3. Example of travel time curves and the resultant velocity/depth profile (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].

3. observer’s logs; 3. Shallow seismic reflection

4. shot records (in digital form);
5. travel time curves; 3.1. General
6. velocity profile verified with ray paths.
The shallow seismic reflection method is a seismic
The survey report should describe at least the
method that delineates subsurface structures using
following items:
seismic waves reflected back to the ground surface from
1. outline of the survey; geological boundaries in the subsurface. Seismic reflec-
2. field operations (including equipment used); tion profiles provide high-resolution images of the
3. data processing; subsurface that can easily be understood and inter-
4. results: preted. Fig. 4 shows a schematic diagram of the survey
J waveforms; method. Seismic reflection waves are recorded and
J travel time curves; processed to obtain a seismic reflection profile. P- or
J velocity profile; S- (SH-) waves are used depending on the survey
5. interpretation and discussion of the profile; objectives. For shallow seismic reflection, a 2-D survey
6. references. is commonly used.
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892 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the shallow seismic reflection method (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
3.2. Applicability
1. The shallow seismic reflection method is best used in
areas where the subsurface layers are nearly hor-
izontal and where the terrain is not too rough.
Therefore, the method is well suited for alluvial/
diluvial deposits and/or sedimentary rocks. The
method is usually employed to characterize the
subsurface stratigraphy and faults (especially buried
faults), and to delineate bedrock topography under-
lying unconsolidated sediments. The method is
sometimes used for detection of subsurface cavities
such as karsts and old mine workings.
2. The depth of investigation for shallow seismic
reflection surveys is usually from several tens
to several hundreds of metres. The method can
be used from preliminary to detailed investi-
gations stages in civil engineering and mining
projects.
3.3. Planning
3.3.1. Study of existing information
In planning the survey, all available existing informa-
tion about the site should be collected and studied. It
should include surface topography, geological maps and
well log data if available, from which subsurface velocity
distribution should be predicted. Land ownership and
environmental factors also need to be investigated.
Potential sources of noise should be identified.
3.3.2. Positioning of the survey lines
The survey line(s) should be set up as straight as
possible and oriented parallel to the dip direction and
perpendicular to any cross cutting targets. Severe
topographic features and areas where there is no
surface access should be avoided if possible. A series
of parallel lines with occasional tie-lines assists with
interpretation.
3.3.3. Source and receiver intervals
Source and receiver intervals should be determined in
consideration of the survey objectives and the depth of
investigation. One or 2 m source and receiver intervals
are often used for a very shallow survey and 5 or 10 m
intervals are often used for a deeper survey. Once the
source and receiver intervals have been determined for a
particular survey, in general, they should remain
constant throughout the survey so that the trace spacing
and the fold can be maintained.
3.3.4. Number of recording channels
The number of data recording channel is also
determined in consideration of the survey objectives,
the depth of investigation and accuracy of the reflection
image as well as the cost and efficiency of the survey.
The number is usually a multiple of 12. Twenty-four or
48 channel data for a very shallow survey and 48, 96 or
more channel data for a deeper survey are acquired in
general.
3.3.5. Type of seismic waves and sources used
For very shallow surveys with targets less than 50 m
depth, both P- and S-waves are often used. For deeper
depths of investigation, P-waves are generally used. For
a very shallow survey, the sources are commonly a
sledge hammer blow for the P-waves and side-on
hammering of a plank for the S-waves. For deeper
surveys, a hydraulic vibrator, a weight drop or explosive
sources are commonly used to generate the P-waves.
3.3.6. Instruments
1. The instruments for data acquisition consist of
geophones, take-out cables (CDP cables), extension
cables, a roll-along switch and a recording system.
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
2. The instruments should be tested with routine
procedures prior to the field operation. The tests
should include measurements of the output levels
and the waveforms of the test signals, cable con-
tinuity and leakage, and functions of the recording
system.
3. Moving coil geophones similar to those used in deep
seismic reflection surveys in the oil and gas explora-
tion field are commonly used. However, for shallow
seismic reflection, higher natural frequency geo-
phones are preferably used in order to obtain
higher-resolution reflection images compared to those
for deep seismic reflection surveys.
4. The data recording system should include a digital
data acquisition unit, a display unit, a digital
memory and a printer in the standard system
configuration.
3.3.7. Recording format
It is preferable to record the data in the field in one of
the SEG standard formats such as SEG-2 and SEG-Y so
that the field data can later be easily input to standard
processing systems.
3.4. Field operation
3.4.1. Preparation of the survey lines
In accordance with the survey plan, the seismic lines
should be pegged out on the ground surface and with the
locations of the shot and geophone points accurately
surveyed. Vegetation may need to be cleared to facilitate
field operations but this should be done in accordance
Fig. 5. Examples of field records of P- and S-waves (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
893
with environmental factors and any rehabilitation
requirements.
3.4.2. Field acquisition parameter tests
Prior to making measurements in the field, the
acquisition parameters should be tested. These
parameters include the sampling rate, the recording
length, the field acquisition filters, the minimum
and maximum source–receiver offsets and the stacking
fold.
3.4.3. Measurement
1. Following the survey plan, the receivers (geophones)
should be laid out on the ground and connected to
the recording system through the CDP cables. The
seismic source is then employed at each source point
sequentially to generate seismic waves. The data
acquisition operator (seismic observer) should moni-
tor the recorded signals and judge the quality of the
records by observing if reflections correlate across the
records. Noise, on the other hand, should be
incoherent. If the data quality is not good then the
measurements should be repeated at the same source
location until better data are obtained. Vertical
stacking is one way to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio at the field. Careful observers logs need to be
maintained to ensure that an accurate log of
recording parameters, source and geophone locations
is maintained.
2. The recorded digital data are usually stored on a
magnetic tape, a floppy disk or a hard disk of the
recording system. Fig. 5 shows examples of the field
records.
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894 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914

3.5. Data processing Original

data

3.5.1. Preparation for data processing

Format
1. The coordinates and elevations for all source and conversion
receiver locations have to be determined from the Survey data
surveyor’s notes. Data editing

2. The file numbers of all shot records and their source Statics analysis
and receiver locations have to be confirmed and CDP sorting
edited.
3. Additional information such as drilling logs, VSP Bandpass filter
data and/or seismic refraction data collected at
the same time as the reflection data may need to be
Gain recovery
used as reference data in the processing of the
reflection data.
Deconvolution filter

3.5.2. Data processing Static correction

Shallow seismic reflection data are generally Velocity analysis
processed using a standard CDP (or CMP) stacking NMO correction
method as devised for oil and gas exploration.
Fig. 6 shows a standard data processing flow of
Mute
shallow seismic reflection data. Processing is usually
undertaken by specialists of seismic data processing
Residual statics
companies.

Amplitude balancing
3.6. Interpretation
CDP stack
3.6.1. Interpretation of the shallow seismic reflection
profile Deconvolution filter
In principle, a seismic reflection profile provides a
visualization of subsurface boundaries where acoustic
Coherency and
impedance (or velocity) contrasts occur as the reflection bandpass filters
events. In order to obtain the geological section, the
seismic reflection profile should be interpreted in Migration Depth conversion
comparison with surface and borehole geological
information as well as well logs and VSP if available. Time section Depth section
Fig. 7 shows an example of the interpreted depth section
indicating buried faults. Interpretation can be under-
taken on printed seismic profiles or using interactive Fig. 6. A standard data processing flow of shallow seismic reflection
computing facilities. data (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].

3.6.2. Resolution of the seismic reflection profile 3.7. Output and report
The resolution of the seismic reflection method
depends on the parameters such as the source frequency, Outputs of a shallow seismic reflection survey should
the velocities of the layers and the depth of the include at least the following:
reflections. Vertical resolution depends on the wave-
length and horizontal resolution is controlled by the 1. location map of the measurement lines;
radius of the first Fresnel zone, which is determined by 2. examples of field records;
the wavelength and the depth of the reflector. Vertical 3. examples of processed CDP or shot gathers;
resolution of a thin layer is ideally around 14 of the 4. NMO velocity chart with statics;
wavelength, but practically around a wavelength. 5. seismic reflection time section on paper and in digital
However, it is well known that the thin layer can be format (with or without migration);
1
detected even if its thickness is 10 or less of the 6. seismic reflection depth section on paper and in
wavelength of the reflection wave. digital format;
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914 895

Fig. 7. Example of an interpreted depth section (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].

7. interpreted time or depth section; C1, C2: Current electrode

P1, P2: Potential electrode
8. original survey recordings and other relevant infor-
Transmitter
mation need to be archived. I
Receiver
V
The survey report should describe at least the
C1 P1 P2 C2
following:
1. outline of the survey;
2. field operation (including the equipment used);
3. data processing procedures; Ground surface

4. reflection time and depth sections; Equipotential surfaces

5. interpretation and discussion of the sections;
Traces of current flow
6. references.
Fig. 8. A schematic diagram of measurements involved in the
resistivity method (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
4. Electrical
electrical potential with electrodes P1 and P2 to
4.1. General determine the electrical resistivity of the underground.

The electrical method delineates the subsurface 4.2. Applicability

structure and anomalies through the distribution of their
electrical properties. There are several techniques and
variations in the electrical method: the (direct current)
resistivity method, self-potential method, induced polar-
ization method, etc. Among them, the resistivity method
is the most commonly used in civil engineering applica-
tions. The resistivity method includes some variations
such as horizontal profiling, vertical sounding and 2-D
profiling. Application of 2-D profiling has increased in
recent years. Fig. 8 shows a schematic diagram of the
measurements involved in the resistivity method. The
method is based on transmitting current into the ground
through electrodes C1 and C2, and measuring the
1. The resistivity method is applicable to various
investigations in the civil engineering field, such as
groundwater detection, landslide characterization,
constructions of tunnels and dams, cavity detection
and delineation of subsurface geological structure.
Furthermore, it can be used in various stages of a
civil engineering project from reconnaissance through
site investigation to maintenance.
2. In characterization of geological structure, the meth-
od is used for delineation of fractured zones
accompanied by faults, classification of weathering
and alteration of rocks, and groundwater exploration.
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896 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
4.3. Planning
4.3.1. Review of existing information
It is recommended to study as much background
materials as possible on underground electrical proper-
ties as well as geological information in and around the
survey area.
4.3.2. Layout of survey line(s)
The layout of the survey line(s) is determined in
consideration of the objectives of the investigation,
topographical and geological conditions, the depth of
investigation and resolution required, obstacles to
measurement, cost and operational efficiency, etc.
Supplemental lines are planned in addition to the main
lines if necessary. In the layout of the survey lines, the
following points should be noted:
1. It is desirable to set up the survey lines on a site with
minimal topographic change, and ideally lay the lines
on a horizontal or gently sloping ground.
2. The survey lines should be laid out far from obstacles,
especially artificial metal structures such as metal
fences and grounded power lines, because they may
cause short circuits of the current and generate
anomalous voltages around potential electrodes.
3. For 2-D profiling, the survey line should be set up as
perpendicular as possible to the strike of subsurface
layers and faults. If the line cannot be set up in such
way due to various restrictions in the survey area,
supplemental lines should be arranged for delineating
subsurface structure as correctly as possible.
4. In the layout of the survey line, the relationship
between the depth of investigation and the survey line
length should be taken into consideration (refer to
Section 4.3.5).
5. Even for a survey along a curved line such as a tunnel
route, it is desirable to arrange the survey line as
straight as possible.
4.3.3. Selection of the survey method
1. The most appropriate method should be selected
from vertical sounding, horizontal profiling, 2-D
profiling and other available methods taking into
consideration the scope and the stage of the
survey. In the selection of the survey method,
topographical and geological conditions, cost and
operational efficiency should also be taken into
consideration.
2. The vertical sounding method is cost-effective for the
investigation of horizontally stratified structure. The
horizontal profiling method is effective for mapping
near-surface geological boundaries, buried objects,
and fracture zones bearing groundwater. The 2-D
profiling method, combining vertical sounding and
horizontal profiling, is applied when the subsurface
geology is more complex. The three-dimensional
(3-D) survey techniques, which have become practical
in these years, can be applied at sites of very
complicated geology, considering the cost and the
special requirements.
4.3.4. Electrode configuration
1. Optimum electrode configuration is chosen in con-
sideration of the method used, geological and surface
conditions, and the desired output (see Table 1).
2. The Schlumberger array and the Wenner array are
commonly used for vertical sounding.
3. The Wenner array, the pole–pole array, the pole–
dipole array and the dipole–dipole array are suitable
for horizontal profiling.
4. The same electrode configurations as for horizontal
profiling are commonly employed for 2-D profiling.
4.3.5. The depth of investigation and length of the survey
line
The depth of investigation of the resistivity method
mostly depends on the electrode configuration and
electrode spacing. As a first approximation, the depth
of investigation is a little smaller than the longest
separation between the current electrodes and potential
electrodes. A survey line should be much longer than
the estimated depth of the survey target in order to cover
the investigated area not only horizontally but also
vertically.
4.3.6. Electrode spacing
The maximum electrode spacing is determined from
the target depth and the electrode configuration used.
The minimum spacing is determined from the required
spatial resolution. In horizontal profiling and 2-D
profiling, requirements for both depth of investigation
and resolution cannot be satisfied simultaneously.
Therefore, they are usually determined bearing in
mind the survey objectives, cost and operational
efficiency.
4.3.7. Remote electrode
1. Remote electrodes are required for the pole–pole
array and the pole–dipole array. In order to improve
the field measurement efficiency, it is suggested to
select the location of the remote electrodes in
considering access from the survey lines prior to the
survey.
2. It is desirable to separate the remote electrodes from
the survey line by at least 10 times the maximum
electrode spacing.
4.4. Field operation
1. Field equipment for the measurements consists
mainly of the resistivity meter (usually consisting of
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914 897

Table 1
Electrode configuration factors for various electrode arrays

Array type Image point of apparent resistivity Electrode configuration factor

2-electrodes Pole–pole C1 P1 P∞ 2pa

C∞
a

3-electrodes CPP C∞ C1 P1 P2 4pa

a a
a

Pole–dipole C1 P1 P2 2n(n+1)pa
C∞
na a
a(n +0.5)
2

4-electrodes Wenner C1 P1 P2 C2 2pa

a a a
a

Dipole–dipole C1 C2 P2 P1 2n(n+1)(n+2)pa
a na a

a(n+1)
2
Schlumberger P1 (M) P2 (N) C2 (B) p(L2–l2)/4 l (L>5 l)
C1 (A)
1

L
L/2

a power supply, a transmitter and a voltage receiver),
electrodes, and cables.
2. It is important to check whether the cables are not cut
and there is proper connection between electrodes
and the resistivity meter. Furthermore, it is recom-
mended to check the ground contact resistance of
every electrode. If the ground contact resistance of an
electrode is extremely high, it should be lowered by
inserting the electrode sticks more deeply into the
ground, adding electrode sticks at the station,
sprinkling water around the electrode sticks, or
moving the electrode position slightly. Also, it is
important to check whether any cable is directly
leaking current into the ground.
3. It is important to check repeatability of the measure-
ments with the same electrode settings to ensure
data quality. The amplitude of the measured voltage
must be larger than the noise level of the resistivity
meter.
4. Another important issue concerns safety during the
field measurement. Since high-voltage current is
applied to the cables and the current electrodes, it is
very important to avoid any accident or injury.
5. In the vertical sounding method, resistivity measure-
ments are repeated using a set of electrodes with the
same midpoint but with different intervals. Since a
larger electrode interval corresponds to a deeper
penetration depth, a one-dimensional (1-D) resistivity
model at the measurement location is obtained with
the vertical sounding method.
6. In the horizontal profiling method, a set of electrodes
with a fixed spacing is moved along the survey line to
image the horizontal variation of subsurface resistiv-
ity at a similar penetration depth.
7. In the 2-D profiling method, horizontal profiling is
repeated with various electrode spacings along the
survey line. A modern resistivity meter controlled by
a computer can automatically select a set of electro-
des on the survey line, transmit a current and measure
the potential data.
4.5. Data processing
1. Apparent resistivity, ra (O m), is estimated using the
following equation for the measured electrical poten-
tial V (V) due to the injected electrical current I (A):
ra ¼ GV =I;
where G is an electrode configuration factor
which is calculated from the electrode spacing and
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898 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Observed potential data
Set up an initial 2-D resistivity model
Calculate theoretical potential data
Calculate residual (observed – calculated) potential data
Residual is small ?
YES
Final 2-D resistivity model
Fig. 9. A standard inversion process of the 2-D resistivity profiling data (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
configuration shown in Table 1. Apparent resistivity
is considered to represent average resistivity from the
surface to the penetration depth.
2. For vertical sounding (VES), it is common to create
an apparent resistivity versus electrode spacing curve
(a VES curve; ra–a curve for the Wenner array) by
drawing apparent resistivity values against the
corresponding electrode spacing on a full logarithmic
section paper. For horizontal profiling, it is most
common to create an apparent resistivity curve or
section as a function of horizontal position. For 2-D
profiling, it is most common to create an apparent
resistivity pseudo-section by taking the position as
the horizontal axis and the electrode spacing as the
vertical axis.
3. For vertical sounding, it is possible to estimate
resistivity and depths of boundaries of subsurface
formations from the VES curve. Data processing was
previously conducted by the graphical analysis
method (the curve fitting method) using master
curves. However, it is now commonly performed by
1-D inversion on a computer.
4. In 2-D profiling, the data are inverted with a non-
linear inversion method to obtain a 2-D subsurface
resistivity model. Fig. 9 shows a standard data
processing flow of the 2-D resistivity profiling data.
4.6. Interpretation
1. To avoid misinterpretation of the processed resistiv-
ity image, it is important to understand restrictions
and limitations of the inverse method. It is recom-
mended to refer to additional or other information
about the survey site.
Update the 2-D resistivity model
NO
2. Resistivity varies with various factors such as rock
type, porosity, water saturation, groundwater resis-
tivity, clay content associated with weathering or
alteration, and temperature. Lower resistivity gen-
erally indicates higher clay content or higher water
content (i.e., the porosity multiplied by water
saturation).
3. Geotechnical parameters such us hydraulic conduc-
tivity and porosity of the ground can be estimated
from the resistivity values using empirical or experi-
mental equations.
4. Fig. 10 shows an example of the 2-D resistivity image
along a planned tunnel route in a granitic rock
obtained with 2-D resistivity profiling. Low resistivity
portions were interpreted as high water content
zones.
4.7. Output and report
Outputs of an electrical (resistivity) survey should
include at least the following:
1. location map;
2. survey line layout;
3. apparent resistivity curves, profiles, or pseudo-sec-
tions;
4. resistivity models;
5. list of measured data.
The survey report should describe at least the
following items:
1. outline of the survey;
2. measurement method;
3. field equipment;
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Fig. 10. Example of a 2-D resistivity model obtained by a 2-D inversion (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
4. field notes describing the survey layouts and the
conditions of the survey area;
5. data processing procedures;
6. apparent resistivity curves, profiles, or pseudo-sec-
tions;
7. resistivity models;
8. interpretation and discussion of the resistivity models;
9. references.
5. Electromagnetic
5.1. General
The electromagnetic (EM) method is a geophysical
exploration technique to delineate subsurface resistivity
distribution similar to the electrical method. There
are many techniques and variations in the EM method,
and they can be applied for different purposes in civil
engineering. Among them, these suggested methods
describe the controlled-source audio-frequency magne-
totelluric (CSAMT) method (Fig. 11) and the transient
electromagnetic (TEM) method (Fig. 12), which are
most often used.
5.2. Applicability
1. The EM method can image the subsurface resistivity
distribution, which is similar to the electrical method.
2. As compared with the electrical method, better
operational efficiency and deeper penetration are
main features of the EM method. It is applicable to
site characterization for planned tunnels and dams, to
detection of faults or fractured zones in rocks, etc.
3. The EM method is not suitable for the survey at an
area near power lines, telephone lines, radio stations,
factories, railways, power plants, power stations and
urban area, because EM waves radiated from these
constructions and metallic objects strongly interfere
the EM measurements.
899
5.3. Planning
5.3.1. Review of existing information
1. In order to apply the EM method most effectively,
it is important to study the following items prior to
the survey using existing information:
J depth, size and electrical properties of the
exploration target;
J surface topography and available roads
that affect operational efficiency of the
survey.
2. High-voltage power lines and man-made structures
may generate noise in an EM survey. It is
important to check potential noise sources in and
around the survey area.
3. It is desired to examine the location of the fixed EM
transmitter for the CSAMT and Offset TEM
measurements that may be set up outside the
survey area.
5.3.2. Selecting the survey method
First of all, the method used should be determined
considering (a) the survey objectives and specifications,
(b) surface and subsurface conditions, and (c) opera-
tional cost and time. Both the CSAMT and TEM
methods are suitable for deeper resistivity profiling
as compared to the electrical method. Since the
TEM method can use non-contact sources and
receivers such as a loop source and a magnetic
coil, it is more suitable when a good contact of an
electrode is difficult at a survey area of high-resistivity
underground, for instance, snow accumulation and a
rocky area.
5.3.3. Determining the survey lines and station interval
1. There are two types of measurement arrangements.
One is the profiling in which measurement stations
are densely arrayed along a survey line. The other is
the mapping in which measurement stations are
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900 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914

Fig. 11. A schematic diagram of the CSAMT method (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].

Fig. 12. A schematic diagram of the TEM method (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].

spread over the survey area. The profiling and the 2. In the profiling, the survey line should be set up as
mapping can provide 2-D and 3-D resistivity images, perpendicular to the strike of geological structure to
respectively, through representing plural 1-D resis- be investigated. In the investigation for a linear
tivity models or 2-D and 3-D data interpretation. construction such as a tunnel and a bridge, the survey
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
lines are usually set up along the planned construc-
tion route. When the survey line is set up parallel to
the subsurface geological structure, some comple-
mentary survey lines should be arranged perpendi-
cular to the main survey line to obtain more reliable
subsurface images.
3. The length and linearity of survey lines and station
intervals do not affect very much the penetration
depth and the quality of the data unlike the electrical
method. Therefore, planned stations can be moved if
there are unexpected obstacles or noise sources close
to them.
5.3.4. Determining penetration depth
The penetration depth depends on the frequency
used for the measurement and on the resistivity of
the ground. Therefore, the frequency range used in the
measurement should be determined considering the
survey objectives, the depth of investigation and the
expected resistivity of the ground. The penetration depth
in frequency domain is usually referred to the skin depth
of the plane EM wave. Fig. 13 shows the relationship
between the skin depth and frequency used in the
CSAMT method. The penetration depth in time domain
is usually referred to a depth where a magnetic (or
electric) field from a plane impulse source takes the
maximum value at a certain time. Fig. 14 shows the
penetration depth as a function of time, which is used in
the TEM method.
5.3.5. Setting the remote EM transmitter
For deeper CSAMT and TEM surveys, a large fixed
transmitter (usually a grounded wire) is used as an EM
Fig. 13. Relationship between the skin depth of a plane wave EM field and frequency in the CSAMT method (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
901
source (Figs. 11 and 12). The large transmitter should be
set up at a distance of more than 3–5 times the skin
depth from the receivers to avoid the near field effect in
the CSAMT survey. The location of the transmitter
should be planned prior to the survey considering the
penetration depth (the target depth) and surface
conditions at the site.
5.4. Field operation
5.4.1. Equipment
1. The EM equipment consists of a transmitter,
a receiver, sensors, electrodes and cables. The
transmitter and receiver are special equipments
designed for the methods. They should have specifi-
cations that meet the requirements in accuracy and
reliability for the measurement.
5.4.2. Preparation
1. Sensors and electrodes at receiving stations
should be laid out on as flat ground surface as
possible and far away from EM noise sources
such as power lines, metal fences and existing
constructions.
2. For the fixed transmitter source, electrode sticks
or plates should be installed into the ground very
firmly such that the contact resistance is less
than 100 O. Since the transmitter is usually kept
on the ground for a long time until the measurement
is completed, it should be kept safe from accidents
such as electrical shock and leakage and cutting
of cables.
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902 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Fig. 14. Relationship between the penetration depth of a plane EM impulse and time in the TEM method (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
5.4.3. Measurements
1. In the CSAMT measurement, a pair of a magnetic
field and an electric field, which are perpendicular to
each other and both horizontal, are usually measured
at a station in a frequency range from a few Hz to
several kHz. In the TEM measurement, a vertical
magnetic field is usually measured at a station with
transient time from several microseconds to several
hundreds milliseconds depending on the configura-
tion of the measurement.
2. It should be reconfirmed prior to starting the
measurement that the measurement parameters are
properly set up on the equipment. During the
measurement, the measured data are always mon-
itored in order to check the data quality. To ensure
the reliability of the data, repeatability of the
measurements should be examined. If the measured
data are not stable, measurement parameters should
be checked and changed if necessary. Ambient noise
should also be checked.
3. During and immediately after the measurement, it is
important to check the quality of the acquired data
by plotting the apparent resistivity curves or voltage
decay curves on site.
5.5. Data processing
1. Fig. 15 schematically illustrates a standard data
processing flow of the CSAMT and TEM data.
First of all, apparent resistivity values calculated
from measured data are plotted against frequency
or time. Then apparent resistivity sections or
maps are made as fundamental data for further
processing. These apparent resistivity sections or
maps are sometimes presented as the final exploration
results.
2. The apparent resistivity curves are usually used for a
layered model inversion to obtain 1-D resistivity
model beneath each measurement station.
3. When more detailed subsurface resistivity images are
required, 2-D inversion using finite difference or finite
element methods is applied to the measured data for
obtaining 2-D resistivity models.
5.6. Interpretation
1. Interpretation of the CSAMT and TEM data is
usually conducted with 1-D resistivity inversion
to obtain layered earth models. A 2-D image is
obtained by presenting plural 1-D resistivity models
along a measurement line. Fig. 16 shows such an
example.
2. Any inversion technique has a non-uniqueness
problem. The inversion of the EM data has non-
uniqueness due to what is called ‘‘the equivalent
resistivity layer’’. To avoid misinterpretation of
the inversion results, a number of inversion trials
with different a priori information should be con-
ducted.
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914 903

CSAMT TEM
Survey line

Topographic
section Calculation of apparent resistivity Measuring points
survey line
CSAMT TEM

Apparent resistivity

Apparent resistivity
Survey line

Frequency f Time t

Apparent resistivity
Apparent resistivity curve
Apparent resistivity

CSAMT: Each frequency

TEM: Each time

1-D interpretation
CSAMT · TEM
Surface
Layer 1 Resistivity n1
Survey line Layer 2 Resistivity n2 Depth d1
Depth dn-1
Layer n Resistivity n n
Depth dn
Horizontal section of
Vertical section of
stitched 1-D model
Multi-layer structure 1-D model
multi-layer model
Each depth or
elevation

2-D interpretation
Obtain the resistivity
of each cell
Survey line
Surface
Survey line Cell Cell m+1
Depth d1 m-1
Cell m
Cell
Depth d2 n-1 Cell n+1
2D resistivity Cell n
model

Fig. 15. A schematic diagram of a standard data processing flow of the EM data (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].

5.7. Output and report 5. apparent resistivity curves, voltage decay curves,
profiles, or pseudo-sections;
Outputs of an EM survey should include at least the 6. resistivity models;
following: 7. interpretation and discussion of the resistivity models;
8. references.
1. location map of the survey site;
2. layout of survey lines and measurement stations;
3. apparent resistivity curves, voltage decay curves, 6. Ground penetrating radar
profiles, or pseudo-sections;
4. resistivity models; 6.1. General
5. list of measured data.
The survey report should describe at least the GPR is a geophysical method that uses the transmis-
following items: sion of high-frequency EM waves for detecting subsur-
face objects. The operating frequency is higher than
1. outline of the survey; several MHz. GPR can be used on the ground surface
2. field operations (including equipments used); and in boreholes. Only surface GPR is described in this
3. field notes describing the survey layouts and the document. In a GPR survey, transmitting and receiving
conditions of the survey area; antennae are placed on the ground surface and EM
4. data processing procedures; waves are injected into the ground from the transmitter
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
904 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Fig. 16. Examples of stitched 1-D resistivity model obtained with the CSAMT method at a survey area of a tunnel construction (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
Fig. 17. A schematic diagram of the surface GPR survey (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
antenna. Reflected EM waves from subsurface geologi-
cal boundaries or objects are then received by the
receiving antenna and processed to image these subsur-
face structures (Fig. 17).
6.2. Applicability
GPR is a non-destructive and non-invasive geophy-
sical method for rapid and high-resolution imaging of
subsurface objects. The penetration depth is typically
several metres in soil ground. There are a variety of
applications including detection of buried pipes, locat-
ing reinforcing bars in concrete, mapping voids beneath
road pavements or behind tunnel linings, and inspection
of roads and concrete structures. The method can also
be used in archaeological investigations, monitoring the
spread of contamination in the ground, and mapping
faults and fracture zones in rocks.
6.3. Planning
6.3.1. Review of existing information
The feasibility and the output of GPR can often be
predicted by studying existing site information and by
site reconnaissance. The survey plan should be made in
consideration of expected properties of subsurface
materials (especially resistivity), groundwater condition,
depth and characteristics of the targets, and accessibility
of the equipments to the survey areas.
6.3.2. Choice of GPR antenna
The centre frequency of the GPR antenna typically
ranges from 30 MHz to 1.5 GHz. Resolution and
penetration of GPR waves strongly depend on the
antenna frequency used, as shown in Table 2, i.e.,
higher-frequency antenna can have higher resolution,
but lower penetration. The antenna frequency used in
the survey should be determined considering the
following conditions:
(1) Features of exploration targets such as size, depth
and material type, and resolution required.
(2) Properties of soil, rock and medium in which the
target is buried.
(3) Moisture and clay contents of the medium, which
affect GPR penetration.
(4) Surface unevenness and vegetation of the site and
accessibility of the antenna.
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914 905

Table 2
Relationship of GPR parameters with respect to dielectric constant, electrical conductivity of the ground, and antenna frequency

GPR parameters Dielectrical Electrical Antenna frequency Remarks

constant conductivity

Low High Low High Low High

Propagation velocity Fast Slow

Attenuation High Low Low High Low High Attenuation is influenced strongly by electrical
conductivity
Penetration Short Long Long Short Long Short The lower the attenuation, the greater the penetration
distance
Wavelength Long Short Long Short
Resolution Low High Low High The shorter the wavelength, the higher the resolution

6.3.3. Arrangement for survey lines and their spacings
For linear targets, such as buried pipes, the survey line
is normally set up perpendicularly to the longitudinal
direction of the expected buried pipes. The survey line
spacing should be determined considering the target
type, size and depth. Typically it is 1–2 m. For metallic
targets (e.g., iron pipes), the antenna dipoles are usually
oriented parallel to the longitudinal axis of the target.
For non-metallic targets (e.g., gas pipes), the antenna
dipoles are normally set up at the right angle to the
target orientation. The layout of survey line(s) and the
line spacing (s) should be determined in consideration of
the following conditions:
(1) frequency and moving speed of the antenna;
(2) resolution required;
(3) surface unevenness and vegetation of the site;
(4) cost and acquisition time available.
Additional survey lines or a dense grid-based survey
may be required to detect smaller and multiple targets or
if very accurate data processing is necessary.
6.3.4. The depth of investigation
The depth of investigation of a GPR survey depends
on the frequency and the power of transmitted
EM waves and electrical conductivity of the ground
or the medium to be investigated. The depth of
investigation varies from 0.1 to 100 m, but typically
from 0 to 5 m for most of civil engineering applications.
Deeper penetration is possible with lower frequencies
(30–100 MHz) in the ground that has lower conductivity.
6.4. Field operation
6.4.1. Equipment
The GPR equipment consists of a data acquisition
system and antennae. Those should be chosen in
consideration of the depth of the target and the accuracy
required with reference to the objectives of the survey.
Selection of antenna frequency is crucial for success of
the survey.
6.4.2. Preparation for the survey
1. The locations of the survey lines are marked out at
the site. The start and end positions of the survey
lines are normally indicated in the survey plan.
2. For a rough and uneven ground, land readjustment
may be needed to obtain good contact between the
antenna and the ground surface.
3. The antennae are mounted on a sled or a wheeled
trolley to enable them to move smoothly on the
ground.
6.4.3. Field procedures
1. The GPR data acquisition system is first set up and
connected to a power supply such as a 12 V DC
battery. It is recommended to warm it up for a while
to stabilize the zero time position. A preliminary test
measurement should be conducted prior to the survey
in order to ensure that the GPR system is functioning
properly and to optimize the measurement para-
meters. The field acquisition parameters such as
the recording time range (in nanoseconds), the
sampling rate, signal gains and band-pass filters
should be optimally selected in consideration of the
target depth and the antenna frequency. The measur-
ing wheel should be calibrated on site for a known
distance.
2. The measured data should be monitored on the
screen of the equipment during the survey for data
QC. Unwanted noise or anomalous signals should be
identified to remove their causes.
3. The recording time range should be adjusted for the
investigation depth by measuring the propagation
velocity of the EM waves in the ground using the
wide-angle or the arrayed antenna measurements or
by analysis of the hyperbolic diffractions generated
by a discrete target. Alternatively, the velocity can be
calculated from the dielectric constant of the ground,
which can be measured on site using a portable
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906 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
dielectric meter or determined in the laboratory test
using soil samples.
6.4.4. QC of the measured data
The quality of the recorded data should be checked on
site during or immediately after the survey by monitor-
ing the GPR signals or profiles on the screen of the
equipment. Survey information, such as the positions of
the survey lines, variations in surface conditions, and
locations of metallic objects close to the survey line
causing spurious reflections, should be recorded in the
field observer’s notes for data processing and interpreta-
tion later on.
6.5. Data processing
1. The GPR profile (or Radargramme) is normally
represented as a 2-D time section (or a depth section
if velocity is known) with wiggle traces or grey/colour
scales.
2. To enhance the target signals, the following digital
signal processing is usually applied to the measured
data on site or in house after the survey: vertical
stacking, deconvolution filter, bandpass filter, mov-
ing average/background removal filter, automatic
gain control (AGC) or time-variant gain (TVG).
3. In case that the data are recorded on multiple survey
lines on a grid, the GPR data can be displayed in
three dimensions using commercial presentation
software for making its interpretation much easier.
6.6. Interpretation
1. A GPR profile can be interpreted in a similar way to
the interpretation of a seismic reflection profile.
Subsurface anomalies such as buried pipes and
cavities can be detected as diffraction patterns in
the profile.
2. It is important to collect as much existing informa-
tion as possible to interpret the GPR profile properly.
For example, in the application of the GPR to
detection of buried pipes, information relating to
their locations, depths, sizes and materials should be
searched prior to the interpretation.
3. If an accurate depth section is necessary, information
affecting the EM wave velocity such as dielectric
constants and moisture contents of the ground should
be considered in the interpretation.
4. If other geophysical data such as shallow EM
mapping, magnetic or resistivity data are available,
they can be very useful for interpretation of the GPR
profile.
5. Fig. 18 shows some examples of interpreted GPR
profiles.
6.7. Output and report
Output of a GPR survey should include at least the
following:
1. location map of the measurement lines;
2. GPR profiles;
3. interpreted GPR profiles.
The survey report should describe at least the
following:
1. outline of the survey;
2. field operation (including the equipments used);
3. data processing procedures;
4. GPR profiles;
5. interpretation and discussion of the profiles;
6. references.
7. Gravity
7.1. General
The gravity method is a geophysical method in which
the subsurface density distribution (or the density
anomaly) is estimated from the observed gravity field.
Gravity is usually measured at the ground surface using
a gravity meter or a gravimeter. Gravity may also be
measured in the air, at sea, or in a borehole using
gravimeters designed for those environments. In this
document, we will focus on and describe in detail the
land gravity method. The gravity method has been
widely used for delineating a base rock for earthquake
resistant construction design, locating buried faults and
detecting underground cavities due to civil engineering
activities and old mine working. Fig. 19 shows the
schematic diagram of a gravity anomaly and an example
of a gravimeter. The gravity method has normally been
used for large-scale subsurface imaging, for instance, for
studies in Earth Sciences. The micro-gravity method
using very dense measurements has recently been
employed for near-surface civil engineering applications.
7.2. Applicability
1. The gravity method can be used for:
(1) detection of subsurface cavities and voids due to
civil engineering activities and old mine working,
(2) delineation of a base rock for earthquake-
resistant construction design,
(3) delineation of buried faults underneath thick
sediments,
(4) evaluation of ground improvement such as
grouting and compaction by comparing gravity
anomalies measured before and after the im-
provement.
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Fig. 18. Examples of interpreted GPR profiles (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
2. In earthquake engineering field, the gravity method
can often be employed to delineate larger-scale
subsurface structures such as deeper base rocks and
large faults to predict accurate earthquake ground
motion.
3. The surface gravity method is used to detect
lateral density changes in the ground, but in
principle, it cannot be used to delineate horizontally
stratified structure whose density changes only with
depth.
7.3. Planning
7.3.1. Review of existing information
Existing information should be studied from the
following points of view: (1) dimension, depth and
density of the geological or structural features to be
investigated, (2) surface topography around the survey
area and (3) accessibility to the site such as road
conditions.
7.3.2. Resolution of detectable subsurface structures or
anomalies
1. Resolution of detectable subsurface structures or
anomalies with the micro-gravity method can be
907
around 1 m using high-density measurements under
relatively low ambient noise.
2. Using more widely spaced measurement points in a
very wide area, it is possible to delineate large-scale
subsurface structure with the dimension of several
kilometres.
3. Fig. 20 shows the relationship between the detectable
dimension of the target and the amount of the gravity
anomaly due to it. Since the most modern gravimeter
can measure the gravity change of several micro-
Gals, subsurface features with the dimension of
around 1 m can be detected by means of the micro-
gravity method.
7.3.3. Determination of the survey area and the station
spacing
1. The micro-gravity survey will normally be con-
ducted in one of two modes, a profile and an areal
survey. The former is commonly employed for
investigation along the linear construction such as
a railway and a road, while the latter would be
used for an areal survey, for instance, for delineation
of a bed rock topography beneath the investigation
site
2. The survey area should be determined considering the
depth of the features of interest in the survey. The
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908 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914

Fig. 19. Schematic diagram of the gravity anomaly and a gravimeter (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].

Fig. 20. Relationship between dimension of the target and gravity anomaly (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].

dimension of the survey area should be 5 or 6 times
the maximum depth of investigation. The station
spacing should be comparable to, or smaller than, the
minimum depth of the features of interest.
3. It is desirable to keep the station spacing as uniform
as possible.
7.4. Field operation
7.4.1. Measurement principle
1. A gravimeter commonly used for a gravity survey can
only measure relative gravity value. Therefore, in a
gravity survey, the difference of the gravity value
between a station and a fixed station called as a base
or reference station is measured. The reference
station should be either a station where the absolute
gravity value is known or a station connected to
another reference station where the absolute gravity
value is known.
2. A measurement technique called the closed-loop
method is commonly used, in which the first and last
measurements of successive measurements in a loop
are made at the same station to obtain the error
between these two measurements, known as the
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
closure error. The measurement error at each station
can then be evaluated based on this closure error in
the loop. Successive measurements in a loop should
be normally completed within no more than about
half a day to keep the error to a minimum. The
closure error, mainly due to the drift of the spring in
the gravimeter, should be less than 0.2 mGal.
3. In a very high accurate survey, such as detection of a
very small cavity with a diameter of less than 1 m, it
should be necessary to know the drift error as
precisely as possible. In such a case, the succes-
sive measurements in a loop should be completed
within 2 h or less and the measurements be re-
peated by visiting stations in the loop in a reverse
order.
7.4.2. Measurement accuracy
1. A gravimeter used for a micro-gravity survey should
have an accuracy of a few micro-Gals, while that for
an ordinary gravity survey may have an accuracy of
better than approximately 0.1 mGal. A gravimeter is
a very sensitive device and must be handled with
extreme care during transportation as well as during
measurements.
2. The elevation of each measurement station in a
micro-gravity survey must be known to the accuracy
of a few millimetres or less and the accuracy of the
horizontal location is required within a few tens of
centimetres. For ordinary gravity survey, accuracies
of the elevation and the horizontal location should be
less than a few tens of centimetres and a few metres,
respectively.
3. In a gravity survey over an area more than a few
kilometres squared, the location of each station
can be determined using a geographical map with
a scale of 1:1000 to 1:25 000 corresponding to
the required accuracy of the survey. Benchmarks,
trig stations or other points with elevations indi-
cated on the map can be used as reference elevation
points.
7.4.3. Measurement procedures
1. To make the measurement procedure most effi-
cient, the route and order of visits to the measure-
ment stations should be determined at the
beginning of the survey.
2. Measurement stations should be arranged at a flat
place without abrupt topographic changes nearby
and not placed on the top or at the foot of a cliff or
an embankment.
3. The measurement should be done on a firm and flat
surface such as a pavement and away from sources
of vibrations such as traffic noise.
4. The exact station location should be marked with
paint, a survey nail or a survey peg prior to the
survey.
909
5. It is desirable to repeat measurements several times
at each station to improve the accuracy and
reliability of the measurement.
6. The following items should be recorded in the field
note:
(1) the model name and serial number of the
gravimeter used;
(2) the height of the instrument from the earth’s
surface at each measurement point;
(3) each reading and its time.
7. It is desirable to make a sketch of the measurement
location and its vicinity for the further terrain
correction in data processing.
8. Re-measurement of any loops should be consid-
ered if the closure error is neither negligible nor
acceptable.
7.5. Data processing
1. The measured gravity value at each station should be
first corrected for the gravity tide variations, the
gravimeter drift and the instrument height at the
measurement station. Usually, these corrections are
conducted in the field for QC.
2. The gravity anomaly value at each station is
computed by applying latitude corrections, free-air
corrections, Bouguer corrections, terrain corrections
and atmospheric corrections to the field data
corrected as above. The coordinate system used for
these corrections may be either the geodetic reference
system (latitude, longitude, height) or a Cartesian
system ðX ; Y ; ZÞ:
3. Fig. 21 shows a standard data processing flow of
gravity data. The gravity anomaly thus obtained is
the subsurface density anomaly and is the object of
further interpretation.
7.6. Interpretation
1. For qualitative interpretation of the subsurface
density distribution, the residual gravity anomaly
map is usually used. It is computed by applying the
trend analysis and/or spatial filters to the original
gravity anomaly data to enhance the anomalies to be
extracted.
2. Depending on the requirements or the objec-
tives of the investigation, quantitative interpreta-
tion can be used to delineate bedrock topogra-
phy, to calculate the location or the depth of
a cavity, or to estimate the vertical displacement
of a fault.
3. The interpretation may be difficult or unreliable near
the boundary of the survey area. Such problems
might be avoided by integrating existing gravity data,
if available, into the measured data.
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910 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Measured Gravity Data
Gravity tide correction
Correction for instrumental height
Drift correction
Gravity value at measurement point
Topographic correction
Bouger correction
Free-air correction
Latitude correction
Atmospheric correction
Gravity anomaly distribution (on irregular grid)
Data interpolation in space
Gravity anomaly distribution (on regular grid)
Fourier analysis (model calculation)
Subsurface density distribution
Fig. 21. Standard data processing flow of gravity data (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
4. Since the gravity anomaly represents the subsurface
density anomalies (density variations), the density
contrast between the survey target and its surround-
ings should be taken into account in interpreting the
survey result.
5. If available, it is important to integrate existing
information into the interpretation, such as subsur-
face geology, geophysical images and topography
around the site.
Correction for solar and lunar mass attraction
Correction for altitude from a ground surface to
the sense position of a gravity meter
Correction for the drift of gravity meter
Correction for near field topographic mass
attraction
Correction for near field topographic mass
attraction
Correction for gravity difference due to the
altitude difference from measurement point
Correction for the normal gravity
Correction for atmospheric mass
attraction
Transformation of irregular to regular grid data
To obtain the target underground density
structure based on spectral analysis, filter
operation and model calculation
6. Fig. 22 shows an example of an interpreted gravity
anomaly map for detection of subsurface cavities.
7.7. Output and report
Outputs of a gravity survey should include at least the
following:
1. maps of the station locations and the survey area;
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914 911

2. gravity (and/or gravity anomaly) maps; zone by measuring changes in intensity of natural
3. interpreted gravity maps; radiation from the earth’s surface. Gamma rays are
4. measurement data. generally used in the radiometric survey for geological
applications, and the term ‘‘radiometric survey’’ usually
The survey report should describe at least the therefore refers to the gamma-ray spectrometric survey
following items: unless explicitly stated otherwise. Fig. 23 shows the
schematic diagram of the gamma-ray spectrometric
1. outline of the survey;
survey. Two types of measurement methods can be used
2. field operations (including the equipment used);
in the gamma-ray survey: the total count method and
3. data processing procedures;
the gamma-ray spectrometric method. The total count
4. gravity anomaly maps;
method measures gamma rays at all energies with no
5. interpretation and discussion of the gravity anomaly
distinction between radionuclides, whereas the gamma-
maps;
ray spectrometric method measures both the intensity
6. references.
and energy of radiation and can distinguish between
radionuclides. The gamma-ray spectrometric method is
preferred because it can provide more information than
8. Radiometric the total count method. The survey techniques
are classified based on the survey operation mode
8.1. General into air-borne, car-borne and man-borne. The survey
equipments are mounted in a helicopter or a fixed-wing
The radiometric method can be used to detect aircraft for the air-borne survey and in a motor vehicle
subsurface geological features such as a fault or a shear for the car-borne survey. For the man-borne survey (or
the portable gamma-ray survey), the operator carries the
survey equipments.

8.2. Applicability

1. For civil engineering applications, the radiometric

2. The radiometric method is also used to investigate the
Fig. 22. Example of an interpreted gravity anomaly map for detection
of cavities (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
survey is applied mainly to detection of subsurface
geological features such as faults or shear zones,
which are often conducted for characterization of
active faults in earthquake disaster prevention
projects and for groundwater or hot spring develop-
ments.
distribution of rocks at the earth’s surface by
measuring changes in gamma-ray intensity due to
differences in the natural abundance of the radio-
isotopes in rock forming minerals.

Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of the radiometric method (radionuclide: Bi: bismuth, K: potassium, Tl: thallium) (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
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912 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
8.3. Planning
8.3.1. Review of existing information
Before planning a survey, all available technical
references and investigation reports regarding the site
should be thoroughly studied. The selection of the
survey area, the survey method and the locations of
measurement points or lines should be made after due
consideration of the purpose of the survey and the
survey targets as well as the existing information above.
It is also essential to preliminarily study the geological
distribution of the radioelements, the locations of
potential fault zones and any possible noise sources
such as man-made structures and unfavourable topo-
graphic conditions.
8.3.2. Selecting the survey method
The survey method should be selected from among
the air-borne, the car-borne and the man-borne method
in consideration of survey objectives and requirements,
time and cost of the survey, etc. The air-borne method is
suitable for a very wide area survey within a short time
and for a survey of the area where it is difficult to access.
The car-borne is suitable for a wide area survey and the
man-borne is suitable for a limited area survey. A
typical application of the car-borne method would be a
preliminary investigation for the selection of a further
detailed investigation area in a large area. The man-
borne survey is, for example, useful for detection of
accurate location of a buried fault.
8.3.3. Designing the survey
A survey design consists of positioning the survey
lines and the measurement points. The survey should
be designed after due consideration of the survey
objectives and targets. Additionally, the required
accuracy, geological and topographic conditions and
the locations of the man-made structures should be also
considered. For locating a buried fault, the survey line
should be set up as perpendicularly as possible to the
expected strike of the fault. If there is no information
about geological features of the site, the grid-based
measurement lines should be set up for more accurate
estimation of them. Survey lines and measurement
points should be set up so as to avoid the area
with abrupt topography changes and man-made con-
structions.
8.4. Field operation
8.4.1. Equipment
The measuring equipment used in the radiometric
method is generally a scintillation counter with a NaI
(Tl) detector. There are two types of equipment,
the total count meter and the spectrometer. The total
count meter measures gamma rays at all energies with
no distinction between radionuclides, whereas the
spectrometer measures both intensity and energy of
radiation and can distinguish between radionuclides.
The latter is commonly used in a recent radiometric
survey.
8.4.2. Stationary measurement at a fixed point
In order to correct for time variations of gamma-ray
radiation during the survey, stationary measurement at
a fixed point should be taken at least once or twice a
day. In case of the survey over more than 1 day,
stationary measurement at a fixed point must be taken
every day in order to correct for daily changes in the
measurement.
8.4.3. Measurement
1. For the air-borne survey, the special gamma-ray
detector designed for an aircraft is used. The
helicopter is more preferable to civil engineering
applications than the fixed-wing aircraft because a
helicopter can fly at a lower altitude and lower speed
than a fixed-wing aircraft, which leads to a higher-
resolution survey. In the air-borne survey, navigation
and altitude data must be recorded together with the
gamma-ray measurements.
2. For the car-borne survey, the speed of the vehicle
should be kept as slow and steady as possible to
ensure good quality data. The vehicle speed should be
determined considering time and accuracy of mea-
surement.
3. For the man-borne survey, measurement should be
conducted normally for 300–500 s at a measurement
point. The intensity of radiation due to each of major
radionuclides should be recorded in the field note for
each measurement.
4. Data QC should be made during or immediately after
the measurement on site. Additional or repeated
measurements should be taken if necessary.
8.5. Data processing
1. The total count method provides the total gamma-
ray intensity at each measurement point. The gamma-
ray spectrometric method provides the gamma-ray
intensity spectrum at each point. From this spectrum,
the total intensity and the spectral intensities of three
indexed radionuclides, 40 K (1.46 MeV), 214 Bi
(1.76 MeV) and 208 Tl (2.61 MeV) can be calculated.
These measurement values are compiled in a table for
each survey line or measurement point.
2. The measured value should be corrected for time
variation and daily change of gamma-ray radiation
based on the measurement values at the fixed point. If
possible, climatic or surface topographic corrections
should be applied. For the air-borne survey data,
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T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914
Fig. 24. Example of interpretation of radiometric survey profiles (SEG Japan, 2000) [1].
attenuation correction must be made for removing
effects of altitude changes.
3. The spatial average and standard deviation of the
total gamma-ray intensities and the spectral inten-
sities of 40 K (1.46 MeV), 214 Bi (1.76 MeV) and
208 Tl (2.61 MeV) are calculated at first. Anoma-
lous intensities are then detected on the basis of
the mean value and the standard deviation. For
the spectrometric method, the spectral ratios such
as Bi/K, Tl/K and Bi/Tl are calculated. For the line
survey, these calculated values are presented as a
profile with distance. In case of the grid-based
measurement, the calculated total or spectral inten-
sities are normally presented as a contour map of
them.
8.6. Interpretation
The calculated total or spectral gamma-ray inten-
sity profile maps are interpreted in terms of the
survey target and objectives by referring to existing
information such as a geological map. If there are
other geophysical data, they can be helpful for the
interpretation. Fig. 24 shows an example of interpreta-
tion of gamma-ray total intensity and spectral ratio
profiles obtained at a radiometric survey for detection of
faults.
913
8.7. Output and report
Outputs of a radiometric survey should include at
least the following:
1. location map of the measurement lines or points;
2. gamma-ray total or spectral intensity or spectral ratio
profile or map;
3. interpreted profile or map;
4. measurement data listed in a table.
The survey report should describe at least the following:
1. outline of the survey;
2. field operation (including the equipment used);
3. data processing;
4. gamma-ray total or spectral intensity or spectral ratio
profile or map;
5. interpretation and discussion of the results;
6. references.
Acknowledgements
The suggested methods were drafted by the Working
Group on Standardization of Geophysical Methods
for Rock Engineering, consisting of 11 members from
six countries: P. Hatherly, M.S. King, H. Kusumi,
B. Lehmann, L. Myer, L. Pyrak-Nolte, T. Takahashi,
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914 T. Takahashi / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 885–914

N.M. Toksoz, T. Uchida, T. Watanabe and C. Xu. Toru
Takahashi has coordinated the working group. Major
contributions in drafting and revision were received
from Dr. Peter Hatherly (Australia) and Toshihiro
Uchida (Japan). We would like to express special thanks
to these two members for their efforts. The drafts were
also greatly improved by fruitful comments and sugges-
tions from E. Brueckl (Austria), C. Cosma (Finland),
B. Lehmann (Germany), G. Borm (Germany), K. Sassa
(Japan), C. Lee (Korea) and M.S. King (UK) who are
the ISRM commission members.
The first drafts of the suggested methods were drafted
by the sub-working group consisting of following 19
members belonging to the Japanese Committee for Rock
Mechanics (JCRM) working group on Applied Geophy-
sics for Rock Engineering: T. Aizawa, Y. Ashida, A.
Chiba, K. Chida, K. Ikeda, K. Kishida, N. Kurahashi,
H. Kusumi, T. Matsuoka, S. Miki, H. Suzuki, K. Suzuki,
S. Tanaka, T. Tanaka, T. Takahashi, T Takeuchi, T.
Tokumaru, F. Watanabe and T. Watanabe. We would
also like to thank these members for their efforts.
References
[1] SEG Japan. The guidebook of geophysical exploration methods
for civil engineering. Japan: SEG Japan; 2000 [in Japanese].
Further reading
Suggested Readings for details of each geophysical
method
Telford WM, Geldart LP, Sheriff RE. Applied geophysics. 2nd ed.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Burger HR. Exploration geophysics of the shallow subsurface.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1992.