Botany Laboratory Midterms | Millen O.
Arenas
Exercise 4: Plant Tissues
Tissue – an aggregation of cells of common source and function.
 Vascular plant tissues are from products of fertilized
egg (zygote) that undergone repeated cell division.
 The initial apical cell mass of identical cells formed at
the tip of growing region constitutes the primordial
meristem.
Simple Permanent Tissues
Epidermis – outermost layer of cells or any plant organ with
primary growth.
 Cells may be irregular, isodiametric, and distinctly
elongated in shape with outer cell wall impregnated
not within cutin (cuticle).
 Guard cells, stomata, bulliform cells, silica cells,
trichomes.
Parenchyma – most abundant cells found in higher plants;
spherical in shape; big and thin walled with large vacuole and
air spaces.
 Least specialized permanent tissue composed of living
thin-walled cells.
a. Chlorenchyma – elongated cylindrical cells with their
long axis at the right angle to the surface of the organ.
- Contains chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
b. Aerenchyma – irregular cells surrounded with large air
spaces; found in stems of aquatic plants.
Collenchyma – living cells with uneven thickness found beneath
the epidermis. It is smaller than the parenchyma.
 Cells may be short and prismatic, elongated and
tapering, or polygonal in transverse section.
Sclerenchyma – cells possess thick lignified secondary walls and
may or may not be living (deadt).
a. Fibers – elongated cells with pointed end walls.
b. Sclereids or stone cells – roundish or polygonal cells
with walls varying in thickness.
e.g.: pear and chico
Cork tissue – outer impermeable protective layer of a
secondary plant body (stem or root)..
 The layer is composed of compactly arranged dead,
lignified, and suberized cells without intercellular
spaces.
 Dicots
Complex Tissues
Phloem – principal water; composed of tracheids, vessels, fiber,
and parenchyma.
Xylem – principal food; composed of fibers, parenchyma, sieve
cells or tubes, and companion cells.
Exercise 5: Roots
Three major types of root system
1. Taproot system – originates from seed radicle and
consists of one main root, generally growing
straightforward, with smaller lateral or branch roots.
 Dicot plants
2. Fibrous root system – consists of numerous fine roots
similar in diameter. It also originates from seed radicle.
 Monocot plants
3. Adventitious root system – the roots which grow from
any part of plant other than the radicle. They may
develop from the base of stems, nodes and
internodes, and leaves.
e.g.: grass
a. Primary root (or radicle) – first root that comes out
from germinating seed.
b. Secondary root – root arising from primary root.
c. Tertiary root – root arising from secondary root.
d. Adventitious root – roots arising from parts other than
the radicle.
Internal morphology
Epidermal region – outermost layer of cells which is only one
cell thick. Most of the cells here have extensions and forms root
hairs.
Cortex region – consists of many layers of thin-walled
parenchyma cells with intercellular spaces. The cortex functions
primarily for food storage.
Endodermis – the innermost layer of cortex, consisting of a
single layer of barrel-shaped cells that are closely-packed and
having no intercellular spaces. The rest of cells are impregnated
with suberin. The suberin bands are called Casparian strips.
Stele (vascular cylinder) – occupies the central portion of the
root and consists of pericycle and vascular tissues. The pericycle
lies internal to the endodermis and generally consists of a single
layer of thin-walled parenchyma cells. Lateral root originate
from the pericycle because it displays its meristematic  Can be seen clearly in a young root
characteristics. The pericycle in its inner surface is directly in because of the presence of numerous
contact with xylem and phloem. root hairs that increase the absorptive
Transverse Section area of the cell.
Xylem Star-shaped with “arms or wedges”  Cells are already mature and
extending to pericycle. perform functions: protective covering,
Protoxylem The cells closer to pericycle transport, and support among others.
are smaller in size
Metaxylem The cells towards the outer Specialized roots
and bigger in size Food storage Enlarged roots with large quantities of starch and
Phloem Less easy to observe, but occurs in distinct carbohydrates.
strands between xylem arms. e.g.: ube, camote, carrot 🥕, sugar beet
Water storage Fascicled roots; enlarged fleshy and succulent
roots
Monocot Dicot
Reproduction or Formation of adventitious root bud
The number of protoxylem is The number of protoxylem is from
2-5 (diarchs, triarchs, tetrarchs, propagation e.g.: creeping ivy (adventitious)
> 10 (polyarch). Gas exchange Presence of pneumatophores
pentarchs).
A parenchymatous pith is at No pith; the metaxylem e.g.: rhizophora/mangrove
Support Buttress – big roots that look like it arise from base
the center. occupies the center of root.
of trunk
Roots exhibit siphonostele. Roots exhibit protostele. Prop/stilt – aerial roots arising from branches
e.g.: rubber tree, sugarcane, pandan
The stele is composed of: Brace – aerial roots from main stem that
penetrates the ground
Pericycle – has a structure similar
Clinging – aerial that cling to support
to young dicot roots. Aerial
Xylem – polyarch and has a e.g.: orchid (absorb moisture)
center occupied by a parenchyma Protection Spines or thorns 🌹
and not tracheary elements. Photosynthesis Green aerial roots
Phloem – occupies the spaces
between radial arms of xylem. Exercise 6: Stems
Pith – composed of parenchymatous cells at the center. Stem – organ of plant that holds structures – leaves, flowers,
and fruits.
Three regions in young roots:  Carry water and minerals from roots to leaves for
Cell division or meristematic region – photosynthesis
the growing apex of root. It is covered Parts of Stem
by thimble-shaped root cap. Node Area where leaves are attached,
 The cells are small, cube- Internode Area between nodes.
shaped, thin-walled, and Petiole Attaches the leaf blade to stem.
have large centrally-located nuclei. Bud Occurs in the angle between petiole and stem.
 Axillary bud – located in axil; may
 The cells are actively dividing.
become branches or develop into ✿
Elongation region – found above the meristematic region. The
 Terminal bud – often present at tip of
cells elongate several times their original length and push the
each twig; normally produces tissues
root tip through the soil. that extend the length of twig
 Responsible for the increase in length of root. Stipule Paired leaf-like appendages at base of petiole.
Maturation region – lies above the region of elongation and Leaf scar Scar left by a fallen leaf.
extends upward. The cells are elongated. Bundle scar Scars that mark the location of H2O conducting
 Responsible for increase in length of root into various tissues located within the leaf scars.
distinctively cell types. Lenticels Dark spots or elevations that allow gas
 Also called the region of differentiation or root hair exchange in stem.

zone.  Most monocot plants do not attain big sizes; the stem
doesn’t produce cork.
 Surfaces are covered by epidermis.
  Stems elongate rapidly during growing seasons but
with little difference between the diameter of top and
bottom.
 Dicot stems are usually having distinct nodes and
internodes. It usually exhibit different types of leaf
arrangement. Lenticels are prominent.
Young Dicot Stems (Herbaceous
and woody)
Epidermal region – the outer wall
of cells exposed to air is covered
with waxy substance called cutin.
 Made up of epidermal
cells, guard cells, and
epidermal hairs or
trichomes.
Cortex – complex region derived from ground meristem; next
in epidermis.
 Consists of large, thin-walled parenchyma or
collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and secretory cells.
 Ground tissue is made up of cortex and pith.
Vascular cylinder or stele – innermost region; composed of
primary vascular tissues, primary xylemphloem.
Old Woody Dicot Stem
 Secondary xylem – wood
 Heartwood – in old trees, the central region of
secondary wood is filled with tannin and other
substances.
- Physiologically inactive in most plants.
- Dark in color because of tannin, oil, gum, resin,
etc.
- For mechanical support.
 Sapwood – outer region of secondary wood that is
lighter in color.
- Physiologically active.
- Transport water and minerals from roots to
leaves.
 Radial expansion ruptures the epidermis thus replaced
by periderm which is a suberized layer that protect the
underlying tissues.
 Cork cambium gives rise to cork – cork cells are dead,
suberized, and thick-walled impervious to water and
slough off upon maturity.
 The bark consists of all dead tissues outside the cork
cambium – composed of epidermis, lenticels, cork,
and hypodermis.
Monocot Stems
 Lack secondary growth.
 Possess primary
permanent tissues.
Epidermis
Cortex – consists of large, thin-
walled undifferentiated
parenchyma cells. Just below the epidermis, a few layers of
collenchyma/sclerenchyma cells forming the hypodermis may
be found.
Vascular cylinder – vascular bundles are scattered – found in
large numbers in the ground tissue and are in greater number
towards the periphery than center. The vascular bundles called
closed bundles have one xylem and phloem with the cambium
layer absent.
Specialized or Metamorphosed Stems
Storage Stems
Rhizome Horizontal stem which grows near the surface of
soil (e.g.: ginger)
Tubers Enlarged ends of special underground branches.
Each tubers have several eyes that are actually
nodes organized in spiral arrangement around
the stem consisting of an axillary bud in axil in a
scale-like leaf (can develop into new plant) (e.g.:
Solanum tuberosum 🥔)
Bulbs The shoot sysyem of onions; have short compact
stem that bears a cluster of broad, fleshy leaves.
Corm Undergorund stem which is short, stout, solid,
rounded in shape. It is filled with stored food and
grows in | direction. Nodes are indicated by scale
leaves. Small buds occur in the axil of dome
papery scale-like leaves. (e.g.: gabi)
Stems for asexual reproduction
Runner A slender prostate branch with long or short
internodes, creeping on the ground and rooting
at the nodes. Sub-aerial. (e.g.: strawberry 🍓)
Stolon A slender lateral branch originating from an
underground stem and growing – outwards.
Subterranean. (e.g.: araru and gabi)
Offset Like runners, it originates in the axil of leaf as a
short, thickened, horizontal branch. It elongates
only to a certain extent and produces at the apex
 a tuft of leaves and a cluster of small roots below.
(e.g.: water lettuce, water hyacinth)
Sucker Like stolon, it is a lateral branch developing from
underground part of stem. It grows upwards and
directly gives rice to a leafy root or new plant.
(e.g.: chrysanthemum, banana 🍌, bamboo)
Various Functions
Tendrils Thin, leafless, spirally curved branch by which
climbers attach themselves to other objects (e.g.:
upo, squash, ampalaya)
Spines and Some stems may be modified into hard, straight,
thorns pointed structures called spines and thorns. The
axillary bud in lemons 🍋, roses🌹, and pomelos)
Cladophylls Flattened and leaf-like appearance. (e.g.:
asparagus)
Phylloclade Flattened, stout, and fleshy modified for H2O and
food storage. (e.g.: opuntia and cacti 🌵)

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