Lecture 1 – Structural Geology

Structural Geology is an essential part of Geology

Structural Geology - describes

- analyses
- interprets

... the architecture of the Earth lithosphere

i.e., the geometric relationships between rock units

 Lecture 1 – Structural Geology

Structural Geology

primarily based on - field studies: most essential

=> Structural analyses
- laboratory analyses
- computer modeling

(at scales from 10's of km down to a few mm)

 Lecture 1 – Structural Geology

• Structural Geology: Structural geology is the

scientific study of the processes associated with the
deformation of rock masses and the geological
structures that result from rock deformation.

• Tectonics: Study of the origin and geologic

evolution (history of motion and deformation) of large
areas (regional to global) of the Earth’s lithosphere
(e.g., origin of continents; building of mountain belts;
formation of ocean floor)
 Lecture 1 – Structural Geology

• Both are concerned with the description and analysis of 3D rock

structures at a variety of scales.

• Both are concerned with the design of tectonic models to

reconstruct the motions and deformational history that led to the
observed 3D “architecture” of a piece of lithosphere. These
tectonic models must be:
– Physically Valid - Obey the law of physics
– Testable - Provide testable predictions
– Robust - Must explain a large number of unrelated facts

• These two disciplines are closely related and interdependent

 Lecture 1 – Structural Geology

NB Notion of scales of observation

Structural geologists and tectonicists
work on a variety of spatial scales.
• Mountain range / Orogen Scale (>100
km)
• Regional (10 km) Tectonics

• Local (100 m) Structural Geology

• Outcrop (1 m)
• Thin section (1 mm)
• Transmission electron microscopy (1
mm, or 10-6 m) scales
• Any scale in-between
Therefore, the structural geologist should
understand deformation at all these
scales and be able to relate the
observations made at one scale to those
made at any other scale.
Also scale of time….
 Aims and Objectives
• The objective of this course is to provide students with a
robust yet enjoyable initiation to structural geology.

• At completion of this course students will have a good

understanding of the structures and microstructures that
accommodate contractional and extensional deformation
of the Earth's lithosphere.

• Students will have enough knowledge to read and learn

from basic textbooks on structural geology.

Relax, focus and learn...

Structural Analysis involves two distinct steps:

1. Study and description of a rock body in its present state.

This study should be as free as possible from inference and

extrapolation, except to the extent imposed by limitations of poor
exposure in the field!

2. Genetic interpretation of the descriptive data, an attempt to

reconstruct evolution of the geologic body in question.
Structural Analysis includes:

1. Geometric analysis: involves the characterization of the form, extent and

Imagine the
arrangement of structures in a map area, together extension
with the timeof the eroded in
sequence
structure above ground! (use dash)
which the structures developed (relative chronology).

NB: Definition of relative chronology

The approximate age determination of rocks, fossils or minerals made by comparing
whether the material is younger or older than other surrounding material. Relative age is
estimated according to stratigraphic and structural relationships, such as superposition,
and by fossil content, since the relative ages and successions of fossils have been
established by paleontologists.

The main purpose is to establish the geometry of the rocks, from microscopic, to
macroscopic scales. During this analysis, geometrical features of the rocks are studied
and inferences are drawn about large-scale structures from observations made on a
smaller scale. Ideally it is descriptive and free from inference.
In practice, inference is often necessary because outcrop is rarely continuous!
NB Notion of scales of observation (vocabulary)

Microscopic: referring to features that are visible only with optical

microscope and electron microscope, e.g., structures in thin sections

Mesoscopic: referring to features that can be directly observed (with or

without a lower power hand lens) without extrapolation. They range
from hand specimens to large but continuous outcrop.

Macroscopic: referring to features ranging in size from several

outcrops to whole mountain ranges. They are too large or too poorly
exposed to be examined directly in their entirety. They are observed
indirectly by extrapolation from synthesis of mesoscopic and
microscopic observations.
Structural Analysis includes:

2. Kinematic analysis: from the results of the geometric analysis, an

attempt is made to reconstruct movements—rotation, translation and strain—
that took place during deformation of the rocks.

3. Dynamic analysis: involves reconstruction of stresses related to

movements and the formation of the structures.
 Geology 4501 Lecture 1 – Structural Analysis

Use of models
• We use geometric, mechanical, and
kinematic models to understand
deformation on all scales (micro,
meso, macro)

• Geometric model: 3D
interpretation of the distribution
and orientation of features within
the earth crust

• Kinematic model: Specific history

of motion that could have carried
the system from an undeformed to
its deformed state (or from one
configuration to another)
– Plate tectonic model is a
kinematic model
 Geology 4501 Lecture 1
Structural Geology has links with:
-Stratigraphy=study of stratified rocks in terms of time and space

- Sedimentology=classification of sediments, sedimentary processes, and

sedimentary rocks

- Hydrogeology=study of the occurrence and flow of groundwater and its effects

on earth materials

- Tectonics=forces or conditions within the earth that cause movements of the

crust such as earthquakes, folds and faults

- Geodynamics=the branch of science that deals with the forces and processes of
the earth’s interior

- Geophysics=study of the earth by quantitative physical methods

- Petrology=Study of igneous and metamorphic rocks that deals with their origin
in relation to physicochemical conditions.

- Surface processes
 Lecture 2 – Plate tectonics and structural geology

Plate motions in the past have been responsible for shaping orogenic belts
which are long, broad and linear to arcuate belts in the earth’s crust where
extreme mechanical deformation and / or thermal activity are concentrated
(example of Himalaya).
 Lecture 2 – Plate tectonics and structural geology

Horizontal movement => Vertical motion

But, the structurally interesting parts may not lie in the mountains, but may
be 10, 50, or even 700 km below the Earth’s surface.
Mountains represent just the roofline of an orogen!
 Lecture 2 – Plate tectonics and structural geology

Plate Forces

Metamorphic facies
&
pressure-temperature paths
 Lecture 2 – Plate tectonics and structural geology
3 types of plate-plate interactions:
• convergent
• divergent Oc.
• transform motion Lithos.
Cont.
Lithos.

dorsale

Subduction
zone

Orogenic belts evolve though the interference of slowly moving rigid plates composed of
lithosphere. Lithosphere is made of continental and / or oceanic crust as well as uppermost mantle
material. It can be thought of as the Earth’s mechanically competent outer rind, which sluggishly
moves on a part of the mantle, known as asthenosphere, that is capable of flowing continuously.
By studying the present configuration of plates, we learn that orogenic belts mainly form along plate
margins at or near plate boundaries. It is along plate boundaries that plates interfere.
The breadth of an orogen reflects the degree to which plate margins are internally distorted by plate
interference. Even though most distorsion is concentrated in boundary regions between plates,
some regional structures form well within the interior of plates, apparently through transmission of
stresses for great distances from plates boundaries.
3 categories of fundamental structures:
 Contacts: boundaries that separate one rock body from another (normal
depositional contacts, unconformities, intrusive contacts, fault & shear zone)
 Primary structures: develop during the formation of a rock body
 Secondary structures: reflect subsequent deformation or metamorphism
 Lecture 2 – The fundamental structures

Cleavage, foliation & lineation are structures that form under conditions of
elevated temperature and/or pressure, where mineral grains can change
shape, dissolve or precipitate and recrystallize.
These structures are penetrative, pervading the rock bodies in which they
occur so completely that the structures are closely spaced, often at
microscopic scale.
 Lecture 2 – The fundamental structures

 notion of scale and fabric

Scale of observation determines if deformation is ...

penetrative non-penetrative
example: a schist displays a penetrative structure at the scale of a hand specimen,
but has a non-penetrative structure when viewed through the microscope

tip: always draw scale bar on your field books, maps, cross-sections, ...
 Lecture 2 – The fundamental structures

Foliation: Preferred orientation of planar rock bodies and / or minerals.

Planar arrangement of micas, ribbons of quartz, aligned phenocrysts or
flattened objects like pebbles.
 Lecture 2 – The fundamental structures

Slaty
cleavage

Stratification
plane

Cleavage: special category of foliation, closely spaced subparallel surfaces

with a concentration and regularity that impart a splitting property to rocks.
Cleavage forms in response to flattening and shortening.
 Lecture 2– The fundamental structures

Lineation: preferred linear alignments of elements like hornblende needles,

mineral aggregates, striations that pervade rock bodies. May reveal the
direction of shearing or flowing of the rock.
 Lecture 2 – The fundamental structures

Joints: form in tension in response to tectonic and thermal stresses that force
the rock to extend ever-so-slightly perpendicular to the plane of fracture
 Lecture 1 – The fundamental structures

Shear fractures: Planar cracks that interrupt the cohesion of the rock and
along which there has been almost imperceptible movement. No tensional
opening. Most commonly the products of tectonic loading.
 Lecture 1 – The fundamental structures
During deformation of the Earth’s crust and in response to tectonic loading, rocks are commonly forced to move
past one another to achieve a better fit. Certain types of faults permit the crust to be shortened, others types
permit parts of the crust to be lengthened, or to cause rocks on either side of the fault to shift horizontally.

Hanging wall Footwall

The black shale layer in the hanging wall has dropped down relative to the shale in the
footwall, so this is a normal fault.

Faults: Fracture surface along which rocks have been offset by movements
parallel to the fracture surface.
 Lecture 1 – The fundamental structures

Slickenslines: Lines on a fault surface disclosing the direction of movement

 Lecture 1 – The fundamental structures

Folds: form when beds and layers are transformed into curved, bent, and
crumpled shapes. They commonly reflect end-on, viselike buckling &
shortening of horizontal layers. Associated with faults & shear zones.
 Lecture 1 – The fundamental structures

Shear zone: Like faults, they accomodate the offset that is distributed across the
thickness of a tabular zone that is centimeters, meters, or kilometers thick.
Unlike faults, shear zones do not display any discrete physical break.
Displacement is achieved without loss of cohesion and continuity. The penetrative
distributed offset within shear zones can be expressed by the presence of
pervasive foliation and lineation. They represent the deep roots of faults at levels
where elevated temperature permits the crustal rocks to flow.