Chapter 1

Basic Engine Performance Concepts

In this chapter the concepts fundamental to engine performance will be introduced.

Various types of internal combustion engines are described and compared, and the
advanatages of each in meeting particular application needs are discussed. The two- and
four-stroke operating cycles are described, and an initial comparison is made between
Diesel and spark ignition engines and combustion processes. A description is then given
of various engine air handling configurations, introducing terminology and concepts
which will be covered in later chapters. The chapter concludes with a review of the
parameters important in measuring the performance of internal combustion engines.

1.1 Types of Internal Combustion Engines and Their Operating Cycles

The purpose of any engine is to harness the energy liberated in an exothermic, or energy
releasing chemical reaction to produce as much useful mechanical work as possible. The
vast majority of engines rely on a combustion process to provide the energy.
Combustion processes are chemical reactions most commonly of hydrocarbon fuel
molecules with oxygen, to form primarily carbon dioxide and water. They may take
place in an external combustion chamber, and the energy used to heat a working fluid,
such as the steam in a Rankine cycle powerplant, or within the work producing device,
such as an internal combustion engine.

The internal combustion engine is defined as any engine where the combustion reaction
of fuel and oxidant takes place within the operating cycle of the engine, thus directly
affecting the chemical composition of the working fluid. The engine does not rely on a
heat source external to the cycle transferring energy to the working fluid. The energy
released during the combustion process is manifested as an increase in pressure and
temperature. The function of the engine is to provide a device which effectively
harnesses this chemical energy to produce useful mechanical work. The Diesel, spark-
ignition and gas turbine engines are all considered internal combustion engines. The gas
turbine is distinguished from the Diesel and spark ignition engines by the fact that each
process within the gas turbine cycle is continuous. The working fluid passes through
different parts of the engine as a steady flow, and each process takes place
simultaneously. Both the Diesel and spark-ignition engines operate with intermittent
FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

processes, where the working fluid is batched through the engine in unsteady processes
(processes changing with time).

Vcl
TDC

B
S=2*R

BDC

L
Vmax Vcl + Vdisp
CR = =
Vmin Vcl

R

Figure 1-1 Slider crank components

Figure 1-1 Slider crank components

Gas turbine engines offer the advantages of few moving parts, and a very high power-to-
weight ratio. The light weight makes them ideally suited for aircraft applications.
Another advantage of the gas turbine is that its torque output is at its maximum at zero
rpm. As will be seen later this would result in excellent driveability in heavy duty
applications. For this reason the gas turbine received very serious attention as a potential
heavy truck engine in the late 1960s. However, a fundamental disadvantage of the gas
turbine is its inherently low thermal efficiency. This makes the engine quite non-
competitive in markets where fuel costs are important.

Although various mechanical configurations (such as the rotary engine, e.g. Wankel)
have gained some favor, the reciprocating piston designs are by far the most common for
both Diesel and spark ignition engines. The basic components of one cylinder of a
reciprocating engine are shown in Figure 1-1. The combustion process is contained in a
sealed cylinder with a moveable piston at one end. The increased pressure due to the
energy released in the combustion reaction forces the piston to move, expanding the
volume in the cylinder. The piston is linked with a connecting rod to the crankshaft.

2
 BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS

The crankshaft spins about the main bearing centerline shown in the figure, and the
connecting rod is connected to the crankshaft at a rod bearing journal offset from the
main bearing by the distance ‘R.’ As the cylinder pressure increases, the piston is forced
downward in the figure, spinning the crankshaft, and thus converting the linear motion of
the piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft. The energy from this spinning shaft is
then utilized to do work. As the crankshaft turns, the piston completes a stroke from the
top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder. The piston then stops, changes
direction, and is driven by the crankshaft back to the top of the cylinder. The points at
which the piston stops moving and reverses direction are referred to as top dead center
(TDC) and bottom dead center (BDC), as indicated in the figure. The volume change in
each cylinder is referred to as the displacement volume, and is determined by the
diameter, or bore of the cylinder, and the stroke, or distance of piston travel between
TDC and BDC. The volume remaining in the cylinder when the piston is at TDC is
referred to as the clearance volume.

Intake Stroke Compression Stroke Power Stroke Exhaust Stroke

Figure 1-2 The four-stroke operating cycle, shown for a Diesel engine

Figure 2 The four-stroke operating cycle, shown for a Diesel engine

In addition to mechanically harnessing the energy from the combustion process, and
transfering it to crankshaft work, the engine must provide a means for repetitively
conducting the process to provide sustained work output. Both Diesel and spark ignition
engines can utilize either a two- or four-stroke cycle to accomplish this repetition. The
four-stroke operating cycle is depicted in Figure 2 for a Diesel engine. As the name
implies, four strokes of the piston, (two complete revolutions of the crankshaft) are

3
FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

required to complete each operating cycle. The cylinder is sealed opposite the piston
with a cylinder head, which in most four stroke engines contains one or two intake
valves, where fresh air is drawn into the cylinder, and one or two exhaust valves where
the combustion products are forced out of the cylinder. The cylinder head of the Diesel
engine also contains a fuel injector. The operating cycle begins with the intake stroke
shown at the left of Figure 2. The piston begins at TDC, and as it moves down air is
drawn into the cylinder through the open intake valve. The piston reaches BDC, and as it
begins moving upward the intake valve is closed, sealing the cylinder. The upward
motion of the piston compresses the air, increasing its pressure and temperature in what
is referred to as the compression stroke. With the Diesel engine a fuel is chosen for
which the combustion reaction will easily and spontaneously initiate when it is injected
into the hot compressed air. As the piston nears TDC the fuel is injected, and the
combustion process begins, causing a further rapid increase in pressure and temperature,
and forcing the piston down on the power stroke. As the piston approaches BDC, the
exhaust valve is opened, and the exhaust gas is forced out out the cylinder as the piston
moves upward on the exhaust stroke. With the Diesel engine, the work output is
controlled by the amount of fuel injected into the cylinder during each cycle. The supply
of air is not restricted, so the ratio of air to fuel in the cylinder varies widely in going
from light to full load conditions. The air and fuel do not “see” one another until the fuel
is injected, and the combustion process initiated. The rate at which combustion occurs is
therefore controlled by the rate at which the fuel and air mix. This is termed diffusion
burning, and the process will be further described in Chapter 7. The local ratio of air to
fuel over which the combustion process occurs will vary from very fuel rich to very lean
conditions. The global, or cylinder average air to fuel ratio will be quite lean, resulting
in relatively cool combustion chamber and exhaust temperatures, as compared to the
spark ignition engine.

Referring again to Figure 2, the four-stroke cycle for the spark ignition engine will
appear similar, but with several key differences. First, instead of drawing air alone into
the cylinder, the air and fuel are pre-mixed prior to entering, and are drawn in together
during the intake stroke. The mixture is then compressed during the compression
process. A fuel is selected which will be very resistant to spontaneously reacting with
the air when the mixture pressure and temperature are increased during conpression. The
next key difference is that instead of a fuel injector, a spark plug is mounted in the
cylinder head. As the piston approaches TDC at the end of the compression process, an
electrical discharge across the spark plug initiates the combustion process. The power
stroke and exhaust stroke proceed similarly to the Diesel engine. Work output is again
controlled by regulating the amount of fuel burned during each cycle. Since the air and
fuel enter together this regulation is accomplished by placing a throttle in the intake
system, thus restricting the amount of air and fuel entering the cylinder. The ratio of air
to fuel in the cylinder remains approximately constant with engine speed and load, and
the mixture is nearly homogeneous throughout the combustion chamber. This results in a
higher combustion chamber and exhaust temperature than seen with the Diesel, and less
dependency of the temperatures on load. The pre-mixed combustion process of the spark
ignition engine is further described in Chapter 7.

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 BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS

An alternative, two-stroke operating cycle is depicted in Figure 3. When the piston is

near the bottom of its stroke, both the intake and exhaust passages are simultaneously
opened. The incoming air forces the exhaust products out. As the piston moves up the
combustion chamber is sealed, and the compression and power strokes take place
similarly to the four-stroke engine. As the piston nears the bottom of the power stroke,
the intake and exhaust passages are again opened, and the cycle is repeated. The two
stroke engine requires that the intake pressure be maintained higher than the exhaust
pressure under all operating conditions. In heavy duty applications this requires the use
of a crankshaft driven supercharger to pressurize the incoming charge. In very light duty
engines, such as chain saws, lawn mowers, outboard boat motors, or motorbikes, the
crankcase may be used to provide the necessary charge pressurization. Oil is mixed with
the fuel to provide crankcase lubrication, and each time the piston moves up a fresh
mixture of air and fuel is drawn into the crankcase. A one way valve then seals the
crankcase, and as the piston moves down, the crankcase is pressurized. When the intake
ports are opened the pressurized charge is released through these ports into the cylinders.
This approach cannot be taken on heavy duty engines due to the need to provide
pressurized lubrication for the crankshaft bearings. Instead of the exhaust valves shown
in Figure 3, light duty two-stroke engines may use ports in the cylinder wall for both the
intake and exhaust flow, thus eliminating the need for a camshaft and valves. The two-
stroke cycle offers the advantages of fewer moving parts, and a higher power-to-weight
ratio. Two-stroke engines (both Diesel and spark-ignition) have been especially popular
in the marine market, where high power and light weight are important. In spark-
ignition configurations exhaust emissions are much more difficult to control with the
two-stroke cycle. This has eliminated the two-stroke from all markets where emissions
are legislated. Two-stroke, direct-injected spark ignition engines are currently receiving
research attention. By injecting fuel into the cylinder immediately after the ports are
covered, and using various means to ensure rapid mixing, the emission penalty can be
overcome. The two-stroke Diesel does not share the same emissions difficulties as the
spark-ignition engine, but has higher thermal loading, more difficult oil control, and
poorer fuel economy than in the four-stroke counterpart.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Exhaust Valve

Supercharger Intake Ports

Piston shown at bottom dead center

Figure 1-3 Two-stroke heavy-duty diesel engine

Figure 3 Two-stroke heavy-duty diesel engine

The Diesel combustion process requires a higher compression ratio, and produces higher
peak cylinder pressures and rates of pressure rise than the spark ignition engine. This
necessitates heavier mechanical construction to handle the higher component loading.
The Diesel engine also requires a more complex fuel system. However, the fuel
economy of the Diesel is inherently better than that of the gasoline engine, and its low
speed torque capability is much higher. Because of the Diesel engine’s heavier
construction and lower combustion temperatures, it has significantly greater durability
than the spark-ignition engine. Based on these trade-offs, the Diesel has become the
engine of choice in most heavy-duty, and fuel economy sensitive markets. The spark
ignition engine is making inroads in heavy duty applications due to inherent exhaust
emission advantages, and the ability to achieve near Diesel low speed torque in
turbocharged configurations. In lighter duty applications, the spark-ignition engine
typically offers cost, weight, and emissions advantages over the Diesel, and can be
optimized to run at higher RPM. The latter advantage makes it attractive for high
performance applications, requiring high horsepower, but not demanding low speed
torque.

The remainder of this text will concentrate on the four-stroke engine in both Diesel and
spark ignition configurations. Their four-stroke operating cycle will be discussed in
more detail in the next section. The two-stroke cycle will receive no further coverage in
this text.

6
 BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS

1.2 Engine Configurations

In many engine packages produced today the four-stroke reciprocating engine does not
draw its air directly from the ambient, nor exhaust directly to ambient, but includes
additional thermodynamic systems for the purposes of increased power output and
thermal efficiency. Several of these resulting engine configurations are summarized with
block diagrams in Figure 4. In the upper left of the figure is the naturally aspirated
engine. This approach is still commonly seen in light duty applications, and is prevalent
in the automobile industry, due to its low cost and simplicity.

Moving from left to right, the next configuration depicted is the turbocharged engine.
The purpose of the turbocharger is to utilize a portion of the energy remaining in the
exhaust to drive a compressor which pressurizes the incoming air. The turbocharger
simultaneously provides an increase in power output and thermal efficiency, and will be
further described in Chapters 2 and 5. The turbocharger is now almost universally
applied to heavy duty reciprocating engines.

C T
C T
Intake Exhaust

CAC

Engine Engine Engine

Naturally Aspirated Turbocharged

Charge Air Cooled
Types of charge air cooling:
- jacket water - 2 loop
- low flow - air-to-air

LPC LPT

C T
HPC HPT

CAC
CAC
T

Engine Engine Engine 20-25:1 gear

C reduction

fluid coupling
Two-Stage Turbocharged Supercharged Turbocompound

Figure 1-4 Engine and air handling system configurations

Figure 4 Engine and air handling system configurations

7
FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Compressing the air through the turbocharger compressor results in an increase in its
temperature. Cooling the charge after this compression process will further increase the
amount of air which can be drawn in. The charge air cooled engine results in a further
increase in power output, and holds both thermal efficiency and emission control
advantages. It is now widely used in heavy duty engines. It is instructive to discuss
nomenclature at this point, as the charge air cooler is referred to as both intercooler and
aftercooler when applied to internal combustion engines. By definition an intercooler is
used to cool the charge between stages of compression, and an aftercooler after the last
stage of compression. A single turbocharger such as that shown in the figure would
suggest to some that the charge air cooler be termed an aftercooler, while others point out
that the engine system then continues with the in-cylinder compression process, making
this cooler an intercooler.

The schematic at the lower left of Figure 4 shows the use of two-stage turbocharging.
Two turbochargers are placed in series to further increase the air supplied and hence
power output of the engine.

The supercharged engine shown next used a crankshaft driven compressor to increase the
air mass supplied to the engine. This configuration is required with the two-stroke
operating cycle, and may be applied to the four-stroke engine as well. It may be used in
conjunction with a turbocharger.

The final configuration shown is the turbocompound engine, where an additional exhaust
turbine is geared directly to the crankshaft, harnessing additional exhaust energy to
provide an increase in work output. The turbine optimizes at a high rotational speed
relative to the engine, necessitating a gear train providing on the order of 20-25 to one
speed reduction. A fluid coupling is also required, to minimize the transfer of speed
fluctuation from the crankshaft (due to the intermittent combustion events of individual
cylinders) back to the high speed turbine. The turbocompound concept was developed in
the 1940s, but has seen very few commercial applications to date.

1.3 The Pressure-Volume Diagram of the Four-Stroke Diesel Engine

The first objective of any engine design is to produce the work required by the customer
to do their job. Work is defined as a force acting through a distance, and the equation
describing work output is

W   F  *  L (1.1a)

8
 BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS

where:
F  applied force  Force
L  dis tan ce over which force is applied  Length
W  resulting work output   Length   Force 

In the reciprocating engine, the energy released in each cylinder is being transferred
through the moving piston to the connecting rod. For this piston and cylinder
arrangement, the applied force is the product of the pressure acting on the face of the
piston, and the piston area normal to the direction of motion. This product multiplied by
the distance over which the piston travels is the work output, and Equation 1.1 is
modified as

W   P   A   L (1.1b)

where:


P  difference in pressure between cylinder and ambient Force Length 2 

A  piston projected area Length 2

The product of the projected area, A, and the change in distance, L, should be
recognized as change in volume, and Equation 1.1 is further modified as

W   P    V  1.1c)

where:


V  change in volume Length 3 
It follows directly that one of the most fundamental engine performance analysis tools is
the Pressure-Volume diagram, tracking changes in pressure as a function of volume
throughout the engine operating cycle. An example Pressure-Volume diagram, for a
four-stroke Diesel engine operating at high load is shown in logarithmic coordinates
Figure 5. Vertical lines indicate the minimum (TDC) and maximum (BDC) volumes in
the cylinder. As the piston moves through the four strokes of the operating cycle, which
was earlier discussed with reference to Figure 2, the volume changes between this
minimum and maximum.

9
FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

3000

2000
C EO I

1000 SO C D

C
om
800 SO I B
Cylinder Pressure [psia]

bu
600

st
io
500

n
400
300
EO C
E

Ex
Co
200

pa
m

ns
pr

io
es

n
si
on
100 F EVO
80
60
50
40 A IVC
IVO Exhaust
30 H
G
EVC Intake
20 BDC
TDC

10
7 8 10 20 30 40 5060 80 1 00 200
Cylinder Volum e [in 3 ]

Figure 1-5 Experim ental P-V diagram for 4-stroke Diesel engine

Figure 5 Experimental P-V diagram for 4-stroke Diesel engine

The four-stroke cycle described earlier will now be reviewed while tracking the changes
in cylinder pressure. In the case shown in the figure the engine is turbocharged; the
cylinder is thus supplied with air at some intake manifold pressure above atmospheric
pressure, and the exhaust gas is transferred to an exhaust manifold, again at a pressure
above atmospheric pressure. Indicated on Figure 5 are the timing of various “events” in
the operating cycle. Because of design limitations pertaining to the camshaft and train

10
 BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS

which actuate the valves, and fluid inertia associated with the intermitent processes, the
intake valve begins opening before the piston reaches TDC at the end of the exhaust
stroke (Location ‘IVO’ in Figure 5). For similar reasons the exhaust valve does not fully
close until early in the intake stroke (Location ‘EVC’). The optimization of these valve
opening and closing events will be further discussed in Chapter 4. As the piston moves
downward on the intake stroke, air is drawn into the cylinder from the intake manifold at
an approximately constant pressure. The piston reaches BDC, and as it begins moving
up on the compression stroke the intake valve closes at the position labelled ‘IVC.’ The
cylinder is now sealed, and as the piston travels upward the air is compressed, resulting
in an increase in pressure and temperature.

Late in the compression process fuel injection is initiated, and after a short delay period,
the combustion process begins, causing a further increase in pressure and temperature.
The piston is now forced down on the power stroke. The point labeled ‘EOC,’ late in the
expansion process, is that where measurable energy release from the combustion process
ceases. Chemical reactions of the combustion products may continue, but no further
energy releases, and a measureable change in the slope of the pressure-volume trace
occurs.

Near the end of the expansion process the exhaust valve opens (EVO), and the in-
cylinder pressure drops as gas rushes out of the cylinder to the lower pressure exhaust
manifold. The exhaust process then occurs as the piston moves upward, pushing the
remaining gas from the cylinder at approximately constant pressure.

Returning now to Equation 1.1c, it should be apparent that the Pressure-Volume diagram
provides a direct indication of the contribution of each process to the work output of the
engine. From the equation, instantaneous work output is given by the product of the
pressure acting on a piston and the change in volume of the cylinder. At any point in the
engine operating cycle, a very small movement of the piston could be selected, and the
pressure assumed constant over the small change in volume. The product of the pressure
and the change in volume is given by the resulting rectangle on the Pressure-Volume
diagram, as shown in Figure 6. Summing up a series of such rectangles allows the work
to be calculated for an entire process, and should be recognized as the area under the
pressure curve, from the minimum to the maximum volume.

W    P   V  (1.1d)

Returning to the Pressure-Volume diagram shown in Figure 5 for the operating engine,
the work output from the cylinder during the power stroke is given by the area under the
pressure curve for that stroke, in going from the minimum to the maximum volume. It
should be noted that the area for this process would go down to a horizontal (constant
pressure) line at the crankcase pressure, enclosing the bottom of the figure. The piston
“sees” the difference between the in-cylinder pressure acting on its crown, and the
crankcase pressure (slightly above atmospheric) acting on the undercrown. For clarity
this is shown in Figure 6.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Pressure

V
P
Cylinder pressure

Crankcase pressure

Figure 1-6 Determining work output from the P-V diagram

Figure 6 Determining work output from the P-V diagram

The work output just described is that produced by the engine during the expansion
process. Work must be done by the piston on the air during the compression process, and
this work input is given by the area enclosed under the compression pressure line from
BDC to TDC. The net result of the combination of compression and expansion processes
is the difference between these two areas, or that enclosed between the compression and
expansion pressure lines.

Additional work transfers are occuring between the piston and the working fluid during
the intake and exhaust processes. For the turbocharged engine the intake pressure is
above atmospheric pressure because of the compression which has already occurred in
the turbocharger compressor. There is therefore work transfer from the gas to the piston
during this intake process, and it is given by the area under the intake pressure curve
from TDC to BDC. During the exhaust process the piston does work on the exhaust gas
in pushing it out of the cylinder, and this work is given by the area under the exhaust
pressure curve from BDC to TDC. Once again, the net result of the intake and exhaust
processes is given by the area enclosed between the intake and exhaust pressure lines. If
the exhaust pressure is greater than that during the intake process, the net result of these
pumping processes is a work transfer from the piston to the gas.

The total work produced by the cylinder is given by the area enclosed by the
compression-expansion loop minus that enclosed by the intake-exhaust loop. In some

12
 BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS

engines (supercharged or highly turbocharged) the intake pressure will be greater than
the exhaust pressure, and the area enclosed by the pumping loop will be summed to that
enclosed by the compression-expansion loop to determine the total work output.

The work output calculated from the Pressure-Volume diagram is the total work
produced by each cylinder of the engine. This is referred to as net indicated work. A
portion of this work is used to overcome mechanical friction, and to drive various engine
support systems (cooling, lube, and fuel pumps for example). The remainder is termed
the brake work, and is available at the crankshaft to provide power for the customer’s
needs.

Further reference will be made to the Pressure-Volume diagram throughout this text, due
to its central position in engine performance analysis. A fundamental objective of engine
performance development is to maximize the work output of the engine for a given fuel
input, while meeting various mechanical and regulated constraints which will be
discussed throughout the text. Although this discussion was based on the Diesel engine a
similar discussion pertaining to a spark ignition engine would be very similar, and is
therefore not repeated here. The qualitative appearance of the Pressure-Volume diagram
would also be similar for the spark ignition engine.

1.4 Engine Performance Parameters

Before proceeding further in the discussion of engine performance, it is necessary that

the parameters by which engine performance is measured and compared be defined. A
great number of parameters have been used, depending on the specific engine type, and
the engineering needs. The most commonly used parameters are defined in this section.

Torque and Power

13
FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Stator, absorbing engine load Measured

Force, F

Coupling force, f

Rotor, coupled to
engine crankshaft R

Figure 1-7 Dynamometer operating principles

Figure 7 Dynamometer operating principles

The work output of the engine is reported in terms of torque, and is generally measured
by connecting the engine to a dynamometer. The principles of this measurement are
shown schematically in Figure 7. By definition, work is the movement of a force
through a distance. The engine’s work output is transmitted through a spinning shaft
which is coupled to the dynamometer. There are many different types of dynamometers,
the operating details of which will not be covered here. In virtually all types of
dynamometers energy absorption takes place in a circumferential element at some radius,
r from the crankshaft centerline. The work per revolution absorbed by the dynamometer
is represented as a force f at a distance r from the crankshaft centerline, acting through
the distance 2r. Balancing of forces requires that the internal force absorbed by the
dynamometer be equal to the force F absorbed by a load cell a distance R from the
crankshaft centerline. The work per revolution is thus given by

W   2    r    f    2    R    F  (1.2)

14
 BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS

where:
r  radius from centerline to load absorbing element in dynamometer  Length
f  coupling force  Force
R  Radius from ceterline to load measurement cell  Length
F  Force measured at load cell  Force

By definition, the torque, or shaft work is given by

T  W 2   R   F  (1.3)

and is also given in units of length times force.

Power is a measure of the rate at which work is done, or in this case the product of
torque and engine speed per the following equation:

P   T   N (1.4)

where:
P  Power  Work Time or Power 
T  Torque   Force    Length 
N  Engine Speed  Re volutions Time

English:
 1 min   2   HP  sec 
P  BHP   T ft  lbf    N rpm       
 60 sec   rev   550 ft  lbf 
     
T ft  lbf    N rpm 

5252

Metric:
 1 min   2 
P  kW    T N  m    N rpm       10 3
 60 sec   rev 
   


  T N  m  *  N rpm  0.1047  10 3 

It should be noted that the power as measured on a dynamometer, and as given in

Equation 1.4 is termed brake power. This is the useful power producing capability of the
engine as available at the flywheel. Other common power measures are indicated power,
and friction power. Indicated power is the total power output produced by the cylinders
of the engine. Friction power is that required to overcome mechanical friction between
moving parts throughout the engine, and to drive devices required for the operation of
the engine, such as the water and oil pumps. The relationship between brake, indicated,
and friction power is

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FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

(Brake Power) = (Indicated Power) - (Friction Power) (1.5)

The water pump and oil pump, along with vehicle specific devices such as fans and
alternators are often referred to as parasitic losses. One must be very specific which of
these parasitic devices have been included when brake horsepower numbers are quoted.
It is general practice in the engine industry to quote brake horsepower ratings which have
accounted for the water and oil pumps, but have not accounted for cooling fans,
alternators, or other devices which may be installed in specific vehicles. In the
automobile industry brake horsepower is generally quoted after having accounted for all
parasitic power losses.

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

Fuel consumption at any given engine operating point is measured in pounds mass per
hour, and is generally quoted as a brake specific quantity, having been normalized by
brake power:
 
 m fuel 
BSFC  
 Power 
 (1.6)

 


where:
 Mass 
BSFC  Brake Specific Fuel Consumption  
  Power    Time 
 

English:
 lbm 
 m fuel 
BSFC   
hr
 P BHP 
 

 


Metric:
 gm 
 m fuel 
BSFC   
hr
 P kW 
 

 


The brake specific fuel consumption is a measure of the thermal efficiency of the engine.
Thermal efficiency can be calculated as the inverse of the brake specific fuel
consumption multiplied by the energy content of the fuel. The energy content is
generally taken as the Lower Heating Value of the fuel, which for Diesel fuel is
approximately 18,500 BTU/lbm. Using this value, the thermal efficiency of a Diesel
engine can be calculated as

16
 BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS

 
 0.1371 
th   
(Diesel only) (1.7)
 lbm 
 BSFC 

 HP  hr 


Mean Effective Pressure

The Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) is a measure of the degree of loading on an engine,
and represents the work done per unit displacement volume. The Brake Mean Effective
Pressure is calculated as

  BHP   NRPC  
BMEP   
  D   N  
  (1.8)

where:
BMEP  Brake Mean Effective Pr essure Force Length 2 
NRPC  Re volutions per cycle  2 for a four  stroke engine


D  Engine displacement Length 3 or Volume 
English:
  P BHP   NRPC    792,000  
BMEP  psi    

  
D in 3   N RPM  


Metric:
  P kW    NRPC   10 3
   
BMEP  kPa   

 D liters   N rev sec 
 

Net Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP), and Friction Mean Effective Pressure
(FMEP), are also commonly referred to, and are calculated by substituting the
appropriate value of power in Equation 1.8.

In the previous section the relationship between the Pressure-Volume diagram and the
indicated work produced by each cylinder was discussed. A physically-based definition
of indicated mean effective pressure is the constant pressure which acting over the same
volume change from TDC to BDC would produce the same indicated work output as the
cyclic pressure trace of the engine. Subtracting the portion required to overcome friction
and drive parasitic loads (FMEP) from the net IMEP results in the BMEP.

Compression Ratio

17
FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

The volume ratio between the maximum and minimum volume of a cylinder of the
engine is generally referred to as the compression ratio of the engine. The compression
ratio is calculated as

 VBDC   Vcl  Vdis 

CR     (1.9)
 VTDC   Vcl 
   

where:
CR  Compression Ratio


Vcl  Clearance Volume Length 3 or Volume 

Vdis  Displacement Volume Length 3 or Volume 
This definition of compression ratio describes the physical combustion chamber, and is
more accurately termed the geometric compression ratio. It is not an accurate portrayal
of the compression process actually experienced by the working fluid. Since the
compression of the in-cylinder gas is influenced by the timing of the valves, fluid flow
losses and heat transfer, an important parameter from a thermodynamics point of view is
the effective compression ratio. The effective compression ratio is given by

 VP  IMP 
CReff    (1.10)
 Vcl 
 

where VP=IMP is the volume as the last point in the intake/compression processes where
the in-cylinder pressure is equal to the intake manifold pressure. It should be noted that
the effective compression ratio changes with engine operating point, tending to increase
with engine speed. The geometric compression ratio is a function only of the physical
dimensions of the engine. In general, the effective compression ratio is only slightly
lower than the geometric compression ratio, but there are cases where large differences
exist. An example is the Miller Cycle, a modification of the four-stroke cycle in which
the intake valves are closed part way through the intake stroke, causing the in-cylinder
contents to be expanded before any effective compression begins. This concept will be
covered further in Chapter 4. Finally, it should be noted that by definition the effective
compression ratio can never exceed the geometric compression ratio.

Mean Piston Speed

Mean piston speed is a concept often used in engine design to address structural
limitations of the pistons, rings, connecting rod, and limits on the piston, ring and liner
interfaces to control friction and wear. The mean piston speed is calculated as

MPS  2   N    S  (1.11)

18
 BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS

where:
MPS  Mean Piston Speed  Length Time
N  Engine Speed  Re volutions Time
S  Stroke  Length

Air-Fuel Ratio

The definition of air-fuel ratio which is generally used is the mass of the air divided by
that of the fuel consumed by the engine at any given operating condition. A sometimes
used alternative term is the trapped air-fuel ratio. This refers to the ratio of air to fuel
which is actually contained in the cylinder for combustion. The trapped air-fuel ratio
will differ from the fresh, or measured air-fuel ratio due to the presence of residual
combustion products remaining in the cylinder from the previous cycle.

Both of these ratios are global ratios representative of the overall contents of the
cylinder. In a spark-ignition engine, where the fuel and air are well mixed prior to
combustion, the air-fuel ratio will be close to the global number throughout the
combustion chamber. However, in the Diesel engine a wide range of local air-fuel ratios
may be seen as the spray of fuel is injected into a cylinder containing only air, and the air
and fuel begin to mix.

Volumetric Efficiency

The volumetric efficiency of an engine is a measure of its actual ability to draw air into
the cylinder during the intake process of the engine. The actual air flow is compared to
the theoretical amount of air which could fill the displacement volume of the cylinder at
the supplied air density. The volumetric efficiency is calculated as

 m actual 
 vol    (1.12)
  ref  VDR 
 

where:
  D   N rpm  
VDR  Volume Displacement Rate   
 NRPC 
 

The reference density is generally taken to be either at ambient or intake manifold

conditions. Using ambient conditions the resulting volumetric efficiency for a
turbocharged or supercharged engine will be well over 100 percent. It is therefore
general practice to calculate the reference density based on intake manifold conditions.

19
FUNDAMENTALS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE

BASIC ENGINE PERFORMANCE CONCEPTS.....................................................................................1

1.1 TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES AND THEIR OPERATING CYCLES......................................1
1.2 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS.................................................................................................................. 5
1.3 THE PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM OF THE FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE..........................................6
1.4 ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS.................................................................................................. 9
Torque and Power...................................................................................................................................111
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption.................................................................................................................
Mean Effective Pressure...............................................................................................................................
Compression Ratio........................................................................................................................................
Mean Piston Speed........................................................................................................................................
Air-Fuel Ratio................................................................................................................................................
Volumetric Efficiency....................................................................................................................................

20