sychologists take different approaches, or perspectives, when attempting to

understand human behavior. For instance, psychologists taking the

biological approach assume that differences in behavior can be understood
in terms of genes, brain structure and hormones, which can predispose a
person to particular health conditions.

Behavioral psychologists emphasise the role of the environment on a person’s behavior,

and believe that we learn new behavior as a result of conditioning. They maintain that
parenting styles, teaching and life experiences all help to shape us as individuals.
The cognitive and psychodynamic approaches look inwards, focussing on the thoughts
and other cognitive processes that lead a person to behave as they do.

Psychodynamic Approach

Different approaches in psychology offer contrasting explanations for many issues.

Taking a biological approach to understand the causes of schizophrenia, for example,
one might refer to twin studies, which have indicated a genetic component to the
disorder. However, the behavior approach emphasizes the correlations between
schizophrenia and being raised in a city as opposed to the countryside (Lewis et al,
1992).

Of course, both genetic and environmental factors often influence the same issue, and
so each of the explanations given by various approaches can help us to further our
understanding in psychology.

Below, we summarise and evaluate five key approaches:

Physiological Approach (Biological)
The physiological approach assumes that biological factors influence our behavior and
mental well-being in a cause-and-effect manner, in the same way as exposure to a
disease can lead to illness. Biological factors include genes, inherited from a person’s
parents, which psychologists believe can influence whether they are predisposed to
some conditions.

The biological approach also focuses on the physical processes that occur within the
central nervous system (CNS), which comprises the brain and spinal cord.
Neuroscientists have found that different areas of the brain serve specific functions,
supporting influence of the brain’s structure on people’s behavior. For instance,
the temporal lobe assists in the processing of language, whilst the frontal lobe plays a
role in our experience of emotions.

As technological advancements have improved scientists’ ability to investigate

processes occurring within the brain, they have been able to identify the role played by
specific regions of the brain. The amygdala helps us to store memories and to
experience emotions. Maguire et al (2000) found that the hippocampus, which serves
important memory functions, was larger in the brains of London taxi drivers, who are
required to store vast amounts of street information in order to fulfill their job.

This study demonstrates how the brain can respond to changing conditions, such as the
need to remember information, with biological adjustments known as neuroplasticity.

The biological approach also seeks to understand humans as a collection of chemical

reactions. For instance, research suggests that levels of neurotransmitters in the brain
such as serotonin play a role in depression.
Hormones circulating in the bloodstream and other organs can also influence our
behavior. Cortisol is released at times of stress in preparation for a fight-or-flight
response to a threat. Other hormones help to regulate biological rhythms, such as the
menstruation cycle in females. Melatonin helps to us to maintain a regular sleep-wake
cycle, resulting in a feeling of tiredness late in the evening.

Stress: Fight or Flight Response

Compared to other approaches, biological perspectives such as the physiological

approach adhere the closest to established scientific methods of studying the human
mind. The approach relies upon the observation of humans and other animals in
experiments. The validity of findings derived from experiments can be tested by other
psychologists, owing to their replicability.

Brain imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),

functional MRI (fMRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans play an increasingly
significant role in the investigation of processes occurring within the brain.

The physiological approach’s strengths lie in its reliance on empirical findings from

experiments and its falsifiability. Unlike the psychodynamic theories of Freud,
hypotheses can be proven or disproven.

The biological approach has led to important developments in the production of drug-
based therapies for the treatment of disorders such as depression. However, questions
remain regarding the success and ethics of other physiological procedures such
as lobotomies, where the connections between sections of the brain are severed,
and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).

Critics view the physiological approach as reductionist, as it ignores the complexities

and unpredictability of humans, their personalities and their behavior. The approach
also ignores to an extent environmental influences, such as learned behavior.

Learn more about biological approaches here

Evolutionary Approach
The evolutionary approach also looks to a person’s biological composition in order to
understand their behavior. But, where physiological explanations cite activity within an
individual and their brain, the evolutionary approach assumes that the mind has been
fine-tuned in response to its environment over many millions of years.

A general theory of evolution was proposed by Charles Darwin in his 1859 book On the
Origin of Species. Darwin’s ideas were in part the result of a trip to the Galápagos
islands. Whilst comparing the anatomy of birds across the islands, he found that the
shape of their beaks varied depending on the environment of the island on which they
lived. He concluded that the birds, which would eventually be known as Darwin’s
finches, had changed from generation to generation, in response to their habitat.

The shape of the birds’ beaks had adapted to enable them to forage for food available
to them more effectively.

This adaptation is the result of natural selection, whereby optimally adapted individuals

are able to feed more, and stand an increased chance of reproducing to produce similar
offspring. Similarly, traits which are desirable in a partner are more likely to be passed
to further generations as a result of sexual selection.

Evolutionary psychologists believe that the principles of evolution can be used to

understand human behavior. Many consider the experience of stress to be a result of
humans’ adaptation to survive predators. As part of the fight-or-flight response to a
threat, the body will adopt a state of alertness in preparation to fend off an aggressor or
to escape them. Today, however, stress no longer serves as significant survival
advantage as it would have to our earlier ancestors.

Like the physiological approach, evolutionary psychology provides credible evidence

explaining why we behave as we do. However, the approach has been criticised for
being reductionist and for failing to account for the individual differences amongst
different people.

Learn more about the evolutionary approach here

Behavioral Approach
The behavioral approach assumes that each person is born a tabula rasa, or blank
slate. Rather than being influenced by genes and biological processes, behaviorists
believe that our outward behavior is determined by our external environment. A person
learns from his or her life experiences and is shaped to behave in a particular way as a
result. Behaviorists look at the behavior a person exhibits, rather than the inner
processes of the mind.

Radical behaviorist John B. Watson (1878-1958) set out the principles of the behavioral
approach in a 1913 paper entitled Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, which would
later be described as the ‘behaviorist manifesto’. He emphasised the “objective” nature
of the approach, believed that scientific methods could be applied to human behavior,
and that a person’s behavior could be observed, measured and quantified through
experimentation (Watson, 1913).

Behaviorists focus on conditioning - both classical and operant forms - as a form of

learning. Conditioning involves the use of a stimulus to evoke a desired response - a
particular type of behavior - from a person or animal. Animal trainers, for instance,
provide dogs with the prospect of a treat (a stimulus) to reward good behavior
(the conditioned response).

Research into classical conditioning was pioneered by physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-
1936). In laboratory experiments with dogs, a researcher would open a door to feed the
animals.

Instinctively, the dogs would salivate at the sight of food.

However, Pavlov observed that the dogs would salivate when the door opened, even
when no food was provided. The dogs had begun to associate the opening of the door
with the receipt of food. In time, the door - an unconditioned stimulus - had become a
conditioned stimulus, evoking the dogs’ conditioned response of salivation.

In 1905, Edward Thorndike identified an alternative form of conditioning in cats, which

he described as the law of effect. B. F. Skinner also observed this behavior in pigeons,
referring to it as operant conditioning. In an experiment where pigeons were fed
periodically through a mechanism in a ‘Skinner box’, he observed that the birds learnt to
enact particular types of behavior, such as turning counter-clockwise, prior to receiving
food. The food was a positive reinforcer of their behavior (Skinner, 1948).
During operant conditioning, one learns to adopt a particular behavior as a result
of reinforcements or punishments. Positive reinforcements involve a desirable reward
such as food. The lessening of an undesirable stimulus is a negative reinforcement.

Punishments can also facilitate operant conditioning. The imposition of an undesirable

event, such as the ringing of an alarm, is a positive punishment, whilst a negative
punishment involve depriving someone of something that they desire.

Whilst conditioning plays an important role in learning, Skinner noted that responses to
stimuli would not continue indefinitely. If a subject provides a conditioned response but
does not receive the stimuli for a period of time, this conditioned behavior disappears
through extinction.

The behavioral approach adopts similar scientific principles to the biological

approaches. Evidence is gathered through the observation of behavior, including in
experiments involving humans and animals.

However, the extent to which the observation of non-human behavior can be applied to
humans is questionable. The behavioral approach is also reductionist in its emphasis on
behavior, failing to account for internal activities which are more difficult to observe,
such as thoughts and emotions.

Moveover, it does not explain the individual differences in behavior that can be

observed amongst individuals who have experienced similar environments.

Behavioral research has many practical applications in situations where learning takes
place. Its findings have advanced developments in teaching, and have led to the
invention by Thomas Stampfl in 1967 of flooding (also referred to as exposure therapy)
as a means of conditioning phobics to accept stimuli which they would otherwise be
fearful of.
Learn more about the behavioral approach here

Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach takes a different view of human behavior to the behaviorists.
Instead of simply observing behavior, it looks at the internal, cognitive processes that
lead a person to act in a particular way.

The cognitive approach was described by Ulric Neisser in his 1967 work Cognitive
Psychology, and focusses on issues such as the encoding, consolidation and retrieval
of memories, emotions, perception, problem-solving and language.

Cognitive scientists often use the metaphor of the brain functioning in a similar way to
a computer. Just as a computer processor retrieves data from a disk or the internet, the
brain receives input signals: visual input from the eyes, sound from the ears, sensations
via nerves, etc.

The brain then processes this input and responds with a particular output, such as a
thought or signal to move a specific muscle. This computer analogy of the brain can be
seen in many cognitive explanations of the human mind.

Cognitive psychologists consider the way in which existing knowledge about people,
places, objects and events, known as schemas, influence the way in which we perceive
and think about encounters in our day-to-day lives.

Schemas develop as a result of prior knowledge, and enable us to anticipate and

understand the world around us. In a famous experiment known as the War of the
Ghosts, psychologist Frederic Bartlett revealed the reconstructive nature of memory,
with its use of schemas to recall past events (Bartlett, 1932).
Whilst cognitive processes are challenging to measure, the cognitive approach uses
scientific methods, including experiments which aim to reveal our internal thoughts
through our actions.

In one such experiment, Loftus and Palmer (1974) presented participants with a video

showing a car crash and asked questions regarding the incident, leading respondents
towards a particular answer.

The results demonstrated the dynamic nature of memory recall and how present events
can influence a person’s recollection of the past.

Cognitive psychology research into memory would later lead to the development of
the cognitive interview, which aims to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies.
Numerous theories of memory have also been produced, including the working memory
model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) and the multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin,
1968).

Learn more about the cognitive approach here

Humanistic Approach
After the psychodynamic approach and behaviorism, the humanistic approach is
considered to be the “third force” in psychology. It emerged in reaction to previous
approaches, rejecting the reductionism of human behavior to a set of stimuli and
responses proposed by behaviorists.

Humanistic psychologists felt that such an approach ignored the human motivations
which drive us, and the free will that we experience to make decisions independently.
They believed that behaviorism focussed too heavily on quantitative research and
scientific methods such as experimentation, measuring responses to produce statistics
which account for groups’ behavioral tendencies, but which failed to understand the true
nature of the individual.

The humanistic approach also rejected the determinism of the psychodynamic

approach, with its assumption that the subconscious and its innate drives lead to a
person’s behavior, rather than his or her free will.

Instead, the humanistic approach assumes that individuals possess some degree of
self-control, are capable determining their own behavior. Whilst beliefs, values, morals
and goals influence our actions, we possess free will and are ultimately responsible for
our behavior.

Humanistic psychologists acknowledge the unique individuality of each person, and

accept that subjective experiences contribute towards our personalities and our
behavior.

Abraham Maslow (1943) developed a Hierarchy of Needs, describing the motivations

that drive each of us.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

These range from survival needs, such as the desire for food, up to a need to achieve
and reach one’s potential. Maslow termed such goals self-actualizing needs, and
claimed that our behavior is driven by these needs. Obstacles hindered a person’s
desire to achieve such goals can lead to them suffering.
Following humanistic principles, Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy, and
advocated that the therapist build rapport with a client, listening to and empathising with
them. Rather than providing harsh criticism, Rogers proposed that the therapist
exhibits unconditional positive regard for the client, regardless of their attitude.

The humanistic approach emphasises the importance of qualitative evidence over the
quantitative, statistical measurements of more scientific approaches. Individuals may be
interviewed and allowed to express their true feelings. Open-ended
questionnaires may also be used, as may client observations and diary-keeping.

The q-sort method is another humanistic research technique.

A person is given two identical deck of cards containing self-descriptive adjectives and
phrases. They are asked to sort the first deck in order of how accurately the cards
describe themselves at present. They then arrange the second deck in order how they
would like to be in an ideal world - their actualised self. Differences in the position of the
same card between decks reveal potential opportunities for personal development.

The approach satisfies the demand for more humanistic values in Western societies
and has resulted in numerous practical applications. For instance, Rogers’ methods of
client-centered therapy have influenced modern-day counselling techniques. Self-help
books and seminars also aim to cater for our need to achieve actualization.

In contrast to biological and psychodynamic perspectives, the humanistic approach

acknowledges the individuality of human beings, along with the free will indicated by our
conscious thoughts.

Yet, humanistic psychology lacks the empirical evidence that the physiological

approach is able to obtain through experimentation. It also ignores the significant value
of biological approaches, including the role played by genes and neurochemistry in
influencing behavior.

Learn more about the humanistic approach here

Psychodynamic Approach
The psychodynamic approach emphasises the role that the internal ‘dynamics’ of a
person’s personality play on his or her behavior. These include the innate drives which
we are born with, but remain unconscious of.

At times, these drives result in the potential for undesirable or socially unacceptable
behavior. Therefore, the mind tries to silence desires, such as sexual drives,
by repressing them. However, repression does not eliminate a person’s impulses, and
internal conflicts can surface as seemingly unrelated problems later in life.

The psychodynamic approach was popularised by the writings of Austrian physician

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud’s publications, which included case studies and
psychodynamic theories on issues such as the human psyche and humor, have led to
him being regarded as the father of psychoanalysis.

Freud identified 5 stages of psychosexual development, during which a person derives

satisfaction from a different area of the body, or erogenous zone. These stages include
the oral stage during feeding, as an infant enjoys comfort from drinking milk. The
later anal stage encompasses a period of toilet training.

Freud believed that if a person was prevented from fulfilling their needs at any stage,
a fixation involving the relevant erogenous zone could occur. For example, if an infant is
unable to feed properly during the oral stage, according to Freud’s theory, they may
later develop a habit of nail biting or smoking.

Additionally, Freud proposed that the human psyche is comprised of three competing

entities: the id, ego and super ego. The id drives impulsive desires, whilst the ego
tempers such desires with the external realities of potentially being punished for
behaving irrationally. The super ego is aware of a person’s actions on others, and is
responsible for feelings of guilt and regret.

More controversially, Freud proposed that males suffer from an Oedipus complex - a
desire for their mother which results in a resentment of their father. Similarly, he
believed that females desire their fathers, as part of an Electra complex.

The psychodynamic approach also regards human behavior as being motivated by a

desire to ‘save face’ - to preserve one’s self esteem and sense of worth. Thoughts
threatening to the ego are confronted with the deployment of defense mechanisms,
which include repression, sublimation and the transference of feelings from one person
to another.

Freud is credited for bringing attention to the influence of subconscious thoughts and
desires on the human psyche.

However, the study of such drives is impossible to objectively observe.

Instead, Freud used psychoanalysis in an effort to gain accounts of his patients’

conditions. He focussed not only on their present condition but used free association,
hypnosis and regression to explore their childhood experiences, their relationships with
their parents and with other family members.
Freud’s cases, which consisted primarily of middle class women living in Vienna during
the early 20th Century, led to him publishing a series of papers. These including case
studies, such as that of Little Hans (Freud, 1909). He also wrote that hysteria in the
case of Anna O, a client of his colleague, Josef Breuer, could be explained using a
psychodynamic approach (Freud, 1895).

Anna O: Sigmund Freud's Case History

Freud’s theories became incredibly influential at the time of their publication, but in later
decades, psychologists began to questions some of his ideas. His reliance on selective
aspects of case studies were the only evidence Freud used to support his theories.
Theories regarding the psyche are also difficult to prove and cannot be falsified.

Focussing on subconscious thoughts and drives, psychodynamic theories also discount

the significance of self-control, through conscious thoughts and free will.

Nonetheless, Freud remains an influence on proceeding generations of psychoanalysts.

A school of psychologists known as neo-Freudian school sought to further develop his

theories. Carl Jung, for a time a supporter of Freud before separating from him, was one
such member of this group. Jung noted the role of recurring motifs and symbols in
cultural works, which he described as ‘archetypes’. He believed that they influence our
ideas and beliefs in a similar way to memory schemas. Freud’s daughter, Anna
Freudego defense mechanisms.