ANDERSON JUNIOR COLLEGE

H2 HIGHER 2
ANSWERS
2018 PRELIMINARY EXAMINATIONS
CANDIDATE
NAME

PDG INDEX NUMBER

H2 BIOLOGY 9744/03
13 SEPT 2018
PAPER 3 THURSDAY

Long Structured 2 hours

and Free-Response Questions

READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST

Write your name and PD group on all the work you hand in.
Write in dark blue or black pen.
For Examiner’s Use
You may use an HB pencil for any diagrams or graph
Do not use paper clips, highlighters, glue or correction fluid.
1 / 26

2 /13
Section A
Answer all questions. 3 /11

Section B 4/5 /25

Answer any one question in the spaces provided on the Question Paper
/75

The use of an approved scientific calculator is expected, where appropriate.

You may lose marks if you do not show your working or if you do not use appropriate units.

At the end of the examination, fasten all your work securely together.
The number of marks is given in brackets [ ] at the end of each question or part question.

This document consists of 13 printed pages and 1 blank page

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Section A

Answer all the questions in this section

1 Apoptosis is an important part of tissue homeostasis. It ensures that cells die quickly and
are safely removed.

Every cell undergoing apoptosis shows a predictable series of changes. The cell shrinks
and breaks up into dead cell fragments bounded by membranes. The membranes of
these dead cell fragments display unique surface ligands, which identify the fragments to
neighbouring cells ingesting these fragments.

Before the apoptotic cell breaks up, cellular DNA is degraded by endonucleases into
small pieces that each differ in size by 180 base pairs.

Fig. 1.1 is an electron micrograph of a cell with ingested dead cell fragments.

Fig. 1.1

(a) (i) Identify one type of cell that can ingest dead cell fragments and explain how the cell
recognises these cell fragments.
• Name: macrophage, neutrophils;
• Idea that proteins on the outside of surface membrane of fragments expressed
during apoptosis;
• These proteins are complementary in shape to the surface receptors on the
macrophages. [3]

(ii) The DNA isolated from apoptotic cells can be analysed to confirm that apoptosis
had indeed been activated.

Using the information above, outline a procedure that can be performed on a tissue
extract to determine whether apoptosis has occurred.
Any 3
• Load DNA samples into the wells of the agarose gel; (submerged in a buffer
solution).
• DNA ladder is loaded into a separate well to add as a size reference;
• Direct current is applied; [3]
 3
• DNA would migrate from the negative end to the positive end;
• Stain the gel using methylene blue to visualise the band;

Compulsory point
DNA bands (reject: fragments) that differs by 180bp would be observed

(b) The understanding of apoptosis in human originated in the nematode worm

Caenorhabditis elegans. Each worm is 1mm long and has a short life cycle. As the worm
is transparent, scientists can follow how every cell in it originated from the zygote.

It was observed that in the formation of an adult worm, 1090 cells were generated, of
which, exactly 131 cells died at particular points during the developmental process.

(i) With reference to the information above, suggest why C. elegans is especially
useful as an experimental organism.

• Short life cycle – grow rapidly/large samples.

• Small size – can be kept in lab, observed under microscope.
• Transparent- used to follow the development of organism/count the numbers of
cells. (must paraphrase pre-amble) [2]

(ii) A technique, known as the genetic screen, is used to identify genes that control a
known process.

• For the case of C.elegans, scientists induced random genetic mutations by

irradiating the eggs.
• The resulting adult worms were then examined.
• Analysis was then carried out to identify the genes that were being mutated.

In one of the genetic screen, it was observed that a particular C.elegans has more
cells than normal as some cells did not die at particular points of the developmental
process.

Suggest an explanation for the above observation.

• Radiation has induced mutation in a gene that control apoptosis.

• Leading a change in the shape/conformation/tertiary structure of the proteins
controlling apoptosis
• Idea of extra cells were found in the worm as these cells cannot undergo
apoptosis. [3]
 4
(c) Fig. 1.2 shows one way in which apoptosis can be triggered.

Fig.1.2

(i) With reference to Fig 1.2, predict and explain how ATP production will change when
cytochrome C is detached from the inner mitochondrial membrane.

• Lower production of ATP.

• Electrons flow through down the electron transport chain is disrupted.
• Proton gradient cannot be established across the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
• Diffusion of H+ ions from inter-membrane space into matrix through ATP
synthase cannot occur [4]

(ii) A particular mutation leads to the excessive production of Bcl-2 protein, disrupting
the apoptotic pathway, leading to B-cell lymphoma, a cancer of B-cells.

• Bcl-2 gene is found on chromosome 18.

• In B-cell lymphoma, a mutation shifts the Bcl-2 gene to chromosome 14,
bringing it close to a powerful gene regulatory sequence.
• This regulatory sequence regulates the production of the immunoglobulin heavy
chain.

Explain why the mutation will lead to B-cell lymphoma.

• Chromosomal translocation would place the bcl-2 gene under an active

enhancer/promoter
• Bcl-2 gene is transcribed and mRNA translated more often.
• High concentration of Bcl-2 protein would lead to decrease
apoptosis/uncontrolled cell division. [3]
 5
(d) A drug, Venetoclax has been developed recently to treat B-cell lymphoma. This drug is
structurally similar to a BH-3 protein.

An experiment was performed on three different patients to investigate the effect of

Venetoclax on lymphoma cells.

The results of the experiment are shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig 1.3

With reference to Fig. 1.3 and the information above, describe and explain the effect of
Venetoclax on cancer cells.

Describe:
• Increase in the number of apoptotic cells + cite at least one data;
o Data 1: from 2-3% dead cells to 8 to 9% dead cells)
o Data 2: from 3-4% to 18 -19% dead cells
o Data 3: from 5% to 16-17% dead cells)

Explain:
• Venetoclax binds to Bcl-2 protein;
• Bcl-2 no longer binds to Bax;
• Higher concentration of free Bax attach to the mitochondrial membrane/acts and
release cytochrome C into the cytoplasm;
• Activates caspase, to digest cellular biomolecules, leading to apoptosis of cancer
cells; [4]
 6
(e) Justify the idea that apoptosis is a defence mechanism in humans.

• Cytotoxic T cells induce apoptosis of virus infected cells

• To prevent release of more mature virus to infect other cells

• Cells with gene mutation at tumour suppressor genes/proto-oncogene are being

destroyed via apoptosis.

• Reject: apoptosis occurs to “mutated cells”/cells with DNA damage.

• Prevent accumulation of mutation/uncontrolled cell division/

• To accept: to prevent passing down of mutation to daughter cells

• Telomere reached Critical length induced apoptosis

• to prevent genes from being eroded. [4]

[Total: 26]

2 While modern therapeutic antibody production can involve other cell models, therapeutic
antibodies are conventionally produced by animals (usually mice). For many specific
antibodies, animal models remain the only viable option. Fig. 2.1 shows the simplified
process of antibody production in rabbits.

Fig. 2.1

(a) Comment on the ethical implications of using animal models for large scale antibody
production.

• Method causes severe inflammation and bleeding in the animals, resulting in severe [3]
 7
distress or discomfort in animals;
• A single animal should not be used to over-produce too many antibodies;
• Other alternatives should be explored / considered before animals are used for
antibody production;

(b) Prokaryotic cells can potentially be used for antibody production. Fig. 2.2 shows a
possible experimental procedure for antibody production in bacteria cells.

Fig. 2.2

To obtain DNA sequences of the light and heavy chain genes, light and heavy chain
mRNA are extracted from plasma cells and then DNA containing the gene sequences are
produced using reverse transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).

The procedure for reverse transcriptase PCR is as follows:

• The extracted mRNA is mixed with DNA nucleotides, reverse transcriptase and
incubated at 65oC for 5 minutes.
• RNase is then added to the reaction mixture and incubated at 42oC for 50
minutes, then 70oC for 15 minutes.
• Primers, Taq polymerase and DNA nucleotides are then added. The first cycle of
PCR is carried out at 72oC, before the normal three-stage PCR cycle is carried
 8
out for the next 40 cycles at temperature 95oC, 60oC and 72oC.

(b) Explain the advantages of extracting mRNA instead of the DNA gene sequence from the
genome of plasma cells.

• Ref. to the idea that there are more copies of mRNA and DNA gene sequence in
cells;
• mRNA has introns removed;
• accurately reflects the codon sequence for the actual amino acid sequence of the
polypeptide chain expressed;

[max 2m] [2]

(c) For the reverse transcriptase PCR procedure, explain why

(i) extracted mRNA is mixed with DNA nucleotides and reverse transcriptase.

• Reverse transcriptase synthesises cDNA (using the mRNA as template strand); [1]

(ii) RNase is added to the reaction mixture and eventually incubated at 70oC for 15
minutes.

• RNase degrade mRNA template strands

• RNase is then denatured by incubation 70oC to stop degradation reaction; [2]

(iii) the first cycle of PCR is carried out at 72oC instead of the usual 95oC.

• cDNA template is single-stranded;

• there is no need to heat to 95oC to separate cDNA into single strands; [2]

(d) However, production of fully functional antibodies, which originate from eukaryotic cells, in
prokaryotic cells is expected to be unsuccessful.

Explain why production of fully functional antibodies in prokaryotic cells is expected to be

unsuccessful.

• Lack of RER and Golgi apparatus;

• RER: to provide a conducive microenvironment for the folding of the polypeptide chain
into the correct tertiary structure;
• Golgi apparatus: for the linking of the light and heavy chains by the formation of
disulphide linkages; [3]

[Total: 13]
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3 To protect crops against insects, many crops such as maize and cotton are genetically
modified to contain a gene (Bt) from a bacterium, Bacillius thuringiensis. The Bt gene
codes for a toxin, which inserts into the insect gut cell membrane, paralyzing the digestive
tract and killing the insects which eat the crop. When these genetically modified Bt crops
first became available, it was predicted that insect pests would develop resistance to
these toxins.

(a) Explain how Bt resistance may arise and spread in an insect population.

• Bt resistance arise as a result of: random mutations in the gene that encode
proteins in the cell surface membrane / gene that encodes for protein that can bind to
Bt to prevent it from inserting into the cell membrane / AVP in the insects
Any 2
• Presence of Bt toxin creates a selection pressure during natural selection
• Insects with resistance to Bt toxin/ not killed by Bt toxins are at a selective
advantage / will be selected for
• can survive, reproduce and pass on alleles that confer Bt resistance to their
offspring / next generation [4]

(b) The extent of Bt resistance in insect pest species was surveyed in 2005 and in 2011. The
level of resistance in each species was classified according to the highest percentage of
resistant individuals recorded in any population anywhere in the world. Three levels of
resistance were identified:

• <1%
• 1–6%
• >50%

There were no reports of populations of insect pests having between 6% and 50% of
resistant individuals.

The results of the surveys are shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1
 10

(i) Discuss whether the data provided can support the hypothesis that rise in Bt
resistance is due to introduction of Bt crops, including limitations of the data.
2 marks on data analysis
From 2005 to 2011,
• percentage of insect pest species susceptible to Bt toxins decreased from 89%
to 31%
AND
• Percentage of insect pests with high level of resistance/ >50% resistance
increased from 11% to 38.5%
OR
• Number of insects pests with low level of resistance / < 1% resistance
increased from 0% to 23% OR Number of insects pests with low level of
resistance / 1-6% resistance increased from 0% to 7%
( reject merely quoting raw values since the total number of insect pests surveyed
is different- must convert to percentage)

3 marks on limitations
• Small sample size
• Survey only done in two years
• the damage done by the insect pests surveyed ;
• the number of reports of resistance for each species ;
• the proportion of populations with the highest percentage of resistant individuals
;
• the effect on the crops concerned of pest resistance at the levels given (<1%,
etc.) ;e.g. the losses in yield
• the geographical spread of the insect pest species that show resistance [4]

(ii) Justify the prediction that both insect-caused and non-insect-caused damages to Bt
crops will increase with climate change.

• Extreme weather conditions- must give example e.g. drought / water logging /
flood decreased growth of crops
• Increasing temperature degrade Bt toxin  Bt toxin n longer effective against
insects

• Increasing temperature will increase metabolism of insects/ shorter

maturation/life cycle/ reproduce in a shorten span of time  More insects to
feed on crops
• increase in reproduction rate of insects , increase the development of
resistance to Bt toxin
[3]

[Total: 11]
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Section B

Answer one question in this section

Write your answers on the lined paper provided at the end of this Question Paper.

Your answers should be illustrated by large, clearly labelled diagrams, where appropriate.

Your answers must be in continuous prose, where appropriate.

Your answer must be set out in parts (a), (b), etc., as indicated in the question.

4 (a) Explain how fluidity of biological membranes can be maintained and the importance
of fluidity to membrane function. [10]
How fluidity is maintained:
• Definition of fluidity: phospholipids and proteins free to move within layer /
transversely;
• Membrane fluidity can be regulated by regulating the level of cholesterol and
phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails in the membrane;
• Membranes freeze at a lower temperature if it has a higher proportion of
phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails and cholesterol; (Accept
reverse argument)
• Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails have kinks that keep the phospholipid molecules
in the membrane from packing close together at lower temperatures,
enhancing membrane fluidity; (Accept reverse argument)
• Cholesterol prevents close packing of phospholipids in the membrane,
preventing membrane from freezing at lower temperatures;
• Membrane prevented from being overly fluid / integrity of the membrane is
maintained at higher temperature as cholesterol restricts phospholipid
movement through its interactions with phospholipids;
• Stabilising the lipid bilayer through hydrophobic interactions;

[max 4m]

Importance:
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• ref. to need for invagination / pinching in of the membrane during cytokinesis /
cell division;
• ref. to invagination of the membrane during phagocytosis / pinocytosis /
endocytosis;
• ref. to formation of vesicles for the transport / trafficking of proteins from rough
ER to Golgi apparatus / other membrane-bound organelles;
• ref. to formation of vesicles from trans face of the Golgi apparatus during
protein sorting;
• ref. to fusion of vesicles from endoplasmic reticulum / containing proteins to
form cis-face of the Golgi apparatus for protein modification;
• ref. to fusion of vesicles with cell surface membrane to release secretory
molecules from the cell / exocytosis;
• ref. to fusion of endocytotic vesicles with lysosomes;
• ref. to membrane fluidity allowing movement of protein molecules embedded
on the cell surface membrane for dimerisation of receptors;
• ref. membrane fluidity to allow locomotion of unicellular organisms e.g.
amoeba;
• ref. diffusion of small or non-polar molecules through the membrane, e.g. water
/ oxygen / carbon dioxide (at least one named example);
• ref. to transmembrane transport proteins changing conformation, such as
sodium-potassium pump / ligand-gated sodium ion channel / voltage-gated
sodium ion channel (at least one named example);

[max 4m]

Examiners’ comments:
There were many answers which incorrectly described fatty acid chains instead of
fatty acid tails of phospholipids. Many students also confused phospholipids with
cholesterol, describing cholesterol as have kinks or being unsaturated or saturated.
There were also students who describe fatty acid chains which were branched.

Many answers included general statements about membrane functions in cells

instead of relating fluidity to these functions. The general statements were not
credited. Also, merely mentioning that ‘membrane fluidity is important for
endocytosis or exocytosis’ is insufficient. It is important to explain clearly what the
membrane fluidity was critical to, i.e. ‘membrane fluidity is important for the
invagination of the membrane during endocytosis’ or ‘membrane fluidity is essential
for the secretory vesicles to fuse with the cell membrane during exocytosis’ would
be clearer answers which will gain credit.

(b) A human body can synthesise more than 90,000 different types of proteins. The
complete set of proteins present in the various cells of an individual is known as the
proteome.

A human’s genome is constant, whereas the proteome of a human is constantly

changing.’ Discuss this statement. [15]

(discuss for human’s genome is constant) due to nature of genes being DNA
• HF1 – idea of structure of DNA (sugar-phosphate back backbone and H-bonds
between bases) contribute to DNA being a stable molecule?
• HF2 - How semi-conservative DNA replication before cell division takes
place accurately/ described (during S phase of interphase) NOT mitosis
• HF3 - complementary base pairing (A=T, C≡G)
 13
• HF4 - DNA polymerase with proofreading function
• HF5 - Specific sequences have specific functions  important that the functions
are maintained / Examples introns, exons, promoters, distal control elements
(enhancer/ silencer), centromeres, telomeres
• HF6 - one gene, one protein hypothesis (1mRNA?)
• HF7 – How cell cycle checkpoints ensure mutations are not passed to future
generations of cells Tumour suppressor gene
• HF8 - How mitosis ensures genetic stability (or give example such as spindle
fibre pull sister chromatids to opposite poles) / nuclei of daughter cells are
genetically identical or receive the same number and type of chromosomes as
the original parent nucleus,
• HF9 - Function/ why mitosis is important: stem cells during growth of human
and renewal and repair: replace dead or damaged cells by new cells which are
genetically identical to original cells so that cells (used in growth/
renewal/repair) can carry out the same function;
• HF10 – idea that telomeres acts as “disposable buffer”/ gets shortened first so
that genes at the chromosomal ends remain intact/ prevents the loss of vital
genetic information with each round of replication/ trigger apoptosis when
critical length is reach

(discuss against human’s genome is constant)

• HA1 - Exposure to radiation / chemical carcinogens causes structural damage
to DNA/induce mutation + cite an example below
o e.g. UV light (causes thymine dimer formation)
o e.g. chemicals (such as nitrous acid chemically reacts with base)
o e.g. ethidium bromide (intercalates into DNA)
• HA2 - DNA replication is not always perfect  Spontaneous mutation – DNA
polymerase adds the wrong base, and is not being rectified.
• HA3 - (nature of damage) Such structural damage causes wrong nucleotide(s) /
extra nucleotide(s) / missing nucleotide(s)/ change in chromosomal structure
e.g. chromosomal translocation

• HA4 - During B cell development, somatic recombination occurs/ DNA

rearrangement occurs on the light and heavy chain/ VDJ segments (must have
heavu and light chain?)
• HA5 - Gametic cells: Generation of gametic variation as a result of meiosis (not
all cells in the same human body have same genome)
• HA6 - Process that generate variation: crossing over, independent assortment
of homologous chromosomes
• HA7 - Errors in mitosis leading errors in number of chromosomes e.g.
aneuploidy/ mosaic Down syndrome

• Link1 - (link between genome and proteome) Proteins are derived from protein
synthesis. Their unique amino acid sequences (coded for by the DNA sequence
of their genes) determine their folding thus their tertiary, quaternary structure
which enables them to perform their unique functions.

(discuss for human’s proteome is constantly changing)

• PF1 - need for changing protein expression as cells grow and specialise
(Human development/ human needs?

• PF2 - upregulation/ down regulation of enzymes (examples of mechanism

stated?)

• PF3 - temporal expression e.g. according to human developmental phase (fetal

 14
haemoglobin)/ respond to environment changes (growth factors/ cell
division/apoptosis)

• PF4 - spatial expression (different cell types requires different proteins to form
different structure to perform different functions)

• PF5 - Why there is protein variety, classification of proteins/different class of

protein for different functions/purpose (Examples: Transport/ enzymatic activity/
cell-to-cell recognition/ receptor binding/ cell signalling/intercellular joining/
stabilizing proteins/ respiration)
• PF6 - environmental factors (e.g. exposure to sun, increase melanin production)
• PF7 - post translational modification  alternative splicing  different mRNA
(also nucleic acid) formed (support variety of proteome)
• PF8 - post translational modification  chemical modification such as
phosphorylation/ glycosylation/ addition of lipids

(discuss against human’s proteome is constantly changing)

• PA1 - the need for constancy in the proteome for the proteins involved in
fundamental life processes, such as respiration idea of conserved proteins/
housekeeping proteins (no matter the time/ space in a human)

• PA2 – due to degeneracy of genetic code, there might be mutations in the

genome but there will be no change in the mRNA codon amino caid
especially when the mutation occurs on the wobble base of the DNA base
triplets

QWC (address all sections)

Examiners’ comments
Those candidates who appreciated the meaning of ‘proteome’ were able to engage
effectively with this title and make links to a range of topic areas with which they
were familiar. Stronger candidates used a clear line of explanation and
argumentation to form the bulk of the essay content.

Relevant issues for consideration included the significance of mutation, the

generation of variation during meiosis, various forms of genetic modification and a
discussion of the possible consequences of these changes to the genome. For the
proteome, candidates could have discussed the need for changing protein
expression as cells grow and specialise. A small number of candidates discussed
the need for constancy in the proteome for the proteins involved in fundamental life
processes, such as respiration. A discussion of conserved proteins would have
improved the quality of responses of some candidates.

A few candidates misread the question and answered it in terms of ‘the human
genome and proteome’ instead of ‘a human’s genome and proteome’. Although
many relevant issues were still explored, it meant that the essay had an emphasis
on evolutionary change in a population as opposed to the uniqueness of the
individual (examiner’s interpretation).

Reference to transport
Hydrophilic channels involved in facilitated diffusion;
For specific ions and polar molecules to pass through;
Channel proteins have fixed shape/ carrier proteins can undergo rapid changes
In shape in oprder to transport specific sunstances;
Na+ and K+ pumps involved in active transport;
Actively pumps 2K+ into cell and 3Na+ out of cell against concentration gradient;
 15

Reference to enzymatic activity

Enzyme embedded in membrane with its active site exposed to substances;
E.g. inner membrane of mitochondria contains ATP synthase;
For the synthesis of ATP/ in oxidative phosphorylation;

Reference to cell to cell recognition

Glycoproteins serve as identification tags;
Antigens serve as markers;
To recognize specific cells fo development of tissues and organs;
Reference to antibody-antigen binding
Antigens act as cell identity markers
Foreign antigens can be recognized and attacked by immune system;

Reference to receptor binding

Chemically signally between cells;
Protein receptors that have binding site with specific shape;
Binds to a transmitter (hormone or neurotransmitter);
Causes conformational change to the protein;
That relays message to the inside of the cell
E.g. receptor on post-synaptic membrane/ receptors for cyclic AMP/ receptors
for signal transduction pathway/ receptors for hormonal regulation (insulin
receptors);
protein phosphorylation cascade in cell signalling

Reference to intercellular joining

Proteins in adjacent cells are hooked together in various kinds of junctions;
Tight junction: membrane fused to prevent leakage of fluid;
Anchoring junction: fasten cells together into strong sheets;
Gap junctions: provide channels between cells for passage of ions and small
molecules;

Reference to stabilizing proteins

Carbohydrates chains of glycoproteins and glycolipids projects into aqueous
environment surrounding cell;
Form hydrogen bonds with water molecules which stabilize the membrane;

[Total:25]

5 (a) Explain why more energy is released from the oxidation of triglycerides as
compared to the same unit mass of glucose and outline the problems of using
triglycerides as the main respiratory substrate instead of glucose in animals. [10]

• triglycerides contain two times more hydrogen atoms / greater ratio of

hydrogen to oxygen atoms / more C-H bonds as compared to the same
mass of glucose;
• Can be used to generate greater number of NADH and FADH during Kreb’s
cycle / dehydrogenation reactions;
• Release more high energy electrons to the electron transport chain;
• Generate more ATP by oxidative phosphorylation;

• Glucose is polar / hydrophilic due to presence of many hydroxyl groups;

• Glucose is therefore soluble in aqueous medium, can easily be transported in
blood and cellular cytoplasm;
 16
• Small molecule so can diffuse through blood vessels / across the cell surface
membrane through the glucose carrier proteins / via facilitated diffusion;

• Triglycerides are non-polar / hydrophobic due to the fatty chains /

hydrocarbon chains;
• Triglycerides are insoluble in aqueous medium, cannot be easily transported in
aqueous medium / needs to form lipoprotein complexes with proteins to be
transported in blood;
• Cannot easily cross the cell surface membrane / needs to enter the cell via
receptor-mediated endocytosis;

• AVP;

• QWC (one point from each section);

(b) Discuss the inter-relationships of membranous organelles in eukaryotic cells and

outline the implication of absence of membranous organelles in prokaryotic cells. [15]
Protein synthesis and secretion
• Nucleus : site of transcription (of DNA to form RNA )

• Using RNA nucleotides/ RNA polymerase and DNA template found in the
nucleus

• RNA ( accept merely mention mRNA?) formed leave via nuclear pores to enter
cytoplasm

Ignore reference to free ribosomes

• Ribosomes found on rough endoplasmic reticulum carry out translation of

proteins of the endomembrane system OR proteins to be secreted from the cell

• Route from protein: Proteins are then packaged into transport vesicles 
Golgi body

• Within the Golgi body, proteins from RER are further modified, sorted and
packaged

• Lipids from smooth ER are also modified, sorted and packaged

• From Golgi body to cell surface membrane via secretory vesicles / to other
parts of the cell via the Golgi vesicles

• Award once only for pinching off/ budding of vesicles from organelles +
fusion of membrane of vesicles with the destination organelle

E.g. Membrane of transport vesicles fuse with the membrane (of the cis face) of
the Golgi body and deposit their proteins within the lumen of the Golgi body OR
secretory vesicles which bud/ pinch off from (the trans face of the) Golgi body to
fuse with CSM

• award once only for movement of vesicles : With the aid of microtubules, the
secretory vesicles will move to the cell surface membrane

Mitochondria / chloroplast with RER (TYS)

• mitochondrion produces ATP for rough endoplasmic reticulum for protein
 17
synthesis/translation

• RER synthesises proteins/ enzymes which are required for respiratory reactions
in mitochondria/ photosynthesis in chloroplast

Mitochondria and chloroplast ( 2013 Promos) in plant cells

• G3P formed in chloroplast due to light-independent reaction/ Calvin cycle

(converted
to glucose)
• pyruvate ( accept glucose?) undergo aerobic respiration / the link reaction,
Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation to be broken down for ATP
production in mitochondria
• Oxygen is formed (In thylakoid space) as a product of the photolysis of water
during light-dependent reaction
• Oxygen (diffuses out of the chloroplast and into the mitochondrial matrix) acts
as the final electron acceptor (in the electron transport chain to produce
water) in oxidative phosphorylation
• Carbon dioxide produced in aerobic respiration during Krebs cycle and link
reaction / by oxidative decarboxylation
• (Diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplast) for carbon fixation in the light
independent reaction/Calvin cycle;

Lysosomes
• Vesicles containing digestive/ hydrolytic enzymes
• Which bud off / pinch off from the Golgi apparatus
• Phagocytosis: Substances taken in by the cell in a vacuole/ phagocytic
vesicles are fused with lysosomes
• Autophagy: A damaged organelles or small amount of cytosol becomes
surrounded by a membrane, which then fuses with lysosome to form a vacuole
in which the unwanted materials are digested.

Implication of absence of membranous organelles in prokaryotes

• DNA not enclosed by nuclear membrane
• This allows transcription and translation to take place simultaneously
• No RNA processing (since transcription and translation occurs
 18
simultaneously)
 no post-transcriptional control of gene expression
• Fewer genes / smaller genome: since there is no need to encode transport
proteins/ signaling proteins/ etc on membranes of organelles
• Protein secretion (no exocytosis/ endocytosis) can only occur through
channel proteins / facilitated diffusion

• Stalked particles / respiration / photosynthesis ( for cyanobacteria) occurs

only on cell surface membrane

[Total: 25]
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