In English there are ten modal verbs: can, could, may, must, might, will, would, shall, should,

ought to.

The verbs “dare” and “need” can be used both as modal verbs and ordinary verbs.

There are also three modal paraphrases: to be able to, to be allowed/permitted to, to have to.

General Characteristics of Modal Verbs

1)Modal verbs never change their form. They do not have “-ed”, “-s” or “-ing” endings.

Ex. I can swim.

My brother can swim.

2)In order to form negatives we use “not” after the modal verb. Modals never use auxiliary
verbs (“do/does/did”) to form negatives.

Ex. Cars must not be parked here.

I cannot swim.

You mustn’t say that too often.

3)In order to form interrogatives we invert the modal verb and the subject. Modals never use
auxiliary verbs (“do/does/did”) to form interrogative forms.

Ex. Can you help me?

Must I go to bed?

4)Modal verbs may only be followed by:

-Short Infinitive (V1)

Ex. I may meet her tomorrow.

-Short Perfect Infinitive (have + V3)

Ex She might have left.

They could have had an accident.

-Short Continuous Infinitive (be + Ving)

Ex. She should be arriving soon.

It may be raining.

-Passive Forms (be + V3); (have been + V3)

Ex. The interview can be arranged for a later date.

They must have been advised to act differently.

5)Modal verbs do not exist in all tenses. There is normally no Past Tense Simple form.

Ex. The train must be in the station. (present)

The train might arrive late. (future)

I can come immediately.

I may ring you tomorrow.

Some modals can refer to the past.

Ex. I could read before the age of five.

They must have talked about that earlier.

6)Modals are used in short answers and question tags.

Ex. You will participate in his meeting, won’t you?

Well, I might.

You cannot drive, can you?

No, I can’t.

7) We cannot use one modal verb after another.

Ex. She must can do it.

She must be able to do it.

You should can do that.

You should be able to do that.

!!! Apart from modal paraphrases there are other verbs that have a similar meaning to that of
modal verbs and that may be used instead of the modals: to be supposed to, to manage to,
used to and to be to.
!!! “Ought to” always uses the preposition “to”. Other modals never use the Long Infinitive.

Ex. You oughtn’t to speak to your mother like that.

Ought they to have behaved differently?

Oughtn’t we to have done something about that?

!!! “Dare” and “need” may act like modals or like ordinary verbs.

Ex. Modal Verb

I dare say you are wrong.

How dare you talk to me like that!

Ordinary verb

I wouldn’t dare to talk to her now.

I wanted to but I did not dare to!

I dare you to jump over the fence. (challenge)

Modal Verb

You needn’t say anything about us.

Need I add anything extra?

Ordinary Verb

You don’t need to say anything about us.

Do I need to add anything extra?

Can ; Could – Cannot, Can’t (for the negative)

Modal Paraphrase = “to be able to” (for in/ability)
We use this modal verb to express the following:

-in/ability

Ex. She can help you with this. She is an expert.

We can buy a new house now.

 I couldn’t apply for citizenship.

They couldn’t open the safe that night.

In all of these situations the replacement with the modal paraphrase “to be able to” is
possible.

-im/possibility

Ex. Anyone can make a mistake.

There could be trouble if the Government tries to adopt this measure.

Your actions could have had serious consequences.

If you light a match in here you could cause a fire.

-logical deduction

Ex. This invoice can’t be right.

She went to the wrong door. She can’t have seen the sign.

That could be Tom’s car that I hear. He said he was coming.

It could have been just an attempt to boost his popularity.

-prohibition

Ex. They cannot leave until I say so!

You can’t park your car here!

-permission

Ex. Can/Could I leave early, please?

When I was a child I could stay up late at weekends if I promised to be good.

-offers/requests

Ex. Can/Could I help you out?

Can/Could I use your phone?

Can/Could you give me a hand?

!!! “Could” is felt as being more polite and remote than “can” which is more informal and
friendly.

-idiomatic use

Ex. I couldn’t agree more! (I strongly agree)

 You could at least tell me what they said! (I think you should)

It couldn’t have been better! (It was perfect).

!!! “can” vs. “to be able to”

-we commonly use “can” and not “to be able to” with the meaning “know how to” and with
verbs of perception (see, smell, hear, feel, etc)

Ex. Can you read music?

She can understand Chinese perfectly.

I can smell something burning.

They could feel the rain drops falling on their skin.

!!! “could” vs. “was/were be able to”

-we normally use “could” in order to express general ability in the past whereas “was/were
able to” is used to express specific success on one occasion or ability in a peculiar situation.

Ex. She could see the beautiful landscape in the distance from her parents’ house.

He couldn’t read and write until he was 6 years old.

vs.

Last night I was able to unlock the door after several attempts.

There were two questions on Geography and he wasn’t able to answer either of them.

The climbers were able to find their way out of the cave through a tunnel.

She was able to swim across the river although it was very wide.

In all of the four examples above the use of “could” is possible.

The robber could run like the wind (general ability) and so he was able to escape
(specific success/ability on one occasion) the policemen chasing him.

May
Modal paraphrase = “to be allowed/permitted to” (for permission)
We use this modal verb to express the following:
-permission

Ex. You may leave whenever you want.

They may stay here as long as they want to.

In all of these situations the replacement with the modal paraphrase “to be allowed/permitted
to ” is possible.

-possibility

Ex. We may go to Portugal next year.

I may not finish this report by the end of the week.

They may not have left yet.

-concession

Ex. They may live next door but we see each other very rarely.

I may not be very intelligent but I can find the answer to this question.

He may have written books on the subject but, believe me, he is not an expert.

-prohibition

Ex. You may not talk during the examination.

You may not go until you have finished this exercise.

-offers

Ex. May I be of any assistance?

-expressing hopes and wishes

Ex. May you both be happy and healthy!

May all your dreams come true!

Might – Mightn’t (for the negative)

We use this modal verb to express the following:

-possibility

Ex. This expedition might be quite dangerous.

 You might not like it.

They might have made another decision at the last moment.

She might have been trying to contact them before she died.

In all of these situations “might” and “may” can be used in free variation with the difference
that “might” is felt as being more polite and formal.

-concession

Ex. He might not wear glasses but his eyesight is not very good.

He might seem tough but he is actually very sensitive.

She might have studied hard but she got poor results in the exam.

They might have tried very hard to arrive on time but they were late.

-suggestions

Ex. You might try phoning her on her old number.

You might try asking John. He knows a lot about computers.

-requests (rarely and quite formal)

Ex. Might I borrow some money from you?

Might I take a look at your paper?

!!! “might” is not the past tense of “may” but simply another modal verb. While its meaning
may sometimes overlap with that of “may”, it should always be regarded as a modal verb on
its own.

Must – Mustn’t (for the negative)

Modal Paraphrase = “to have to/to have got to (informal)” (for obligation
and necessity)
We use this modal verb to express the following:

-obligation

Ex. You must take off your shoes when you enter this room!

-necessity
Ex. These wires must touch or the system will not work!

In order to qualify for this job you must have had several years’ experience.

You mustn’t have had any driving convictions if you want to be part of our team.

Both switches must be on before the drill will work.

-logical deduction

Ex. It’s Monday morning. There must be someone at the office!

He goes to Spain every year. He must like it.

What’s that noise? It must be raining.

You look very relaxed. It must have been a great holiday!

I cannot find my wallet. I must have left it in the car.

-prohibition

Ex. You mustn’t cross this line!

They mustn’t reveal detail about our plan!

!!! “must” vs. “to have to/to have got to” (for obligation and necessity)

“Must” is more personal and it tends to express somebody’s opinion or an internal

obligation, that you feel yourself whereas “to have to/to have got to” is used to express an
obligation that is imposed from the outside. Often this may refer to laws and regulations.

Ex. I must do something about the garden. It’s in a terrible state.

I must start learning seriously if I want to pass the exam.

You must talk to your sick grandmother.

I must get this jacket cleaned soon.

vs.

She has to wear protective clothing and a helmet at all times on the building site.

You have to be eighteen to learn to drive.

He will have to wake up at 7am because classes start at 8am.

I had to wear a uniform during my high school years.

!!! “mustn’t” vs. “don’t/doesn’t have to; needn’t; don’t/doesn’t need to”

“Mustn’t” expresses interdiction while “don’t/doesn’t have to; needn’t; don’t/doesn’t need
to” express lack of necessity/obligation.

Ex. You mustn’t enter this room!

Employees must not use the computer for personal problems.

You mustn’t take photos inside the museum.

vs.

You don’t have to help me. I can manage on my own.

You needn’t have bought any butter. We’ve got plenty.

!!! “needn’t” vs. “don’t/doesn’t have to; don’t/doesn’t need to”

There is a tendency in language to use “needn’t” when we express a personal lack of

necessity and they authority comes mainly from the speaker while “don’t/doesn’t have to;
don’t/doesn’t need to” are used when we refer to an official lack of necessity and the
authority does not come from the speaker. It’s more about rules and regulations.

Ex. You needn’t have cooked so much food.

vs.

You don’t need/don’t have to carry an ID on you at all times.

!!! “needn’t have” vs. “didn’t need to/ didn’t have to”

When you do something in the past which you later discover was not necessary, you use
“needn’t have”.

Ex. We needn’t have rushed to get to the cinema. We arrived far too early and had to
stand outside in the cold for half an hour.

If you don’t perform a certain action in the past because you knew beforehand that it was not
necessary you use “didn’t need to/ didn’t have to”

Ex. The second showing of the film wasn’t until 11pm so we didn’t need to rush to get to
the cinema.
Will – Won’t (for the negative)
We use this modal verb to express the following:

-annoying present habits

Ex. He will smoke when I’m trying to eat.

He’ll sit for hours staring into the fire.

David will leave his homework until the last minute. It’s infuriating.

-refusal

Ex. He won’t join us despite our asking him to.

They won’t help us unless they go first.

The car won’t start. (the refusal to work properly for things)

-habitual things or typical present behaviour

Ex. They will spend hour talking on the phone to each other every night. (They often do
so.)

-strong probability

Ex. There is an official looking letter for you.

Oh! That will be from the tax office.

Have you seen Robert?

He will be at lunch now.

What’s Helen doing?

She will be typing those documents I talked to you about.

You will have seen my article in today’s Times, I assume. (You must have seen)

-orders/obligation

Ex. All passengers will proceed to Gate 7 immediately.

-truths/facts
Ex. This car will only run on unleaded petrol.

-requests/offers

Ex. Will you please be quiet in here!

Will you help me carry these bags?

Would – Wouldn’t (for the negative)

We use this modal verb to express the following:

-annoying past habits

Ex. They would keep on talking when I just wanted to go home.

He would sing while I was trying to sleep.

-refusal (in the past)

Ex. He wouldn’t do what I asked him to.

I wanted him to participate in this project but he simply wouldn’t.

-habitual things or typical past behaviour

Ex. Every morning I would get up at the crack of dawn and take the dogs for a walk.

My grandma would always bring a present when she came to visit.

-deductions about the past

Ex. I first went to Italy when I was at university; that would have been in 1992.

-requests/offers

Ex. Would you do me a favour?

Would you like a lift to the airport?

!!! “would” vs. “used to” (to express typical behaviour in the past)

When we express typical past behaviour we use the modal verb “would” only with verbs of
movement whereas “used to” may be used with both verbs of a movement and stative verbs.

Ex. I used to be much slimmer when I was younger.

 I would be much slimmer when I was younger.

I used to have a different opinion at that point.

I would have a different opinion at that point.

My dad used to read me a story before I when to bed.

My dad would read me a story before I went to bed.

He used to run 10km every week when he was in college.

He would run 10 km every week when he was in college.

Shall – Shan’t (for the negative)

We use this modal verb to express the following:

-offers (for “I” and “we”)

Ex. Shall I help you clear the table?

Shall we give you a hand?

-asking for advice (for “I” and “we”)

Ex. What shall we do now?

Shall I take the exam now or wait till later?

Shall we postpone the meeting until tomorrow?

-official orders (for all persons)

Ex. All the candidates shall remain in their seats until the end of the examination.

You shall learn and do what I say and whenever I say!

Should – Shouldn’t (for the negative)
Ought to – Oughtn’t to (for the negative)
We use these modal verbs to express the following:

-advice

Ex. You should/ought to go out more often.

You shouldn’t/oughtn’t to drive so fast.

You should/ought to have told me before.

You should/ought to have revised a bit more.

He looks exhausted. He should/ought to go to bed earlier.

-obligation/duty

Ex. People should/ought to treat each other better.

People shouldn’t/oughtn’t to be so aggressive.

They shouldn’t/oughtn’t to smoke in here.

She should/ought to have been here 3 hours ago.

You should/ought to have turned up on time.

We use only the modal verb Should to express the following:

-instructions

Ex. All visitors should report to reception.

-speculation/ prediction about the future

Ex. She’s very ambitious so she should do well in her job.

We shouldn’t be late; there isn’t much traffic.

He should be home by now; he usually gets home at 6.

-hypothesis (in conditional clauses and after “in case”)

Ex. If anyone should phone, tell them I’ll be back.

Should anyone phone, tell them I’ll be back.

 If I should be late, start the meeting without me.

Should I be late, start the meeting without me.

Call him in case something wrong should happen.

Make sure everything is ready in case they should arrive earlier.

-in “that-Clauses” after: a)verbs such as: demand, propose, advise, urge, suggest, order,
recommend, decide, maintain, require, etc.

Ex. I suggest that we should take a break.

I suggested that we should have taken a break.

They recommend that we should stop here.

b)adjectives such as: important, necessary, surprising, essential,

vital, interesting, normal, recommendable, advisable, fitting, mandatory, obligatory,
necessary, etc.

Ex. It is essential that you should contact us as soon as possible.

It is recommendable that they should follow all the instructions.

It is interesting that she should want to leave the company.

c)nouns such as: desire, recommendation, suggestion, proposal,

advice, decision, demand, requirement, intention, wish, etc.

Ex. My desire is that they should be included in the experiment.

Our suggestion is that you should file a complaint against your employer.

His intention was they should have remained there.

-purpose after a)“so that”, “in order that”

Ex. They spoke quietly so that nobody should hear them.

We moved here in order that you should find a job.

b)correlative constructions “for fear....... should”, “lest........should”

Ex. They left early for fear/lest they should get stuck in traffic.

He disguised himself for fear/lest he should be recognized.

 She made a short speech for fear/lest the audience should get bored.

She locked the dogs in the yard for fear/lest they should run away.

!!! these correlative expressions are negative. As a result, the verb that we use with them,
after “should” must always be affirmative. Otherwise we get a double negation.

!!! “should/ought to” vs. “had better” (to express advice)

We use “had better” to express advice in a particular situation whereas “should/ought to”
are used to express advice in both a general situation and in a particular one.

Ex. Employees should/ought to hand in a 3 months’ notice when they leave the company.
(general)

You had better hand in your notice if you plan to leave.(particular)

Doctors should/ought to treat their patients with more respect.(general)

They had better talk to the doctor about scheduling the surgery. (particular)

Likelihood
We can use a number of words and phrase to say how likely is that something will happen.

-Verbs and Verb Phrases

Ex. I bet you never write to her.

I’d stake my life on his honesty.

I assume he knows what he is doing.

-Adjectives and Adjectival Phrases

Ex. He is likely to arrive before 9.

He is bound/certain/sure to arrive at some point.

-Noun Phrases

Ex. The chances are that the interest rates will fall in the near future.

There is every chance/likelihood of interest rates falling.

There is a strong/distinct possibility that interest rates will fall.

It’s odds on/The odds are that he will succeed.

-Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases

Ex. Presumably, he’ll be back.

In all probability this will happen today.

Maybe/Perhaps this morning – conceivably within the next half an hour.

Doubtless he’ll ring first.

Improbability
We use a number of words and phrases to say how unlikely it is that something will happen.

-Verbs and Verb Phrases

Ex. I wouldn’t bet on her coming first.

I doubt we’ll meet again.

In situations like this, climbers don’t stand a chance of surviving.

-Adjectives and Adjectival Phrases

Ex. She is highly unlikely to have survived the earthquake.

-Noun Phrases

Ex. The prospects of them surviving are slim.

I have my doubts about this.

There is very little/no chance/likelihood that the exchange rate will improve.

There is a slight/slim possibility of her coming back.

Hopes are fading as to their chance of survival.

The odds are against them returning safe.