Nurulfadzilah Hasan MFKE2006 TTT

HF MESSAGING SYSTEM WITH AUTOMATIC LINK ESTABLISHMENT
(ALE) CAPABILITY
NURULFADZILAH BT HASAN
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Electrical)
Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
JANUARY 2006
BAEAGIAN A -P.ng6rl$ Xe4rr.mr.
Adalrhdisahtanbaluwap.oj€kpenyclidikan
resisini telahdil.ksaukrn mclsluikcrj.srm. .nt6ra
dengan
Disal*rn olch:
Tandataryu i Tarikh:
Nama :
Ja*at6n :
(Cop rasmi)
' Jita penyedio@,,etis/projet nelibatkon kedasona.
BAEAGIAN B - UrtuL K.grnrrn Pcj.b.t SoLohhP.trg.Jlrtr Slrw.z.h
T€sisini telrh dipcrikladandi*ui oleh:
Nlmr drn Alam.t

Psm€.iksaluar : Pml, Dn AIi Yeor Bi! Md Shrtrtf
fimb.L! RcLtor(At d.dik)
Kohj Uoivcrrtd K.Jumtc|I r Ut rr l[.LytL
T.nrr flfiq Kob.ng Grjrh
02600Arau
P.rli!
Nlrna drn Alamat

Pomc.ikssDal.m I : Prof, Mrdyr Muh|mm.d Mor'ln Bln AtrE.d Z.bldt
Frkuld Kejrroacn.r El.kfik
UTM. Skod.i
PcmcriksaDalantr :
Nam! Penyclial.in :
Cikasd!)
Disahkanoleh PoaolongPcnd.ft.r di S€kolahPengajianSiswazah:
TandltaDgE!: .............................. Tarikh:
Nahr : g.Allp.S.AI!.ALI,..AllDRllIIHg
I declale tlat this thesis entitled "HF Messaging Systen With Automatic Link
Establishnent (ALE) Capability" is the rcsnlt ofmy own researchexceptas cited irl
the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not
concunently submittedin candidatue of any other degree.
Author : Nurulfadzilah Bt Hasan

Date : 16January2006
iii
Dedicated to my beloved husband and parents

Thank you for the inspirations
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost the greatest praise to Allah for the blessings, guidance and
for the gift of courage for me to accomplish this research.
Highest gratitude and appreciation goes to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Ahmad Zuri Sha’ameri, Thank you for the invaluable guidance, support, knowledge
and advices given to me throughout this study. I would also like to thank En. Wan
Roz for the priceless help and information he gave to make me better understand this
research.
To En. Jeffri Ismail, DSP lab technician, I would like to thank him for his
technical assistance throughout my study. Also, special thanks to Rahim, Sazali and
Fong Fong for helping me complete the field-testing for this research. To my friends
who are always there for me, thank you so much.
Finally, I would like to express endless appreciation to my family for their

love, patience and prayers.
v
ABSTRACT
HF radio spectrum, ranging from 3 to 30 MHz can be utilized for voice and
data communication. One of the benefit of using HF for communicating is that HF
system is low-cost, requires minimum equipments and easy to set up. But due to the
unpredictability and propagation problems such as multipath fading, interference and
attenuation, communication using HF becomes very challenging. Besides, the
availability of the channels varies depending on the time of day, seasons and the
condition of the ionosphere. The purpose of this research is to design a HF
messaging system equipped with Automatic Link Establishment (ALE) capability.
ALE is an adaptive radio technology for automatically establishing communications
over HF single sideband (SSB) links using the best frequency possible. The objective
of the research is to design a messaging system that permits reliable data
transmission over the HF radio with minimum cost and equipments. This research
also looked at the feasibility of implementing ALE as software, designed using
Visual C++ programming language. Equipments used in this research are
commercial HF radio and modem, which are both controlled by the software. Field
testing is conducted between UTM Skudai and several places in Malaysia to verify
the performance of the system. From the results, it is proven that by applying
adaptive radio technology, propagation problems can be overcome and reliability of
data transmission can be improved. Moreover, amateur radio users can use the
system, as it requires minimum equipment.
vi
ABSTRAK
Spektrum radio berfrekuensi tinggi atau HF iaitu dari 3 hingga 30 MHz boleh
digunakan untuk komunikasi suara dan juga data. Salah satu kebaikan menggunakan
HF ialah ia memerlukan kos yang rendah, memerlukan peralatan yang minimum dan
mudah untuk dibangunkan. Tetapi disebabkan keadaan HF yang sukar dijangka dan
masalah perambatan seperti multipath fading, gangguan dan pelemahan isyarat
menjadikan komunikasi menggunakan HF mencabar. Selain itu, kebolehan sesuatu
frekuensi bergantung kepada faktor masa, musim dan keadaan lapisan ionosfera.
Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk membina sebuah sistem pesanan HF yang dilengkapi
dengan kebolehan capaian pautan secara automatik (ALE). ALE merupakan
teknologi radio ubah suai yang digunakan untuk menghasilkan jaringan komunikasi
dalam jalur tunggal (SSB) HF menggunakan frekuensi yang terbaik. Objektif kajian
ini adalah untuk menghasilkan sistem pesanan HF yang membolehkan penghantaran
data melalui HF dilakukan dengan baik menggunakan kos serta peralatan yang
minimum. Kajian ini juga bertujuan mengkaji kesesuaian menghasilkan ALE dalam
bentuk perisian, yang dibangunkan menggunakan bahasa pengaturcaraan Visual
C++. Peralatan yang digunakan dalam kajian ini adalah radio HF dan modem HF
komersil yang mana keduanya akan dikawal oleh perisian yang dinyatakan tadi.
Kajian lapangan diadakan antara UTM Skudai dan beberapa tempat di Malaysia
untuk menguji prestasi sistem tersebut. Keputusan yang diperolehi dapat
membuktikan bahawa dengan menggunakan teknologi radio mudah ubah suai,
masalah perambatan dapat diatasi dan kebolehpercayaan penghantaran data
ditingkatkan. Malah, sistem tersebut dapat digunakan oleh pengguna radio amatur
kerana ia memerlukan peralatan yang minimum.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENT
PAGE
CHAPTER TITLE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xviii
LIST OF APPENDICES xx
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Objective 2
1.3 Problem Statements 3
1.4 Scope of Study 4
1.5 Research methodology 4
1.6 Thesis Outline 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 The Ionosphere 8
2.2.1 Variations of the Ionosphere 10
2.3 HF Radio Propagation 12
2.3.1 Multipath Effects on HF Propagation 14
viii
2.4 Automatic and Adaptive HF Communication System

16
2.5 Recent Developments in HF ALE Messaging
2.6 Summary
17
19
3 FREQUENCY PREDICTION FOR HF
COMMUNICATION
3.1 Introduction 20
3.2 Types of Frequency Prediction 21
3.3 Ionospheric Measurement 21
3.3.1 Ionograms 22
3.3.2 MUF and LUF Calculations 23
3.4 Important Factors in Frequency Prediction 24
3.4.1 Ionospheric Models 24
3.4.2 Geometry of The Circuit 25
3.4.3 Ionospheric Index 25
3.4.4 Other Parameters 26
3.5 Advanced Stand-Alone Prediction System (ASAPS) 27
3.5.1 ASAPS GRAFEX Frequency Prediction
3.5.2 ASAPS Field Strength Prediction 27
3.5.3 Frequency Prediction for UTM Skudai-Kota
Bahru Circuit 30
3.5.4 Frequency Prediction for UTM Skudai- 30
Chemor Circuit
3.6 Summary 34
37
4 AUTOMATIC LINK ESTABLISHMENT (ALE)

4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 ALE Protocols and Operational Rules 40
4.2.1 ALE Signal Structure 42
4.2.1.1 Word Structure 43
ix
4.2.1.2 Coding 45
4.2.1.3 Frame Structure 46
4.2.2 Calling Protocol 47
4.2.3 Scanning 50
4.2.4 Sounding 51
4.2.5 Link Quality Analysis (LQA) 52
4.2.6 Automatic Channel Selection 53
4.2.7 Oderwire Messages 54
4.3 Summary 55
5 SYSTEM DESIGN and IMPLEMENTATION
5.1 Introduction 56
5.2 Equipments Setup 56
5.2.1 HF Transceiver 57
5.2.2 HF Modem 58
5.2.3 Dipole Antenna 61
5.3 System Design 67
5.3.1 PACTOR Data Format 69
5.3.2 ALE protocols 70
5.3.2.1 Frame Structure 70
5.3.2.2 Linking to another station 72
5.3.2.3 Sounding and Link Quality Analysis 73
(LQA) 75
5.3.2.4 Scanning 76
5.3.2.5 ALE Database 78
5.3.2.6 Comparison With Standard ALE 79
Systems
5.3.3 Graphical User Interface (GUI) 80
5.4 Summary 83
6 FIELD TESTING RESULT

6.1 Introduction 85
6.2 Equipments setup 86
6.3 Selection of Field-test Sites 87
x
6.3.1 Kota Bahru 88

6.3.2 Chemor 90
6.4 Channels Selection 91
6.5 Field-testing Timeslots 92
6.6 Results and Discussions 93
6.6.1 Skudai-Kota Bahru Reults 96
6.6.1.1 Sounding Results During Timeslot 1 97
6.6.1.2 Sounding Result During Timeslot 2 103
6.6.1.3 Sounding Result During Timeslot 3 109
6.6.1.4 Comparisons Between Skudai-Kota 116
Bahru Results and ASAPS Prediction
Results
6.6.2 Skudai-Chemor Result 118
6.6.2.1 Skudai-Chemor Sounding Results 118
During Timeslot 1
6.6.2.2 Skudai-Chemor Sounding Results 125
during Timeslot 2
6.6.2.3 Comparisons Between Skudai-Kota 131
Bahru Results and ASAPS Prediction
Results
6.7 Summary 133
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1 Conclusions 135
7.2 Recommendations for Future Works 136
REFERENCES 138
APPENDICES 143
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO.
3.1 Station specification for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit 31
3.2 Station specification for Skudai-Chemor frequency 34
prediction
4.1 ALE Operational Rules (listed in order of decreasing 41
precedence)
4.2 ALE word type and its functions 43
5.1 Preambles and their functions 71
5.2 Example results of LQA 77
5.3 Tables in ALE database. 79
5.4 Comparisons of ALE 80
5.5 Functions available on the system’s GUI 82
6.1 List of channels used in field-testing 92
6.2 Timeslots allocation 93
6.3 LQA Score categories 95
6.4 Skudai-Kota Bahru Result Analysis for Sounding made 99
by Skudai during timeslot 1
by Kota Bahru during timeslot 1
6.6 Summary of LQA results for Skudai-Kota Bahru Circuit 103
during timeslot 1
xii

6.9 Summary of LQA Result for Skudai-Kota Bahru Result 109
during Timeslot 2
6.12 Summary of LQA Result for Skudai-Kota Bahru Circuit 115
during Timeslot 3
6.13 Result analysis for Sounding made by Skudai during 120
timeslot 1
6.14 Result analysis for Sounding made by Chemor during 123
timeslot 1
6.15 Summary of LQA Results for Skudai-Chemor Circuit 125
during Timeslot 1
6.16 Result analysis for Sounding Made by Skudai during 127
Timeslot 2
6.17 Result analysis for Sounding made by Chemor during 129
timeslot 2
6.18 Summary of LQA results for Skudai-Chemor Circuit 131
during Timeslot 2
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 The ionosphere layers 9
2.2 HF propagations 13
2.3 Multipath in HF propagation 15
3.1 Vertically indices ionosonde 22
3.2 Upper and lower frequency range for HF sky wave 28
communication
3.3 GRAFEX frequency prediction table for Skudai-Kota 31
Bahru circuit
3.4 Field Strength Table for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit 34
3.5 GRAFEX frequency prediction table for Skudai- 35
Chemor circuit
3.6 Field Strength Table for Skudai-Chemor Circuit 37
4.1 ALE state diagram 42
4.2 The general structure of an ALE word 43
4.3 ALE word coding and interleaving process 45
4.4 Frame Structure 46
4.5 Basic call structure 48
4.6 Multiple channel call protocol 49
4.7 Structure of a sound 52
5.1 Kenwood TS570D HF transceiver 57
5.2 Connection between transceiver to computer using 58
RS-232C cable
5.3 Kantronics KAM ’98 modem 59
5.4 Wiring to connect the modem and transceiver 60
xiv
5.5 Connection between HF modem and transceiver 60

5.6 System setup 61
5.7 Dipole antenna 62
5.8 Dipole Antenna Vertical Plane Radiation Pattern 63
5.9 Dipole antenna horizontal Plane Radiation Pattern 64
5.10 Yagi antenna horizontal radiation pattern 65
5.11 Contruction of dipole antenna 66
5.12 Dipole antenna at DSP Lab, UTM 68
5.13 System flowchart 66
5.14 Basic structure of ALE 70
5.15 General structure of an ALE frame 71
5.16 Flowchart for link establishment 72
5.17 Call, response and acknowledgment frames 73
5.18 Sounding frame 75
5.19 Sounding process 73
5.20 User interface for the system 79
6.1 Equipments setup for field-testing 86
6.2 Location of field testing sites with estimated antenna 87
radiation pattern
6.3 Equipments setup at Kota Bahru station 89
6.4 Antenna setup at Kota Bahru 89
6.5 Equipments setup in Chemor 90
6.6 Antenna setup at Chemor 91
6.7 LQA result for sounding by Skudai station during 98
timeslot 1
6.8 Channels Ranking for Sounding by Skudai During 98
timeslot 1
6.9 LQA result for sounding made by Kota Bahru during 101
timeslot 1
6.10 Channels ranking for sounding by Kota Bahru during 101
timeslot 1
6.11 LQA result for sounding made by Skudai station 104
during timeslot 2
xv
6.12 Channels Ranking for Sounding by Skudai during 105

Timeslot 2
timeslot 2
timeslot 2
6.15 LQA result for sounding made by Skudai station 110

during timeslot 3
6.16 Channels ranking for sounding by Skudai during 111
timeslot 3
timeslot 3
timeslot 3
6.19 Comparisons between highest-ranked channels and 116
OWF values for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit: sounding
by Skudai
OWF values for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit: sounding
by Kota Bahru
6.21 LQA result of sounding by Skudai during timeslot 1 119
6.22 Channel ranking for sounding by Skudai during 120
timeslot 1
6.23 LQA result of sounding by Chemor during Timeslot 1 122
6.24 Channel ranking for sounding by Chemor during 123
timeslot 1
6.25 LQA result of sounding by Skudai during timeslot 2 126
6.26 Channel ranking for sounding by Skudai during 126
timeslot 2
6.27 LQA result of sounding by Chemor during timeslot 2 128
6.28 Channel ranking for sounding by Chemor during 129
timeslot 2
xvi

OWF for Skudai-Chemor Circuit: sounding by
Skudai

OWF for Skudai-Chemor circuit: sounding by
Chemor
xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
φI - Angle of incidence
fc - Critical frequency
k - Correction factor
fN - Plasma frequency
h - Height
hm - Height of a layer’s peak
R - Levels of solar activity

Ap - Geomagnetic effects
Kp - Geomagnetic effects
TCC - Calling cycle
TSC - Scanning call cycle
TLC - Leading call section
Ts - Total scan period
Td - Dwell time
Trw - Redundant word time
Ts - Total scan period
Twr - Wait-for-response time
L - Length of the antenna
F - Desired dipole antenna frequency
xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AFSK - Audio FSK

ALE - Automatic Link Establishment
ALF - Absorption limiting Frequency
AMD - Automatic Message Display
AMTOR - AMateur Teleprinting Over Radio
ASAPS - Advanced Stand-Alone Prediction System
ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
BER - Bit-Error Rate
BUF - Best Usable Frequency
CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access
CME’s - Coronal Mass Ejection
CRC - Cyclic Redundancy Check
CS - Control Signals
CSMA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access
CW - Morse Code
DBM - Data Block Mode
DCE - DataCircuit-terminating Equipment
DTE - Data Terminal Equipment
DTM - Data Text Message
EIRP - Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
EMUF - E-layer Maximum Usable Frequency
EPR - Estimated Power Required
EUV - Extreme Ultraviolet
FEC - Forward Error Correction
xix
FSK - Frequency Shift Keying

GTOR - Golay Teleprinting Over Radio
HF - High Frequency
ISI - Inter Symbol Interference
LAN - Local Area Network
LQA - Link Quality Analysis
LSB - Least Significant Bit
LSB - Lower Side Band
LUF - Lowest Usable Frequency
MCMC - Malaysian Communications and Multimedia
Commission
MSB - Most Significant Bits
MUF - Maximum Usable Frequency
OWF - Optimum working Frequency
PACTOR - Packet Teleprinting Over Radio
RTCE - Real-Time Channel-Evaluation
RTTY - Radio Teletypewriter
SINAD - Signal–plus-noise-plus-distortion to noise-plus-
distortion ratio
SMARTNET - Skywave Management for Automatic Robust
Transmission Network
SNR - Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SSB - Single Sideband
TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access
TNC - Digital Terminal Node Controller
UD MUF - Upper Deciles Maximum Usable Frequency
UT - Universal Time
xx
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A ASAPS Prediction Results 143
B Kenwood TS570D Transceiver Specifications 148
C Kantronics Kam ’98 Modem Specifications 150
D Experimental License For HF 153
E LQA Results For Skudai-Kota Bahru Field-Testing 156
F LQA Results For Skudai-Chemor Field-Testing 161

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
For decades, HF radio frequencies spectrum from 3 to 30 MHz has been used
as a medium for long distance communication. This is possible because these bands
of frequencies are reflected back to earth by free electrons in the ionosphere layer.
By using the proper frequency and set of equipments, a person can communicate
with another person as far away as on the other end of the earth via the HF layer.
Moreover, transmissions of digital data such as text, fax and images is also possible
by using HF modem, which converts digital data into analog form when transmitting,
and converts analog data to digital form when receiving.
Compared to satellite communication, the cost to set up and maintain a HF

communication system is much lower [Abdullah et. all, 2003]. Also, unlike the high
payment needed to use satellite communication services, the usage of HF does not
require payment to any service provider. HF communication however, suffers from
several propagation problems and effects from the variation of the ionosphere layer.
But today, with new technologies and many researches done, HF radio’s usage has
been expanded and propagation problems can be overcome. Adaptive and automatic
2
radio technology for example, permits modern radio systems to adjust automatically
to changing propagation condition [Hess, 2000].
The purpose of this research is to design a HF messaging system that has

automatic link establishment (ALE) capability. The messaging system allows digital
data to be exchanged via HF medium. ALE is an adaptive radio technology, which
make HF radio communication more reliable and less prone to propagation problems
by automatically selecting the best channel to use at any given time and place.
1.2 Objective
The objective of this research is to allow effective and reliable data

transmission over HF radio with ALE capability. The system is to be built with
minimum cost and equipments so that it can be made available to amateur radio
operator, telemetry and shipping. The main features of this research are as follows:
i) Design a HF messaging system

ii) Improve the reliability of data transmission of the messaging system
by including ALE capability to the messaging system.
iii) ALE is implemented as software.
iv) Commercial modems and radios are used as the building block of
the system.
v) Field testing is conducted to verify the system.
3
1.3 Problem Statement
Unlike telephone line and fiber optic, the HF environment is not noiseless as
interference does exist; transmitted signal is distorted and with high noise levels
[Goodman, 1992]. The effects of multipath fading and interference are significant in
HF communication. Moreover, its propagation environment is also constantly
changing due to the seasonal and diurnal variations in the ionosphere. Propagation
conditions vary by location, frequency, season, time of day, and can be affected by
unexpected ionospheric disturbance.
The main challenge in HF communication is to choose the most suitable

frequency to be used for communication. Conventionally, radio operators must
always listen to HF channels, to find available channel for communication. However,
in order to do this, the operators must be highly trained in operating a HF radio,
besides knowledgeable in HF radio propagation and channel predictions. Another
way is by using propagation prediction programs that predict the best channel based
on empirical data. Unfortunately, this is not the best way to determine the best
channel for communication. The frequency prediction method does not give real time
channel evaluation because all the data are obtained from calculation and forecasting.
Sometimes, the data acquired are not accurate. This is due to unpredictable
propagation factors such as sporadic E-layer propagations, interference from other
users on an otherwise usable channel [Johnson et al, 1997]. To solve this problem,
ALE is used. ALE performs real time channel evaluation, and helps select the most
suitable frequency to be used at different time of day.
Even though ALE can help improve the reliability of HF communication,

available ALE systems today are in a form of optional equipment for HF system. The
equipment is usually known as ALE controller and has its own modem for ALE
purposes. Thus users who want to experience the benefits of using ALE, has to buy
the expensive equipments and end up having two different modems, each for ALE
and data transmission.
4
1.4 Scope of Study
Existing systems such as ALE controllers developed by Rockwell-Collins

Company [Rockwell-Collins, 2004] and Rhode-Schwarz Company [Rohde-Schwarz, 2004],
implement ALE as additional equipment, which controls an HF radio. However in
this research, ALE is implemented as software and part of a messaging system. Thus
in the system developed in this research, no additional equipment is needed for ALE.
The scope of this research are as follows:
i) This research does not involve building a HF radio and HF modem.

Existing radio and modem is used.
ii) The equipment compatible with the system are limited to
KENWOOD TS-570D HF Transceiver and Kantronics Kam 98 HF
modem. This is because other equipments require different
controlling methods and may not be suitable for the system
designed in this research.
iii) Unlike existing systems, this system will use the same modem for
both data transmission and ALE purposes.
1.5 Research Methodology
The following steps are taken to achieve the research objective:
i) To understand the basic concept and problems, literature and

technology review on HF communication was done. Review on ALE
technology and available HF messaging systems is also required for
comparison and reference.
5
ii) Attend DSP and digital communication courses to enhance basic

knowledge on the area of the research.
iii) The system design begun with building a messaging system using
Visual C++. This system connects two computers via HF radio as a
medium. The program is capable to control basic functions of both
transceiver and modem such as transmitting data and scanning
through channels (for transceiver).
iv) The next step is to design the ALE system, first for single channel
followed by multiple channels. Next sounding processes, together
with link quality analysis (LQA) are included to the system.
v) Before testing the system, frequency prediction was done. The

purpose of this is to choose the suitable channel to use for field-
testing. Advanced Stand-Alone Prediction System (ASAPS) is the
frequency prediction software chosen used for this purpose.
vi) The final step was field-testing that which was conducted at several
sites in Malaysia.
1.6 Thesis Outline
This report is divided into seven chapters. Chapter 1 is the introduction;

which includes objective, scope of study, and problem statement. Next, in chapter 2,
the literature review on HF radio, including its propagation characteristic and
problems. Other than that, recent developments in adaptive HF radio communication
systems are also presented. Then chapter 3 describes on frequency management and
prediction, an important tool in HF communication. Next, explanation on ALE is
presented in chapter 4. In this chapter, the concept and theory of ALE is described
6
including the frame structures and protocols used. Following after that is Chapter 5,
which concentrate in explaining system design and implementation. This chapter
explains in detail how the system is built, including equipments used, system
requirements and ALE protocols. Then the result of the system’s field-testing is
presented in chapter 6. Here, the LQA results are presented using graphs and then
discussions are done based on the results. Finally the last chapter, which is chapter 7,
is for conclusion and recommendations.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The ionosphere layer plays an important role in HF communication as the

refraction of HF radio wave occurs in this layer. Thus, the condition of the
ionosphere layers and the ionization level directly effects HF propagation. But HF
propagation also faces other problems such as multipath fading, noise and
interference. With such problems, communications using HF radio is very
challenging but not impossible. Generations of researches proves that HF can be
improve and become a reliable medium for wireless communications. This chapter
explains about HF radio communications, including its propagation characteristics,
new technologies in HF radio communications and available HF radio systems
available today.
8
2.2 The Ionosphere
The ionosphere is a region in the atmosphere that extends from about 60 km

to 500km above ground. Ionosphere contains many positively charged ions, and free
electrons, both produced by ionization. Ionization is a process where electrons are
stripped off from neutral atoms of gas molecules in the ionosphere layer to form
positively charged ions. Ionization is caused by the extreme ultraviolet (EUV)
radiation from the sun. The stripped off electrons which are light and free to move
are responsible for refracting HF radio waves. Generally, the greater the number of
electrons the higher the frequencies that can be used [Australian Space Weather
Agency, 2005]. There are four layers of ionized particles, different in altitudes and
the number of electrons, which are the D, E, F1, and F2 layers as shown in Figure
2.1. The approximate heights for the layers are as follows:
• D layer : 50 to 90 km
• E layer : 90 to 140 km
• F1 layer : 140 to 210 km
• F2 layer ; over 210 km
During daytime, all four layers are present with height approximately from 50
to 600 km above the earth [NTIA, 1998]. At night however, only the F2 layer is
present because the layers D, E and F1 layers become very much depleted of free
electrons and disappear almost completely. Thus, ionosphere boundary also moves
upward to about 100km. Sometimes, sporadic E is also present in the E layer during
both the day and night.
9
Figure 2.1 The ionosphere layers
Between the layers, only the E, F1, sporadic E (when present) and the F2
layers can refract HF waves. The D layer [McNamara, 1991] absorbs or attenuates
HF waves instead of refracting it. The E layer is the lowest region that can refract
radio waves. This layer however is only present during the day with maximum
ionization during noon. At night, only a small residue level of ionization remains in
this region. Sometimes, there exists another region in the E layer, which is called the
sporadic E layer. This layer has irregular cloud-like layers of ionization but share
common characteristics as the normal E layer. The sporadic E layer often lasts for a
few hours and move about rapidly under the influenced of high altitude wind patterns
[NTIA, 1998]. Above E layer is the F1 layer, which is not considered an important
layer in reflecting HF waves. This is because generally, signals that penetrate the E
layer will penetrate through F1 layer as well and reflected by the F2 layer. Besides
that, F1 layer also absorbs the HF waves [NTIA, 1998]. The most important region for
HF radio communication is the F2 layer. The F2 region has the highest altitude
making it the most ionized region and is present 24 hours a day. Actually, during the
night, the F1 layer merges with the F2 layer, resulting in a single F layer. More over,
10
F2 layer usually refracts the highest frequencies in the HF range and its high altitude
allows the longest communication paths.
2.2.1 Variations of the Ionosphere
The ionosphere is not a stable medium that allows the use of one frequency
over the year, or even over 24 hours [Australian Space Weather Agency, 2005]. The
main variations of the ionosphere, which must be taken into account, are diurnal
variation, seasonal variation, solar cycle and finally the variations with latitude.
2.2.1.1 Diurnal Variations
Throughout the day, the critical frequencies vary due to the availability of the
solar radiation. The presence of the sun is the primary force for ionization to occur.
So generally, when there’s plenty sun radiation, ionization will occur more rapidly
producing more free electrons. Starting from dawn, electrons are productively
produced in the ionosphere, causing the frequencies to increase until reaching their
maximum at noon. After that, the frequencies begin to fall due to electron loss and at
night, the regions D, E and F1 disappear. For the F2 layer, the diurnal variation is
rather complicated because it survives during the night. So all communication during
the night is by the F2 region and absorption of radio waves is lower. Through the
night, frequencies gradually decrease reaching their minimum just before dawn.
11
2.2.1.2 Seasonal Variations
The ionosphere also varies throughout the year accordingly to the seasons.
This is because the solar zenith angle (angle measured at the earth's surface between
the sun and the zenith) has a seasonal as well as diurnal variation, and also because
of the neutral atmosphere from which the ionosphere is created. For the E region, the
frequencies are greater in the summer than in winter. For the F region, around the
solar minimum, the summer noon frequencies are generally greater than those in
winter, but during solar maximum, the condition changes. Winter frequencies are
higher than those in summer. This condition is called the seasonal anomaly. In
addition, frequencies around the equinoxes (March and September)are higher than
both in summer and winter [Australian Space Weather Agency, 2005].
2.2.1.3 Solar cycles
Solar cycles take the length of about 9 to 14 years [Australian Space Weather
Agency, 2005]. During this cycle, the sun goes through a periodic rise and fall in
activity which affects HF communications. At higher levels of solar activity (solar
maximum) there are a numerous number of sunspots together with plages. Plages or
also known as faculae [McNamara, 1991] are large, irregularly shaped bright areas that
usually surround sunspots. These plages increase extreme ultraviolet or EUV
radiation thus increasing ionization level of the earth’s atmosphere and the number of
electrons in the ionosphere layer. As a result, frequencies of all ionospheric layers
will be greater. On the contrary, lower frequencies are supported at lower levels of
solar activity (solar minimum).
12
2.2.1.4 Latitude Variations
Latitude variation is caused by variation with solar zenith angle. During the
day, with the increasing latitude, the sun zenith increases. In other words, the solar
radiation strikes earth’s surface more obliquely and the intensity is decreases. Thus,
the electron density production also decreases with increasing latitude causing the
highest usable frequency to also decrease. However, for F region, during daytime,
instead of at the equator, the frequencies peak at 15° to 20° north and south of the
equator. This is called the equatorial anomaly. During the night, frequencies reaches
minimum around 60° latitude and this situation is known as mid-latitude trough.
2.2.1.5 Sporadic E
Sporadic E usually has comparable electron density to the F region.

Sometimes a sporadic E layer is transparent, meaning that signal can pass through it
to the F region. However, it could sometimes obscure the F region totally that signals
do not reach the receiver [Australian Space Weather Agency, 2005]. This is known
as sporadic E blanketing. If the sporadic E is partially transparent, some of the
transmitted signal could pass through it and refracted to the receiver by the F layer
but some of it that does not pass through sporadic E layer are refracted back to earth.
This may lead to partial transmission of the signal or also known as fading.
2.3 HF Radio Propagation
The three basic HF propagation modes are ground wave, direct line-of-site
wave and sky wave [Goodman, 1992]. Figure 2.2 shows the types of HF propagation.
Ground wave travels along the surface of the earth thus suitable for short-range
13
communications. Direct line-of-sight wave may interact with the earth-reflected

wave depending on terminal separation, frequency and polarization. Sky wave on the
other hand is refracted back to earth by the ionosphere, making beyond line of sight
communications possible. This discussion therefore concerns only with sky wave.
Figure 2.2 HF propagations
For sky wave propagation, transmitted radio wave travel a distance until it
reaches the ionosphere. The radiated waves are bent continuously in the ionosphere
and then returned back to earth hitting it at the receiver. The path from the
transmitter to receiver is called the ray path. In practice, there are always at least two
ray paths for sky wave propagation. The ray path may have single hop, or multiple
hops. Plus it can be refracted by any one of the layers of the ionosphere [McNamara,
1991]. Hopping is a situation where depending on frequency, time of day and
atmospheric conditions, signals is bounce from the earth and refracted by the
ionosphere several times before reaching the receiver [NTIA, 1998]. Multiple hops is
common in HF propagation that enables beyond line of sight propagation and under
the right conditions can give global reach.
14
Not all HF waves are refracted back to earth by the ionosphere. Some of the
frequencies are lost because of the absorption by the D layer while some frequencies
penetrate the ionosphere. Thus, there are upper and lower frequency bounds between
two terminals that can be used as guidance when transmitting signals. Only signals
within these bounds are refracted back to earth. For the lower bound, the lowest
usable frequency (LUF), as statistically calculated is the lowest frequency which the
field intensity at the receiving antenna is sufficient to provide the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) on 90% of the undisturbed days of the month [NTIA, 1998]. For the upper
bound, maximum usable frequency (MUF) indicates the maximum frequency that will
be refracted by the ionosphere for a certain circuit. Therefore signals greater than
MUF for a particular region will penetrate that region. For the F region, the MUF is
divided into three. The most important one is the lower deciles MUF (Optimum
working Frequency or OWF) which have 90% chance of being supported by the
ionosphere [Australian Space Weather Agency, 2005]. The others are the median and
upper deciles MUF which has 50% and 10% supported by the ionosphere,
respectively.
The usable frequency in HF communication can be predicted for a given

circuit. Frequency prediction is important in HF communication as it help operators
to choose the possibly good channels. With the help of computers, prediction method
today is much easier yet can provide results that are more advanced. These type of
software are available in the market today such as ASAPS [Australian Space
Weather Agency 2003], NTIA/ITS HF Propagation Model by the U.S. Department
of Commerce [U.S. Department of Commerce, 2005], and Propagation Resource
Manager (PropMan-2000) by Rockwell Collins Inc. [Rockwell-Collins 2005]. This
topic will be discussed further in Chapter III.
15
2.3.1 Multipath Effects on HF Propagation
Multipath fading results from dispersion of the signal as it travels through the
communication medium. It may be caused by factors such as multiple patches of
ionization within the same layer, by reflection from one or more distinct layers
(multimode), or by multiple ionospheric bounces from a specified layer or layers
[Goodman, 1992]. This causes the received signals to interfere with each other as
shown in Figure 2.3. Depending on the time difference between the reflected
components, multipath fading will lead to time selective fading and frequency
selective fading.
Time selective fading or flat fading [McNamara, 1991] is a phenomena where

dispersed signals arrived at the receiver in different phases. As a result attenuation or
cancellation will occur depending on how big the phase differences. Cancellation of
a signal will occur if the phase different is 180 degrees. In addition, Doppler shift and
spread due to relative movement of the ionosphere determine the fading rate and fade
duration.
Figure 2.3 Multipath in HF propagation

16
Frequency selective fading and time delay spread is caused by multihop or

reflection of signal on multiple layers. When there is significant time difference
between the reflected components, time delay spread causes inter symbol
interference (ISI) phenomena for digital communication, where adjacent symbol
interfere with each other. This problem limits the symbol rate to 100 baud per second
[Willink et al, 1996]. Frequency selective fading limits the possible subcarrier
frequencies usable as some frequencies are attenuated more compared to the others.
2.4 Automatic and Adaptive HF Communication System
The reliability of transmission in the HF band can be improved using

automatic and adaptive radio technology [Hess, 2000] [Blair et al, 2000] [Johnson,
2000]. These techniques reduce the burden on the operator by adding subsystems for
frequency management, link establishment, link maintenance, etc. Thus, automation
make the radio appears to communicate on the best channel, while simultaneously
performing many underlying functions [NTIA, 1998]. The definition of adaptivity is
the process associated with automatically altering operating parameters and/or
system configuration in response to changes in the time-varying channel propagation
conditions and external noise. The aspects of communication system which can be
optimized to achieve maximum data throughput are channel selection, modem bit
rate, data link frame size, modem interleaver setting and transmit power level.
Selection of the best available HF channel is the most powerful technique that
can be used to optimize throughput. Two important adaptive processes for this
purpose [Hess,2000] [Redding -Weddle, 1994] are Automatic Link Establishment
(ALE) and Link Quality Analysis (LQA). ALE is a robust [NTIA, 1998], adaptive
radio method for automatically establishing communications over HF single
sideband (SSB) links using the best channel possible. An ALE system automates the
process a trained operator would normally perform to establish a link [Beamish,
17
1991] [Rohde-Schwarz, 2005]. LQA on the other hand is a method of assessing

channel quality, so that connections occur on the best frequency. This technique is
used when a station has a number of channels assigned to it. To improve the
reliability of ALE, typically, LQA is added into an ALE system.
2.5 Recent Developments in HF ALE Messaging System
In Europe, the HF Messenger™ [Soyer, 2001] created by Rockwell-Collins,

France is an advanced HF data communication software. It implements the NATO
STANAG 5066 standard and uses Q9600 modem device implementing the MIL-
STD-188-110B waveform and equipped with ALE capability. The main objective of
this system is to permit personal computers to exchange text, files, facsimiles, images
and pictures at data rates equivalent to current satellite radios over an HF medium.
This system also provides wireless transmission between several HF users for
broadcast, multicast or point-to-point with services in LAN operating environment.
The main application offered by this system is HF e-mail for ground, tactical
airborne and maritime.
Battle Force Email 66 [Renfree, 2001] is an improved version of HF

Messenger developed by the U.S Navy. This system operates in a Carrier Sense
Multiple Access (CSMA) network discipline and follows the STANAG 5066
protocols. To avoid collisions, this system applies point-to point connection between
two stations. Upon contact, two systems negotiate in a link setup in accordance with
STANAG 5066 protocols. After transferring emails traffic and other data, the links
are closed. During data transfer, all other stations stay silent.
Third-generation technology for HF radio networking [Johnson, 1998] was

designed to efficiently support large, data-intensive networks as well as the
18
traditional voice and smaller network applications of second-generation HF

networks. It supports separate calling and traffic channels, although calling channels
may be used for traffic when necessary. Third-generation ALE (3G-ALE) used in
this system to quickly establish one-to-one and one-to-many (both broadcast and
multicast) links. 2G-ALE is an asynchronous system, while 3G-ALE operates in
synchronous mode. Simulations and prototype measurements [Johnson, 2000]
indicate that the new generation of technology will support improvements in network
size and traffic throughput and to connectivity in challenging environments.
SMARTNET (Skywave Management for Automatic Robust Transmission

Network), an adaptive HF radio system has been developed by Rockwell
International Corporation’s Communication Systems Division [Redding -Weddle,
1994]. This system is a technology test bed for adaptive HF communications which
have many advance features of a fully automatic, computer-controlled HF network.
The system uses both time division multiple access (TDMA) and code division
multiple access (CDMA) channel access protocol to prevent contention. The system
selects optimum frequencies and produces a very low effective isotropic radiated
power (EIRP) using automatic power control to set the transmitter power. The
system adapts to changing propagation conditions by varying frequency, power and
data rate. The adaptation is done at each end of the link, adjusting all parameters
independently so that optimum connectivity is maintained. Tests have been done to
compare this system and an adaptive system based upon the FED-STD-1045A. The
purpose of this test is to determine whether the SMARTNET system operate in the
manner that it was designed to. Overall test results shows that the goal of this
experiment is achieved. SMARTNET automatically maintained the connection with
minimum power, selected an optimal transmit frequency, and provided link
availability 100 percent of the time. Compared to ALE results, this is a significant
improvement.
Existing commercial HF e-mail and messaging system [Sailmail, 2004]

[Cruiseemail, 2004] does not have adaptive radio capability. This capability is only
limited for military messaging systems such as [Soyer, 2001] [HF email, 2004].
19
There exist however ALE controllers [Rockwell-Collins, 2004] [Rohde-Schwarz, 2004]

that controls a radio in order to determine the best channel to be used. These ALE
controllers has its own embedded modem for ALE purposes.
2.6 Summary
Chapter II presented the literature review for this research. It began with
introduction to the propagation medium, the ionosphere. The explanation includes
the layers in the ionosphere, and the variations in the medium. After that, the
overview of HF propagation is presented, focusing on the skywave. Problems in HF
propagation are also discussed. The problems are mainly caused by multipath and
resulted in attenuation of the received signals.
Chapter II also discussed on automatic and adaptive HF communication

system. As explained above, automatic and adaptive methods help to improve HF
communications by handling the changes in propagation medium. Finally, in this
chapter, some of the recent development in HF Messaging systems are discussed.
Some of these technology are already implemented and used, while some are still in
simulation phase.
With knowledge supported from the Chapter II, the next two chapters will
present in detail on HF propagation prediction and ALE.
20
CHAPTER III
FREQUENCY PREDICTION FOR HF COMMUNICATION
3.1 Introduction
As explained in Chapter II, HF is not a stable medium for wireless

communication. Therefore communicating via HF medium can sometimes be
challenging. At times, the optimum frequency is not used for communication. Thus,
frequency prediction programs help users to predict the best frequency to use at the
specific time and circuit before starting a communication session. Using prediction
software, the operator only needs to enter the required parameters and the predicted
best frequency and operating conditions are displayed almost immediately. The
results however, are predicted results based on calculation and not necessarily
correct. But it can be used as guidance in selecting which frequencies to be used.
Thus in this chapter, the importance of frequency and performance prediction in HF
radio communication will be explained.
21
3.2 Types of Frequency Prediction
There are two types of ionospheric prediction methods, which are long-term
predictions and short-term prediction [Goodman-Reilly, 1998]. Long-term predictions
are done based on empirical data, which are results from previous studies. Often,
long-term prediction is based on a prediction of the solar activity level. On the other
hand, short-term prediction depends on real-time data. The short-term prediction can
either be forecasting or nowcasting. Forecasting is usually based on established
cause-and-effect relationship. Nowcast is based on results from real-time channel-
evaluation (RTCE) systems. But regardless the duration types, the steps to do
prediction are as follows [McNamara, 1991]:
i) Predict the sun’s activity during the time for which the
required predictions will apply.
ii) Set up an ionospheric model that represents the ionosphere
condition based on the predicted level of solar activity.
iii) For the ionospheric model, calculate the geometry and
propagation modes for the circuit under consideration.
iv) Calculate the MUF, LUF and field strength.
3.3 Ionospheric Measurement
Ionospheric condition is the key factor that affects HF propagation. Thus

before predictions of the HF propagation performance can be done, we must first
know how to measure the condition of the ionosphere. Among the ionospheric
measurements are the MUF of both F and E layers and also LUF. These
measurements are vital in frequency prediction as it helps determines the best
channels to use.
22
3.3.1 Ionograms
Ionograms are recorded tracings of reflected high frequency radio pulses

generated by ionosonde. Ionosonde as shown in Figure 3.1 is a method of measuring
the plasma frequency as a function of altitude. A train of pulses at increasing
frequency is transmitted vertically into the ionosphere [Johnson et al, 1997], every 15
minutes. This method is known as vertically incidence ionosonde. The time delay
between the transmission and reception of the pulses is recorded at the receiver’s end
and multiplied by the speed of light to determine the virtual height of the ionospheric
reflection. But once the ionosonde frequency exceeds the critical frequency of a
given layer, it penetrates that layer and does not return that signal. Then the results
are plotted in a graph of the reflection virtual height versus operating frequency.
Besides using vertically incidence ionosonde, ionograms can also be

generated using two other ionosonde methods. One method is where the transmitter
and receiver are separated by long distance, giving an oblique ionogram. But if
circuit length, i.e. the distance of ionosonde transmitter and receiver are not fixed, the
ionogram generated is called backscatter ionogram. In this method the signals are
scattered at the surface of the earth back along the original direction.
Figure 3.1 Vertically incidence ionosonde

23
3.3.2 MUF and LUF Calculations
MUF calculation depends on two things, which are the critical frequency,
f c of the ionosphere at the reflection point and the geometry of the circuit. MUF is
given by the formula
MUF = f c cos φ I (3.1)
MUF = f c sec φ I (3.2)
where φ I is the angle of incidence. The factor sec φ I is called obliquity factor for
the circuit, because it relates [McNamara, 1991] the ionosphere at the reflection or
midpoint of the circuit. Obliquity factor varies with circuit length and is equal with
1.00 for a very short circuit. A correction factor k is multiplied to the obliquity factor
in order to take into account the facts that the earth and ionosphere are both curved.
The value of k is usually 1.1 under most conditions. The equation used to calculate
the MUF for reflection at a given altitude in the F layer is shown in equation (3.3).
This equation can be used provided the critical frequency f c is replaced with the
plasma frequency at the reflection height, f N (h).
MUF (h) = f N • sec φ I (h) (3.3)
where h is the height where we want the reflection to occur. The corrected obliquity
factor, k for an F2 propagation mode for a standard distance of 3000km, M(3000) F2
is derived routinely from ionograms and mapped in much the same way as f c ,F2.
Besides absorption caused by the ionosphere, LUF also depends on things

such as signal to noise ratio and E-layer screening [Goodman, 1992]. Thus to calculate
the LUF, empirical data are used. For short circuits and well-planned equipment, it
can be related quite simply to f c E by using a simple formula. This is due to the fact
that absorption is mostly due to the D region, which depends on the zenith angle in
24
much the same way as the f c E. For the long circuits the LUF can be set equal to the
first frequency, which is just too high to be propagated on second mode E-layer
propagation, since any signal reflected twice by the E layer will be severely
attenuated. At night however, because there is no absorption, the antenna
characteristics, the transmitter power, and the noise level, all of which vary with
frequency, control the LUF.
3.4 Important Factors in Frequency Prediction
Before predictions can be performed, several factors must first be considered.

Important factors in frequency prediction program are such as antenna specifications,
the expected signal-to-noise ratio, the ground or surface properties, and finally solar
and geomagnetic indices. These factors are important as they have direct effect on
the ionosphere. Not considering the factors listed in the subtopics below may lead to
unreliable and inaccurate predictions.
3.4.1 Ionospheric Models
Ionospheric model is the values of ionospheric condition and parameters for a

given circuit that is modeled from the predicted sun activity for a given circuit. But
most of the time, the parameters needed are critical frequencies [McNamara, 1991]
of the E and F layers, f c E and f c F2, and the height of the peak of the F layer, hm F2 .
As for E layer, the value of hm E is fixed at 110km. The maps of ionospheric
parameters are based on the median values observed at the 180 or so stations all over
the world for low and high levels of solar activity.
25
3.4.2 Geometry of The Circuit
The geometry of the circuit determines the obliquity factor and thus the MUF.
To calculate the geometry of the circuit, we must first determine the propagation
mode that we want to consider. In practice, we need to consider lower order modes.
Modes that involve more than two reflections in the E layer may be ignored as
reflections in this layer suffer much heavier absorption than those reflected in the F
layer. After the propagation modes have been decided, the obliquity factor for each
hop of the propagation modes and the values of f c E, f c F2and hmF2 at each reflection
point can be calculated.
3.4.3 Ionospheric Index
Sunspot number is the conventional index of the solar cycle that can be used
to predict ionospheric frequencies. However, using sunspot number alone is not
enough to predict the frequency [Australian Space Weather Agency, 2005]. This is
because the condition of the ionosphere is also affected by other factors such as
geomagnetic storms, the time of day, and the season. Thus for that reason, the usage
of sunspot number can be replaced with ionospheric index. The ionospheric index is
derived from observing the ionosphere over several solar cycles and plots the graphs
of maximum ionospheric frequency against the sunspot number [Australian Space
Weather Agency, 2005]. From the results, the relationship between frequency and
sunspot number is obtained. Then, using the recently observed maximum ionospheric
frequencies, the ionospheric index is derived using the relationship derived before.
The ionospheric index value is averaged over a group of stations, canceling out any
variations which occur at only individual stations, and leaving the variations which
are common to all stations [McNamara, 1991]. However, the value of ionospheric
index is slightly different from the real sunspot number. An example of an
26
ionospheric index is the T-index [Australian Space Weather Agency, 2005], the
ionospheric index used by the Australian Space Weather Agency.
3.4.4 Other Parameters
In order to do reliable predictions, propagation prediction programs use

several input parameters such as antenna specifications, the expected signal-to-noise
ratio, the ground or surface properties and in addition the best and correct solar and
geomagnetic indices. Most of the mentioned parameters are mandatory to establish
correct propagation estimation chart, graph or map. Although there is not one
program that uses all of the parameters, most reliable programs use a high variety of
them. The parameters are as follows [NTIA, 1998].
i) Propagation environment, which are the date, the season, the time of day,
required SNR and required reliability.
ii) Transmitter terminal: power, antenna type and gain, frequency, coupler
loss, SNR, band range, antenna height versus wavelength.
iii) Receiver terminal: signal sensitivity, bandwidth, man-made and
atmospheric noise, antenna type and gain, band range, antenna height
versus wavelength.
iv) Ground: conductivity and dielectric constant.
v) Communication path: crossing land and/or sea surfaces, gray or auroral
zones, the equatorial belt, south Atlantic and south Asiatic anomaly areas.
vi) Solar effects: smoothed sunspot number or solar flux, solar flares and
coronal mass ejection (CME’s).
vii) Geomagnetic effects: Ap and Kp indices, magnetic inclination, and gyro
frequencies.
27
3.5 Advanced Stand-Alone Prediction System (ASAPS)
ASAPS is a propagation prediction program created by the Ionospheric

Prediction Service (IPS), Radio and Space Services of the Australian Department of
Industry, Tourism and Resources [Australian Space Weather Agency, 2003]. The
typical use of ASAPS is to estimate the expected SNR for several specified
frequencies of operation. Among the inputs for ASAPS are the location of
transmitting and receiving stations, the type of antenna used, the time and date of the
prediction, the transmitter power, and the T-index. Then based on the inputs entered
by the user, ASAPS will calculate the propagation and then generates the following
outputs
i) HF path distance and great circle path bearings from site to site
ii) Best usable frequency (BUF) for each hour and the corresponding ray
path elevation angle
iii) Signal power, total noise power, SNR
iv) Probability that each of the likely propagation modes is present provided
for each hour of the day at each of the nominated frequencies.
3.5.1 ASAPS GRAFEX Frequency Prediction
The predictions in ASAPS are implemented using GRAFEX frequency

predictions. GRAFEX predictions provide HF propagation information concerning
transmission conditions of the first two propagation modes via the E and F layers for
a given HF radio circuit. For each hour of the day, the program predicted the range of
HF sky wave communications which are the Upper Deciles MUF (UD MUF), the
median MUF, Optimum working Frequency (OWF), median E-layer MUF (EMUF),
Absorption limiting Frequency (ALF) and the elevation angles for each mode.
28
ALF indicates the lowest usable frequency. Frequencies below and near ALF is
most likely to be highly attenuated [Australian Space Weather Agency, 2005], thus
must be avoided. During day time, frequencies lower than ALF are absorbed by the
D region. However, during night time ALF becomes zero because D region does not
exist. OWF frequency on the other hand has 90% chances of success during the
period of prediction. Frequency that should be used is between the ALF and OWF as
these frequencies also have 90% chances to succeed. The MUF frequency on the
other hand has 50% of success. Therefore, communicating using frequencies
between OWF and MUF has from 50% to 90% chances of success. The chances
increase when the frequency used is nearer to OWF. The highest usable frequency,
the upper deciles MUF only have 10% of success. Frequencies between upper deciles
and MUF have only 10% to 50% of success, thus should be avoided. Figure 3.2
shows the range for HF sky wave communication.
UD (10% success) <10% success
10-50% success
MUF (50% success)
50-90% success
OWF (90% success)
>90% success
ALF (zero at night)
Figure 3.2 Upper and lower frequency range for HF sky wave communication.
The predicted results are represented graphically using GRAFEX tables and
graph. The tables and graphs are as below
a) GRAFEX Table
This table gives an overall picture of the probability of HF
communications for the given circuit. Frequencies performance prediction
at each hour throughout a day for both first and second mode is shown.
The performance of each channels are represented using symbols, with
29
each symbol representing the probability of successful communication at

a particular hour. The elevation angles for the different modes are also
predicted.
b) GRAFEX Graph
This graph shows results from GRAFEX table, represented in graphical
form. It consists of a plot of the MUF, OWF, EMUF and ALF for each
mode of propagation. Different colours are used to differentiate the
frequencies.
c) GRAFEX Frequency Plan Table

In this table, the recommended frequency to be used at every hour is
presented. The frequencies are based on the preselected set of frequencies
entered by user. For each propagation mode, predicted frequencies are
divided into two parts based on levels of probability of ionospheric
support, which are greater than 90%, and between 50 to 90%. Then for
each hour, the recommended frequencies are shown.
d) GRAFEX Frequency Plan Graph

This is the graphical representation of frequency plan table. For each
propagation mode and for each hour, the frequencies are plotted against
takeoff angle to give a visual representation of the width of the takeoff
angle range and the relative positions of these ranges for the various
modes.
e) GRAFEX Frequency Table

This table shows the predicted UDMUF, MUF, OWF, EMUF and ALF
for each hour and the first two propagation modes.
30
3.5.2 ASAPS Field Strength Prediction
Other than GRAFEX frequency prediction, field strength prediction is also

used in selecting the best frequency. The prediction only predicts the best frequencies
that should be used, based on the frequencies entered by the user. The outputs of this
prediction are: all noise value (median atmospheric + galactic + man-made), noise
pathloss, field strength, signal to noise ratio, best usable frequency (BUF), virtual
reflection height and estimated power required (EPR). The results are then
represented using table and graph below.
a) Field Strength Table

This table shows all output of the field strength prediction as mentioned
above, for a particular mode for each circuit. The results are shown for each
hour. The table is used as a reference when selecting which channel to use.
b) BUF Graph
The results are represented by two graphs. The first one is the BUF graph,
which shows the best usable frequency for each hour of a day. Then the
second graph shows the signal-to-noise (SNR) in dB and noise field strength
levels in dBV/m.
3.5.3 Frequency Prediction for UTM Skudai-Kota Bahru Circuit
Kota Bahru in Kelantan is a station for field testing of this research. It is

situated 535 km from Skudai and therefore HF communication to Kota Bahru is via
sky wave. The prediction is done for the month of March 2005. The specifications on
this circuit are shown in Table 3.1.
31
Table 3.1 Station specification for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit

Station Latitude Longitude Antenna
Skudai 1 33.6 103 39.0 7 MHz half-wavelength dipole antenna
Kota 6 10.2 102 16 7 MHz half-wavelength dipole antenna

Bahru
Both stations use the same set of frequencies, which are: 3.853 MHz, 3.959
MHz. 6.65 MHz, 6.702 MHz, 7.08 MHz, 7.10 MHz, 7.686 MHz, 8.002 MHz, 8.113
MHz, 8.19 MHz, 8.71 MHz, 9.108 MHz, 9.146 MHz, 10.1 MHz, 10.9 MHz, 14.365
MHz, and 14.773 MHz. The results from the prediction are shown below in Figure
3.3 which is the GRAFEX frequency prediction table.
Figure 3.3 GRAFEX frequency prediction table for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit
32
Figure 3.3 shows the result in a form of GRAFEX table. This table shows the
performance of each frequency during the month of March 2005. The results are
represented in the form of symbols. Each symbol represents the propagation
condition at each hour. From the GRAFEX table in Figure 3.3, the first row shows
the name of the circuit, the distance and the period of prediction. The next row shows
the name of transmitter station (the station where prediction is done) and its position,
based on latitude and longitude. Then the bearing of the circuit is shown. Next to it,
the value of T-index of the moth of March 2005 is shown. On the third row, the name
and position of the receiver station is shown. Finally the type of circuit path is
shown. In this case the type is short path. Moving on to the fourth row, it can be seen
that the left part is labeled as “First Mode” and on the right part “Second Mode”.
This means that columns on the left side represent values of first mode propagation
prediction and columns on the right represents second mode propagation predictions.
Then on the next row, on the left hand side, the suitable elevation angles for both
first mode F and first mode E layer are shown. The same goes on the right hand side
where the elevation angles for second mode F and E layer are shown. The rest of the
rows represent the predicted frequencies for every hour of a day in the month of
March 2005.
On the left hand side, the first column (UT) represents the universal time.
Thus for local time, the time is UT+8. The next column is the OWF, followed by
EMUF and ALF for first mode propagation for F layer. Then the columns in the
center which are labeled with “Frequency” represent the range of frequencies from 1
to 40 MHz. The performance of each frequency is labeled with symbols. The
meaning of each symbol is explained at the bottom of Figure 3.3. Then on the right
hand side columns, the value of OWF, EMUF and ALF for second mode are also
shown. If a user wishes to communicate at 0800-hour local time (00 UT), by
referring to Figure 3.3, the results are as follows
i) The OWF frequency is 6.7 MHz, the EMUF frequency is 4.8 MHz and the
ALF frequency is 2.6 MHz.
33
ii) Frequencies 2.6 MHz and below should be avoided as this is the ALF or
absorption limiting frequency.
iii) Frequencies above 10 MHz should also be avoided because communication
within these frequencies only have 10% chances to succeed throughout the
month.
iv) The best frequency to use is between 3 to 6.7 MHZ (the OWF frequency for
first mode). However, these frequencies are labeled with symbol “M”, which
means that both first and second F modes are possible for those frequencies.
To decide which channel to use, a user must then refer to the field strength
table as shown in Figure 3.4. It is another useful reference when planning
communication. This table shows the Signal to noise ratio or SNR for OWF, MUF
and also SNR value for a set of frequencies selected by the user. In this case, the
frequencies stated earlier in this subsection are used. Other than showing circuit
information such as the name and position of stations, distance and T-index, this
table also shows the type of antenna used at both station. This information is shown
on the right hand side on row 3 and 4. in this case, the antenna used is a horizontal
dipole antenna. Other than that, the type of noise and the transmitted power is also
shown. Based on the results, users should use frequencies with high SNR values to
ensure good communication link. For example, at time 0800-hour local time, user
should avoid using frequencies from 3.9 to 4.00 MHz, as these frequencies have very
low SNR value. The rest of frequency prediction results, such as GRAFEX
Prediction Graph and Frequency Plan Table are shown in Appendix A
34
Figure 3.4 Field Strength Table for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit
3.5.4 FrequencyPrediction for UTM Skudai-Chemor Circuit
Chemor, a small town in Perak is another site for field testing of this research.
It is situated 452 Km from Skudai, thus the stations will be communicating using sky
wave propagation. The details of the prediction are as listed in Table 3.2 below. The
prediction is done in the month of June 2005 between UTM Skudai and Chemor,
Perak.
35
Table 3.2 Station specification for Skudai-Chemor frequency prediction

Station Latitude Longitude Antenna
Skudai 1 33.6 103 39.0 7 MHz half-wavelength dipole antenna
Chemor 4 43.8 101 6.0 7 MHz half-wavelength dipole antenna
As with Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit, both stations in this circuit use the same
set of frequencies, which are: 3.853 MHz, 3.959 MHz. 6.65 MHz, 6.702 MHz, 7.08
MHz, 7.10 MHz, 7.686 MHz, 8.002 MHz, 8.113 MHz, 8.19 MHz, 8.71 MHz, 9.108
MHz, 9.146 MHz, 10.1 MHz, 10.9 MHz, 14.365 MHz, and 14.773 MHz. The results
of the prediction are shown in the GRAFEX frequency prediction table in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5 GRAFEX frequency prediction table for Skudai-Chemor circuit

36
By referring to Figure 3.5, we can see that for this circuit, both 2E and 2F does
not exist. This means that the signals propagate using first mode only. To determine
the best channel to be used for a certain time, a user should follow the same steps as
discussed earlier for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit. Again, 0800-hour local time (00 UT)
is chosen. Thus the results are as follows
i) The OWF frequency is 6.0 MHz, the EMUF frequency is 4.5 MHz and
the ALF frequency is 2.5 MHz.
ii) Frequencies 3 MHz and below are labeled with symbol “A”. These
frequencies should be avoided as they are highly absorbed.
iii) Frequencies above 8 MHz should also be avoided because
communication within these frequencies only have 10% chances to
succeed throughout the month.
iv) 4.0 MHz is labeled with symbol “B”, which means that both E and F
modes are available.
v) 5.0 MHz is labeled with symbol “F” which means that only first F mode
is available. Therefore, the best frequency to be used is between 4.0 to 6.0
MHZ (the OWF frequency for first mode).
vi) The next best frequencies to be used are from above 6.0 MHz until 7
MHz. These frequencies are labeled with symbol “%”, meaning that they
are usable from 50% to 90% of days in this month.
To decide which frequencies should be used, a user must refer to Field

Strength table for this circuit shown in Figure 3.6., where the SNR value for the
OWF, MUF and selected frequencies are shown. By referring to the 00 UT,
frequencies from 6.7 MHz until 8.2 MHz are usable because the SNR value is high.
Figure A.4 until Figure A.6 in Appendix A shows the rest of the ASAPS frequency
prediction results.
37
Figure 3.6 Field Strength Table for Skudai-Chemor circuit
3.6 Summary
This chapter explained HF performance prediction in details. Performance

prediction is important in planning HF communication because it helps the user to
choose the best channels to use. This will help to increase the chances of success in
communication via the ionospheric layer. The sun’s activity is the main factor that
affects the ionospheric condition. Thus, to predict the best frequencies, the
ionospheric index, which is similar to sunspot number, must be determined first.
38
Then the ionospheric model is set up to determine the MUF, OWF, and the ALF for
the desired time for the specific circuit. ASAPS is the prediction software used in this
research. The frequencies obtained from the ASAPS prediction are then used in
ALE. Prediction helps ALE to avoid using bad and unusable channels. Besides,
comparisons can be made between the results from ASAPS prediction and ALE.
CHAPTER IV
AUTOMATIC LINK ESTABLISHMENT (ALE)
4.1 Introduction
The manual processes to establish link with another station are as follows:
first, the operator must determine the best frequency to use by either listening to each
channel or using prediction programs. Then he must try to call the other station using
voice technique asking for permission to communicate. After the recipient station
replies and the calling stations operator acknowledge it, a link is therefore established
between the two stations and data can be exchanged. [Wan Roz, 2004]
Automatic Link Establishment (ALE) follows this same rule except that the
system automatically does the processes of determining the best channel to use and
linking to another station. The operator only needs to enter the receiver stations’
address and the system will consult its memory, select the best available assigned
frequency and then link to the other station. In other words ALE radio systems
simplify the complex usage of a radio system to become as simple as using a
telephone and reduces the need for skilled operators to operate a HF radio system.
40
ALE solves channel selection problems by continuously evaluating and

testing the channel reliability using its’ sounding and link quality analysis protocols.
An ALE system, at fixed time intervals will perform channel evaluation on each
channels assigned to the particular stations. The results are then saved so that it can
be used each time the station wants to communicate to another station. This chapter
explains about the ALE based on U.S Federal Standard 1045A [NCS, 1993]. The
purpose of this standard is to specify the basic procedures and protocols for
automated HF radio features such as frequency scanning, selective calling, ALE, link
quality analysis (LQA) and sounding. This standard is used worldwide as the most
reliable reference as it provides complete details on waveform, coding, and protocols
to support ALE.
4.2 ALE Protocols and Operational Rules
ALE, based on the Federal Standard 1045A has its’ own set of operational
protocols for both system operating using single and multiple channels operating in
the data link layer of HF communications layer as shown in Appendix A. An ALE
system incorporates the basic operational rules listed in Table 4.1. However, some of
these rules may not be applicable uncertain applications [Johnson et al, 1997].
“Always listening” (Rule 2) for example is not required during temporary periods
when not technically possible, such as during transmit with a transceiver, or when
using separate transmitter and receiver with a common antenna.
41
Table 4.1: ALE Operational Rules (listed in order of decreasing precedence)
Rule No. Rule Description

1 Independent ALE receiving capability in parallel with any other
2 Always listening for ALE signals (critical)
3 Always will respond (unless deliberately inhibited)
4 Always scanning (if not otherwise in use)
5 Will not interfere with active ALE channel (unless forced by operator
6 Always will exchange LQA with other stations when requested (unless
inhibited), and always measure the signal quality of others
7 Will respond in the appropriate time slot to calls requiring slotted
responses
8 Always seek (unless inhibited) and maintain track of their
connectivities with others
9 Linking ALE stations employ highest mutual level of capability
10 Minimize transmitting and receiving time on channel
11 Automatically minimize power used (if capable)
There are three states for an ALE system to be. The three states are available
states when a station is not link to another station, linking states where a station is in
the process of trying to connect with another station. If linking process fail, a station
shall return to available state. However, if the process is successful, the station will
enter the third state: the link state. A station enters this state when it has successfully
link to another station. In this state a wait-for-activity timer will be running. Figure
4.1 shows these three states.
42
Send or receive
Available
ALE call
Terminate link
Linking fail
Linking Linked
Linking succeed
Figure 4.1 ALE state diagram
The ALE procedures and protocols can be described into the following functions:
i) Calling
ii) Scanning
iii) Sounding
iv) Link Quality analysis (LQA)
v) Automatic Channel selection
vi) Order wire Messages
4.2.1 ALE Signal Structure
The basic part that builds up an ALE system is its signal structures. This
includes bit and word format and structure, coding, forward error correction, framing
and synchronization. This section will explain ALE signal structure and addressing
method.
43
4.2.1.1 Word Structure
Every ALE frame is composed of ALE words. An ALE word consist 24 bits
of information, designated W1 for most significant bits (MSB) through W24, which is
the least significant bit (LSB). An ALE standard word is divided into four parts; as
shown in Figure 4.2. The three first bits (also known as bits P1 through P3) represent
the preamble, which is very important to an ALE word as it determine the function of
an ALE word.. Then the following 21 bits are divided equally to build up a data field
that contains three characters. These three characters specify an individual address
character or ALE text, depending on the preamble.
PREAMBLE CHARACTER 1(LEADING) CHARACTER 2(MIDDLE) CHARACTER 3(TRAILING)

P1 - P3 C17 – C11 C27 – C21 C37 – C31
W1 W3 W4 W10 W11 W17 W18 W24
Figure 4.2 The general structure of an ALE word
As mentioned above, preamble bits are responsible for determining the type
of an ALE word. There are eight word types, which are TO, THIS IS, THIS WAS,
DATA, REPEAT, CMD, THRU and finally FROM. All these words have their own
functions in an ALE frame as described in Table 4.2.
44
Table 4.2 ALE word type and its functions

Word Type Function
TO Used as a routing designator to identify the address of the
(P3 P2 P1= 010) destination station for whom the frame is intended.
THIS IS Routing designator that identifies the address of the
(P3 P2 P1= 101) station that is transmitting the frame
Indicates that the transmitting station is willing to
communicate with other stations
Also use in sounding frame
THIS WAS Used exactly like a THIS IS word except that it indicates
(P3 P2 P1= 011) that the transmitting station discourage or does not invite
communication from other stations.
DATA Used to extend the data field of any previous ALE word
(P3 P2 P1= 000) (except DATA itself)
DATA words are used to extend the additional characters
from three to six, sine or more, up to a total of 15
characters
Must be used alternately with REPEAT word.
REPEAT Used with DATA word to extend an ALE word data field
(P3 P2 P1= 111) When it follows a TO word, it performs as an address
expansion, allowing the transmitter station to send frame
to more than one receiver
THRU Used in the scanning call section of the calling cycle only
(P3 P2 P1= 001) with group call protocol.
CMD A special order wire designator that is used within the
(P3 P2 P1= 110) message section of an ALE frame.
FROM An optional designator that can be used to identify the
(P3 P2 P1= 100) address of the transmitting station early in the ALE
frame. It is used immediately after a CMD word.
45
4.2.1.2 Coding
To enhance the reliability of ALE words on the noisy HF channel, each one is
extended using 24-bit Golay forward error correction (FEC) code [Rohde-Schwarz,
2004]. The 24-bit ALE word is split into two, with each part containing 12 bits. Then
each part is encoded using the (24, 12, 3) Golay code and interleaved bit by bit
[Johnson et al, 1997]. This caused the bits number to double from 24 to 48 bits. A
stuff bit is added (always a 0) and the total bits in an ALE word now become 49.
Finally, the 49-bit block is repeated three times for a total of 147 bits to be
transmitted. The purpose of interleaving and redundant words is to spread the burst
errors so that errors on the actual data can be minimized. Because FED-STD 1045 is
intended for designing an ALE modems, the 147 ALE bits are then 8-ary FSK
modulated and transmitted. The entire ALE word including error correction consists
of 49 bits and is 392 ms long. Figure 4.3 shows the word coding and interleaving
process.
PREAMBLE CHARACTER 1 CHARACTER 2 CHARACTER 3 24-bits

3 bits 7 bits 7 bits 7 bits ALE word
12 bits 12 bits 12 bits 12 bits 24-bits ALE word

data Golay FEC data Golay FEC with 24-bits Golay
FEC
0 49-bits ALE word

------------------------------------- interleaved
Bit 0
Stuffing
bit
Figure 4.3 ALE word coding and interleaving process

46
At the receiver’s end, ignoring the 49th bits, the 48 bits are deinterleaved [Lay,
1996] and Golay (24, 12, 3) decoded where up to three errors can be corrected per
word. The receiver then performs the majority voting among the three copies of
received copies of ALE words.
4.2.1.3 Frame Structure
The general structure of an ALE frame consists of destination address, an

optional message section, and a frame conclusion, which contains the address of the
station sending the frame. Figure 4.4 shows the general structure of a frame.
CALLING CYCLE MESSAGE CONCLUSION

(DESTINATION ADDRESS) (OPTIONAL) (SENDER’S ADDRESS)
Figure 4.4 Frame Structure
a) Calling cycle
Calling cycle (TCC) is the initial section of all calls (except sounding) and is
divided into two parts: a scanning call cycle (TSC), and a leading call section
(TLC). Scanning call shall only be composed of TO words representing the
first word of the called station for individual calls. While leading call section
can be composed of TO words (and possibly DATA and REPEAT words),
containing the whole address for the called station.
b) Message
This optional section of all calls (except sounding) shall be composed of

CMD (and possibly REPEAT and DATA) words. This section is used in
sending order wire messages.
47
c) Conclusion
The third section of a call frame is composed of either THIS is or THIS WAS
(but never both) (and possibly DATA and REPEAT) words. Conclusions
must contain the whole address of the calling station.
d) Sound frame
A sound frame is an exceptional frame, where it does not have calling cycle
and message sections. A sound frame therefore only contain a conclusion
section and can possibly be made up of either THIS IS word or THIS WAS
(and possibly DATA and REPEAT) words.
4.2.2 Calling Protocol
An ALE system has its own protocol suite to handle linking process. This
protocol consists of three parts: an individual calling, a response and an
acknowledgment. A station is “always scanning” when not connected to other
station, listening for incoming calls. To establish a link, a calling station, say station
A calls destination station, say station B by transmitting a calling cycle containing
station B’s address (“TO B”), followed by a conclusion containing station A’s
address (“THIS IS A”). The calling station will try to link on the best channel
according to its LQA table. However, if it link cannot be established using that
channel, then the station will try linking on the next best channel. This procedure
shall continue until all the channels have been tried and no contact has been
successful. If this happened, the system will automatically return to available state,
continue scanning and alert the operator that the system failed to establish link.
48
The call structure is an essential element of the ALE calling protocol, which
is shown on figure 4.5. The calling cycle must consist of a scan call (Tsc) plus a
leading call (Tlc). Tsc must exceed the total scan period (Ts) of the called station in
order to capture the scanning receiver. Ts equals to probable maximum pause (Td) to
read words on each channel. Thus T s = C × T d . Tsc shall also be composed of
multiple address first words (∑ Ta1 = Tc1 ) which are multiple of the redundant word
time, Trw. That is:
Tsc = n × ∑ Ta1 = n × Tc1 ≥ Ts (4.1)
The leading call (TLC) contains the whole called station address repeated only
twice (2Tc = 2∑ Ta ) . Therefore the calling cycle is:
Tcc = Tsc + Tlc = ( n × ∑ Ta1 ) + 2Tc ≥ T + 2(∑ Ta )s (4.2)
After sending the call frame, station A then shall wait for station B’s response in
a limited wait-for-response time (Twr). However, if station A does not receive
response from station B within wait time Twr, the call is considered unsuccessful; and
station A may try again or terminates the call.
TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO THIS IS THIS IS THIS IS
B B B B B B B B B A A A
SCANNING CALL CONCLUSION
LEADING CALL
(FIRST 3 (TERMINATION)
CHARACTERS)
(WHOLE ADDRESS WORDS)
CALLING CYCLE
REDUNDANT CALL
SCANNING REDUNDANT CALL
Note: “B” and “A” are graphic substitution for the actual three character for a basic ALE
address field.
Figure 4.5. Basic call structure
49
Station B is also always scanning. If it detected an appropriately addressed ALE

call (“TO B”), the station shall stop scanning immediately and read the rest of the
signal. If the receive signal is correct, B shall send back response frame to A.
Immediately after sending the response, B shall wait for A’s acknowledgment and
data traffic, in it’s own preset time Twr. If A’s acknowledgment arrived later than Twr,
B treats it as a new individual call and provide a new response for it. If station B did
not receive any acknowledgment at all from station A, it terminates the link and
continue scanning. Upon receiving the response, A shall send the acknowledgment,
enter the linked state and alert the operator. The same goes at station B’s end, where
upon receipt of the acknowledgment, shall also enter the linked state and alert its
operator. Both stations can now send data traffic to each other. Figure 4.6 below
illustrates the calling protocol.
Both stations shall stay in linked state until one of them terminates the link. If
there is no data traffic being passed between the two stations within a preset time
wait for activity time limit (Twa), the station shall automatically terminates the linked
state and return to available state. To terminate a link, a station must send “THIS
WAS” word containing its own address to the other station. Upon receiving this, the
other station shall end the handshake, terminates the link and return to available state.
INDIVIDUAL CALL
TSC TLC
TO THIS IS
B A A- TWR
TCC
RESPONSE
TO THIS IS
A B
B- TWR
NOTE: ACKNOWLEDGMENT
• Tcc = Tsc + TLC
• Tsc – use first word(s) only TO THIS IS
• TLC – use whole address(es) only B A
Figure 4.6 Multiple channel call protocol

50
4.2.3 Scanning
All ALE stations, when not committed to another station, continually scan a
preselected set of channels, or “scan set” stored in ALE memory, listening for calls
and ready to respond. Scanning process can be performed in scan rate of either two
or five channels per second. The minimum dwell time (Td min) on each channel is
the reciprocal of the scan rate, and the channels are scanned repeatedly in the same
order for the same period. This period, known as minimum scan period (Ts min) is
equal to the product of the number of channels (C) times the minimum dwell time
(Td min); that is,
Ts min = C x Td min (4.3)
The radio will automatically stop scanning and wait at the most recent
channel if any of this following events occurred:
• Automatic controller input of stop scan (the normal mode of

operation)
• Manual input of the scan
• Activation of push to talk (PTT) line
• Activation of external stop scan line
By continuously scanning its assigned frequencies, an ALE station

maximizes the probability that an incoming call will be received. This channel
scanning behavior is one of the key automated techniques that enable reliable
communication over HF without the presence of skilled operator [Johnson et al, 1997].
51
4.2.4 Sounding
Sounding is part of ALE protocol where at a predetermined time interval; a

station automatically broadcast a very brief, beacon-like short message on each of its
unoccupied prearranged channels. This beacon-like message is then utilized by other
stations to evaluate connectivity propagation and availability of the sounding station.
The information is saved for later used as a reference for selecting known working
channel when trying to establish a call the sounding station.
To implement sounding, a timer is added to an ALE station so that the station

shall perform sounding on clear channels periodically. The sounding capability
maybe selectively activated by and the time interval can be adjustable by the operator
or controller according to the system requirements. Sounding signal is a unilateral
one-way transmission; meaning that no response is required from the station or
stations that receive sounding frames. Therefore, when the other stations “hear” the
sounding signal, they shall automatically display the addresses of all stations heard
momentarily, perform LQA calculation and then stored the data in LQA memories
for future linking use.
As it is only necessary to send the sounding stations’ identity, the sounding

structure only consists of conclusion (terminator), redundantly repeated. The whole
address of the sounding station is sent at least twice to ensure reception by scanning
receiver. Figure 4.7 shows the structure of the sound, which consists of either “THIS
IS” or “THIS WAS” words. Using “THIS IS” words indicates that potential callers
are encouraged. On the other hand by using “THIS WAS” words to build up a
sounding frame indicates that the sounding station discourage potential callers, i.e. it
does not want to communicate with other stations during that time. The total duration
of sounding must be compatible with the scanning time of the receivers so that it can
be encountered.
52
THIS THIS THIS THIS THIS THIS THIS THIS THIS

WAS WAS WAS WAS WAS WAS WAS WAS WAS
A A A A A A A A A
SCANNING SOUND REDUNDANT SOUND (WHOLE
(WHOLE ADDRESS ADDRESS WORDS)
WORDS)
SCANNING REDUNDANT SOUND,

SOUND CYCLE
Figure 4.7 Structure of a sound.
4.2.5 Link Quality Analysis (LQA)
LQA is a process that measures the quality of the channels by placing a score
for each of them which incorporates three types of link analysis information: bit error
ratio (BER), signal–plus-noise-plus-distortion to noise-plus-distortion ratio (SINAD),
and optionally, a measure of multipath [NTIA, 1998]. These results are kept in a
table for future reference and it can be exchanged between stations by inserting the
values in LQA CMD word. More over, the tests are performed periodically to keep
the data current. LQA is added to an ALE system so that linking between stations
can be done using the best channel possible.
4.2.5.1 Bit Error Ratio (BER)
An ALE system performs a pass/fail LQA test on every received signal using
its critical examination on proper coding, structure and format. As an addition
assessment of link quality, basic BER measurement is performed. The measurement
is obtained by counting the number of nonunanimous vote (out of 48) in the majority
53
decoder. The BER score ranges from 0 to 48 with 0 (no two-thirds vote) being the
best score and 48 (no unanimous word) as the worst. It is performed on each
redundant triplet (3 Tw) word received and properly decoded as valid majority word.
Therefore, the best (lowest) BER value occurs when the majority vote decoder is
properly aligned with the incoming signal; that means all three word inputs are
occupied with identical (except for errors) redundant word. A linearly averaged BER
is used as the actual BER value may vary during an ALE transmission.
4.2.5.2 Signal–Plus-Noise-Plus-Distortion to Noise-Plus-Distortion Ratio

(SINAD)
This is an optional LQA measurement that calculate the SINAD

[(S+N+D)/(N+D)] averaged over the duration of the received ALE signal. It shall be
measured on all ALE signals if implemented.
4.2.6 Automatic Channel Selection
Automatic channel selection is the ability of the ALE system to automatically

identify the best channel to use when the station wants to initiate a call to another
station. In order to do this, the system refers to the most current LQA data stored in
LQA table.
The standard does not specifically state the algorithm to be used by the ALE
system to rank-order channels based on LQA data. Manufactures may use different
algorithm to rank the channels accordingly with their LQA scores. The standard only
requires that increasing numerical values should be used to correspond to increased
channel quality and LQA scores must be displayed to the operator.
54
4.2.7 Orderwire Messages
Stations in an ALE system have the capability to transfer information within

the orderwire or message section of an ALE frame (using CMD words) including
calls, responses, and acknowledgments. This is an additional feature, which enables
operators to send and receive simple text messages within an ALE frame during
linking process. Orderwire messages include LQA, automatic message display
(AMD), data text message (DTM), and data block mode (DBM) modes.
LQA orderwire message is a mandatory feature in an ALE system. Its

purpose is to enable ALE stations to exchange currently measured LQA information
among them. Besides that, stations can also send LQA reports, which contain
previously measured LQA data rather than to report current channel measurement.
This feature however is optional. The purpose of exchange LQA results, both current
and previously is to provide each station with bilateral LQA data for these channels
in support of channel selection programs [Johnson et al, 1997].
The next message type, which is AMD is used to enable stations to

communicate short messages or prearranged codes to one or many selected stations.
All ALE stations must have the capability to send, receive and to display any
received AMD message to operators. The minimum required capacity for message is
20 characters and the maximum characters allowed are usually 400. The characters
are must use the expanded ASCII 64 subset.
DTM message type enables stations to communicate text or binary messages.

It can either be unilateral (one way) or bilateral (two-way) and it can be broadcast or
use ARQ. The purpose of this feature is for direct output to and input from associated
data terminals or other data terminal equipment (DTE) devices through their standard
data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) ports. It is designed with improved
robustness compared to AMD to overcome weak signals and short noise bursts.
55
DBM on the other hand is an optional oderwire message mode that is designed to
improve DTM. By eliminating the usual ALE triple redundancy in favor of deep
interleaving. The protocols and control bits for both DBM and DTM are the same.
The major difference between DBM and DTM is that DBM data are broken into
fixed size blocks before transmitted.
4.3 Summary
In this chapter, ALE was introduced and the protocols needed for it to operate are
explained based on the U.S FED-STD-1045A. The implementation of ALE may
differ from one manufacturer to another, but the basic protocols are still the same.
Protocols such as calling, scanning, sounding, LQA and automatic channel selection
are necessary in an ALE system. These protocols are responsible for making ALE
turn HF to become a more reliable medium for communications.
CHAPTER V
SYSTEM DESIGN and IMPLEMENTATION
5.1 Introduction
Information gathered from the previous chapters became the basis to build the
system for this research. This chapter explains the steps taken to develop this system.
The system was built to meet the objectives but constrained with the limitations of
the equipment.
5.2 Equipments Setup
The equipments for this system are typical HF communication equipments; HF

transceiver, HF modem with basic personal computer, the necessary accessories and
antennas. The transceiver used in this research is KENWOOD TS570D transceiver
and the modem used is Kantronics KAM’98 modem. As for the antenna, half
wavelength dipole antenna is used for all the field-testing stations. Details on the
equipments are described in the following subsections.
57
5.2.1 HF Transceiver
Kenwood TS-570D is an amateur transceiver with a 16-bit DSP unit to

process audio frequencies. Figure 5.1 shows the front panel of the transceiver. The
transceiver has built-in automatic antenna tuner, which allow frequency tuning to be
done easily by just pushing a button. The transmit power of this transceiver ranges
from the minimum power of 5 Watt to maximum power of 100 Watt. Detail
specification of the transceiver is given in Appendix B.
Speaker jack
Microphone connector
Figure 5.1 Kenwood TS570D HF transceiver
The transceiver is connected to the computer by using 9-PIN RS-232C COM

connector as shown by Figure 5.2. The COM connecter is located at the rear part of
the transceiver. Data is sent through using a full duplex and asynchronous serial
interface. To control the transceiver, a set of computer control commands provided
by the manufacturer is used. The commands, sent in ASCII formats consist of three
parts, which are the alphabetical command, parameters and the terminator. Among
the functions that can be controlled via computer are changing the frequency,
switching on/off, changing the modes of communication, changing the power and
others.
58
Figure 5.2 Connection between transceiver to computer using RS-232C cable.
5.2.2 HF Modem
Kantronics KAM ’98 Multi-Mode HF/VHF Digital Terminal Node Controller

(TNC) is a modem for data transmission via HF. Figure 5.3 below shows the modem
and its connector. The modem has several teletype over radio or TOR modes: which
are AMTOR, PACTOR and GTOR with baud rate up to 300 baud [Kantronics Co.,
1998]. Other non-packet modes supported are RTTY, CW, and ASCII protocols.
Packet communication is also available using the AX.25 protocol. For this research,
the PACTOR data mode is chosen because of its reliability and robustness compared
to the other modes. Detail specifications of the modem are available in Appendix C.
59
Connection point to Connection point to

HF radio computer
Figure 5.3 Kantronics KAM ’98 modem
The modem is connected to the computer using serial cable that connect the
modem’s DB-25 pin connector located at the rear part of the modem as shown on
Figure 5.3 to the computer’s 9-PIN RS-232C COM port. Like the transceiver, this
modem is also equipped with computer control commands that are used to send
commands to the modem. There are more than 100 commands available and they are
sent to the modem in form of ASCII characters. Among the functions that can be
controlled are changing the communication mode, setting the data baud rate, setting
call sign, linking to other station and others.
The modem is connected to the transceiver via its DB-9 radio port at the rear
part of the modem. The port is connected to the transceiver via the microphone and
speaker jacks by using a connector. The wiring for the connector differs with the type
of transceiver used. Figure 5.4 shows the connector wiring for Kenwood TS570D
transceiver. The modem receives signals from the radio via speaker jack and sends
signals to the radio via microphone jack. Then in Figure 5.5, the connection between
HF modem and transceiver is shown.
60
Figure 5.4 Wiring to connect the modem and transceiver
Speaker jack
Connection between HF
modem and transceiver
Microphone jack
Figure 5.5 Connection between HF modem and transceiver
Figure 5.6 shows the whole system setup. In this figure, it can be seen that the
modem is connected via the computers’ COM1 port and the transceiver is connected
via COM2.
61
MODEM
POWER
SUPPLY
COMPUTER
TRANSCEIVER
Figure 5.6 System setup
5.2.3 Dipole Antenna
The antenna plays an important role in an HF communication system. It is

responsible for radiating the electromagnetic waves into space and also does the
opposite function of receiving electromagnetic waves. There are many kinds of
antenna available today from basic wire antenna to complex and large antennas. For
this research, the chosen antenna is dipole antenna. The reason for this is because a
dipole antenna is easy to set up with minimum costs. Dipole antenna is bidirectional,
thus it can be installed in a direction so that the pattern of the radiation covers the
field-testing sites. Figure 5.7 shows a general dipole antenna.
62
Figure 5.7 Dipole antenna
The length of a dipole antenna is obtained by applying equation 5.1 below

[ARRL, 2001]:
492
L= ft (5.1)
FMHz
L is the length of the antenna, and F is the desired dipole antenna frequency.
The height of the antenna from ground is another important factor to consider when
designing an antenna. The height determines the vertical radiation pattern of the
antenna as shown in Figure 5.8. For this research the height chosen is quarter
wavelength from the ground. Thus from frequency prediction results in chapter III,
only frequencies with elevation angle within the range of the vertical radiation of this
antenna should be use. Then Figure 5.9 shows the horizontal radiation pattern of a
dipole antenna.
63
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.8 Dipole Antenna Vertical Plane Radiation Pattern. (a) ½ wavelength high.
(b) ¼ wavelength high
Figure 5.9 shows the horizontal radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. The
grey-coloured area represents the radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. The “figure
8” radiation pattern demonstrates that signals transmitted using dipole antenna is
bidirectional [ARRL, 2001]. The four points in the figure, labeled “A” until “D”
represent several locations scattered around the antenna while the four arrows labeled
“signal I” until “signal IV” represent signals received by the antenna. Transmitted
signals using this antenna are optimum at receivers located at point A and point D
and depleted at receivers located at point B and C. The reason for this is that both
point A and point D are located within the radiation pattern of the antenna while both
points B and C are located outside the radiation pattern of the antenna. For signals
received by the antenna in Figure 5.9, signals I and II are suppressed because the
64
antenna is not sensitive in that direction. The signals III and IV are optimal because
they are received in the radiation pattern area where the antenna is sensitive.
Figure 5.9 Dipole antenna horizontal plane radiation pattern
For comparison, Figure 5.10 shows the horizontal radiation pattern for a Yagi
antenna. Yagi is a directional antenna, which means that the transmission of signals
is maximum on the main lobe which is within 120o directions. Signals transmitted on
the sidelobes and backlobe suffers energy loss, thus must be avoided [Carr, 2001].
As a receiver, by referring to Figure 5.10, signal I is received the loudest, while
signals II, III and IV are suppressed. Thus, to use this type of antenna, the direction is
very important. The antenna must be placed in the direction so that the main lobe is
facing the direction of the receiver. On the other hand, for dipole antenna, as long as
the destination station is situated in the “upper” or “lower” region from the dipole
antenna, it will be covered by the antenna radiation pattern. For example, consider
point A in Figure 5.10. If the antenna is moved 60o from its original position, signals
transmitted cannot be received y point A and vice versa. This is the reason why
65
dipole antenna is chosen to be used in this research instead of Yagi as antenna

direction is not so critical for a dipole antenna compared to Yagi.
Figure 5.10 Yagi antenna horizontal radiation pattern
The construction of dipole antenna installed at the DSP lab, Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia, located in Skudai, Johor is shown Figure 5.11. The antenna was
built using the normal single core wire that is usually used for grounding electrical
appliances. The antenna is fed in the middle where coaxial cable is used as the
feeder. An insulator which is made from wood is used separates earth and live wires.
Insulators are also used to separate rope and wires. To maximize the effective
forward transmit power from the transmitter to the antenna, transceiver is placed
close to the antenna so that the feeder line is as short as possible.
66
Figure 5.11 Construction of dipole antenna
Figure 5.12 shows the antenna installed in at DSP lab in UTM. It is designed
for 7 MHz, so by using the formula shown in Equation (5.1), the length of the
antenna is approximately 80 feet. The antenna is 40 feet (approximately 12 meters)
high from the ground.
Figure 5.12 Dipole antenna at DSP Lab, UTM

67
5.3 System Design
Choosing the best frequency is critical in HF communication to ensure reliable

performance. Thus, the designed messaging system in this research is equipped with
ALE capability which will automatically select the best frequency to be used. To
achieve this purpose, the design methodologies are listed as follows
i) Design methods to automatically control the HF radio transceiver and

modem.
ii) Develop the messaging system which can transmit data via HF
iii) Design and Implement ALE protocols in the messaging system for
calling, sounding, link quality analysis (LQA) and scanning.
iv) Develop ALE database, which holds the results from ALE soundings.
Figure 5.13 shows the flowchart of the system. At start up, the system
perform initialization, which is a process where previous channel evaluation data are
uploaded. After performing initialization, the system stays on the best channel
(according to the uploaded data) and listens for any incoming call or sounding. When
the station wants to link to another station, ALE linking protocol will be applied. The
same goes if a station receives link request from another station. The link request will
be handled by ALE linking protocols.
68
Figure 5.13 System flowchart
At predetermined time interval, the system performs real-time channel

evaluation by doing sounding and LQA automatically to determine the best channel
for that hour. To do this, a string known as sounding frame is sent to the destination
station. Meanwhile, station that is not scheduled to perform sounding will scan its
entire five channels one by one, listening for any sounding frame. Once the sounding
frame is detected, destination station performs LQA on that frame. After the
sounding is completed for all five channels, both stations stay and listen on the best
channel until the next sounding occurs.
69
5.3.1 PACTOR Data Format
The data format chosen for this research is PACTOR mode that is used for
messaging and ALE purposes. PACTOR or Packet Teleprinting Over Radio
[Kantronics Co., 1998] is a modern radio Teletype data mode developed to improve
inefficient modes such as AMTOR. PACTOR is a half-duplex synchronous ARQ
system designed to operate in noisy channels. The features offered by PACTOR are
[Riley, 1997]:
i) PACTOR has the capability of automatic speed change between 100 baud
(on noisy channel) and 200 baud (on clearer channel)
ii) Fixed timing structure, where the entire cycle length is 1.25 seconds and
the packet length is 0.96 seconds. The timing details for PACTOR are as
follows
Cycle duration: 1.25 seconds
Packet length: 0.96 seconds = 192 bits at 200 baud or 96 bits at
100 baud
Control signals: 0.12 seconds= 12 bits, each 10 msec long
CS receive gap:0.29 second
iii) The PACTOR packet data format consists of three sections which are the
header, data and control as shown below
/header/………..data bytes……../controls/
The size of data field depends on the baud rate. When the baud rate is
100, the data field is 64 bits (8 ASCII characters) but it increases to 160
bits (20 ASCII characters) if baud rate is 200. The control field consists of
system control byte and 16-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC). For
acknowledgment, the short control signals (CS) sent out by the receiving
station is 12 bits long.
70
iv) To enhance the error correction capability, PACTOR have memory ARQ
feature that enables noisy packets to be restored.
5.3.2 ALE Protocols
ALE is the set of protocols in the system used to handle the linking and
selecting the best channel processes. The ALE protocols are as below
i) Linking
ii) Sounding
iii) LQA
iv) Scanning
5.3.2.1 Frame Structure
The most basic ALE structure consists of two parts, which are preamble and
call sign as shown below in Figure 5.14. Preamble is a two characters string, which
determines the type of ALE structure. There are two types of preambles, which are
“2O” and “5O”. Table 5.1 shows types of preambles and their functions.
PREAMBLE CALLSIGN
(2 CHARACTERS) (8 CHARACTERS)
Figure 5.14 Basic structure of ALE

71
Table 5.1 Preambles and their functions

Preamble Function
2O Used in calling cycle part of a frame.
To identify the destination station address.
5O Used as a conclusion of a frame
To identify the source station address.
There are four types of ALE frames, which are the calling frame, response frame,
acknowledgment frame and finally sounding frame. Each frame as shown by Figure
5.15 consists of two parts, which are the calling cycle and conclusion except for
sounding frame, which only consist conclusion. The type of preamble used
distinguishes calling cycle from conclusion. As seen in table 5.1 above, for calling
cycle, “2O” preamble is used, followed by the call sign of the destination. The
calling cycle is then repeated as necessary. The number of repetition depends on
whether the frame is for calling, response or acknowledgment purpose. In a call
frame, the calling cycle is repeated 3 times before the conclusion take place. For both
the response and acknowledgment frames, the calling cycle is only repeated twice.
Calling, response and acknowledgment are the frames are used in linking process.
Figure 5.15 General structure of an ALE frame
The conclusion on the other hand is made up from “5O” preambles and source
station call sign. Conclusion is important because it identifies the station sending the
ALE frames. Calling, response and acknowledgment frames, contain one conclusion
part. However for sounding frame, conclusion is repeated five times and does not
need calling cycle. This is because the sounding frame is not for linking process; it is
72
just a one-direction signal that is used by the receiving station to evaluate the channel
performance.
5.3.2.2 Linking to Another Station
The flowchart in Figure 5.16 shows the summary of the process to establish a
link for both calling and destination stations. If a station (source station) wishes to
establish a link to another station, it must first send a call frame to the destination
station. After sending call frame, the source station disables sounding and scanning
and waits for response from the destination station within a limited wait-for-response
time (Twr). For this system, Twr is set to 2 minutes. If the source station did not
receive any response after Twr ended, the call is considered unsuccessful. The source
station will have to send another call frame if it wishes to link again.
Figure 5.16 Flowchart for link establishment
The destination station, upon receiving the call frame will examine the
validity of the frame. A valid call frame is a frame that consists of calling cycle,
repeated three times. If the received frame is a valid call frame, a response frame will
73
be generated and sent to the source station. Like the source station, the destination
station also disables sounding and scanning. It then starts its own wait time, Twr to
wait for acknowledgment from the calling station. If the destination station did not
receive any acknowledgment frame from source station, it considered the call as
unsuccessful. It will then return to listen mode and enable sounding and scanning.
Immediately after receiving the response frame, source station send

acknowledgment frames and therefore the link has been established. Both stations
can now communicate with each other until either one of the station terminates the
link. After the link is terminated, both stations enable sounding and enter listen
mode. Figure 5.17 shows the call, response and acknowledgment frames.
Note:
DEST= destination station call sign
CALL= source station call sign
Figure 5.17 Call, response and acknowledgment frames
5.3.2.3 Sounding and Link Quality Analysis (LQA)
The most important ALE protocol in the system is sounding because it

determines which is the best channel to use for communication. Sounding is done
periodically at predetermined time selected beforehand by the user. Both stations
must select different sounding time to avoid sounding to occur at the same time. Two
sounding time choices are available which are either every 15 minutes on each hour
74
or 30 minutes on each hour. Choosing 15 minutes of an hour means that sounding for
that station is scheduled at 15 minutes past every hour such as at 10.15 a.m., 11.15
a.m., and 12.15 p.m. and so on. On the other hand, choosing sounding time of 30
minutes will cause the system to perform sounding at every 30 minutes past the
hours. Meaning that sounding, for that station will occurs at 10.30 a.m., 11.30 a.m.,
and 12.30 p.m. and so on.
Sounding frame consists only conclusion cycle, repeated five times as shown
in Figure 5.18. Sounding is performed by transmitting sounding frame to the
destination station. After transmitting the sounding frame, sounding station waits for
acknowledgment from the destination station in its wait period, Twr. The value of Twr
is 2 minutes. If no acknowledgment is received after Twr., the sounding is considered
unsuccessful. Thus if this situation occurred, a large default value of 1000 will be
attach as the score for that channel.
Figure 5.18 Sounding frame
The destination station, upon receiving the sounding frame, analyzes the
sounding frame and then performs LQA. Then it sends acknowledgment to the
sounding station. Acknowledgment is a short frame consisting of a flag character and
LQA result for the current channel. The purpose of the flag is for synchronization
between the two stations. The flag is set to either “1” or “0”. Assigning the flag value
to“1” is to let the sounding station knows that the sounding is acceptable and the
destination station will proceed and ready to receive sounding on the next channel.
Sounding station saves the LQA results, and proceeds to the next channel to repeat
the sounding process again. This process continues until the entire five channels have
been sounded. When sounding process reached the last channel, the flag value is set
75
to “0”. Both stations will then perform the process of ranking the channels based on
LQA scores. The results are then saved in ALE database located in the hard disk.
Then both stations change their transceiver frequency to the highest-ranking channel
according to the latest result and stay there until the next sounding process occurs. So
by doing this, the stations can now communicate on the best channel for that hour.
The flowchart for sounding process is shown by Figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19 Sounding process
During sounding, the modem divided sounding frames into several packets
before transmitting them. The time it takes for a PACTOR data packet to arrive to
destination is 0.96 second (assumed equal to 1 second). If this packet is error-free,
the destination modem will send it to computer and displayed on the computer
screen. However, if a packet arrives at the destination contains error; the destination
modem will not send the packet to the computer. Instead, it will acknowledge the
76
sender about the error and request for retransmission. The sender modem will then
retransmit the packet. After another second, the retransmitted packet arrived at
destination. If the packet is error-free, it is accepted, but if it still contains error, the
receiver will ask for it to be retransmitted again. This procedure is repeated until the
packet received by the destination station contains no error. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the process of retransmitting packet increase the time it takes for
error-free packet to arrive at destination. So, if the time taken for a complete error-
free packet to arrive at destination is more than 1 second, retransmission has
occurred. The longer the time it takes for an error-free packet to arrive indicates that
many retransmissions have occurred. Thus, this means that the channel is bad.
Taking advantage of this fact, LQA scoring is done by counting the number of
second it takes for a complete error-free sounding frame to arrive at destination.
LQA score counting starts when the first character of a sounding frame
arrived at the destination. The destination station records the number of second it
takes for the first packet to arrive. This value becomes the LQA score for that packet.
If the time taken is one second, which indicates no retransmission occurred, the LQA
score is set to zero. When the second packet arrives, the LQA score for that packet is
obtained by following the same procedure as the first packet. Then the LQA score of
the first packet and second packet are then added to obtain the total LQA score. This
process is repeated for the third and the rest of the packets until a complete sounding
frame arrive at the destination station. The total LQA scores of all the packets,
becomes the LQA score for that channel. The scores are then averaged with the
scores from previous hour and then averaged once again with the scores from
previous day. This is because of the fact that HF propagation varies within every
hour and with days. Averaging the scores will contribute to a more consistent and
steady results. After that, the destination station saves this score and sends it to the
sounding station via the acknowledgment frame. Both stations proceed to the next
channel and repeat all the steps above until all five channels have been sounded.
However, if the condition of the channel is very bad, it can cause sounding to fail and
a large default value of 1000 will be attach as the score for that channel.
77
After the sounding and LQA scoring process for each channel has been done,
both sounding and destination stations will proceed to the next step, which is ranking
the channels. Ranking is done by comparing the LQA scores for each channel.
Channel with the smallest number of LQA score is determined as the best channel.
Then, channel with the second lowest score is rank as the second best channel and so
on until the last channel is determined. To better understand the process of LQA and
channel ranking, consider the sample results in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Example results of LQA

Channel no Frequency (MHz) LQA score Channel ranking
1 8.002 2 3
2 8.190 0 1
3 8. 710 0 2
4 9.108 7 5
5 10.100 5 4
From the result in table 5.2, it can be seen that channel 1 has LQA score of 2
while both channel 2 and channel 3 has zero LQA score. Channel 4 has LQA score 7
which is the highest score, and finally channel 5 has LQA score of 5. Thus according
to the table, it can be seen that channel 2 and channel 3 are the highest-ranking
channels. However, for simplicity, if two or more channels have same LQA score,
the channels will be ranked according to its channel number. For instance, in this
example, although the score for channel 2 and 3 are the same, channel 2 is ranked as
the first channel and channel 3 as the second best channel. The third best channel is
channel 1, followed by channel 5. Lastly, the worst channel, ranked 5th is channel 4.
5.3.2.4 Scanning
The purpose of scanning is to enable the station to detect sounding frame sent
by the sounding station. It is to ensure that the destination station will be able to
78
receive the sounding frame and perform LQA on other channel if sounding for
channel 1 fails. At every hour, the system automatically starts scanning one minute
before the expected sounding time of the other station. For example, consider
stations A and B with sounding time 15 and 30 minutes of an hour respectively. For
example, it is 10.14 a.m., thus station B will begin scanning process looking for any
sounding frame on each channel. The dwell time, which is the time a station stays
and listens on each channel, is 10 seconds, making the total scan cycle is 50 seconds.
The destination station keeps on scanning until a request for sounding is

detected. Then the scanning process will stop and the destination station will process
the sounding frame. Scanning is disabled for an hour, until it is time for the other
station to do sounding again. However, a user can also direct the system to perform
scanning by choosing “start scan” in the “scanning” menu.
5.3.2.5 ALE Database
The database for this system was built using Microsoft Access. The name of
the database is “Ale.mdb” and it consists of three main tables, which are the Info
table, the LQA table and finally the Test table. Each table contains results and
information from soundings of all five channels for every hour. Among the
information includes, the call signs for both stations, the channel used, the LQA
scores and channel ranking. The purpose of saving the results in a database is
because the past sounding results are used in LQA scoring process to determine the
present LQA result. Besides that, graphs can be plotted based on the data kept in the
database to view and summarize the performance of each channel for a given period
of time. In addition, the results are also accessed by the system during initialization
process. Table 5.3 explains the purposes and data contained in each table in the
database.
79
Table 5.3 Tables in ALE database.

Table name Purpose Data
Info Saves the information of the Date and time
stations Station’s call sign
Channels used by the station
Location of both stations
LQA Hold the results of current Date and time
sounding for every hour Sounding time slots
Scores for each channel
Ranks for each channel
Source of sounding
Test Contains the final sounding Date and time

results for each hour i.e. the Sounding time slots
averaged results Scores for each channel
Ranks for each channel
Source of sounding
5.3.2.6 Comparison with Standard ALE Systems
The protocols listed above are different from the protocols in FED-STD-
1045A [NCS, 1993]. The reason for this is because the ALE implemented in this
research is constraint to the type of transceiver and most importantly the type of
modem used. Therefore, all the ALE protocols used in this research must be made
accordingly with the transceiver and modem. The major difference is that in FED-
STD-1045A, ALE is implemented as separate equipment while ALE in this research
is developed as software. Other differences are as listed in Table 5.4.
80
Table 5.4 Comparisons of ALE

Features ALE based on [FED-STD- ALE implemented in this
1045A, 1994] research
Modulation Uses 8-ary FSK modulation AFSK modulation
with eight orthogonal tones,
one tone (or symbol) at a time
Coding Extended (24,12,3) Golay code Uses PACTOR data mode, which
is use. Thus FEC is implement ARQ error correction.
implemented.
Multiple Multiple stations operation is No multiple stations operation
stations enabled. available. Only point-to point
connection is available.
Scanning Scanning is done continuously, Scanning is only done once every
with scan rate of either 2 hour. The dwell time is 10 second
channels per second or 5 for each channel; thus the total
channels per second. scan cycle is 50 seconds. Scan rate
is 1/10 channel per second.
5.3.3 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
The messaging system’s user interface is shown on Figure 5.20. From the
start up window, user enters the necessary information for that session, which are call
signs for terminal and destination stations, the location of stations, the sounding
interval and also the channels to be used. If user wanted to enter a new set of
channel, “New Channels” option should be selected. The user then needs to enter the
desired frequencies to be used. Up to five channels can be selected during a session.
For optimum results, the selection of channels should be based upon the results of
frequency predictions as explained on Chapter III. If on the other hand, user wants to
use the same channels used in the previous session, “Load Previous Channel” option
81
must be chosen. After entering the necessary data, user must click ok. Then the main
user window will appear.
Start up window
Terminal
properties Load previous channels
Start-up window
New channels
Destination
properties
Channels
Sounding
time
Main window
Reset system Settings
System menus
Return to
Start system command mode
– load data
Link Received
messages
Unlink
Change stations
call signs
transmit messages
Change text box
sounding time
Send message
System status
Change
channels
Figure 5.20 User interface for the system

82
On the main window, all the properties and settings during the sessions are
displayed on the left part of the window. Before starting a session, user must first
perform initialization by clicking the “Start” button. The purpose of initialization
process is to load the most recent sounding result including channels ranking so that
the system stays on the best frequency. Then the system will stay in listen mode until
it is time to perform sounding or a user wants to link to destination station. Table 5.5
shows the functions available on the GUI and their descriptions.
Table 5.5 Functions available on the system’s GUI

Function Descriptions
Link / unlink To establish link with another station, user must click on “Link”
button. If the link is established, a message will be displayed on
the “Receive” textbox.
To disconnect the link, user must click on the “Unlink” button.
Reset system The “Reset” button can be used when a user wants to reset the
system. By doing this the system clears its buffers and return to
initial condition. User then must click the “Start” button to
perform initialization.
Change setting User can change all the settings at anytime by two ways:
• One way is by clicking change “Change” buttons
provided at the corner of each property boxes.
• Another way is by clicking the “Setting” button which
will display a properties window. This is where user can
change all the settings for this session.
Return to To return to the modem’s “command” mode; a mode where
command mode commands are send to the modem, user must click on the
“Command” button. The modem is now in command mode. A
pop-up window will appear where user can enter the desired
command and then click OK.
83
Send message When in linked mode, if a user wants to send message, the user
must first type the message in the “Transmit” textbox then click
“Send” button.
Send file To send a text file, user must click the “File” menu, and then
click open. A file browse window will appear. After selecting
which file to be sent, user must click OK and the file will be
send.
Save message User can save received message by clicking “Save” in the “File”
menu. The message will be saved as a text file.
Start Sounding To force the system to start sounding, user can click on
“Sounding” menu and then select “Start”.
Disable A user can also disable sounding by selecting “Stop” on
Sounding “Sounding” menu.
Start Scanning As with sounding, user can also force the system to start
scanning by clicking on “Scanning” menu and then click on
“Start”. To stop scanning, click “Stop” on the same “Scanning”
menu.
5.4 Summary
This chapter explained how the system is designed and implemented to achieve
the objectives. This chapter covers two topics, which are equipments setup and
design of the system. In equipments setup, overview of the equipments used in this
research is explained. HF transceiver, HF modem and personal computer are the
building blocks of this system. Another important factor explained in this topic is the
antenna used for this research. Selecting the suitable antenna is very important in HF
communication because if the unsuitable antenna is used, can lead to unreliable
communication.
84
Then the discussions move to the system design topic, which mainly explain how
the system is implemented. The system designed not only operates as a messaging
system but also as an ALE system that selects the best channel for communication.
The system is then tested to verify its performance. The results of the field-testing are
described in the next chapter.
CHAPTER VI
FIELD TESTING RESULT
6.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the field-testing conducted for this research. The explanation
focuses on the procedures and the result obtained from the field-testing. Field-testing
is a vital step in this research as it verifies the system performance in real-time
situation. This chapter explains about the selection of field-test sites and the reasons
why these sites were chosen. The details on each station such as location, distance
and system setup are also explained. Then the results are presented and discussed.
From the daily results, the most suitable frequencies to use throughout the field-
tesing period is determined. Finally, the results from field-testing are compared with
predicted Optimum working frequency (OWF) results from Chapter III.
86
6.2 Test Equipments Setup
The equipments setup for both local and remote stations is shown on Figure
6.1. From the figure, it can be seen that both transceiver and modem are connected to
a computer. Both stations used the same type of equipments and antennas. The
messaging system installed in the computer controlled both transceiver and modem
to enable point-to-point connection between the local and remote station. For all the
field-testing conducted, Skudai was chosen as the local station. Each station has
unique call signs that were used as identification in the messaging system.
Figure 6.1 Equipments setup for field-testing
The next step was setting up the transceiver. The first step is to set the
transceiver to LSB mode. Then the FSK filter in the transceiver was also set and the
bandwidth value chosen was 300Hz. By setting this, the built-in band pass filter
inside the Kenwood HF transceiver to reduce noise is utilized. Then all five chosen
frequencies are tuned using the transceiver’s built in tuner to ensure maximum power
transfer during transmission. Then the transmit power level of the transceiver is set to
the most suitable value. During the field-testing conducted, the transmission power
used in this field-testing is from 10 to 20 Watt.
87
6.3 Selection of Field-Test Sites
Field testing sites for this research are selected based on two conditions. The
first condition is that the distance between the transmitter and receiver station must
be located more than 100 kilometers away from each other. This is necessary to
exclude the line of sight signal components from reaching the receiver. In other
words, to let the stations communicate via sky wave propagation. The second
condition is that the location of the field-testing site must be within the antenna
radiation pattern. Two test sites are selected for this research, which are Kota Bahru
in Kelantan and Chemor in Perak. The station in UTM Skudai Campus becomes
local station while the two other stations are remotes sites. Figure 6.2 shows the
location of both field-testing sites.
Figure 6.2 Location of field testing sites with estimated antenna

radiation pattern
88
From chapter V, the antenna in Figure 5.9 is placed at 0o to 180o. If 90o is

north, then 0o is east, and 180o is west. Thus, it can be seen that the radiation pattern
of dipole antenna placed at east-west direction can cover the area in the north and
south region. The antenna installed in Skudai is positioned in the east-west direction,
which makes the signals transmitted from this antenna radiates in north and south
directions. Therefore, the locations of field-testing sites, which are Kota Bahru and
Chemor are covered by the radiation pattern of the antenna. This is shown in Figure
6.2 where the estimated antenna radiation pattern for Skudai, Kota Bahru and
Chemor are illustrated. From this figure, it can be seen that since the locations of the
field-testing sites are in the northern region of peninsular Malaysia, the antenna must
be positioned in east-west directions so that the transmitted signals can reach the
local station, which is Skudai. If the antenna in any of the locations is placed in
different directions, the signal radiated from the antenna may not reach Skudai
station. For example, the antenna in Chemor is placed in north-south direction, thus
the radiation pattern would be in the east-west direction, making it almost impossible
to communicate to Skudai.
6.3.1 Kota Bahru
The first field-test site; Kota Bahru is located approximately to the north of
Skudai, with straight distance of 535 km. The testing between Skudai and Kota
Bahru was conducted from 11th until 24th of March 2005. Figure 6.3 shows the
equipments setup at Kota Bahru station. Then Figure 6.4 shows the antenna setup at
that station. The antenna used at this station was half wavelength dipole, the same set
up as in Skudai with ¼ wavelengths high above the ground. The antenna was
installed in east to west direction, so that the horizontal radiation of the antenna is
towards the north and south.
89
Computer
Modem
Power supply
Transceiver
Figure 6.3 Equipments Setup at Kota Bahru Station
Live
Earth
Feeder cable
Figure 6.4 Antenna Setup at Kota Bahru

90
6.3.2 Chemor
Chemor is situated at about 452 km to the north-west of Skudai. Figure 6.5

shows the equipments setup at this station. Next, Figure 6.6 shows the antenna setup
at this station. Here, as in Kota Bahru, a half wavelength dipole antenna is used. The
height of this antenna is about 20 feet from the ground, which is approximately equal
to ¼ wavelength. Like the antenna setup in Kota Bahru, this antenna is also placed in
east-west direction so that signal radiation can cover up to the station in Skudai.
Figure 6.5 Equipments Setup in Chemor

91
Earth
Live
Feeder cable
Figure 6.6 Antenna Setup at Chemor
6.4 Channels Selection
Two factors were considered for selecting the five channels used in each
field-test. The first factor is considering the results obtained from ASAPS frequency
prediction as shown in Chapter III. Based on the result, frequencies that are available
on 50% to 90% of the days in a month were chosen. Mainly, frequencies that closer
to the OWF are considered first. After that, frequencies between the MUF and OWF
on most of the time during the days are considered. Frequencies below and near the
ALF are avoided. Another factor considered when choosing which frequencies to use
is the frequency allocated by the experimental license. The license, awarded by the
Malaysian Communications and multimedia Commission (MCMC) is shown in
Appendix D. There are up to 15 carrier frequencies allocated in the license that can
be used. Therefore, the field-testing used as close as possible the frequencies
allocated in the license.
92
For a given circuit, both local and remote stations used the same sets of
frequencies throughout the field-testing period. Table 6.1 below shows all the
frequencies used by the circuits in both field-testing.
Table 6.1 List of channels used in field-testing

Channel no. Skudai-Kota Bahru channels Skudai-Chemor channels (MHz)
(MHz)
1 8.002 8.190
2 8.190 7.100
3 8.710 8.710
4 9.108 8.002
5 10.100 9.200
6.5 Field-testing Timeslots
For ALE sounding purposes, the time of day is divided into four timeslots
which represents morning hours, afternoon hours, evening hours and midnight until
early morning. For example, timeslot 1 which is between 7.00 a.m until 11.59 a.m,
are morning hours while from 12 noon until 6.59 p.m. belongs to timeslot 2. Table
6.2 below shows the allocation for all four timeslots. The changes of the ionospheric
condition between hours in the same timeslot are minor, but between the timeslots,
the changes are significant. Therefore, the sounding results between hours in the
same timeslot are summarized. Then by comparing the sounding results for each
timeslot, the effects of changes in ionospheric condition on HF propagation can be
seen. Another reason of dividing the day into timeslots is to make it easy for
representing the results in form of graphs. The LQA results of each hour in the same
timeslots are averaged with the previous hour results, thus producing a single set of
LQA result for each timeslots. The reason for doing this has been explained in
Chapter V.
93
Table 6.2 Timeslots allocation

TIMESLOT DURATION
1 From 7.00 a.m. until 11.59 p.m
2 From 12.00 noon until 6.59 p.m.
3 From 7.00 p.m. until 12.59 a.m.
4 From 1.00 a.m. until 6.59 a.m.
For Skudai-Kota Bahru field-testing, data is colleted daily in the morning,

afternoon and at night. This means that field-testing is conducted for timeslots 1 until
timeslot 3. The hours allocation for timeslots are as follows:
i) Timeslot 1: From 10.00 a.m. to11.59 a.m.

ii) Timeslot 2: From 3.00 p.m. to 6.00 p.m.
iii) Timeslot 3: From 8.00 p.m. to 11.00 p.m.
Skudai-Chemor field-testing is conducted for timeslots 1 until timeslot 2

only. Everyday, data is collected according to the schedule below.
i) Timeslot 1: From 9.00 a.m. to1200 noon

ii) Timeslot 2: From 2.00 p.m. to 4.00 p.m.
6.6 Results and Discussions
The LQA scoring applied in this research is different from the LQA scoring
in U.S Federal Standard 1045A [NCS, 1993]. In the Federal Standard 1045, the error
control method used for transmitting ALE words is Golay forward error correction
(FEC) code, thus the LQA is done by obtaining the bit error ratio or BER of the
transmitted ALE frame. The ALE frames in this research are transmitted using
94
PACTOR data format, which uses Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) error
correction. Thus, BER method cannot be apply in order to determine the LQA score
for a channel. To overcome this problem, as explained in the previous chapter, LQA
score is obtained by counting the number of seconds it takes for a complete error-free
sounding frame to arrive at destination. Moreover, the standard does not state any
rule or requirements on the algorithm used by ALE system to rank-order the channels
based on LQA data. Different ALE system may employ unique innovative
techniques to perform LQA and channel ranking [Johnson et al, 1997].
The database containing full results from field-testing are presented in

Appendix E for Skudai-Kota Bahru field-testing and in Appendix F for Skudai-
Chemor field-testing. Among others, the database contains LQA score for soundings
of each channel and also the ranking of the channels at every hour. Then, the results
from the database are summarized and presented in form of graphs. Two graphs are
plotted for each timeslot. The first one is a graph of LQA results for each channel
versus date. Then the second graph is a graph of ranking of each channel versus date.
From the plotted graphs, analysis is done to determine the best channel to use for
each timeslot throughout the field-testing period by comparing the performances of
the channels everyday. There are two steps taken to compare the performance of each
channel. The first step is by comparing the LQA scores of each channel. In general,
the channel with the most number of low LQA score days during the field-testing
period is considered as the best channel. High LQA score on the other hand indicates
that many retransmissions have occurred, which means that the frequency is bad.
There are four categories of LQA score available, which are zero LQA score, low
LQA score, medium LQA score, high LQA score and finally very high LQA score.
The range of LQA scores for each category is shown in Table 6.3.
To select the best usable channel during the field-testing period, by referring to
LQA score graph, factors listed below are considered:
i) The number of days that LQA scores are zero.

ii) The number of days that LQA scores are low.
95
iii) The number of days that LQA scores are medium.

iv) The number of days that LQA scores are high.
v) The number of days that LQA scores are very high.
vi) The lowest and highest score for each channel.
Table 6.3 LQA Score categories

Score LQA score Range Remark
Zero 0 This is the lowest score. This score indicate that the
sounding frame packets transmitted contain no error.
The channel propagation condition is therefore very
good and channel with this score is the best channel to
be used for communication.
Low From 1 to 5 This score indicate that the sounding frame packets
transmitted contain minimum error. Thus, this means
that the packets are retransmitted a few times. The
propagation condition for channel with this score is
considered good and can be used for communication.
Medium From 6 to 15 This kind of score is a result from several
retransmissions of packets of sounding frame. Thus the
channel condition is not so good. However,
communication can still be done using this channel.
High From 16 to 25 This score indicates many retransmissions of sounding
frame packets have occurred. This channel is therefore
considered bad. Communicating using this channel has
low chance of succeed.
Very From 26 onward Channel with this score must be avoided. This score
high indicates two possibilities: either the number of
retransmission is very high or the sounding fails for
this channel. Thus the condition of this channel is very
bad.
96
The second step is to evaluate the performance of each channel is by

examining the channel-ranking graph. By referring to channel ranking graph, factors
below are considered:
i) How many days the channel is ranked as the best channel.

ii) How many days the channel is ranked as the worst channel.
iii) The position the channel is usually ranked and how many days it takes
that position.
After considering the factors stated above, and comparing the performance of
each channel, the best channel throughout the field-testing period for each timeslot is
known. The subsections below explain the analysis and summary of each field-
testing result. Then the results are compared with predicted frequencies from ASAPS
prediction program shown in Chapter III.
6.6.1 Skudai-Kota Bahru Result
Field-testing for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit was done daily from 10.00 a.m. to
11.00 p.m. The hours were divided into three timeslots as explained earlier in this
chapter. During each timeslot, sounding is done hourly according to its
predetermined sounding time. The LQA results of the sounding done are explained
below.
97
6.6.1.1 Sounding Results During Timeslot 1
For each hour in the timeslots as stated above, both stations performed
sounding once at predetermined sounding time. For Skudai, sounding occurred at 15
minutes past every hour, for example at 10.15 a.m., 11.15 a.m., 12.15 p.m and so on.
Kota Bahru station on the other hand performed sounding at every 30 minutes past
the hour (at 10.30 a.m., 11.30 a.m., 12.30 p.m. and so on).
i) Sounding Made by Skudai Station.
The graph in figure 6.7 below shows the LQA result for sounding sent by
Skudai station from 17th March until 24th March 2005. In this graph, the LQA score
for each channel are represented in a form of bar graph. The score ranges from 0 to
43 and different colours are used to represent each channel. Then on figure 6.8 the
graph of channel ranking versus date is shown. Ranking for each channel throughout
the field-testing period in this figure is shown in a form of line graph.
98
45
40
35
30
25
S c o re
20
15
10
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/19/2005 03/20/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005 03/24/2005
Date
channel 1: 8.002MHz channel 2: 8.190 MHz channel 3: 8.710 MHz channel 4: 9.108 MHz channel 5: 10.100 MHz
Figure 6.7 LQA result for sounding made by Skudai station during timeslot 1
4
Rank
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/19/2005 03/20/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005 03/24/2005
date
Figure 6.8 Channels Ranking for Sounding by Skudai During timeslot 1

99
Based on results presented by both Figure 6.7 and 6.8, analysis is done. The
purpose of this analysis is to determine which channel has the most low score days as
this is the best channel during this timeslot. The analysis results are shown in Table
6.4. In this table, the LQA results in Figure 6.7 are sorted according to LQA score
categories as shown in Table 6.3 which are zero, low, medium, high and very high
LQA score. Therefore, for each channel, the number of days for each score
categories is known. Then by referring to Figure 6.8, the number of days each
channel became the best and the worst channel is identified.
Table 6.4 Skudai-Kota Bahru Result Analysis for Sounding made by Skudai during
timeslot 1
Days LQA Score Rank
Channel Zero Low Medium High Very high first last

1 4 2 3 0 0 6 0
2 5 2 1 0 0 2 0
3 2 2 3 0 1 0 2
4 2 3 3 0 0 0 1
5 1 3 4 0 0 5
According to analysis results in Table 6.4, we can see that channel 2 which
is 8.190 MHz is the best channel because it has the most number of days with zero
LQA score. Zero LQA score for this channel occurred for five days. Other than that,
this channel has two low score days, on 18th and 24th and a medium LQA score day
on 23rd March, where the score is 7. This is also the highest score for this channel.
The second best channel is channel 1, which is 8.002 MHz. This channel has four
zero LQA score days and two low LQA score days. Other than that, it also has two
medium score days on 19 and 23 March. Although channel 2 is the best channel, but
based on the channel ranking graph in Figure 6.8, it can be seen that channel 1 is
ranked as the best channel for six days, while channel 2 is ranked as the best channel
only twice. This happens because based on the LQA score graph in Figure 6.7, on
17th, 20th and 21st, the score for both channel 1 and 2 are same which is zero. Thus
channel 1 and 2 are the best channel for those days. However, the system, for
100
simplicity has ranked channel 1 as the best channel and channel 2 as the second best
channel. Nonetheless, for overall results, channel 2 is determined as the best channel;
because it has more number of days with very low scores than channel 1. Besides
that, the highest score for channel 2 is 7, while channel 1’s highest score is 15.
The next best channel to consider is channel 4, which is 9.108. Compared to

the two best channels, this channel only has two days with zero LQA score. For the
rest of the days, this channel has three low and medium LQA score days. The highest
score for this channel is 7 which occurred on three days from 21st until 23rd March.
Based on the results, this channel is ranked as the third best channel for this timeslot.
According to Figure 6.7, channel 3, which is 8.710 MHz, has the same number
of zero LQA days as channel 4 which is two. Channel 5, which is 10.100 MHz, on
the other hand only has one zero LQA score day. However, the number of low LQA
score days for channel 5 is three, which is higher than channel 3 with two days.
Moreover, channel 5 also has more medium LQA score days than channel 3. Plus,
the highest score for channel 3 is above 40 while the highest score for channel 5 is
15. Thus, channel 5 is the fourth best channel and channel 3 is the worst channel.
ii) Sounding Made by Kota Bahru Station.
The next step now is to analyze the results of sounding made by Kota
Bahru station and recorded by Skudai. The LQA score from sounding made by Kota
Bahru are illustrates on Figure 6.9, followed by the graph showing the ranking of
each channel on Figure 6.10. Then the analysis of both graphs in Figure 6.9 and
Figure 6.10 are shown in Table 6.5.
101
16
14
12
10
S core
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/19/2005 03/20/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005 03/24/2005
Date
Figure 6.9 LQA result for Souding By Kota Bahru During Timeslot 1
4
R ank
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/19/2005 03/20/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005 03/24/2005
Date
Figure 6.10 Channels ranking for sounding by Kota Bahru during timeslot 1
102
Table 6.5 Skudai-Kota Bahru Result Analysis for Sounding made by Kota Bahru
during timeslot 1
Days LQA Score Rank

1 3 3 2 0 0 5 0
2 5 1 2 0 0 3 0
3 4 0 4 0 0 0 0
4 1 3 4 0 0 0 2
5 2 1 5 0 0 0 6
Similar to sounding from Skudai, the best channel for timeslot1 for sounding
made by Kota Bahru is channel 2, followed by channel 1. For channel 2, the LQA
score on the first five days were zero. Then on the 6th day, the score is 2 which is a
low LQA score. For the rest of two days, the score becomes medium. For channel 1
on the other hand, there are only three days with zero LQA score. This channel also
has three low LQA score days and two medium score LQA days. The highest score
for this channel is 7, which occurred twice, on 22nd and 23rd March. By referring to
Channel ranking graph, it can be seen that channel 1 becomes the best channel 5
times while channel 2 becomes the best channel three times. Both channel never
became the worst channel throughout the field-testing period.
The third best channel according to Figure 6.9 and Figure 6.10 is channel 3.
Although compared to channel 1, this channel has more zero LQA score days (four),
but it has no low score days. Moreover, this channel has four medium LQA scores
days and the highest score is 15. According to channel ranking graph in Figure 6.10,
this channel has never been ranked as the best or the worst channel. It is ranked as
the third best channel most of the time.
From Figure 6.9, we can see that channel 4 has one zero LQA score days and
three low LQA score days. Moreover, it also has 4 medium score days from 21st to
24th March. Channel 5 on the other hand has two zero LQA score days. It also has a
103
day with low score and three days of medium scores. The highest score of channel 4
is 14 which occurred on 21st; while for channel 5 is 15 which was on 17th. Thus
based on the results, it can be seen that channel 4 is better than channel 5 because it
has more low score days. Channel 4 is therefore the fourth best channel, while
channel 5 is the worst.
iii) Summary of Sounding during Timeslot 1
Based on the analysis of the LQA results of sounding made by Skudai and
Kota Bahru station, it can be seen that channel 2, which is 8.190 MHz and channel 1,
which is 8.002 MHz are the best channel to use during this timeslot. Channel 5,
which is 10.100 MHz must be avoided as this is the worst channel for this timeslot.
The summary of the results are shown in Table 6.6 below.
Table 6.6 Summary of LQA results for Skudai-Kota Bahru Circuit during timeslot 1
Sounding Station
Rank
Skudai Kota Bahru
1 Channel 2 Channel 2
6.6.1.2 Sounding Result During Timeslot 2
For each hour in this timeslot, Skudai, sounding occurred at 15 minutes past
every hour, which means on 3.15 p.m., 4.15 p.m., 4.15 p.m. Kota Bahru station on
the other hand performed sounding at every 30 minutes past the hour (at 3.30 p.m.,
4.30 p.m., 5.30 p.m.).
104
The LQA results for soundings from Skudai are shown Figure 6.11. Then on
Figure 6.12, the channel ranking is shown. Then the analysis from both LQA score
and channel ranking graphs are described in Table 6.7. From this table, and the
graphs in Figure 6.11 and 6.12, the best channel can be determined based on the
performance of each channel during this timeslot.
50
45
40
35
30
Score
25
20
15
10
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/19/2005 03/20/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005 03/24/2005
Date
Figure 6.11 LQA result for Souding By Skudai during timeslot 2

105
4
R ank
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/19/2005 03/20/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005 03/24/2005
Date
Figure 6.12 Channels Ranking for Sounding by Skudai during Timeslot 2
timeslot 2
Days LQA Score Rank

1 4 2 1 0 1 4 1
2 7 1 0 0 0 4 0
3 3 3 2 0 0 0 3
4 4 2 2 0 0 0 2
5 2 5 0 0 1 0 2
Based on the results, it can be seen that channel 2 is the best channel because
throughout the 8 field-testing days, it has zero LQA scores almost everyday except
on 18th where the score is 2. Then, based on channel ranking graph in Figure 6.11,
this channel was ranked as the best channel 4 times and was never ranked as the
worst channel.
106
According to Table 6. 7 and from the LQA score graph, it can be seen that
channel 1’s score is similar to channel 4. Both channels have four zero LQA score
days and two low score days. Channel 4 however has two medium score days and
has neither high nor very high LQA score day. Channel 1 on the other hand has one
medium LQA score day and one very high LQA score day, with the highest score of
43. Thus, channel 4 is determined as the second best channel and channel 1 is the
third best channel.
The fourth best channel is channel 5. this channel has two zero LQA score
days, five low score days and one very high score day. On the first four days, LQA
scores for this channel are in the range of 0 to 3. On the 21st March however, the
score is 40, which is drastically higher. Then on the rest of three days, the score
became low again. Finally, the worst channel for this timeslot is channel 3. This
channel has three zero LQA score days, three low score days, and two medium LQA
score day. Although unlike channel 5, channel 3 does not very high LQA score, but
the overall performance of channel 5 is better than channel 3. This is because except
on 21st March, channel 5’s LQA score is below 5. Moreover, by referring to channel
ranking graph in figure 6.12, it can be seen that channel 3 is ranked as the last
channel three times, the most times compared to other channels. Thus, channel 3 is
the worst channel.
ii) Sounding Made by Kota Bahru Station
Next on Figure 6.13, the LQA results for soundings made by Kota Bahru
station are presented. Following after that is Figure 6.14, which shows the channel
ranking based on LQA results for sounding made by Kota Bahru station. The
analysis of the results will follow after that in Table 6.8. Then comparison between
the results from sounding made by Kota Bahru station will follow after the table.
107
30
25
20
S c o re
15
10
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/19/2005 03/20/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005 03/24/2005
da t e
Figure 6.13 LQA result for sounding made by Kota Bahru during timeslot 2
4
Rank
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/19/2005 03/20/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005 03/24/2005
Date
108
during timeslot 2
Days LQA Score Rank

1 4 3 1 0 0 5 1
2 4 3 1 0 0 1 0
3 4 1 3 0 0 1 1
4 4 3 1 0 0 1 0
5 1 4 2 1 0 0 6
Based on the graphs illustrated in Figure 6.13, Figure 6.14 and Table 6.8,
overall, channel 4 is the best channel. This statement is made since the LQA score
for this channel is between 0 and 1 almost everyday, except on 17 March. On that
day, the score is 7, which is the highest score for this channel. Even though channel 4
is the best channel, but the difference between channel 4 and channel 2 is small.
Channel 2, similar to channel 4, always has low score, between 0 to 4 almost
everyday. The highest score for channel 2 occurred on the same day as channel 4,
and the value is the same, which is 7. The only difference between these two
channels is on the 18th and 23rd, where while channel 4 LQA score is 0 on both days,
the score for channel 2 is 4 and 2 respectively. Therefore, due to this, channel 2 is
determined as the second best channel. Then the third best channel is channel 1. Like
the first two channel, the score of this channel is also ranges from 0 to 5 almost
everyday except on 17th March where the score is 7. However, channel 1 has slightly
higher LQA values from channel 4 and channel2. Channel 1 is therefore the third
best channel.
The fourth best channel is channel 3, which has four zero LQA score days,
one low LQA score day and three medium LQA score days. The highest score for
this channel 14, which occurred on 18th, and 19th of March. This means that the
worst channel for sounding made by Kota Bahru during this timeslot is channel 5.
This is because channel 5 has only one zero LQA score day: the least compared to
the other four channels. It also has 4 low LQA score days, two medium score days
109
and one high LQA score day. The highest sore is 25, which occurred on 21 March.
Besides, according to the channel-ranking graph in Figure 6.14, this channel is
ranked as the worst channel six times, which is the most frequent among the other
four channels.
Based o the analysis above, we can see that for both stations in this timeslot,
the best channels to use is either channel 2: 8.190 MHz or channel 4: 9.108. Channel
1, which is 8.002 MHz, can also be used, but the performance is not as good as
channel 2 and channel 4. However, the other two channels, which are channel 3:
8.710 MHz and channel 5: 10.100 MHz, must not be used, as they are the worst
channels for this timeslot. Table 6.9 below shows the summary of the results.
Table 6.9 Summary of LQA Result for Skudai-Kota Bahru Result during Timeslot 2
Sounding Station
Rank
Skudai Kota Bahru
6.6.1.3 Sounding Result During Timeslot 3
For each hour in thi timeslots, both stations performed sounding once at
predetermined sounding time. For Skudai, sounding occurred at 15 minutes past
every hour, for example at 8.15 p.m and so on. Kota Bahru station on the other hand
110
performed sounding at every 30 minutes past the hour, for instance at 8.30 p.m. and
so on.
i) Sounding Made by Skudai Station
The graph illustrated in Figure 6.15 below shows the results of LQA based on
sounding made by Skudai station during timeslot 3. The soundings were conducted
for five days, beginning from 17th March. Then on Figure 6.16, the ranking of each
channel on everyday are shown and after that, the analysis of the result is shown in
Table 6.10.
16
14
12
10
S c o re
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/21/2005 03/23/2005 24/03/05
Date
Figure 6.15 LQA result for sounding by Skudai During Timeslot 3

111
4
R ank
0
03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/21/2005 03/23/2005 24/03/05
date
Figure 6.16 Channels ranking for sounding by Skudai during timeslot 3
timeslot 3.
Days LQA Score Rank

1 1 1 3 0 0 2 1
2 1 1 3 0 0 1 0
3 1 2 2 0 0 2 0
4 0 0 5 0 0 0 1
5 0 0 5 0 0 0 3
According to the graph in Figure 6.15 and Table 6.10, it can be seen that the
best channel is channel 3. this is because this channel has the most number of days
with low LQA score. This channel has one zero LQA score day, two low LQA score
days and two medium LQA score days. The highest LQA score for this channel is 9
which occurred on 23rd March. By referring to the channel-ranking graph in Figure
112
6.16, it is clear that this channel is ranked as the best channel twice out of five field-
testing days.
LQA results for channel 1 and channel 2 are similar. Both channels has1 zero
LQA score day, two low LQA score days and three medium score days. The highest
LQA score for both channels occurred on 21st March .The score for channel 2 on that
day is 9, while the score for channel 1 is 13. Thus, channel 2 is determined as the
second best channel followed by channel 1.
Channel 4 and channel 5 LQA scores are also similar. Both channels only
have medium LQA scores throughout the field-testing period. The highest score for
both channels are 15, which occured on 17th, and 18th March. The lowest score for
channel 4 is 8 which occurred on the 21st March, while the lowest score for channel 5
is 7 which occurred on 24th March. Thus, this means that channel 5 is the fourth best
channel and channel 4 is the worst channel.
ii) Sounding Made by Kota Bahru Station
The LQA results for sounding made by Kota Bahru station are illustrates by
the graph in Figure 6.17. Following that graph is channel-ranking graph in Figure
6.18. This graph shows the ranking of each channel during this timeslot everyday.
Then on Table 6.11 the analysis from LQA score graph in Figure 6.17 and channel
ranking graph in Figure 6.18 is shown. From this table, the best channel is
determined.
113
35
30
25
S c o re
20
15
10
0
03/16/2005 03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005
Date
Figure 6.17 LQA results for sounding made by Kota Bahru during timeslot 3
4
Rank
0
03/16/2005 03/17/2005 03/18/2005 03/21/2005 03/22/2005 03/23/2005
date
channel 1: 8.002MHz channel 2: 8.190 MHz channel 3: 8.710 MHz

channel 4: 9.108 MHz channel 5: 10.100 MHz
114
during timeslot 3.
Days LQA Score Rank

1 2 3 1 0 0 4 0
2 3 3 0 0 0 2 0
3 1 2 2 0 1 0 0
4 0 1 4 1 0 0 0
5 0 1 4 0 1 0 6
Based on the graph in Figure 6.17 and Table 6.11, channel 2 is determined as
the best channel. This is because the number of zero LQA score days for this channel
is three, which is the highest among the five channels. The number of low LQA score
is also three. Moreover, this channel does not have any high LQA score and medium
score. Its highest score is 3 which occurred on 18th March. The scores on most of the
days for this channel ranges from zero to 2. The next best channel, based on the
results, is channel 1. This channel also has no high LQA score, but it has one
medium score, which occurred on 23 March where the score is 6. Other than that,
channel 1 also has 2 zero LQA score days and 3 low score days.
The third best channel is based on the LQA results is channel 3. Overall, this
channel has one zero LQA score day and 2 low score days. Besides that, this channel
also has two medium LQA score days and one very high score day. The highest
score is 30, which occurred on 17 March. Then channel 4, which does not have any
zero LQA score day is considered as the fourth best channel. This channel has one
low LQA score day, four medium LQA score days and one high LQA score day.
Although the highest score for channel 4, which is 15, is not as high as channel 3’s,
this channel is still considered worse than channel 3. This is because channel 3 has
more low LQA score days than channel 4.
115
The worst channel according to the LQA results is channel 5. This channel
has no zero LQA score day, and only one low LQA score day. Moreover, it has four
medium LQA score days and one very high LQA score day. The highest score is 30,
which occurred on the 17th. The lowest score is 3, which is on 18th. By referring to
channel ranking graph in Figure 6.18, it can be seen that this channel is ranked as the
worst channel everyday.
From the analysis above, we can see that during timeslot 3, to communicate
between Kota Bahru and Skudai, using channel 2, which is 8.190 MHz is the best
way. A user can also use channel 3 which is 8.71 MHz or channel 1 which 8.002
MHz. The last two channels, which are 9.108 and 10.100 MHz, should be avoided
because these are the worst channels. Table 6.12 shows the summary of LQA results
for this timeslot.
Table 6.12 Summary of LQA Result for Skudai-Kota Bahru Circuit during Timeslot
3
Sounding Station
Rank
Skudai Kota Bahru
116
6.6.1.4 Comparisons Between Skudai-Kota Bahru Results and ASAPS

Prediction Results
The value of first mode Optimum Working Frequency (OWF1) according to

GRAFEX Frequency Prediction table shown in Figure 3.3 is 8.800 MHz during
timeslot 1, 9.900 MHz during timeslot 2 and 8.000 MHz during timeslot 3. On the
other hand, the value of first mode Absorption Limiting Frequency (ALF) for this
circuit is 3.6 MHz for timeslot 1, 3.2 MHz for timeslot 2 and finally zero for timeslot
3. Second mode OWF (OWF2) is 8.100 MHz for timeslot 1, 9.000 MHz during
timeslot 2 and 7.100 MHz during timeslot 3. The value of second mode ALF or
ALF2 are 3.2 MHz for timeslot 1, 2.8 MHz for timeslot 2, and zero for timeslot 3.
For sounding made by Skudai, the comparisons between the highest-ranked channels
for each timeslot and the predicted OWF are shown in Figure 6.19. Then on Figure
6.20 comparisons for sounding made by Kota Bahru is shown.
10.000 OWF1, 9.900

OWF1, 8.800 OWF2, 9.000
9.000 Channel 3:8.710
OWF2, 8.100 Channel 2: 8.190
8.000
Channel 1: 8.002 OWF1, 8.000
7.100
7.000
OWF2, 7.100
6.000
F re q u e n c y (M H z )
5.000
4.000 ALF1, 3.600

ALF1, 3.200
3.000
ALF2, 3.200
ALF2, 2.800
2.000
1.000
ALF2, 0.000
0.000
3 /1 7 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 8 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 9 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 0 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 1 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 2 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 3 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 4 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 7 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 8 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 9 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 0 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 1 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 2 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 3 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 4 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 7 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 8 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 1 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 3 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 4 /2 0 0 5
OWF1 Timeslot
OWF2 1 Skudai Timeslot 2 Timeslot 3
ALF1 ALF2 Date
Figure 6.19 Comparisons between highest-ranked channels and OWF values for
Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit: sounding by Skudai
117
10.000 OWF1,9.900
OWF1, 8.800 Channel 4:9.108 OWF2, 9.000

9.000
OWF2, 8.100 Channel 3:8.710 Channel 2:8.190
8.000
Channel 1:8.002 OWF1, 8.000
7.000
OWF2, 7.100
F re q u e n c y (M H z )
6.000
5.000
4.000 ALF1, 3.600
3.000 ALF2, 3.200
2.000
1.000
0.000
3 /1 7 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 8 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 9 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 0 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 1 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 2 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 3 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 4 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 7 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 8 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 9 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 0 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 1 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 2 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 3 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 4 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 7 /2 0 0 5
3 /1 8 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 1 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 2 /2 0 0 5
3 /2 3 /2 0 0 5
Timeslot 1 Timeslot 2 Timeslot 3
OWF1 OWF2 Kota Bahru ALF1 ALF2 Date
Figure 6.20 Comparisons between highest-ranked channels and OWF values

for Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit: sounding by Kota Bahru
Based on Figure 6.19 and Figure 6.20 above, it can be seen that for timeslot
1, the highest-ranking channels for both sounding by Skudai and Kota Bahru are
channel 1: 8.002 MHz and channel 2: 8.190 MHz. Both channel 1 and channel 2 are
located near the OWF2 and lower than OWF1. Channel 1 is located below both
OWF1 and OWF 2. Thus, this means that signals transmitted using this channel may
propagate either via first mode of second mode. Channel 2 on the other hand is above
OWF2, so there is a possibility that signals transmitted using this channel propagates
via the first propagation mode only.
For timeslot 2, OWF1 is 9.9 MHz, while OWF2 is 9.000 MHz. According to
Figure 6.19 for sounding made by Skudai, the top channels are channel 1 and
channel 2. Both channels are located below OWF 1 and OWF2 and higher than both
ALF1 and ALF2, thus have 90% chances of success. For sounding made by Kota
118
Bahru, as shown in Figure 6.20, the highest-ranked channels are channel 1, channel
2, channel 3 (8.710 MHz) and channel 4 (9.200 MHz). Channel 1, channel 2 and
channel 3 are below OWF1 and OWF2, so all three frequencies have 90% chances
for success and may propagate via either first mode or second mode. On the other
hand, channel 4 is located above OWF2, thus propagates via first mode only.
During timeslot 3, OWF1 is 8.000 MHz while OWF2 is 7.100 MHz. The
highest-ranked channels during this timeslot for sounding made by Skudai are
channel 1 (8.002 MHz), channel 2 (8.190 MHz) and channel 3 which is 8.71. Then
by referring to Figure 6.20, the highest-ranked channels are only channel 1 and
channel 2. Channel 1 is located just above OWF1, thus have 90% chances to
succeed. However, both channel 2 and channel 3 is higher than OWF1 and OWF2.
These channels are still usable because they are below MUF. The MUF for this
timeslot according to the Field Strength Table in Figure 3.4 is 10.600 MHz.
Frequencies located between OWF and MUF has 50% to 90% chances to succeed.
6.6.2 Skudai-Chemor Results
Discussions in the following subsections are based on the LQA score graphs
and channel ranking graphs of the LQA results located in the database for both
timeslot 1 and timeslot 2. The full LQA results are shown in Appendix E.
6.6.2.1 Skudai-Chemor Sounding Results during Timeslot 1
Both stations performed sounding once at predetermined sounding time

during this timeslot. For Skudai, sounding occurred at 15 minutes past every hour,
which means at 9.15 a.m., 10.15 a.m., 11.15 a.m. Chemor station on the other hand
119
performed sounding at every 30 minutes past the hour (at 9.30 a.m., 10.30 a.m. and
11.30 a.m).
The results for sounding made by Skudai station during timeslot 1 are
illustrated in the bar graph in Figure 6.21. This graph shows the LQA scores based
on sounding frame transmitted by Skudai station. Then the channel ranking result for
timeslot 1 is shown in line graph on Figure 6.22. Then from both graphs, analysis on
performance of each channel from 7th June 2005 to 21st June 2005 during timeslot 1
is done. For each channel, the scores are divided into the four LQA score categories
as shown in Table 6.3. The results of the analysis are shown in Table 6.13.
40
35
30
25
S co re
20
15
10
0
5
5
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/0 7
/0 8
/0 9
/1 0
/1 3
/1 4
/1 5
/1 7
/2 0
/2 1
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
Date
Channel 1: 8.190 MHz Channel 2: 7.100 MHz Channel 3: 8.710 MHz Channel 4: 8.002 MHz Channel 5: 9.200 MHz
Figure 6.21 LQA result of sounding by Skudai during timeslot 1

120
4
Rank
0
06/07/2005 06/08/2005 06/09/2005 06/10/2005 06/13/2005 06/14/2005 06/15/2005 06/17/2005 06/20/2005 06/21/2005
Date
Channel 1: 8.190 MHz Channel 2: 7.100 MHz Channel 3: 8.710 MHz

Channel 4: 8.002 MHz Channel 5: 9.200 MHz
Figure 6.22 Channel ranking for sounding by Skudai during timeslot 1
Table 6.13 Result analysis for Sounding made by Skudai during timeslot 1
Days LQA Score Rank
Zero Low Medium High Very high first last
Channel
1 0 1 3 1 5 1 1
2 2 2 2 4 0 7 1
3 0 1 1 1 7 0 1
4 0 1 0 3 6 1 4
5 0 2 2 3 3 1 3
From Table 6.13, it can be seen that channel 2 which is 7.100 MHz, is the
best channel for this timeslot. This is because channel 2 is the only channel that has
zero LQA score during the field-testing period. Zero LQA score occurred twice for
this channel which are on 17th and 20th June 2005. Besides that, this channel also has
two low LQA score days and three medium score days. This channel does not have
any very high scores (above 25). It does however have 4 high score days. Then,
according to Figure 6.22, it can be seen that this channel is usually ranked as the best
channel. It was ranked the best channel on seven out of ten days of field-testing
121
period. Besides that, it was ranked as the worst channel only once which is on 9th
June. On the rest of the days, this channel is ranked as the third best channel.
The second best channel, according to Figure 6.21 and Figure 6.22 would
have to be channel 5 which is 9.200 MHz. Low LQA score occurred twice for this
channel, which are on 14th and 17th June. Besides that, this channel also has two
medium LQA score days, which means that the score is between 6 to 15. However,
this channel has three very high LQA score days, with the highest score of 32. Other
than that, it also has high LQA score days on three out of ten days. Then by looking
at Figure 6.22, it can be seen that this channel is ranked as the best channel once, and
ranked three times as the worst channel. However, during the field-testing, it is
ranked most of the days as the second best channel. Following after that is channel 1,
which is 8.19 MHz. This channel is chosen as the third best channel because by
referring to Table 6.13 and Figure 6.21, channel 1 has one low LQA score day,
which is on 10th June with the score of 3. Then medium LQA score for this channel
occurred on three days and this channel only has one high score day which is on 7th
June. For the rest of the field-testing period, the scores are very high.
Channel 4 which is 8.002 MHz has only one low LQA score day and neither
zero nor medium LQA score day. This channel has one low LQA score day, on 9th of
June with the score of 1. This is the lowest LQA score for this channel. On three days
out of the field-testing period, this channel has high LQA score which is between 16
to 25. This channel has 6 very high score days which makes this channel not good for
communication. Similarly, channel 3 which is 8.710 MHz also has no zero LQA
score day and one low LQA score day. Channel 3 however, has 1 medium LQA
score day and 1 high LQA score day. The lowest score for this channel is 3 which
occurs on 9th June. Channel 3 has the most number of very high LQA score days
which is 7. therefore, after considering the results it can be said that channel 4 is the
fourth best channel and channel 3 is the worst channel during timeslot 1.
122
ii) Sounding Made by Chemor Station
Next on discussion is the results for sounding made by Chemor station during
timeslot 1. The LQA score results are illustrated in the bar graph in Figure 6.23.
Then the channel ranking result is shown in line graph on Figure 6.24. The analysis
of both graphs in Figure 6.23 and Figure 6.24 are shown in Table 6.14. From this
table, performance of each channel is compared and after that, the best channel is
determined.
40
35
30
25
S c o re
20
15
10
5
0
5
05
5
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
20
7 /2
8 /2
/2
/2
/2
5 /2
7 /2
0 /2
1 /2
4/
/0 9
/1 0
/1 3
/0
/0
/1
/1
/1
/2
/2
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
Date
Figure 6.23 LQA result of sounding by Chemor during Timeslot 1

123
4
R ank
0
5
5
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
7
1
/0
/0
/0
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/2
/2
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
Date
Figure 6.24 Channel ranking for sounding by Chemor during timeslot 1
Table 6.14 Result analysis for Sounding made by Chemor during timeslot 1
LQA Score Rank
Days Zero Low Medium High Very high First Last
Channel
1 0 0 4 2 4 1 1
2 1 1 5 2 1 8 0
3 0 0 1 2 7 0 1
4 0 0 1 2 7 0 3
5 0 0 1 5 4 1 5
Based on Figure 6.23, Figure 6.24 and Table 6.14, it can be seen that channel
2 is the best channel. This is because this is the only channel that has zero and low
LQA score days. Zero score occurred on the 20th June while low LQA score occurred
on 17th June. There are five days with medium LQA score and two days with high
LQA score. Finally, this channel has only one very high LQA score day which is on
7th June. Then by referring to the channel ranking graph, it can be seen that this
channel is ranked as the best channel on 8 days and has never been ranked as the last
channel.
124
The second best channel, based on the results is channel 1 which has neither
zero nor low LQA score day. According to the results, this channel has four medium
LQA score days. Other than that, this channel has two high and very four high LQA
score days. Based on channel ranking graph in Figure 6.24, channel 1 is ranked as
the best and the last channel once. It is usually ranked as the second best channel.
The discussion now move on to channel 5 which is ranked as the third best channel.
Same as channel 1, this channel does not have any zero and low LQA score day.
Nonetheless, channel 5 has one medium LQA score day, five high LQA score days
and four very high LQA score days.
The performance of channel 3 and channel 4 are similar to each other. The
results shows that both channels have one medium LQA score day, two high LQA
score days and 7 very high LQA score days. However, the highest LQA score for
channel 4 is 37 while the highest score for channel 3 is 30. Therefore, channel 3 is
ranked as the fourth best channel and channel 4 is the worst channel.
Table 6.15 shows the summary of LQA result for this timeslot. Based on
analysis, the best channel for timeslot 1 is channel 2, which is 7.100 MHz. Thus,
compared to the other five channels, channel 2 is the most suitable frequency to use
for communication. Other than that, channel 1, which is 8.190 MHz and channel 5
which is 9.200 MHz can also be used for communication.
125
Table 6.15 Summary of LQA Results for Skudai-Chemor Circuit during Timeslot 1
Sounding Station
Rank
Skudai Chemor
6.6.2.2 Skudai-Chemor Sounding Results during Timeslot 2
For Skudai, sounding during this timeslot is done at 15 minutes past every
hour, for example at 2.15 p.m and so on. Chemor station on the other hand performed
sounding at every 30 minutes past the hour for example at 2.30 p.m. and so on.
i) Sounding Made by Skudai Station
Sounding by Skudai is done hourly at every 15 minutes past the hour. For
timeslot 2, data is collected at 2.15 p.m. and 3.15 p.m. everyday from 8th June until
21st June 2005. The LQA score for these sounding are illustrated in Figure 6.25.
Then on figure 6.26, the channel-ranking graph is shown. Analysis of the results for
each channel is done by dividing the days by according to the LQA score categories.
The results of the analysis are shown in Table 6.16.
126
50
45
40
35
30
Score
25
20
15
10
0
06/08/2005 06/09/2005 06/10/2005 06/14/2005 06/15/2005 06/16/2005 06/17/2005 06/20/2005 06/21/2005
Date
Figure 6.25 LQA result of sounding by Skudai during timeslot 2
4
Rank
0
06/08/2005 06/09/2005 06/10/2005 06/14/2005 06/15/2005 06/16/2005 06/20/2005 06/21/2005
Date

Figure 6.26 Channel ranking for sounding by Skudai during timeslot 2

127
Table 6.16 Result analysis for Sounding Made by Skudai during Timeslot 2
LQA Score Rank

Channel
1 0 0 1 4 4 1 2
2 2 2 2 1 2 4 1
3 2 0 0 2 5 1 1
4 0 2 0 2 5 0 3
5 3 1 0 2 3 3 2
Based on the LQA score graph in Figure 6.25 and Table 6.16, it can be seen
that channel 2 which is 7.100 MHz is the best channel. This channel has two zero,
low and medium LQA score days. It has only one high LQA score day and two days
with very high LQA score days. Channel 5 which is 9.200 MHz has 3 zero LQA
score days, the highest among the five channels. It also has 1 low score days and no
medium LQA score day. This channel also has two high LQA score days and three
very high LQA score days. The reason why channel 2 is selected as the best channel
instead of channel 5 is that by referring to Table 6.16 and Figure 6.26, it can be seen
that channel 2 is ranked as the best channel for four times, while channel 5 is ranked
three times. More over, overall, channel 5 has more number of high LQA score days
than channel 2.
The third best channel according to the results is channel 3 which is 8.710
MHz. this channel has 2 zero LQA score days which occurred on 10th and 20th June.
However, this channel does not have any low and medium LQA score days. It has
two high LQA score days and very high LQA score on the rest for five days. based
on Figure 6.25, this channel has only been ranked as the best channel once.
To determine which is the fourth best channel and the worst channel,
comparison is done between channel 1 which is 8.190 MHz and channel 4 which is
8.002 MHz. From the LQA score graph, it can be seen that both channels do not have
any zero LQA score days. For low LQA score, channel 1 does not have any while
128
channel 4 has two days with low LQA score. However, channel 1 has a day with
medium score, but channel 4 does not. Next, channel 1 has 4 high and very high
LQA score days. Channel 4 on the other hand has 2 high score days and five very
high score days. Thus from the result, channel 4 is clearly is better than channel 1
because it has more lower score days than channel 1. Therefore, channel 4 is the
fourth best channel and channel 1 is the worst channel for timeslot 2.
iv) Sounding Made by Chemor Station
The LQA score results for sounding made by Chemor station during timeslot
2 are illustrated in the bar graph in Figure 6.27. Then the channel ranking result is
shown in line graph on Figure 6.28. The analysis of both graphs in Figure 6.27 and
Figure 2.28 are shown in Table 6.17. From this table, performance of each channel is
compared and the best channel is determined.
40
35
30
25
S c o re
20
15
10
5
0
05
05
05
05
05
05
05
05
05
/2 0
/2 0
/2 0
/2 0
/2 0
/2 0
/2 0
/2 0
/2 0
/0 8
/0 9
/1 0
/1 4
/1 5
/1 6
/1 7
/2 0
/2 1
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
Date
Figure 6.27 LQA result of sounding by Chemor during timeslot 2

129
4
Rank
0
06/08/2005 06/09/2005 06/10/2005 06/14/2005 06/15/2005 06/16/2005 06/17/2005 06/20/2005 06/21/2005
Date
Figure 6.28 Channel ranking for sounding by Chemor during timeslot 2
Table 6.17 Result analysis for Sounding made by Chemor during timeslot 2
LQA Score Rank
Channel
1 0 0 1 1 7 0 4
2 2 2 2 1 2 6 1
3 1 0 0 2 6 1 0
4 0 1 0 2 6 0 2
5 2 0 1 2 4 2 2
The best channel, according to results in Figure 2.27 and also Table 6.17 is
channel 2. This is due to the fact that this channel has two zero and low LQA score
days. Besides that, it also has two medium score days and only one high score day.
The number of days with very high score are also low, which is 2. Channel 2 is also
mostly ranked as the best channel according to the channel-ranking graph in Figure
6.28. Throughout the field-testing period, it is ranked as the best channel for six
times, the highest among the rest of the channels. The second best channel is channel
5, which also has 2 zero LQA score days. However, this channel does not have any
130
low LQA score day and only one day with medium LQA score. It then has two high
LQA score days and four very high LQA score days. For channel ranking, channel 5
is ranked as the best channel twice.
Following channel 5 is channel 3. This channel is chosen as the third best

channel because it has only one zero LQA score day. Other than that, this channel
has no low and no medium LQA score day. It has 2 high LQA score days and 6 very
high LQA score days. This channel has only been ranked as the best channel once
and never ranked as the worst channel. Figure 6.27 shows that the performance of
channel 3 is almost the same as channel 4 except that channel instead of having a
zero LQA score day, channel 4 has one low LQA score day. The number of high and
very high LQA score days for both channels are the sane. Channel 4 has never been
ranked as the best channel and ranked twice as the worst channel. Therefore based on
the results, channel 4 is determined as the fourth best channel. The worst channel for
this timeslot is channel 1. This channel has neither zero nor low LQA score day. It
has one medium and high score day, and 7 very high LQA score days: the highest
among the five channels. By referring to the channel ranking graph in Figure 6.28, it
can be seen that this channel has the highest number of times ranked as the worst
channel compared to the other channels.
According to LQA results from sounding made by both station, the most
suitable frequencies to be used are channel 2 which is 7.100 MHz. Then the second
best channel to use is channel 5 which is 9.200 MHz. Channel 3, which is 8.71 MHz,
can also be used. Nevertheless, the performance of this channel is not as good as both
channel 2 and channel 5. Channel 1, which is 8.19 MHz must be avoided during this
timeslot. This is because according to the LQA results, this is the worst channel. The
summary of the results are shown in Table 6.18 below.
131
Table 6.18 Summary of LQA results for Skudai-Chemor Circuit during Timeslot 2
Sounding Station
Rank
Skudai Chemor
6.6.2.3 Comparisons Between Skudai-Chemor Results and ASAPS Prediction

Results
On Figure 6.29, comparison between highest-ranked channel everyday and

OWF for sounding made by Skudai is shown. Then on Figure 6.30, the comparison
for sounding made by Chemor station is shown. The OWF value for this circuit
during timeslot 1 is 8.600 MHz, while for timeslot 2 is 8.300 MHz. The ALF for
timeslot 1 is 3.4 MHz, while for timeslot 2, the ALF value is 3.5 MHz. The OWF
and ALF are obtained from GRAFEX Frequency Prediction table shown in Figure
3.5
132
10.000
Channel 5: 9.200
9.000 Channel 3: 8.710
OWF, 8.600
OWF, 8.300
Channel 4: 8.002
8.000 Channel 1: 8.190
7.000
Frequency (MHz)
Channel 2: 7.100
6.000
5.000
4.000
ALF, 3.500
ALF, 3.400
3.000
2.000
6/7/2005
6/8/2005
6/9/2005
6/10/2005
6/13/2005
6/14/2005
6/15/2005
6/17/2005
6/20/2005
6/21/2005
6/8/2005
6/9/2005
6/10/2005
6/14/2005
6/15/2005
6/16/2005
6/20/2005
6/21/2005
Timeslot 1 Timeslot 2
OWF Skudai ALF Date
Figure 6.29 Comparisons between highest-ranked channels and OWF for Skudai-
Chemor Circuit: sounding by Skudai
10.000
Channel 5: 9.200
9.000
OWF, 8.600 Channel 3: 8.710
OWF, 8.300
Channel 1: 8.190
8.000
7.000
Channel 2: 7.100
Frequency (MHz)
6.000
5.000
4.000
ALF, 3.500
ALF, 3.400
3.000
2.000
6/7/2005
6/8/2005
6/9/2005
6/10/2005
6/13/2005
6/14/2005
6/15/2005
6/17/2005
6/20/2005
6/21/2005
6/8/2005
6/9/2005
6/10/2005
6/14/2005
6/15/2005
6/16/2005
6/20/2005
6/21/2005
Timeslot 1 Timeslot 2
OWF Chemor ALF Date
Figure 6.30 Comparisons between highest-ranked channels and OWF for Skudai-
Chemor circuit: sounding by Chemor
133
Based on Figure 6.29, it can be seen that all channels became the highest-
ranked channel at least once throughout the field-testing period. For timeslot 1, it can
be seen that most of the highest-ranked channels (channel 1: 8.190 MHz, channel 2:
7.100 MHz and channel 4: 8.002 MHz) are located below the OWF and higher than
ALF. Frequencies within this range have 90% chances to succeed. Only channel 3,
which is 8.71, and channel 5, which is 9.200 MHz, are higher than OWF. However,
both channel 3 and channel 5 are lower than MUF for this timeslot, which according
to Field Strength Table in Figure 3.6 is 10.200 MHz. The same condition can be seen
for timeslot 2, where the OWF is 8.300 MHz and the MUF is 10 MHz. Overall, for
both timeslots, channel 2 which is the best channel for is located below OWF. The
second best channel, which is channel 5 however is located above OWF for this
timeslot but lower than MUF.
Then Figure 6.30 shows that during timeslot 1, for sounding made by Chemor,
most highest-ranked channel that is channel 2 is below OWF and higher than ALF.
Another highest-ranked channel, which is channel 1 is also located below OWF.
Only channel 5, which was ranked as the best channel once is located above OWF.
The same results can be seen for timeslot 2 where the OWF is 8.300 MHz. Channel 1
is located below OWF, while channel 5 is above OWF. Other than that, for this
timeslot, channel 3 is ranked as the best channel once. The location of channel 3 is
above OWF.
6.7 Summary
For Skudai-Kota Bahru circuit, from the five channels used, it is clear that in
the morning, the best frequency was 8.190 MHz. In the afternoon, two frequencies
can be used, which are 8.190 MHz and 9.108 MHz. Then at nighttime, both 8.71
MHz and 8.190 MHz were suitable to use for communication. Thus, overall, it can
be seen that 8.190 MHz was usable throughout the field-testing period. For Skudai-
134
Chemor circuit, field-testing were only conducted in the morning and afternoon.
During morning, the most suitable frequency to use was 7.100 MHz. The same
frequency was also usable in the afternoon. Other than that, 9.200 MHz can also be
used in the afternoon.
Comparisons are then made between the results obtained and results from
ASAPS frequency prediction. By doing this, the differences between real-time and
predicted results can be seen. Based on the field-testing results, generally, channels
located between the ALF and OWF have 90% of chances to succeed. However, due
to other factors such as noise, attenuation and interferences, some of these
frequencies are less usable. Results from the comparison shows that the system is
able to select the most suitable channel to use for communication because most of
the results from field-testing agree with the predicted results.
CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Conclusions
HF spectrum which ranges from 3 to 30 MHz is reflected by the ionosphere.

Thus the availability of each frequency in this band relies closely to the condition of
the ionosphere. Other than that, factors such as noise, interference and propagation
problems also affect the availability of frequencies in HF spectrum. The availability
of frequencies also varies with location, time, days and season. Hence, selecting the
best frequency is fundamental to ensure reliable communication. Automatic link
establishment or ALE is sets of protocols that can be use to solve this problem. ALE
performs real-time channel evaluation through its sounding and link quality analysis
(LQA) protocols to find the best frequency to be used at specific time and location.
Without the help of ALE, a user has to manually listen on each preselected
frequencies, to look for clear, unoccupied frequencies to use. Other than that, if
frequency prediction software is used, the predicted best usable frequency may not
be usable due to real-time interference such as noise.
The system designed in this research is a messaging system which permits

point to point communication between two remote stations using the best frequency
136
available. This system has ALE capability that handles the processes of selecting the
best frequency and linking to another station. Implementing ALE in form of software
is very cost effective and convenient for users as no extra equipment is needed. Other
than that, this system uses low power to transmit data. The transmit power used in all
field-testing is between 10 to 20 Watts.
The results obtained from field-testing in this research verify that the most
important feature in an ALE system is that its ability to select the best possible
channel to use at any time of day. This is achieved by performing sounding and LQA
at every hour. Sounding and LQA featured in this system is a form of real-time
channel evaluation that gives actual and immediate results of channels condition.
Results from any frequency prediction software on the other hand are predicted
results from calculation based on empirical data. From the field-testing results, it can
be seen that both results do not differ very much from each other. This is because
most of the best usable frequencies obtained from the field testing are between the
range of Optimum Working Frequency (OWF) and Absorption Limiting Frequency
(ALF) which according to the prediction has 90% chances of success.
7.2 Recommendations For Future Works
To improve the performance of the system designed in this research, some

improvements and modifications can be done. Thus, recommendations for future
work of this research are as below
i) Instead of having only a point to point connection between two stations, this
system can be expanded by increasing the number of stations that can be
connected. Stations can be connected to each other either by using point to
point connection or by network connection.
137
ii) Other ALE features such as orderwire message capability and multi stations
application can also be added to the system.
iii) To upgrade the efficiency of this system, the predicted results from
propagation prediction programs such as ASAPS should be uploaded
automatically by the system. The system can also be made able to select
which frequencies to be used automatically based on the results from
propagation prediction software. Frequency selection should be based on
predicted OWF, MUF, ALF and also the SNR of the possibly usable
frequencies.
iv) The field-testing sites selected in this research are both located in peninsular
Malaysia. For future work, the field-testing sites can be expanded to location
outside peninsular Malaysia. Other than that, field-testing can also be done
between land and sea (on ship).
v) Finally, this system can also be upgraded to make it available to use with
other type of HF radio and modem.
138
REFFERENCES
Cook, S.C. (1997), HF Communications In the Information Age, IEEE Conference

on HF Radio Systems and Techniques, July 7 –9. Nottingham UK: IEEE, 1-5.
Abdullah, M.A., Husni, E.M., S. Hassan, S.I. (2003), Investigation of a Rural

telecommunication System using VSAT Technology in Malaysia. 9th Asia
Pacific Conference on Communications, 2003(APCC), Septrmber 21-24,
Penang,Malaysia: IEEE, 990-993.
National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) (1998). High

Frequency Radio Automatic Link Establishment (ALE) Application Handbook.
Washington D.C, U.S.A: NTIA.
U.S. National Communications System Office of Technology & Standards (NCS)

(1993). Federal Standard 1045A:Telecommunications: HF Radio Automatic
Link Establishment. Washington D.C., FED-STD 1045A.
U.S. National Communications System Office Of Technology & Standards (NCS)

(1996). Federal Standard 1037C Telecommunications: Glossary of
Telecommunication Term. Washington D.C., FED-STD 1037C.
U.S Department of Defense (1999). Interoperability and Performance Standards For

Medium And High Frequency Radio System. Washington D.C., MIL-STD-188-
141B.
Harris Corporation (1996). Radio Communications in the Digital Age Volume I: HF

Technology. U.S.A: Harris Corporation.
139
McNamara, L.F. (1991). Ionosphere: Communications, Surveillence, and Direction

Finding. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.
Goodman, J.M (1992), HF Communications Science and Technology. New York:

Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Goodman J.M, Reilly M.H. (1998), “Shortwave Propagation Prediction

Methodologies”, IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting. IEEE, Vol. 34, No. 2.
Johnson, E.E., Desourdis Jr., R. I., Earle, G.D., Cook, S.C., and Ostergaard, J.C.
(1997). Advanced High-Frequency Radio Communications. Norwood, M.A.:
Artech House.
Johnson, E.E. (1998), Third-Generation Technologies for HF Radio Networking.

1998 IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM '98). October 18 –
21. Boston, MA: IEEE, 386-390 vol.2.
Johnson, E.E. (2000), Analysis of Third-Generation Technologies for HF Radio

Networking. 2000 IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM
2000). October 20-25. Los Angeles, CA: IEEE, 1139-1143 vol.2.
Johnson, E.E. (2001). E-Mail Standards for HF Radio: Technical Report. New
Mexico: New Mexico State University.
Lay, R (1996), Error correction in high frequency automatic link establishment

radios with and without link protection, Military Communications
Conference1996 (MILCOM '96). October 21-24. McLean, VA: IEEE, 696 -
699 vol.3.
Beamish B. (1991). Automatic Link Establishment (ALE) – The Automation of HF

Radio. Engineering Application Note AP-8. Harris Corporation.
Redding, C., Weddle, D. (1994 ). Adaptive HF radio test results using real-time
channel evaluation systems. Military Communications Conference, 1994.
140
(MILCOM '94). 1994, 2-5 November Fort Monmouth, NJ: IEEE, 890 - 894
vol.3.
Street, M.D., Darnell, M. (1996). Results of New Automatic Link Establishment and
Maintenance Techniques for HF Rradio Systems. Proceedings of Military
Communications Conference 1994 (MILCOM 1996). 2-5 November. Fort
Monmouth, NJ: IEEE, 1067-1071.
Willink, T.J.; Davies, N.C.; Clarke, J.; Jorgenson, M.B. (1996), Validation of HF
channel simulators, IEE Colloquium on Frequency Selection and Management
Techniques for HF Communications. 7-8 February 1996. London, UK: IEEE,
13/1 -13/6
Riley, T.J. (1997) A comparison of HF radio digital protocols., HF Radio Systems

and Techniques, Seventh International Conference on. 7-10 July 1997,
Nottingham: IEEE, 206 – 210.
Soyer, L. (2001) HF Messenger: European Trials and R&D Efforts, IEEE Military
Communications Conference 2001. (MILCOM 2001). 28-31 October. Mclean,
VA: IEEE, 491- 500 vol.1
Renfree, P. ( 2001), The US Navy returns to HF with STANAG 5066 as the path.
Military Communications Conference, 2001 (MILCOM 2001). 28-31 October,
Mclean, VA: IEEE, 471-476 vol.1
Blair, W., Au, T.A., Taylor, R. (2000), Improving the performance of a high
frequency radio message network. Proceedings of Military Communications
Conference 2000 (Milcom 2000). 22-25 October, Los Angeles: IEEE, 48-53.
Hess, A.M., ( 2000), Advanced Use of LQA data in improving the quality and the
speed of ALE link establishment while reducing sounding requirements in HF
141
networks, Eighth International Conference on HF Radio Systems and

Techniques, 10-13 July. Guildford, UK: IEEE, 91-94.
Kenwood Corp., HF Transceiver TS-570D Instruction Manual.
Kantronics Co. (1998), Kantronics KAM ’98 Multi-Mode HF/VHF Digital Controller
User’s Guide. U.S.A: Kantronics Co.
Australian Space Weather Agency (2003). ASAPS 5 User Guide
Rohde-Schwarz (2005). ALE - Automatic Link Establishment. In: Application Note.

©2005 ROHDE&SCHWARZ. All rights reserved. http://www.rohde-
schwarz.com.
Australian Space Weather Agency (2005). Introduction to HF Radio Propagation. In

IPS Radio and Space Services. http://www.ips.gov.au
Rockwell Collins (2004), Automatic link Establishment: Product Catalog.

http://www.rockwellcollins.com/
Cruiseemail (2004), CruiseEmail User manual. http://www.cruiseemail.com/
Army Knowledge Online (2003). Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures

for The High Frequency-Automatic Link Establishment (HF-ALE) Radios. In:
Army Knowledge Online. U.S Air, Land and Sea Application Center.
www.us.army.mil
Sailmail (2005), Sailmail : Email Services for Yachts via Marine HF SSB Radio. In:
http://www.sailmail.com/
Wan Roz Wan Hussain (2004), Meeting with UTM on HF Communication, RF

Communications (M) Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur, 19 June 2004.
142
ARRL (2001). The Arrl Handbook for Radio Amateurs 2002. 79th edition. USA: The
American Radio Relay league, Inc.
U.S. Department of Commerce (2005). U.S. Department of Commerce NTIA/ITS

Institute for Telecommunication Sciences High Frequency Propagation Models in
http://elbert.its.bldrdoc.gov/hf.html
Rockwell-Collins (2005). PropMan-2000-Propagation Resource Manager product

catalog In: http://www.rockwellcollins.com/ecat/gs/PropMan-2000.html © Rockwell
Collins, Inc. All rights reserved.
Carr J. J (2001), Practical Antenna Handbook Fourth Edition. Hightstown, N.J:

McGraw-Hill.
APPENDIX A
ASAPS PREDICTION RESULTS
144
===============================================================================
ASAPS V5 FREQUENCY PLAN PREDICTIONS ---------------------------- 21 Mar 2005
===============================================================================
Circuit 1: skudai-kota bahru Distance: 535km Date: March 2005
Tx: skudai 1 33.6 103 39. Bear: 6116 2898 Mils T-index: 30
Rx: kota bahru 6 10.2 102 16. Path: Short Path
Selected frequency set: utm
3.853 3.959 6.650 6.702 7.080 7.100 7.686 8.002 8.113 8.190
8.710 9.108 9.460 10.100 10.900 14.365 14.773
===============================================================================
Mode: 1F TakeOff Angle:40-59 | Mode: 1E TakeOff Angle:17
Probability > 90% | Probability 50-90% |
===============================================================================
Time Frequency | Time Frequency | Time Frequency
UT MHz | UT MHz | UT MHz
0000-0100 6.650 | 0000-0100 7.686 | 0000-0200 3.959
0100-0200 8.190 | 0100-0200 9.460 | 0200-0300 6.702
0200-0700 8.710 | 0200-0500 10.100 | 0300-0400 7.100
0700-0800 9.108 | 0500-0600 9.460 | 0400-0700 7.686
0800-1000 9.460 | 0600-0800 10.100 | 0700-0800 7.100
1000-1100 10.100 | 0800-1400 10.900 | 0800-0900 7.080
1100-1200 9.108 | 1400-1700 10.100 | 0900-1100 3.959
1200-1400 8.190 | 1700-1800 8.710 | 1100-2400 None
1400-1700 7.686 | 1800-1900 7.686 |
1700-1800 6.702 | 1900-2000 None |
1800-2000 3.959 | 2000-2400 3.959 |
2000-2400 None | |
===============================================================================
Mode: 2F TakeOff Angle:60-73 | Mode: 2E TakeOff Angle:33
Probability > 90% | Probability 50-90% |
===============================================================================
Time Frequency | Time Frequency | Time Frequency
UT MHz | UT MHz | UT MHz
0000-0100 3.959 | 0000-0100 6.702 | 0000-0100 None
0100-0200 7.100 | 0100-0200 8.190 | 0100-0200 3.853
0200-0500 8.002 | 0200-0400 9.108 | 0200-1000 3.959
0500-0600 7.686 | 0400-0700 8.710 | 1000-2400 None
0600-0700 8.002 | 0700-0900 9.460 |
0700-0900 8.190 | 0900-1300 10.100 |
0900-1000 8.710 | 1300-1400 9.460 |
1000-1100 9.108 | 1400-1500 9.108 |
1100-1200 8.190 | 1500-1700 8.710 |
1200-1300 7.686 | 1700-1800 7.686 |
1300-1400 7.100 | 1800-1900 6.650 |
1400-1500 7.080 | 1900-2000 None |
1500-1700 6.702 | 2000-2200 3.959 |
1700-2000 3.959 | 2200-2300 None |
2000-2400 None | 2300-2400 3.959 |
===============================================================================
Figure A.1: Frequency Plan Table for Skudai-Kota Bahru Circuit

145
Figure A.2: Frequency Plan Graph for Skudai-Kota Bahru Circuit
Figure A.3:GRAFEX Graph for Skudai-Kota Bahru Circuit

146
Figure A.4: Frequency Plan Table for Skudai-Chemor Circuit
Figure A.5: Frequency Plan Graph for Skudai-Chemor Circuit

147
Figure A.6: GRAFEX Prediction Graph for Skudai-Chemor Circuit

148
APPENDIX B
KENWOOD TS570D TRANSCEIVER SPECIFICATIONS

149
150
APPENDIX C
KANTRONICS KAM ’98 MODEM SPECIFICATIONS

151
152
153
APPENDIX D
EXPERIMENTAL LICENSE FOR HF

154
Figure D.1 Experimental License First Page

155
Figure D.2 Experimental License Second Page

APPENDIX E
LQA RESULTS FOR SKUDAI-KOTA BAHRU FIELD-TESTING

157
Table E1. LQA Results for Sounding Made by Skudai
LQA Score Rank

sound_date time timeslot ch1 ch2 ch3 ch4 ch5 ch1 ch2 ch3 ch4 ch5 station
03/11/2005 9 1 2 2 10 0 11 2 3 4 1 5 0
03/21/2005 9 1 15 15 15 15 15 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/21/2005 9 1 7 7 7 7 15 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/11/2005 10 1 11 0 0 2 22 4 1 2 3 5 0
03/11/2005 10 1 11 0 13 2 13 3 1 4 2 5 1
03/18/2005 10 1 0 15 15 15 15 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/18/2005 10 1 0 3 3 3 15 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/19/2005 10 1 0 0 7 3 15 1 2 4 3 5 0
03/20/2005 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/24/2005 10 1 0 2 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/17/2005 10 1 0 0 15 0 1 1 2 5 3 4 0
03/18/2005 11 1 0 3 3 4 3 1 2 3 5 4 0
03/19/2005 11 1 15 0 41 1 4 4 1 5 2 3 0
03/20/2005 11 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/22/2005 10 1 2 0 7 7 7 2 1 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 11 1 7 7 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/24/2005 11 1 3 4 5 5 9 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/19/2005 12 2 4 0 14 0 1 4 1 5 2 3 1
03/20/2005 12 2 0 0 3 15 15 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/21/2005 12 2 2 0 0 3 15 3 1 2 4 5 0
03/23/2005 12 2 0 7 9 9 9 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/24/2005 12 2 9 9 9 9 9 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/17/2005 15 2 7 7 7 7 15 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/18/2005 15 2 0 0 3 0 0 1 2 5 3 4 0
03/19/2005 15 2 0 0 15 0 0 1 2 5 3 4 0
03/20/2005 15 2 1 4 4 11 1 1 3 4 5 2 0
03/21/2005 15 2 0 0 0 0 15 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/22/2005 15 2 0 0 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 15 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/24/2005 15 2 0 0 0 0 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/18/2005 16 2 0 0 4 15 15 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/19/2005 16 2 0 0 5 0 0 1 2 5 3 4 0
03/20/2005 16 2 1 1 15 5 0 2 3 5 4 1 0
03/21/2005 16 2 0 0 1 0 4 1 2 4 3 5 1
03/18/2005 17 2 15 2 4 15 3 4 1 3 5 2 0
03/19/2005 17 2 0 0 15 0 15 1 2 4 3 5 0
03/20/2005 17 2 1 0 8 1 0 3 1 5 4 2 0
03/21/2005 17 2 43 0 0 0 40 5 1 2 3 4 0
03/22/2005 16 2 0 0 1 1 3 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 16 2 2 0 0 7 1 4 1 2 5 3 0
03/24/2005 16 2 0 0 0 0 4 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/21/2005 20 3 1 0 0 4 16 3 1 2 4 5 1
03/22/2005 20 3 1 1 1 1 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 20 3 0 0 0 2 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
158
LQA
sound_date time timeslot Score Rank 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
ch1 ch2 ch3 ch4 ch5 ch1 ch2 ch3 ch4 ch5 station
03/21/2005 21 3 6 15 15 15 15 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/22/2005 21 3 5 7 9 9 9 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 21 3 7 3 6 8 9 3 1 2 4 5 0
03/23/2005 21 3 1 1 1 2 9 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 21 3 7 7 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/16/2005 22 3 2 0 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
03/17/2005 22 3 0 0 0 15 15 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/18/2005 22 3 15 6 6 15 15 3 1 2 4 5 0
03/21/2005 21 3 13 9 7 8 10 5 3 1 2 4 0
03/22/2005 21 3 5 7 9 9 9 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 22 3 9 8 9 9 9 2 1 3 4 5 0
159
Table E2. LQA Results for Sounding Made by Kota Bahru
LQA Score Rank

03/18/2005 10 1 15 3 1 15 0 4 3 2 5 1 1
03/19/2005 10 1 0 0 0 3 0 1 2 3 5 4 0
03/19/2005 10 1 0 0 0 15 15 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/20/2005 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/22/2005 10 1 7 2 7 7 7 2 1 3 4 5 0
03/24/2005 10 1 0 0 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/24/2005 10 1 0 0 15 15 15 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/17/2005 11 1 0 0 15 1 15 1 2 4 3 5 0
03/18/2005 11 1 3 0 0 3 0 4 1 2 5 3 0
03/19/2005 11 1 3 0 0 4 4 3 1 2 4 5 0
03/21/2005 11 1 0 0 0 14 7 1 2 3 5 4 0
03/24/2005 11 1 1 7 11 11 11 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/17/2005 10 2 0 0 15 0 1 1 2 5 3 4 1
03/19/2005 12 2 4 1 16 1 1 4 1 5 2 3 0
03/20/2005 12 2 0 0 15 15 15 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/21/2005 12 2 0 0 0 7 9 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 12 2 30 0 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/18/2005 15 2 0 0 3 0 0 1 2 5 3 4 0
03/19/2005 15 2 0 0 15 0 0 1 2 5 3 4 1
03/20/2005 15 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/22/2005 15 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/22/2005 15 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/23/2005 15 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 3 4 5 1
03/24/2005 15 2 0 0 0 0 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/18/2005 16 2 3 4 14 0 15 2 3 4 1 5 0
03/19/2005 16 2 0 0 5 0 0 1 2 5 3 4 1
03/20/2005 16 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/21/2005 16 2 0 0 1 0 4 1 2 4 3 5 0
03/22/2005 16 2 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 16 2 5 2 0 0 0 5 4 1 2 3 0
03/24/2005 16 2 0 0 0 1 3 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/18/2005 17 2 15 2 4 15 3 4 1 3 5 2 1
03/20/2005 17 2 0 0 2 1 3 1 2 4 3 5 0
03/21/2005 17 2 0 4 1 0 8 1 4 3 2 5 0
03/21/2005 17 2 0 1 0 0 25 1 4 2 3 5 0
03/21/2005 20 3 1 0 0 4 16 3 1 2 4 5 0
03/22/2005 20 3 7 7 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
160
LQA Score Rank

03/22/2005 20 3 7 7 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 20 3 0 0 2 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 20 3 7 7 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/21/2005 21 3 0 0 7 8 11 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/22/2005 21 3 6 1 6 6 11 2 1 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 21 3 2 2 2 9 9 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/18/2005 22 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 4 5 0
03/23/2005 22 3 4 6 18 9 9 1 2 5 3 4 0
03/23/2005 22 3 9 8 5 10 7 4 3 1 5 2 1
03/16/2005 23 3 2 0 30 19 30 2 1 4 3 5 0
APPENDIX F
LQA RESULTS FOR SKUDAI-CHEMOR FIELD-TESTING

162
Table F1 LQA Result For Sounding Made By Skudai
LQA Score Rank

06/09/2005 9 1 0 13 2 2 30 1 4 2 3 5 0
06/10/2005 9 1 0 0 13 2 0 5 1 4 3 2 1
06/13/2005 9 1 5 0 2 0 5 4 1 3 2 5 0
06/14/2005 9 1 30 30 30 0 2 3 4 5 1 2 0
06/15/2005 9 1 30 11 30 30 5 3 2 4 5 1 0
06/16/2005 9 1 30 0 30 30 66 2 1 3 4 5 1
06/17/2005 9 1 30 2 30 30 0 3 2 4 5 1 1
06/20/2005 9 1 30 30 30 30 30 3 4 1 2 5 0
06/21/2005 9 1 30 18 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/08/2005 10 1 9 14 30 30 0 2 3 4 5 1 1
06/09/2005 10 1 1 16 1 1 30 1 4 2 3 5 0
06/10/2005 10 1 4 1 2 14 15 3 1 2 4 5 0
06/13/2005 10 1 17 0 16 7 2 5 1 4 3 2 1
06/14/2005 10 1 30 16 30 10 5 4 3 5 2 1 0
06/15/2005 10 1 30 6 30 30 17 3 1 4 5 2 0
06/16/2005 10 1 30 0 30 25 48 3 1 4 2 5 1
06/17/2005 10 1 30 16 30 30 2 3 2 4 5 1 1
06/20/2005 10 1 30 15 30 30 30 4 3 1 2 5 0
06/21/2005 10 1 63 15 15 30 30 5 1 2 3 4 0
06/07/2005 11 1 22 16 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/08/2005 11 1 13 7 30 37 7 3 1 4 5 2 1
06/09/2005 11 1 6 25 3 1 16 3 5 2 1 4 0
06/10/2005 11 1 3 15 16 22 7 1 3 4 5 2 0
06/13/2005 11 1 8 1 13 18 16 2 1 3 5 4 0
06/14/2005 11 1 30 23 30 20 2 4 3 5 2 1 1
06/15/2005 11 1 30 18 30 30 23 3 1 4 5 2 0
06/17/2005 11 1 38 0 30 26 1 5 1 4 3 2 0
06/08/2005 14 2 0 0 13 7 4 1 2 5 4 3 0
06/08/2005 14 2 30 7 30 30 0 3 2 4 5 1 1
06/09/2005 14 2 2 2 9 2 0 2 3 5 4 1 0
06/09/2005 14 2 30 0 30 0 0 4 1 5 2 3 1
06/13/2005 14 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0
06/13/2005 14 2 5 0 30 30 0 3 1 4 5 2 1
06/14/2005 14 2 148 30 30 30 2 5 2 3 4 1 1
06/15/2005 14 2 2 4 30 30 30 1 2 3 4 5 0
06/15/2005 14 2 30 0 30 30 0 3 1 4 5 2 1
163
Table F2 LQA Result For Sounding Made By Chemor

LQA Score Rank
06/09/2005 9 1 30 26 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/10/2005 9 1 0 0 13 2 0 5 1 4 3 2 1
06/13/2005 9 1 30 19 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/14/2005 9 1 30 30 30 7 2 3 4 5 2 1 1
06/15/2005 9 1 30 0 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/16/2005 9 1 30 0 30 30 66 2 1 3 4 5 1
06/17/2005 9 1 25 2 30 30 0 3 2 4 5 1 0
06/20/2005 9 1 30 0 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/21/2005 9 1 97 18 30 30 30 5 1 2 3 4 0
06/22/2005 9 1 30 2 30 30 7 3 1 4 5 2 0
06/07/2005 10 1 0 30 30 115 15 1 3 4 5 2 0
06/08/2005 10 1 9 14 30 30 0 2 3 4 5 1 0
06/09/2005 10 1 0 7 16 16 15 1 2 4 5 3 1
06/10/2005 10 1 49 0 15 15 30 5 1 2 3 4 0
06/13/2005 10 1 17 0 16 7 2 5 1 4 3 2 1
06/14/2005 10 1 30 17 30 0 16 4 3 5 1 2 0
06/15/2005 10 1 30 7 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/16/2005 10 1 30 0 30 25 48 3 1 4 2 5 0
06/17/2005 10 1 18 16 30 30 2 3 2 4 5 1 0
06/20/2005 10 1 30 15 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/21/2005 10 1 63 35 30 30 31 5 4 1 2 3 1
06/22/2005 10 1 48 7 30 30 18 5 1 3 4 2 0
06/07/2005 11 1 24 30 30 32 22 2 3 4 5 1 0
06/08/2005 11 1 13 7 30 37 7 3 1 4 5 2 1
06/09/2005 11 1 15 10 15 15 16 2 1 3 4 5 1
06/10/2005 11 1 17 15 16 27 22 3 1 2 5 4 0
06/13/2005 11 1 8 8 23 22 23 1 2 4 3 5 0
06/14/2005 11 1 15 8 30 17 17 2 1 5 3 4 0
06/15/2005 11 1 30 18 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/17/2005 11 1 34 4 30 26 36 4 1 3 2 5 0
06/08/2005 14 2 30 7 30 30 0 3 2 4 5 1 1
06/09/2005 14 2 30 0 30 0 0 4 1 5 2 3 0
06/13/2005 14 2 5 0 30 30 0 3 1 4 5 2 1
06/14/2005 14 2 38 5 30 30 2 5 2 3 4 1 0
06/15/2005 14 2 30 0 30 30 0 3 1 4 5 2 0
06/21/2005 14 2 30 0 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/08/2005 15 2 28 15 21 18 17 5 1 4 3 2 0
06/09/2005 15 2 8 1 19 33 0 3 2 4 5 1 0
06/10/2005 15 2 16 5 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/14/2005 15 2 36 34 30 30 16 5 4 2 3 1 0
06/15/2005 15 2 30 0 30 30 7 3 1 4 5 2 0
06/16/2005 15 2 38 23 30 30 30 5 1 2 3 4 0
06/17/2005 15 2 30 0 30 30 30 2 1 3 4 5 0
06/20/2005 14 2 30 30 0 2 0 4 5 1 3 2 0
06/21/2005 15 2 36 15 30 17 30 5 1 3 2 4 0

Nurulfadzilah Hasan MFKE2006 TTT

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Nurulfadzilah Hasan MFKE2006 TTT

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

HF MESSAGING SYSTEM WITH AUTOMATIC LINK ESTABLISHMENT

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

' Jita penyedio@,,etis/projet nelibatkon kedasona.

BAEAGIAN B - UrtuL K.grnrrn Pcj.b.t SoLohhP.trg.Jlrtr Slrw.z.h

T€sisini telrh dipcrikladandi*ui oleh:

Nlmr drn Alam.t

Nlrna drn Alamat

Author : Nurulfadzilah Bt Hasan

Dedicated to my beloved husband and parents

Highest gratitude and appreciation goes to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Finally, I would like to express endless appreciation to my family for their

2.4 Automatic and Adaptive HF Communication System

4 AUTOMATIC LINK ESTABLISHMENT (ALE)

6 FIELD TESTING RESULT

6.3.1 Kota Bahru 88

TABLE TITLE PAGE

6.8 Skudai-Kota Bahru Result Analysis for Sounding made 108

FIGURES NO. TITLE PAGE

5.5 Connection between HF modem and transceiver 60

6.12 Channels Ranking for Sounding by Skudai during 105

6.15 LQA result for sounding made by Skudai station 110

6.29 Comparisons between highest-ranked channels and 132

6.30 Comparisons between highest-ranked channels and 132

R - Levels of solar activity

AFSK - Audio FSK

FSK - Frequency Shift Keying

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

B Kenwood TS570D Transceiver Specifications 148

C Kantronics Kam ’98 Modem Specifications 150

D Experimental License For HF 153

E LQA Results For Skudai-Kota Bahru Field-Testing 156

F LQA Results For Skudai-Chemor Field-Testing 161

Compared to satellite communication, the cost to set up and maintain a HF

The purpose of this research is to design a HF messaging system that has

The objective of this research is to allow effective and reliable data

i) Design a HF messaging system

1.3 Problem Statement

The main challenge in HF communication is to choose the most suitable

Even though ALE can help improve the reliability of HF communication,

1.4 Scope of Study

Existing systems such as ALE controllers developed by Rockwell-Collins

i) This research does not involve building a HF radio and HF modem.

1.5 Research Methodology

The following steps are taken to achieve the research objective:

i) To understand the basic concept and problems, literature and

ii) Attend DSP and digital communication courses to enhance basic

v) Before testing the system, frequency prediction was done. The

1.6 Thesis Outline

This report is divided into seven chapters. Chapter 1 is the introduction;

The ionosphere layer plays an important role in HF communication as the

2.2 The Ionosphere

The ionosphere is a region in the atmosphere that extends from about 60 km

Figure 2.1 The ionosphere layers

2.2.1 Variations of the Ionosphere

2.2.1.1 Diurnal Variations

2.2.1.2 Seasonal Variations

2.2.1.3 Solar cycles

2.2.1.4 Latitude Variations

Sporadic E usually has comparable electron density to the F region.

2.3 HF Radio Propagation

communications. Direct line-of-sight wave may interact with the earth-reflected

Figure 2.2 HF propagations