Thermodynamics Process and Cycles

When any of the properties of the system changes, the state

of the system changes and the system is said to have
undergone a process. If any property of the system changes
we say that the state of the system has changed and the
system has undergone a process. Only four parameters P, V,T
and U are enough to change the state of the system. A
thermodynamic process is the energetic evaluation of a
thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state to a
final state. In a process the system goes from one equilibrium
state to another equilibrium state. The series of states from
which a system passes through the process is called the path
of the process.

Cycle:
A series of processes carried out in a system such that the
final state of the system coincides with the initial state. Such a series of processes is a complete
cycle. Three or more processes make up a cycle

Reversible and Ieversible Process

Reversible process is that process in which system changes in such a way that both the system and
surroundings can be returned to their initial state. This phenomenon is called reversibility. This
process is called reversible process.
In Irreversible process system and surroundings cannot be restored to their initial state.
Conditions for reversibility:

 The process must be frictionless.

 The difference in pressure and temperature between the fluid and its surroundings must be
very small.
It is impossible for such a system to exist as we cannot fulfill the above conditions, however a
close approximation to internal reversibility can be obtained. In case of internal reversibility the
surroundings, on the contrary, cannot be restored to their initial conditions. The working fluid is
at all the times in an equilibrium state and the path of the process can be exactly retraced to the
initial state. A system can be restored back to its initial state following an irreversible process but
the surroundings cannot be restored.
A process is called internally reversible if not irreversibilities occur with in
the boundaries of the system. In externally reversible system there are no irreversibilities in the
surroundings. A system is called totally reversible of it is internally and externally reversible.

27
Reversible process is represented by continuous line (fig.a) and irreversible process is represented
by discontinuous (dotted) line (fig.b).

PV diagrams
It is the graphical representation of thermodynamic process on a pressure-volume coordinate
system. Area under the curve on PV-diagram is the measure of the work done.
As the work done is very small we can write the above equation as follows:

dW  P.dv
Integrating both sides we have;
v2
W   Pdv
v1

Types of processes
The term iso- usually refers to a process in which a property remains constant.
Isobaric Process (Constant Pressure Process):

When the heat is supplied the volume of the system changes

at constant load. The work done during the process is given
as follows:
v2
W   Pdv  P(v  v ) 2 1

v1

If the volume increases the work is positive and vice versa.

28
Isochoric Process/Isometric Process (Constant Volume Process):

No work is done during the isochoric process however internal energy increases by increases
heating the system.

W   Pdv  0 as dv  0 V =Constant

a) For a Process in a closed system

When a closed system undergoes a process, the change in the internal energy is equal to the
difference between the heat and work exchange.
If we suppose the initial internal energy of the system to be U1 and the final internal energy to be
U2 then the difference will be U2—U1. Making the energy balance
U U  Q  W  Q  W  (U U )
2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
Q  W  (U U )  The non-flow energy equation
2 1
Heat work and internal energy are treated in the closed systems. In open systems we have other
forms of energy as well.

Cp-Cv=R
Consider m kg of a gas heated at constant pressure from temperature T1 to temperature T2.
The heat supplied during the isobaric process is given as :

 Q  c m T
p p p
And the work done during the process is given as
v2
W p   Pdv  P(v  v ) 2 1

v1

Also from the joules law we know that U=f(T) and for all processes we have

U 2 U1  mcv (T2 T1)

So applying the 1st law of dynamics for closed system during a process we have ,

Q  W  (U U )
2 1
c p m Tp  P(V2 V1) mcv (T2 T1)

29
We also know that Pv=mRT and so subtracting 1 from 2 we have.

PV1  mRT1 1

PV2 mRT2 2
P(V2 V1)  mR(T2  T1)
So,

c pm T p  mR(T2 T1)  mcv (T2 T1)

Or

c p  cv  R
The above relation shows us that the value of specific heat during an isobaric process is greater
than the specific heat at isometric process. This is because in constant process a part or heat is
used to increase the internal energy and the rest is given out as work. Where as in case of
isometric process all the heat energy is used to increase the internal energy of the process in a
specific range of temperature.
Let us assume that

c
p  k  c  kc
c p v
v
R kR
c  &c 
v k 1 p k 1

The 1st Law of thermodynamic process in case of Isothermal process

An isothermal process is the one in which the change in the pressure and volume takes place
in such a way that the temperature of the working fluid remains constant. In case of isothermal
expansion the heat is added and in case of isothermal compression the heat is removed. The
heat extraction or addition is done very slowly to keep the temperature constant.
Mathematically,

30
 T  constt means that T  T =0
2 1
now PV  mRT as T  constt we have,
PV  constt thus
1 1  P2V2  PV
PV 3 3 
The work done is therefore,
v2
W   Pdv
v1

PV
Now, PV  PV
1 1P
1 1
so
V
v2 v2
PV 1
W  1 1
dv  PV
1 1  dv
v1 V v1 V
v2
1 V2 V P
W  PV
1 1  dv  PV
1 1 ln( )  mRT1 ln( 2 )  mRT1 ln( 1 )
v1 V V1 V1 P2

Now

T  constt means that T  T =0

2 1
then the change in the internal energy is also zero i.e.
U 2 U1  mcv (T2 T1) 0
Q=W+0
or +Q W in case of expansion
and Q W in case of compression

How do we keep the temperature constant?

We can keep temperature constant by fulfilling the three necessary conditions.
1. Q = W equal amount of work should be done to balance the heat addition

31
  
2. Q W the rate of energy exchange by heat should
be equal to energy exchange by work.
3. Rate of heat addition should be very small and rate
of work done by the system should be very small i.e
 
Q 0 W 0
The graphic representation of a isothermal process is
a hyperbola so it is also called a hyperbolic process. The
graph is called the isotherm.

The 1st Law of thermodynamic process in case of Adiabatic process

The Process in which no heat is transferred to or from +W
the system is called is called an adiabatic process. It is
the process of no heat transfers. In adiabatic expansion --W
the work is done at the expense of the reduction in the
internal energy of the system. Similarly in the adiabatic
compression the work done on the system goes into
raising the internal energy of the system.
Q 0 --ΔU

From the first law of thermodynamics, +ΔU

Q  W  (U U )
2 1
W  (U U )   1
2 1
W  (U U )    2
2 1
Equation 1 represents an expansion and equation 2 represents a compression, both of them are
taking place adiabatically. In today’s world most of the energy is produced by using this process.
Now as we know that according to the Joules Law
U=f(T). Thus the temperature increases with the increase of internal energy and vice versa.

32
 Q  W  U U
2 1
dQ  dW  du
dw Pdv W   Pdv
also du  mc dt
v
so,
dQ  Pdv  mc dt 0 because dQ 0
v
Pdv  mc dt 0
v
RT
let m 1 then PV  RT  P  thus
V
RT R c
dv  mc dt 0 dv  v dt 0;
V v V T
also
R c (k 1)
v
thus
c (k 1) c
v dv  v dt 0 integrating both sides we have
V T
c (k 1) c 1 1
v dv   v dt 0(k 1) dv   dt

V T V T

PV
k ln V  ln V  ln T  0 also from above we have T 
R
PV
k ln V ln V  ln 0 ln PV k constt c
R
PV k  constt  c
The value of k depends on the nature of the gas and for diatomic gases like hydrogen k=1.42.

The equation PV k  constt  c is the mathematical representation of the adiabatic

process. Now,

c
PV k  PV
1 1
k  PV k c P
2 2
Vk
𝑣2
W=∫𝑣1 𝑃𝑑𝑣 ; PVk = C ; P = C/Vk
𝑣2 𝑑𝑣𝑘 𝑣2−𝑘+1 − 𝑣1−𝑘+1 𝑃2 𝑣2𝑘 .𝑣2−𝑘+1 − 𝑃1 𝑣1𝑘 .𝑣1−𝑘+1
W = 𝐶 ∫𝑣1 = C[ ]=[ ]
V −𝑘+1 −𝑘+1

33
 𝑃2𝑉2 −𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃1𝑉1 −𝑃2𝑉2 mR(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
W= = =
−𝑘+1 𝑘−1 𝑘−1
mR(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
W= = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = (𝑈1 − 𝑈2 ) = −(𝑈2 − 𝑈1 )
𝑘−1

Graphically the adiabatic process is represented as below. There is a marked similarity between
the adiabatic curve and an isotherm. Isotherm is a hyperbola and adiabatic curve is not a hyperbola.
The adiabatic curve is bent towards the origin but it never
P
touches the axes.
The figure shows that the area under the curve for isotherm is
greater than adiabatic curve. This means that the isothermal
process produces more work as compared to the adiabatic Isotherm
process. But in industry adiabatic process is preference. The
Adiabatic
main reason is that, regardless of producing less work it is very
fast as compared to the isothermal process. The speed of
adiabatic process is high to reduce heat exchange to minimal V
level.

How to keep Q=0

We can keep the heat exchange to zero as follows:
 By using a good insulator however it is not feasible.
 To increase the speed of the process as the heat exchange is time dependent.

 
Q 0 t 0

Prove that:
k 1
k 1
T  V1  P  k
2    2 
T  V2  P 
 1
1
Proof:

34
 We know that
PV
1 1 P2V2 T PV
  2 2 2
T1 T2 T1 PV
1 1
1
k
P2  V1  V P k
PV k  PV
1 1  P2V2 c 
k k
  or 1  2 
P1  V2  V2  P1 
so,
1 k k 1
T2  V1   V1   V1 
 
T1  V2   V2   V2 
and also
1 k 1

T2  P2  P2  k P  k
  2 
T1  P1  
 P1   P1 

The 1st law of thermodynamics Polytropic process

A process in which all the properties of the working fluid change. Practically, we do not have a
perfect isothermal process and ideal adiabatic process but a situation intermediate between the two
processes. Polytropic process is that intermediate process. Mathematically,

PV n  C where 1 n  k

As ‘n’ can assume infinite values the polytropic curve is thus situated in the region between the
adiabatic process and isothermal process.

35
PV n  c  PV
1 1
n  PV n
2 2
so
v2
PV  P V mR(T1 T2 )
W   Pdv  1 1 2 2 
v n 1 n 1
1
non flow energy equation of first law of thermodynamics
Q  W  (U 2 U1)
mR(T1 T2 )
Q  mcv (T2  T1)
n 1
mR(T1 T2 ) R
Q m (T  T )
n 1 k 1 1 2
 1 1 
Q  mR(T  T )  
1 2  n 1 k 1 
mR(T1 T2 )  k  n 
Q
n 1  k 1 
 k n 
Q W  
 k 1 
similarly we can prove the following
n 1
n 1
T2  V1  P  n
  2 
T1  V2   P1 

The Throttling Process

Free expansion of a high pressure fluid through small opening gives sudden pressure drop without
doing any work and without any heat transfer.
Free expansion is a throttling expansion. It is an irreversible process. There is no work done and
no heat transfer that it is why it is called the isenthalpic process. Primarily used in the cooling
devices because expanding gases cool down as temperature drop occurs. Mathematically,

 T 
  
 P h

36
Summing up the Processes
The graphic representation of different processes is given below:

m=0
 m=0 Isobaric Process P
 m=  Isochoric Process
 m=1 Isothermal Process m= m=1
 m=k Adiabatic Process m=n
 m=n Polytropic Process m=k
 m any real value Throttling(Isenthalpic) m any
real value
Process
V m=k
General Equation:

PV m C
Note: In the throttling process the index m can assume any value. As the isenthalpic (Throttling)
process is irreversible with no work output we use dashed line this makes the curve discontinuous
thus area can’t be calculated using the calculus.

Prove that m=  for isometric process:

We have PV m C taking the mth root of the equation we have,

1
P V C
m

For V=C we use m=  hence proved.

C.P#7-A system shown in the figure having gas in the cylinder. The cylinder is fitted with a
piston on which a number of weights are placed .The initial pressure is 200 kPa and the initial
volume is 0.04 m³. Let the burner be placed under the cylinder and let the gas expand
whereby the volume increases to 0.1m³ while the pressure remains constant. Calculate the
work done.

37
 The given data is as follows:
Initial Volume  V1  0.04 m3
Final Volume  V2  0.1 m3
Applied Pressure  P  200 kPa
as it is a isobaric expansion we have the relation for the work done
as follows:
v2
W   Pdv  P(V2 V1)
v1
W  200(0.1  0.04)
W  12 kJ
C.P#8-A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150 ˚C. As a result of heat transfer to the
surroundings the temperature and pressure inside the tank drops to 65˚C and 400 kPa.
Determine the boundary work done during the process.

No work is done during the isochoric process as the boundaries are fixed and V2=V1
C.P#9-A piston cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m³ of air at 100 kPa and 80˚C. The air
is compressed to the volume of 0.1 m³ in such a way that temperature inside the cylinder
remains constant. Determine the work done by the process.

38
 𝑉 0.1
W=mRTln[𝑉2 ] = 1(0.0287)(353)ln[0.4] = -14.045 KJ
1

C.P#10-In a compression stroke of a gas engine the work done on a gas by the piston is 70
kJ/kg. The heat rejected to the cooling water is 42 kJ/kg. Find the change in the internal
energy stating whether it is a gain or a loss.

Keeping the sign convention in mind we have

 w=70 kJ / kg
 q =42 kJ / kg
Thus according to the first law of thermodynamics
(u2  u1 )   q   w  42  70  28 kJ / kg

39
C.P#11-When a certain perfect gas is heated at constant pressure from 15 ˚C to 95 ˚C the
heat required is 1136 kJ/kg. The same gas is heated at constant volume between the same
temperatures the heat required is 808 kJ/kg. Calculate Cp, Cv ,R , k and M of the gas.

40
C.P#12-1 kg of fluid is compressed according to the law PV=0.25 where P is in bars and V is
in m³. The final volume is ¼ of the initial volume. Calculate the work done by the fluid and
sketch the process PV diagram.

The given data is as follows:

mass  m  1 kg
1
volume  V2  V1
4
PV  0.25
1
V1
V2 V2 4 1
W  PV
1 1 ln  PV ln  (0.25) ln  (0.25) ln
V1 V1 V1 4

W  0.25  ln(1)  ln(4)   0.3466(100)  34.66 kJ

The 100 has been multiplied because the pressure is in bars we have
converted it into kPa.The work done on the system is 34.66 kJ (compression).

C.P#13-An ideal gas initially at 1.5 bars and 0.03 m³ is first heated at constant pressure. It is
then allowed to expand isothermally until the volume is again doubled. Determine the total
work done by the gas ad plot the process on the PV diagram.

41
C.P#14-A piston cylinder device contains 0.3 kg of air initially at 300K and 3 bars. Energy is
added to the gas by passing the current of 5 Amps through a resistor for the time of 30 sec.
The gas expands at constant pressure until the volume is doubled. Determine the size of the
resistance in ohms.

42
C.P#15- 1 kg of air at 1 bar 15˚C is compressed adiabatically to a pressure of 4 bars. Calculate
the final temperature and the work done on the air.

43
C.P#16- Oxygen is compressed polytropically in a cylinder from 1.05 bars to 4.2 bars in such
a way that 1/3 of work input is rejected as heat to the cylinder walls. Determine the final
temperature of the gas where Cv is 0.649 kJ/kg.K.

The data provided to us is as follows:

Initial Pressure  P1  1.05 bars  105 kPa
Initial Temperature  T1  15 C  288 K
Final Pressure  P2  4.2 bars  420 kPa
1
Heat exchanged  Q  W
3
Specific heat at constant volume  cv  0.649 kJ / kgK
We have to find the following:
Final Temperature  T2  ?
Index  n  ?
Specific heat ratio  k  ?
Gas constant  R  ?
now in case of a poly tropic process we have
k  n 1 k  n 1 k  n
Q  W    W W     
 k 1  3  k 1  3  k 1 
1 1 2 1
k n  k   n k
3 3 3 3
now we also have the following relation;
R Ro 8.3143
cv   
(k  1) M (k  1) 32(k  1)
8.3143
 k  1  1.40
(32)(0.649)
so from the above equation we have the n as follows:
2 1 2 1
nn k =n  (1.40)  =1.27
3 3 3 3
Again from the polytropic process we have the following relation:
n 1 n 1
T2  P2  n P  n
   T2  T1   2 
T1  P1   P1 
1.27 1
 420  1.27
T2  288    =386.71K
 105 

44
C.P#17- Gas engine has a compression ratio of 7. The gas fuel mixture is 1.1 bars at the
beginning of the compression and 12 bars at the end of the compression. Find the index ‘n’
for the compression stroke.

Following data has been provide to us:

Initial Pressure  P1  1.1 bar  110 kPa
Final Pressure  P2  12 bar  1200 kPa
V1
Compresion ratio  rv  7  V1 =7V2
V2
As this is polytropic process we have the following relation:
n 1 n 1
n 1
T2  V1  P  n P  n
7
n 1
   2    2 
T1  V2   P1   P1 
n 1
 1200  n
  7
n 1
  n  1.22
 110 
Alternatively we can solve the problem in the follwing way as well:
n n
P1  V2  P V 
PV  PV
1 1
n
2 2
n
    log  1   log  2 
P2  V1   P2   V1 
n  1.22

45
1st Law of Thermodynamics in case of Open Systems Processes
Consider the following open system (control volume). The working fluid flows from one end and
leaves from the other end with change in its state. Thus there is a change in the energy of the
working fluid that can be given by the energy balance equation as follows:

P1 x1

V1 m1 A1

U1

T1 Wcv

P2
Qcv
z1 x2 V2

m2 U2
A2
z 2 T2

Energy Entering=Energy Leaving

Energy Entering:

Work done by the fluid while entering = F*x1=PA1x1=P1V1

Internal Energy of the working fluid = U1

2
Kinetic Energy of the fluid = 1/2m1 V1

Potential Energy of the working fluid = m1gz1

Heat Energy of the fluid = Qcv

Energy Leaving:

Work done by the fluid while leaving = F*x2=PA2x2=P2V2

Internal Energy of the working fluid = U2

46
Kinetic Energy of the fluid = 1/2m2 V2 2

Potential Energy of the working fluid = m2gz2

Work done by the control volume = Wcv

The energy balance equation becomes:

U1+ P1V1+1/2m1 V12 + m1gz1+ Qcv = U2+ P2V2+1/2m2 V2 2 + m2gz2+ Wcv

The above equation gives the steady state steady flow open system energy balance. Steady state and
steady flow means that the state of the system and the flow of the working fluid do not change with
the time. The above equation can be written in the following simplified form as follows:

U + PV = H = mh

2 2
m1(h1+1/2 V1 +gz1)+Qcv= m1(h2+1/2 V2 +gz2)+Wcv

47
C.P#18- A centrifugal compressor of a gas turbine receives air at 1 bar and 300K. At the
discharge the pressure is 4 bars and temperature is 480 K and the velocity is 100 m/s. The
mass flow rate is 15 kg/s. Determine the power required to drive the compressor.

C.P#19-

48
Properties of Pure Substances
The pure substance is any mixture or compound having a uniform composition through it e.g CO2,
H2, and gaseous air are pure substance. The mixture of two or more pure substance is considered
to be pure.
Condensed/Saturated liquid, Saturated /Super-heated vapors:
Say at some pressure “P” the liquid at temperature lower than its boiling point is condensed liquid,
at the same pressure the liquid at the temperature equal to its boiling point is saturated liquid i.e.
Its phase transition is about to happen. At this point the vaporization process continues and the
system contains the mixture of vapors and saturated liquid until all the liquid is vaporized to vapors
and the temperature remains constant. At the same pressure the vapor so produced that are about
to condense are saturated vapors. The vapor that is heated to a very higher temperature after the
transition has completed is superheated vapor.
Saturation temperature and Pressure, Latent heats:
At a given pressure the temperature at which the substance changes its phase is saturation
temperature Tsat. Similarly at a given temperature the pressure at which the substance changes its
phase is its saturation pressure Psat.
The amount of heat exchanged during a phase transition is latent heat. For melting
we have latent heat of fusion and for vaporization we have latent heat of vaporization.
What is a vapor:
Vapor is an intermediate state between the liquid state and gaseous state. It can be condensed to
the liquid form by just applying high pressure. However gas can’t be converted to liquid state
without cooling. Any substance above its critical temperature behaves like a gas. It should be kept
in mind that the laws valid for the gases are not valid for the vapor state. Thus vapors are studied
separately.

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