GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns

1.
GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns
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1. GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns ................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Cropping Pattern .................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.1 Factors that influence cropping pattern ........................................................................................................................ 4
Relief ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Climate ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Soil ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Economic Factors ................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Social factors ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.2 Crop Classification ................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Classification based on the type of crop ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Classification based on suitable climatic regions ..................................................................................................................... 8
Classification based on growing season ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Classification based on life of crops/duration of crops .......................................................................................................... 8
Classification based on water availability ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation ................................................................. 8
1.2 Major Food Crops of India ..................................................................................................................... 8

1.2.1 Rice (Oryza sativa) .................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Rice Crop (Paddy) Season .................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Conditions for Growth ......................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Methods of Rice Cultivation ............................................................................................................................................................ 10
Japanese method................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Rice Production and Productivity .................................................................................................................................................. 11
Factors that contribute to low rice productivity in India ..................................................................................................... 11
Top Rice Producing States in India ............................................................................................................................................... 12
Basmati Rice ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Trade ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.2.2 Wheat ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Conditions for Growth ....................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Wheat Production ............................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Wheat Producing States in India ................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.2.3 Maize........................................................................................................................................................................................ 16
Production .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
1.2.4 Millets ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Jowar (Sorghum) .................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Bajra (bull rush millet) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Ragi ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Barley ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
1.3 Pulses ..................................................................................................................................................... 19

Gram ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or recri gram) ..................................................................................................................................... 19
1.4 Major Cash Crops of India ................................................................................................................... 20

1.4.1 Cotton...................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Unfavourable factors .......................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Crop season ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Types of Cotton .................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Cotton Crop Area ................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Bt Cotton ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
1.4.2 Jute ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Jute Crop ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Ideal Conditions for Jute Cultivation ........................................................................................................................................... 23
Cropping season .................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Processing of Jute................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Production .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Jute industry .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Schemes to support jute industry ................................................................................................................................................. 25
Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA)........................................................................................................................................... 25
1.4.3 Sugarcane............................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Sugar Crops ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Sugarcane Crop Area ......................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Production .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
1.4.4 Tobacco................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Types of Tobacco ................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Production .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Trade ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
1.5 Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in India ..................................................................................................... 31

1.5.1 Groundnut.............................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Production and Distribution ............................................................................................................................................................ 31
1.5.2 Sesamum ................................................................................................................................................................................ 32
1.5.3 Rapeseed and mustard ..................................................................................................................................................... 32
1.5.4 Linseed .................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Castor seed ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 33
1.5.5 Soyabean and sunflower .................................................................................................................................................. 33
1.5.6 India’s edible oil industry ................................................................................................................................................. 33
In 1970s ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Present ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Imported Oil .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Edible oil consumption ...................................................................................................................................................................... 34
1.6 Plantation Crops in India ..................................................................................................................... 34

1.6.1 Tea ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Production and distribution ............................................................................................................................................................ 36
Trade ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
1.6.2 Coffee ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Trade ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
1.6.3 Rubber ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
1.6.4 Arecanut ................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
1.6.5 Coconut................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
1.7 Spices ..................................................................................................................................................... 40

1.7.1 Pepper ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
1.7.2 Cardamom ............................................................................................................................................................................. 40
1.7.3 Chillies ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
1.7.4 Ginger ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
1.7.5 Turmeric .................................................................................................................................................................................. 41
1.8 Horticulture ........................................................................................................................................... 41

1.8.1 Vegetables ............................................................................................................................................................................. 41
Onion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
Onion price volatility .......................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Potato ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Tomato..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Carrot ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 43
1.8.2 Fruits and Nuts ..................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Mango ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Apple ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 43
Banana ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Orange ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Grape ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Cashew ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Peach ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 45
Pear ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Apricot...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Strawberry .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
Important Points • Important points and sentences are bolded and

must remember important points and sentences now it is grown widely even in the north-
are bolded and coloured. western parts of the country due to ex-
pansion of irrigation.
Basics
✓ E.g. Cropping area of rice is increasing
• This section will be a cake walk if you have un- with irrigation, whereas cropping area of
derstood Climatology, Climatic Regions and In- millets is decreasing.
dian Climatology well. • Temporal variation of cropping pattern refers to
• For understanding the concepts related to change in crops in a cropping area with time.
Agro-based industries, it is important to have a ✓ E.g. Seasonal change in cropping pattern:
good understanding of the cropping patterns of Rice is preferred in Punjab and Haryana
the major crops. during the Kharif season whereas wheat is
preferred in the rabi season.
Data
✓ E.g. Change in cropping pattern due to
• Statistics of various crops for the financial year climate change: Increasing aridity in cer-
2018-19 are not released by the government (I tain parts of South India has resulted in
couldn’t find them in any reports). So, I have the shift in cropping pattern from rice to
used the data from Agricultural Statistics at a millets.
Glance 2018.
• There is a lot of congruence between the Agri- 1.2.1 Factors that influence cropping
cultural Statistics at a Glance 2018 and the data pattern
included by various newspaper reports for FY
2018-19. • Cropping pattern depends on many physical,
social and economic factors.
Changes
• Physical (geographical) factors include relief,
• Same: The core concepts remain the same from climate (temperature, rainfall), soil, irrigation,
the old notes. environmental degradation (rice crop is severely
• Updated: All the crop related data is updated depleting groundwater in parts of Punjab and
(Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2018) Haryana), etc.
• New: Horticulture > Vegetables. • Economic factors include infrastructure (irriga-
tion, power), size of land holdings, population
1.2 Cropping Pattern density, credit, support price, insurance, market,
etc.
• When plants of the same kind are cultivated at • Social/political factors include land reforms, la-
one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. bour availability, historical setting, etc.
• Cropping pattern refers to the spatial (loca-
Relief
tion, area) and temporal (time) arrangement
of crops.
• Rice is the main crop on the irrigated hill terrac-
• A change in cropping pattern would indicate a
es (terraced cultivation).
spatial or temporal variation of crops.
• In well-irrigated plains, rice and sugarcane
• Spatial variation of cropping pattern includes
dominate.
the change in the spatial distribution or crop-
• Wheat (temperate crop) grows well in plain re-
ping area of crops.
gions with moderate temperature and rainfall.
✓ E.g. Earlier, rice crop was confined to east-
ern coastal plains and delta regions. But
• Crops like tea and coffee can be grown only on • Crops: Rice, tea, coffee, sugarcane, jute etc.
well-drained slopes that receive a good
Areas of Medium Rainfall
amount of rainfall.
• 75 to 150 cm of annual rainfall.
Climate
• 75 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for
maize, cotton and soyabean.
• The short-term change in cropping pattern
• These areas are rich in natural resources. E.g.
mainly occurs due to change in seasons.
Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha,
• For example, in Punjab, rice is grown during the
eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha
rainy season, but wheat takes over during win-
region of Maharashtra.
ter.
• Wheat is the principal rabi crop.
• In rainfed areas, rice is cultivated extensively
• Millets are the natural priority.
when the monsoons are good. But when mon-
• Crops: Wheat, maize, cotton, soyabean, millets,
soons are weak, millets are grown instead of
etc.
rice.
• Cotton in Maharashtra, tea in Assam and jute Areas of Low Rainfall
in West Bengal remain the dominant crops due
• 25 to 75 cm of annual rainfall (Semi-arid
to highly favourable climatic conditions for cul-
stretches of India).
tivation.
• Major crops in this belt are
Temperature 1. millets, jowar, and bajra in the northern,
2. jowar in central and
• Sugarcane gives good yield in south India 3. ragi in the southern part.
than in northern plains as it needs a warm • Wheat is the main rabi crop which is grown in
climate. irrigated areas.
• Some crops require a higher temperature and • Mixed cropping is very common in which puls-
are sown in the summer season. es are mixed with cereals.
• Most of the growth period falls under the rainy • Cropping has been developed in such a way
season. that no one crop dominates.
• These are known as Kharif crops (rice, cotton, • Crops: Millets, oilseeds (Groundnut, sunflower,
maize, etc.). rapeseed and mustard etc.), pulses etc.
• There are other crops which require lower tem-
perature and moisture and are sown in the win- Soil
ter season (wheat). These are known as Rabi
crops. • Regur soils are ideal for cotton cultivation.
• Cotton is the obvious choice in such soils when
Rainfall the climate is also favourable.
• Clayey soils are good at retaining soil moisture
Areas of Heavy Rainfall for longer duration and hence they are ideal for
rice cultivation wherever irrigation is adequate.
• More than 150 cm of annual rainfall. • Well-drained loamy soils are best for wheat.
• East India and the western coastal plains. • Coarse grains such as jowar, bajra, maize, ragi,
• 150 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for barley etc. are grown in inferior soils (light
the cultivation of rice. sandy soils, light black soils, red and laterite
• The animal population is fairly high due to the soils etc.)
availability of fodder and grazing area.
• Delta soils of West Bengal are renewed by • Rice is the preferred crop in the densely popu-
floods every year and are very fertile. They are lated regions as there is a ready market.
ideal for jute cultivation. The farmers grow 2-3 • Diversification of crops due to surplus food
crops in a year. grain production post-Green Revolution has led
• Soils of the Darjeeling hills contain sufficient to significant changes in cropping pattern.
quantities of humus, iron, potash and phospho- • Other than rice and wheat, oilseeds and pulses
rus which are necessary for a tea bush to grow. also became more prominent.
Economic Factors Size of Land Holdings
Irrigation • In the case of smallholdings, the priority of the

farmers would be to grow food grains for his
• Water intensive crops like rice and sugarcane family members (subsistence farming).
are profitable only if there are good irrigational • Farmers with large holdings can opt for cash
facilities. crops and help in crop diversification, leading to
• Hence rice and sugarcane cropping areas are changes in the cropping pattern (commercial
restricted to well-irrigated areas like the delta farming).
regions of Cauvery, Krishna and Godavari. • But in spite of crop diversification potential,
• North Indian plain regions are well irrigated and large holdings are used mostly for monocul-
support 2-3 crops of rice a year. ture of rice, wheat etc.
Free Power, Minimum Support Price (MSP) and Social factors

other subsidies
Historical setting
• Rice and wheat which are offered MSP are pre-
ferred by farmers. • Sugarcane is grown more extensively in North
• Free power had led to an increase in cropping India even though the conditions are most fa-
area of rice and sugarcane. This has however vourable in South India.
led to severe depletion and contamination of • This is because the sugarcane cultivation was
groundwater. E.g. Rice growing parts of Harya- encouraged by the British as an alternative
na and Punjab. to indigo which lost its significance and market
• Subsidies on fertilizers have led to farmers opt- in states like Uttar Pradesh due to the introduc-
ing for rice and wheat over other crops. tion of artificial dyes.
Value 1.2.2 Crop Classification

• Millets in the hilly areas of HP and Uttarakhand • Crops can be classified based on the type of
are replaced by high-value horticulture crops crop, suitable climatic regions, growing season,
like apple. the life of crops/duration of crops, etc.
Demand and Supply
Classification based on the type of crop
Food Crops • Cereals are grass-like plants with starchy edible seeds having high nutritional value.
• India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat)
and coarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc.
• Major millets: Sorghum or Jowar, Pearl Millet or Bajra and Finger millet or ragi.
• Minor millets: Foxtail millet, Little millet, Common millet, Barnyard millet etc.
• Millets are the staple food of poor people.
• Pulses: red gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea, bengalgram, horsegram, dew-
gram, soyabean, peas or gardenpea, garden bean etc.
• Pulses are a major source of protein.
• Starch Crops or Tuber Crops: Potato, cassava, sweet potato, raddish etc.
Cash Crops • Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds, groundnut, linseed, sesamum, castor
seed, rapeseed, mustard, etc.
• Oil Seeds: Groundnut or peanut, sesamum, sunflower, castor, linseed, rapeseed &
mustard etc.
• Fiber crops: Cotton; Stem fiber: Jute, mesta, sun hemp, sisal hemp etc.
Plantation Crops • Tea, coffee, coconut, arecanut, rubber and spices — ginger, garlic, chili, cumin on-
ion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
Horticulture Crops • Vegetables: Onion, tomato, etc.
• Fruits: Apple, Orange, Mango, banana, citrus fruits, etc.
Classification based on suitable climatic regions
Tropical Temperate
Crops grow well in warm & hot climate Crops grow well in cool climate
E.g. Rice, Sugarcane, Jowar etc. E.g. Wheat, Oats, Gram, Potato, Apple etc.
Classification based on growing season
Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops Summer/Zaid crops

• The crops grown in monsoon • The crops grown in winter season • Crops grown in summer
months
• Sown before monsoon and har- • Sown before retreating monsoon • Sown and harvested in
vested at the end of the monsoon and harvested before summer. summer
• Cropping period: June to Oct-Nov • Oct to March • March to June
• Require warm, wet weather at • Crops grow well in cold and dry • Require warm dry weather
major period of crop growth weather for major growth period
• E.g. Paddy (Rice), Cotton, Jute, • E.g. Wheat, Gram, Peas, Barley, • E.g. Watermelon, Pump-
Jowar, Bajara (pearl millet), Oats, Linseed, Mustard, Sun- kins, Gourds, Vegetables
Finger millet (ragi), Maize, Sor- flower etc. etc.
ghum, Tur, Moong, Urad, Soy-
abean, Groundnut etc.
Classification based on the life of crops/duration of crops
• Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle

in one season (3-4 months). E.g. rice, Jowar, Classification based on length of photoperiod
wheat etc. required for floral initiation
• Two seasonal crops: Crops complete their life
 Photoperiodism: Most plants are influenced by
cycle in two seasons (6-8 months). E.g. Cotton,
the relative length of the day & night, especially
turmeric, ginger.
for floral initiation.
• Annual crops: Crops require one full year to
• Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes place
complete their life cycle. E.g. sugarcane.
when days are short less than ten hours. E.g.
• Biennial crops: Crops requires two years to
rice, Jowar, green gram, black gram etc.
complete their life cycle E.g. Banana, Papaya.
• Long day's plants: require long days are more
• Perennial crops: crops live for several years.
than ten hours for floral initiation. E.g. Wheat,
E.g. Fruit crops, mango, guava etc.
Barley, etc.
Classification based on water availability • Day-neutral plants: Photoperiod does not
have much influence for phase change for these
• Rainfed: Cultivation of crop mainly based on plants. E.g. Cotton, sunflower, etc.
the availability of rainwater. E.g. Jowar, Bajara,
Mung etc. 1.3 Major Food Crops of India
• Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with the help
of irrigation water. E.g. Chili, sugarcane, Banana, • Indian Geography, types of soils in India and
papaya etc. Indian climatology forms the foundation for
understanding cropping pattern and major Rice Crop (Paddy) Season
crops of India.
• Rice is ideally a kharif crop (wet and warm
1.3.1 Rice (Oryza sativa) climate is ideal for rice cultivation).
• It is grown only in well-irrigated areas in rabi
• Rice is a preferred staple food in Southern and season (yield is less in rabi season compared
North-Eastern India. to kharif).
• Rice growing areas are well suited for mixed • Most of the rice-growing regions lie barren dur-
farming (Crops + Livestock) (Don’t get con- ing summer (April-May).
fused between mixed farming and mixed crop- • It can be grown as a summer crop in deltaic re-
ping – two or more crops grown simultaneously gions where water is available through the year.
on the same piece of land).
• Unpolished rice is rich in Vitamin A, B and cal-
cium. Polished rice lacks these vitamins.
Three crop seasons (year-round irrigation; grown as kharif, rabi and summer or zaid crop)
Crop season Sowing Harvesting

Kharif crop (Rainy season) June-July Sep-Oct
Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Oct-Nov Feb-Mar
Summer dry Mar-Apr Jun-Jul
• E.g. Deltaic regions of West Bengal, Krishna-Godavari delta, parts of UP, Bihar etc.
Two crop seasons (irrigation not available in summer)
Kharif crop (Rainy season) July-Aug Oct-Nov

Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Dec-Jan Mar-Apr
• E.g. South India, Coastal plains, Assam plains, etc.
Single crop season (rice not grown in dry summers and cold winters)
Kharif crop July-Sep Nov

• E.g. North-Western states.
• Rabi season is dominated by wheat.
Conditions for Growth
Climate • Generally, cold climate is less favourable for

rice cultivation (rabi yield is lower compared to
• Rice crop needs plenty of heat, rain and la- kharif yield)
bour. • Rice is a tropical kharif crop that requires:
• It can be grown between 0 to 2,500 meters 1. warm climate
above sea level. ➢ Rice is grown throughout the year in hot
• Rice cannot tolerate the cold climate that exists and humid deltaic regions of eastern
above 2,500 meters. and southern India.
➢ In the northern, north-western and hilly south India, irrigated regions of Karnataka, Tel-
parts of the country, the winters are too angana etc.
cold for rice cultivation, and only one • Rice can tolerate acidic as well as alkaline soils.
crop is grown (in summer) in those are-
as. Labour requirement
2. semi-aquatic conditions (rainfall or irriga-
• Rice cultivation is traditionally labour intensive.
tion throughout the season; the soil should
• Rice is primarily grown in areas of high popula-
never be dry during the growing season).
tion density (labour and ready market). E.g.
➢ The fields must be flooded under 10-12
West Bengal.
cm deep water at the time of sowing.
• In Punjab and Haryana, rice cultivation depends
This requirement of rice makes it primar-
on the migrant labourers from Bihar and east-
ily a crop of plain areas.
ern U.P.
➢ Rice grown in well-watered lowland
plain areas is called wet or lowland rice Methods of Rice Cultivation
(good yield).
➢ Rice can be grown in areas just below Broadcasting method
sea level like in Kuttanad region of Kera-
la. • Seeds are sown (broadcast) by hand.
➢ Terraced cultivation of rice in followed in • Practiced in
sloped regions. E.g. Hills of NE states 1. dry and/or less fertile soils, and
(shifting cultivation or jhumming). 2. areas with labour shortages.
➢ The supply of water to the hill terraces is • Easiest method requiring minimum input.
low, and the rice grown in hilly areas is • Yields are minimum.
called dry or upland rice (comparatively
low yield as hilly soils cannot retain Drilling method
moisture for long).
• One person ploughs the land and the other
• Average annual rainfall above 150 cm is good
person sows the seeds.
for the crop.
• Confined to dry regions of peninsular India.
• The 100 cm isohyet (imaginary line joining the
• Yields are low.
points of equal rainfall) forms the limit of rice in
rainfed areas.
Transplantation method
• Rice is grown in Punjab, Haryana and western
U.P (rainfall less than 100 cm) with the help of • Advanced method of rice cultivation in India.
intensive irrigation. • Less scope for mechanization and is labour in-
tensive.
Soil
• Practiced in areas of fertile soil with abundant
rainfall or irrigation.
• Rice is a dominant crop of river valleys, flood
• Seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are
plains, deltas and coastal plains.
prepared.
• Loamy soils require frequent irrigation and
• After a month the seedlings are uprooted and
more water as the water holding capacity is low.
transplanted to a different field.
E.g. Delta regions, Punjab, Haryana and North
• This is a difficult method that requires heavy
Indian plains.
inputs.
• Clayey soils, on the other hand, have good wa-
• But it gives some of the highest yields.
ter holding capacity — E.g. Coastal plains of
Japanese method capped with varied natural, socio-economic, or-
ganizational and technological constraints re-
• Highly mechanized and most advanced rice cul- sulting in low productivity.
tivation.
• Mostly followed in developed countries like Ja- Not enough HYVs for Rainfed eco-system
pan, South Korea etc.
• Seedlings are transplanted in rows with the help • 90% of high yielding varieties (HYV) varieties
of machines. are for irrigated eco-system and very few im-
• Weeding and fertilizing are fully mechanized. proved varieties are available for rainfed eco-
• Heavy dose of fertilizers is required. system.
• Very high yields are obtained.
Wide disparity in fertilizer use
Rice Production and Productivity
• High yielding varieties are fertilizer respon-
• India produced ~113 MT of milled rice (Paddy sive/oriented. Yet, the farmers are using much
minus husk and bran) in 2017-2018. less fertilizer per unit cropped area than their
• The production of milled rice for 2018-19 is es- counterparts in South and South-East Asian
timated to be 116.4 MT. (Paddy production is Countries.
169 MT) • There is also a wide disparity in fertilizer use
• India is the 2nd largest producer and consum- within the country. The States like Tamil Nadu
er of rice in the world after China (148 MT). and Punjab use as high as 100-150 kg/ha as
• The next largest rice producers are Indonesia against 20 kg/ha in Assam, Orissa and Madhya
(36 MT), Bangladesh (35 MT), Vietnam (27 MT), Pradesh.
and Myanmar. • In Eastern Region, rice area is about 59% but
• Low productivity: The average yield of rice in fertilizer consumption is low, resulting in poor
India is ~2.6 tonne/ha (average yield of paddy productivity.
is 3.8 tonne/ha) as against the global average of
Vagaries of monsoon
4.374 tonne/ha. China (6.5), Australia (10), US
(7.5) lead in productivity. • Out of 43 Mha of total rice in India, upland rice
• China’s rice productivity is greater as all of Chi- occupies about 7 Mha, in Eastern India. In up-
na’s rice area is irrigated, whereas less than half land rainfed crop suffers due to soil moisture
of India’s rice area is irrigated. stress at critical crop growth stage due to va-
• Egypt leads the world in rice yields — at Egypt’s garies of monsoon.
yield rate, India could almost triple its rice out- • Delay in monsoon onset often results in delayed
put. and prolonged transplanting and sub-optimum
plant population (mostly in rainfed lowlands).
Factors that contribute to low rice productivity
• In the low rainfall regions, the crops suffer from
in India
iron and zinc deficiency in some soils.
• In the high rainfall regions diseases break out
60% of the rice area is Rainfed
due to imbalance nutrients availability in the
• About 60% of the total rice area in the country soils.
is concentrated in rainfed eco-system and it is
Floods
contributing about 45% to the national produc-
tion of rice, but rainfed eco-system is handi-
• About 15% area of the total area under rice in • In Eastern states rice is grown mostly during
the country is subjected to flooding particularly Kharif season and it often suffers due to high
in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, rainfall.
Orissa, Assam, Tripura and Manipur during • Besides, rice crop gets inundated during early
south-west monsoon period. part of the crop growth stage, low light intensi-
ty due to clouds for a longer duration resulting
Inundation in higher sterility and pests/diseases.
• Poor crop plant population in case of broadcast
sowing method resulting in uneven germination
(upland and direct seeded lowland).
Top Rice Producing States in India
Area – Million Hectares (Mha); Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes); Yield – tonnes/hectare
State Area Production Yield
1 West Bengal 5.1 (11.7%) 15 (13.3%) 2.9 Low productivity
2 Punjab 3.1 (7%) 13.4 (11.9%) 4.4 Highest productivity
3 Uttar Pradesh 5.8 (13.3%) 13.3 (11.8%) 2.3 Low productivity
4 Andhra Pradesh 2.2 (4.9%) 8.2 (7.2%) 3.8 High Productivity
5 Bihar 3.3 (7.5%) 7.9 (7%) 2.4 Low productivity
6 Tamil Nadu 1.9 (4.2%) 7.3 (6.5%) 3.9 High Productivity
7 Odisha 3.7 (8.5%) 6.5 (5.8%) 1.8 Low productivity
8 Telangana 2 (4.5%) 6.3 (5.5%) 3.2 Good productivity
9 Assam 2.5 (5.6%) 5.2 (4.6%) 2.1 Low productivity
10 Chhattisgarh 3.8 (8.6%) 4.7 (4.2%) 1.3 Lowest productivity
11 Haryana 1.4 (3.3%) 4.5 (4%) 3.2 Good productivity
12 Madhya Pradesh 2 (4.7%) 4.1 (3.7%) 2.0 Low productivity
All India 43.8 Mha 112.9 MT 2.6 Low productivity overall
• 13.3% of India’s land is under rice cultivation. (The total land area of India is 328 Mha (3.28 million km2))
State +ve factors -ve factors

West Bengal • Large scale alluvial deposits • Floods
• Year round irrigation • Yield is low
• Abundant labour force • Eastern India was overlooked during the
• 3 crops can be grown a year first Green Revolution (Poor adaptation
of HYV, fertilizers and mechanization).
Punjab • Full use of Green Revolution • Cropping pattern has undergone an un-
• Perennial irrigation by canals and tube precedented change due to irrigation
wells • Land degradation – salinity, alkalinity &
• HYV seeds and fertilizers desertification
• Highest yield • Ground water depletion
• Wheat is preferred in Rabi season
Uttar Pradesh • Full use of Green Revolution • Land degradation – salinity, alkalinity &
• Perennial irrigation by canals and tube desertification
wells • Ground water depletion
• HYV seeds and fertilizers • Wheat is preferred in Rabi season
• Very low yield
Andhra Pradesh • Fertile Godavari-Krishna Delta and the • Cyclone prone area.
adjoining coastal plains. • Floods in the delta regions
• Full use of Green Revolution.
• High yield
Bihar • Same as in Uttar Pradesh • Same as in Uttar Pradesh
Tamil Nadu • Fertile Cauvery Delta • Drought and water disputes
• High Yield
Basmati Rice
• Basmati is long grain aromatic rice grown for • They supply to deficit states – West Bengal,
many centuries in the specific geographical ar- Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala and Delhi.
ea, at the Himalayan foothills of Indian sub-
continent. 1.3.2 Wheat
• The rice is known for its soft texture upon cook-
ing, delicious taste, superior aroma and distinct • Wheat is the second most important staple
flavour. food for Indian population.
• India accounts for over 70% of the world's • Wheat is the preferred staple food in Northern
basmati rice production and 65% of the and North-Western India.
world’s export. • It is a rich source of calcium, thiamine, riboflavin
• The areas of basmati rice production in India and iron.
are in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh, J&K, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pra- Conditions for Growth
desh and Bihar.
Climate
• The Agricultural & Processed Food Products
Export Development Authority (APEDA – De-
• Wheat is a temperate crop which requires a
partment of Commerce) has been mandated
cool climate with moderate rainfall.
with the export promotion of Basmati rice.
• It shows great adaptability & can be grown in
• APEDA has been able to register Basmati Rice
tropics as well (however, yields are low in trop-
as a Geographical Indication (GI) in February
ics).
2016.
• It is a rabi crop (winter crop – requires cool and
less moist climate).
Trade
• 75 cm of temporally (time) well distributed rain-
• Domestic rice production meets the domestic fall is ideal.
demand. There is very little surplus for external • 100 cm is the highest limit.
trade. • The isohyet of 100 cm separates wheat grow-
• However, India now occupies first position in ing areas from rice growing areas.
rice exports. • In the kharif season, rice replaces wheat in the
• Thailand, Vietnam and Pakistan are the other ‘winter wheat belt’ region – Punjab, Haryana etc.
major exporters of rice. • Light drizzles and cloudiness (E.g. Weather
• India is the biggest exporter of basmati rice. brought by the remnants of temperate cyclones
• Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh called as Western Disturbances) at the time of
produce best qualities of Basmati rice. ripening help in increasing the yield.
• Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh • Frost at flowering time can cause heavy dam-
and Uttar Pradesh are surplus states. age.
Wheat Growing Regions Sowing months Harvesting months
1. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh September-October January-February
and West Bengal (central and southern agro climatic re-
gions)
2. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan (North- October-November February-March
eastern plain and North-western plain agro climatic regions)
3. Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir November- April-May
December
Soil and fertilizer requirement • Russia (86 MT), USA (47 MT), France (37 MT)
and Australia are other major producers.
• Well drained fertile, friable barns (mostly allu- • India has done better in wheat by achieving
vial) and clay loams (good proportion of sand) yields closer to the global average.
are the best for wheat cultivation. • It has recorded an average yield of 3.0 tonne
• It also grows well in the black soil of the Deccan per hectare as against the global benchmark of
plateau. 3.0 tonne/ha.
• So, wheat cultivation is more flexible than rice • However, it's still far from countries like France
cultivation as the limiting factors are low. (5.3 tonne), US (3.5 tonne) and China (5.3).
• The N:P:K fertilizer ratio of 4:2:1 is required
for optimum productivity. Wheat Producing States in India
Wheat Production • Wheat production is mainly confined to North-

Western parts of the country.
• India (99 MT) is the second largest producer • Punjab, Haryana and the western parts of U.P.
of wheat in the world next only to China (134 have earned the distinction of being called the
MT in 2017). ‘Granary of India’.
Area – Million Hectares; Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes); Yield – tonnes/hectare
State Area Production Yield
1 Uttar Pradesh 9.75 (33%) 31.9 (32%) 3.3 Yield decreases as rainfall increases eastwards
2 Punjab 3.51 (11.8%) 17.9 (18%) 5.0 Highest Yield due to Optimal Climate
3 Madhya Pradesh 5.32 (18%) 15.9 (16%) 3.0 Yield is low due to poor irrigation
4 Haryana 2.53 (8.6%) 11.2 (11%) 4.4 High Yield due to Optimal Climate
5 Rajasthan 2.81 (9.5%) 9.2 (9.2%) 3.2 Yield decreases as aridity increases
6 Bihar 2.04 (6.9%) 5.7 (5.8%) 2.8 Yield decreases as rainfall increases eastwards
7 Gujarat 1.06 (3.6%) 3.1 (3.1%) 2.9 Yield decreases as aridity increases
8 Maharashtra 0.92 (3.1%) 1.62 (1.6%) 1.7 Less favourable climatic conditions
All India 29.58 99.7 3.3
• ~9% of total land area of India is under wheat cultivation.
State +ve Factors -ve Factors
Uttar Pra- • Fine alluvial soil deposited by the mighty Ganga and • Wheat production to the east of
desh its tributaries Varanasi declines due to high rain-
• Close network of canals, supplemented by large fall
number of tube wells
• the doabs are the best wheat producing areas. E.g.
Ganga-Ghagra doab and Ganga-Yamuna doab.
Punjab • Green Revolution was utilized to the fullest. • Land degradation
• Excellent irrigation system provided by a close net- • Ground water depletion
work of canals and the tube wells.
• Light rainfall associated with the western disturb-
ances in winter.
• Fertile alluvial soil brought by the rivers.
• Punjab farmers are progressive and willing to adopt
new farm technologies.
Madhya • Climate well suited for wheat cultivation in winter. • Less fertile soils
Pradesh • Less developed irrigational facilities
Haryana • Same as in Punjab • Same as in Punjab
Rajasthan • Indira Gandhi Canal has made wheat cultivation • Vast stretches of sandy desert
possible in many parts of Rajasthan. • Scarcity of rainfall
• Paucity of irrigation facilities
• Land degradation
Bihar • Same as in UP • Same as in UP
1.3.3 Maize • Use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, ferti-
lisers and irrigation have contributed to the in-
• Maize is often known as Indian corn. creasing production of maize.
• It is used as both food and fodder. (USA pro-
duces maize mainly to beef up the cattle. Very
little is used as food (Climatic regions: Gulf
• It is a rainfed kharif crop which requires tem-
type))
perature between 21°C to 27°C.
• Maize can be grown under varied climatic and • The cultivation of maize in India is characterized
soil conditions. But the yields are highest in old by inter-culture i.e. along with pulses, vegeta-
alluvial soil. bles and oil seeds.
• It is grown in semi-arid regions (25 – 75 cm)
where rice and wheat production are not possi- Production
ble.
• USA, China and Brazil are the leading produc-
• It cannot be grown in areas of more than
ers.
100 cm rainfall.
• In India, Maize cultivation is not concentrated in
• In Tamil Nadu it is a rabi crop and is sown a
any specific region.
few weeks before the onset of winter rainy sea-
• It is sown all over India except eastern and
son in Sept. and Oct (because the rains occur
north-eastern regions.
mostly in November and December in eastern
• Yield is high in southern states and declines to-
TN).
wards central parts.
• Well-drained and fertile loams free from coarse
materials and rich in nitrogen are ideal.
Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes)
State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) Yield – tonnes/hectare
1 Karnataka 1.3 (13.6%) 3.6 (12.4%) 2.8
2 Maharashtra 1.2 (12.2%) 3.5 (12.3%) 3.1
3 Madhya Pradesh 1.4 (14.3%) 3.5 (12.3%) 2.6
4 Tamil Nadu 0.3 (3.6%) 2.6 (9.2%) 7.7
5 Telangana 0.6 (6.7%) 2.6 (8.9%) 4.1
6 Bihar 0.7 (7.1%) 2.4 (8.44%) 3.6
7 Andhra Pradesh 0.3 (3.6%) 2.3 (8.02%) 6.9
All India 9.5 Mha 28.7 MT 3.0
1.3.4 Millets • Jowar is the third most important food crop
with respect to area and production.
• Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets • It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist
grown in India. areas which hardly needs irrigation.
• They provide food for the poor people. • Jowar is grown both as kharif as well as a rabi
• Though, these are known as coarse grains, they crop.
have very high nutritional value. • It is sown in both kharif and rabi seasons in
• For example, ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, southern states.
other micronutrients and roughage. • But it is a kharif crop in northern India where
• Millets are short duration (3-4 months;) warm it is mostly grown as a fodder crop.
weather grasses. • South of Vindhyas it is a rainfed crop and its
• They are grown in less fertile areas. yield level is very low in this region.
• It does not grow where the rainfall exceeds 100
Jowar (Sorghum) cm.
• Clayey deep regur and alluvium are the best
• Jowar has a high nutritional value. suited soils for jowar.
• It is main food crop in semi-arid areas of central • It can also be raised on gentle slopes upto
and southern India. 1,200 meters height.
Production
1 Maharashtra 2.2 (43.7%) 1.8 (36.5%) 0.8
2 Karnataka 1.1 (21.9%) 1.1 (22.9%) 1.0
3 Madhya Pradesh 0.3 (5.4%) 0.6 (11.5%) 2.1
All India 5 Mha 5 MT 1.0
• Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan are the other major producers.
Bajra (bull rush millet)
• Bajra is the second most important millet. • Just like jowar, it is also used as food and fod-
• It is a rainfed kharif crop of dry and warm der in drier parts of the country.
north-western and western parts of the • Being a rainfed crop, the yield level of this crop
country. fluctuates a lot from year to year.
• It is a hardy crop which resists frequent dry • Bajra can be grown on poor light sandy soils,
spells and drought in this region. black and red soils.
• It is grown in areas of 40-50 cm of annual rain- • It is sown either as a pure or mixed crop with
fall. Upper limit is 100 cm. cotton, jowar and ragi.
Production and Distribution

1 Rajasthan 4.2 (57.4%) 3.8 (41.1%) 0.9
2 Uttar Pradesh 0.9 (12.5%) 1.8 (19.7%) 1.9
3 Gujarat 0.4 (5.4%) 0.9 (10.1%) 2.3
4 Madhya Pradesh 0.3 (4.2%) 0.8 (8.3%) 2.4
Ragi
• Ragi is mainly grown in drier parts of south In- • Besides food, it is used for manufacturing beer
dia (Mostly drier parts of Karnataka). and whisky.
• It requires warm climate and 50-100 cm rainfall. • It does not tolerate high heat and high humidi-
• It is raised on a variety of soils. (Red, light black, ty.
sandy, well drained alluvial loams). • Grows in areas with rainfall range of 75 cm to
• It is a rainfed kharif crop which is sown be- 100 cm.
tween May and August and harvested between • It is grown as a rabi crop in the Great Plains
September and January. and valleys of the western Himalayas.
• Karnataka is the largest producer (73.23 per • It can be grown up to an altitude of 1,300 me-
cent). ters as in Uttarakhand.
• Uttarakhand and Tamil Nadu are the other • Production has declined over time (just like
major producers. most of the millets).
• Rajasthan is the largest producer (40 per cent).
Barley Uttar Pradesh is the second largest.
1.4 Pulses ing nitrogen from the air. Therefore, these are
mostly grown in rotation with other crops.
• Pulses include a number of crops which are • India is the largest producer as well as the con-
mostly leguminous. sumer of pulses in the world.
• Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (ar- • Pulses need less moisture and survive even in
har), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram. dry conditions.
• These are the major source of protein in a vege- • Major pulse producing states in India are
tarian diet. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Ma-
• Being leguminous crops, all these crops ex- harashtra and Karnataka.
cept arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fix-
State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT)
1 Madhya Pradesh 7.5 (24.9%) 8.1 (32.1%) Pulses are mostly grown in the
2 Rajasthan 5.3 (17.8%) 3.4 (13.4%) dry regions of these states where
3 Maharashtra 4.4 (14.5%) 3.3 (13.1%) the cultivation of rice, wheat and
4 Uttar Pradesh 2.3 (7.6%) 2.2 (8.8%) maize is not feasible.
5 Karnataka 3 (10.1%) 1.9 (7.4%)
All India 30 Mha 25.2 MT
Gram
• Gram is the most important of all the pulses. • It is a rainfed crop cultivated during rabi season
• It prefers mild cool (20°-25°C) and comparative- in central, western and north western parts of
ly dry climate (40-50 cm). the country.
• It is a rabi crop and is cultivated in subtropical • Just one or two light showers or irrigations are
areas. required to grow this crop successfully.
• It grows well on loamy soils. • It has been displaced from the cropping pattern
• It is cultivated as pure or mixed with wheat, by wheat in Haryana, Punjab and northern Raja-
barley, linseed or mustard. sthan following the green revolution.
• Mixed cropping helps to check the gram blight • The yield of this crop continues to be low and
to some extent. fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated ar-
eas.
Production
• Gram like millets has suffered a lot at the hands of wheat.

1 Madhya Pradesh 3.6 (34%) 4.6 (40.9%) 1.3
2 Maharashtra 2 (18.9%) 1.8 (15.9%) 0.9
3 Rajasthan 1.6 (14.9%) 1.7 (14.9%) 1.1
4 Karnataka 1.3 (12%) 0.7 (6.4%) 0.6
5 Andhra Pradesh 0.5 (4.9%) 0.6 (5.2%) 1.1
Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or recri gram) • Tur is the second most important pulse.
• It is chiefly grown as a kharif crop. groundnut, etc. and is seldom grown as a sin-
• In areas of mild winters, it is grown as a rabi gle crop.
crop. • Its conditions of growth are more or less similar
• It is grown as a dry crop mixed with other kha- to those of other pulses and millets.
rif crops like jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, cotton,
1 Maharashtra 1.2 (27.7%) 1.1 (25.2%) 0.9
2 Madhya Pradesh 0.7 (14.6%) 0.8 (19.7%) 1.3
3 Karnataka 0.9 (20%) 0.8 (18.1%) 0.9
4 Gujarat 0.3 (6.1%) 0.3 (7.9%) 1.2
5 Uttar Pradesh 0.3 (6.4%) 0.3 (7.8%) 1.2
All-India 4.4 Mha 4.3 MT 1.0
1.5 Major Cash Crops of India weather at flowering and ripening time (moist
weather during ripening leads to pest attacks)
• Cash crops: crops that are grown for sale in the are very useful for a good crop.
market. E.g. cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco,
Soil
oilseeds etc.
• Cash crops are the major contributors to agri- • Deep black soils (regur-lava soil) of the Dec-
cultural GDP of India. can Plateau, Malwa Plateau and those of Gujarat
• They occupy only 15 per cent of the cropped are best suited for cotton cultivation.
area but account for over 40 per cent of the ag- • It also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej-
ricultural production by value. Ganga Plain and red and laterite soils of the
peninsular region.
1.5.1 Cotton • Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of soil.
• Cotton is the most important fibre crop. Labour

• Its seed is used in vanaspati industry and as part
of fodder for milch cattle. • Since picking of cotton is not yet mechanized, a
• Cotton is a tropical crop grown in kharif sea- lot of cheap and efficient labour is required.
son in semi-arid areas of the country. • Normally the picking season is spread over a
period of about three months.
Unfavourable factors
• Cotton is chiefly a tropical and sub-tropical
crop. • The growth is retarded below 20 °C.
• It requires uniformly high temperature (21°C to • Frost is enemy number one of the cotton plant.
30°C), light rainfall (50-100 cm) or irrigation, • It is grown in areas having at least 210 frost
210 frost-free days and bright sun-shine for its free days in a year.
growth. • Moist weather and heavy rainfall at the time of
• Most of the irrigated area under cotton is in boll-opening and picking (rains lead to fibre
Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Rajasthan. damage) are detrimental to cotton as the plant
• High amount of rainfall in beginning (helps becomes vulnerable to pests and diseases.
in sprouting of seeds) and sunny and dry
• Almost 65 per cent of the area under cotton is • Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8
rainfed with erratic and poorly distributed rains. months to mature.
It is also subjected to severe attack of pests and • Its time of sowing and harvesting differs in dif-
diseases. ferent parts of the country.
Crop season
Region Sowing time Harvesting time Note

Punjab and Haryana Apr-May Dec-Jan To prevent crop damage due to win-
ter frost
Peninsular region up to Oct Jan-May There is no danger of winter frost
Tamil Nadu Before the onset of re- April-May Adequate amount of rainfall for sprout-
(both as a kharif and treating monsoon (Oct) ing of seeds.
as a rabi crop)
Jan-Feb in the regions of Aug-Sep TN remains dry during Aug-Sep. So the

irrigation picking period is free of rains
• Most of the crop is grown mixed with other • The length of its fiber is between 20 mm and 24
kharif crops (maize, jowar, ragi, sesamum, cas- mm.
tor, groundnut etc.). • About 44 per cent of the total cotton produc-
tion in India is of medium staple.
Types of Cotton • Rajasthan, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pra-
desh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra
• Three broad types of cotton are generally rec-
are its main producers.
ognized on the basis of the length, strength and
structure of its fiber. Short staple cotton
• India grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as
well as long staple (American) cotton called • This is inferior cotton with fiber less than 20 mm
‘narma’ in north-western parts of the country. long.
• It is used for manufacturing inferior cloth and
Long staple cotton fetches less price.
• About 6 per cent of the total production is of
• It has the longest fiber whose length varies
short staple cotton.
from 24 to 27 mm.
• U.P, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and
• The fiber is fine and lustrous and is used for
Punjab are its main producers.
making superior quality cloth.
• It fetches the best price. Cotton Crop Area
• About half of the total cotton produced in India
is long staple. • India lost a large proportion of cotton growing
• It is largely grown in Punjab, Haryana, Maha- area to Pakistan during partition.
rashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat • India has the sole distinction of growing all the
and Andhra Pradesh. three cultivated species of cotton.
• In India, cotton is grown in three distinct agro-
Medium staple cotton ecological zones, viz.,
1. Northern (Punjab, Haryana and Raja-
sthan),
2. Central (Gujarat, Maharashtra and 3. Southern zone (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Madhya Pradesh) and Nadu and Karnataka).
• India has the largest area under cotton cultiva- • India exports inferior quality cotton mainly to
tion in the world. U.K., where it is mixed with superior quality cot-
• But in production it is world's third largest ton there.
producer after China and the U.S.A. • India has been a big importer of superior
quality long staple cotton mainly from the
USA, Russia, Sudan and Kenya.
1 Gujarat 2.6 (21.1%) 12.6 (36.2%) 0.8
2 Maharashtra 4.2 (33.9%) 6.6 (18.8%) 0.3
3 Telangana 1.9 (15.3%) 4.8 (13.6%) 0.4
4 Andhra Pradesh 0.6 (5.2%) 2 (5.8%) 0.5
5 Rajasthan 0.6 (4.7%) 1.9 (5.4%) 0.6
State Factors
Gujarat • Regur – black cotton soil
• 80-100 cm annual rainfall
Maharashtra • Regur – deep black cotton soil
• suffers from low productivity
Andhra Pradesh & Telangana • Conditions not as favourable as in Gujarat and Maharashtra
Bt Cotton • Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that
can be spun into coarse, strong threads.
• Maharashtra has the largest area under Bt cot- • Jute fibres are composed primarily of the plant
ton, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and materials cellulose and lignin.
Madhya Pradesh. • Jute is also called the golden fibre for its colour
• In North, Punjab and Haryana are known for Bt and high cash value.
cotton cultivation. • Jute is used for manufacturing gunny bags,
• Bt stands for the bacterium Bacillus thurin- ropes, rugs, tarpaulins, etc.
giensis (not biotechnology). • There was great demand for jute because of its
• Bacillus thuringiensis produces a toxin called low price, softness and strength.
bt toxin which is detrimental for certain kind of • The introduction of synthetic alternatives has
pest (bollworms) that infects cotton crop. resulted in decline of demand for jute.
• This trait of Bacillus thuringiensis is induced into
cotton by genetic modification. Jute Crop
• And the genetically modified cotton that has
the ability to produce bt toxin is called as bt • Jute is the second most important fibre crop
cotton. of India after cotton.
• The Bt cotton was first tested in U.S.A. and it to • Jute is a rain-fed crop with little need for fer-
cultivation there in 1995. tilizer or pesticides.
• China (1997) and India (2002) also followed the • This is in contrast to cotton's heavy fertilizer
cultivation of Bt cotton. and pesticides requirements.
• The initial field trials were encouraging as the
Ideal Conditions for Jute Cultivation
crop required less pesticides and insecticides.
The production and the area under cotton also
• Hot (24 °C to 35 °C) and humid climate (mini-
increased considerably.
mum rainfall of 120 cm/year) with 80 per cent
• But with time yields decreased sharply due to
relative humidity.
other pest population which could not be con-
• Highly fertile alluvial soil (light sandy or clayey
trolled by bt cotton. (Bt toxin controls only
soils).
bollworm. Cotton attracts more than 100 dif-
• Plenty of standing water is required for growth
ferent species of pests).
and processing of jute crop.
• Other concern with Bt cotton is that the boll-
worm may develop resistance like it happened Cropping season
in China.
1.5.2 Jute
• Sowing and raising of saplings are carried out in • India lost large jute growing areas to East Paki-
the pre-monsoon season so as to take full ad- stan (Bangladesh) during partition.
vantage of the monsoon season. • There had been rapid increase in area, produc-
• Jute is generally sown in February and harvest- tion and yield between 1950 to 1980.
ed in October (crop takes 8-10 months to ma- • Negative trends were observed in area, produc-
ture). tion and yield from 1981 till present.
• The plants are usually harvested (stalks are cut • This is due to changes in weather conditions,
off close to the ground) before flowers turn into increase in rice cropped area and introduction
seed. of synthetic alternatives (polythene, nylon,
etc.) to jute etc.
Processing of Jute • India is the world's largest producer of jute.
• Currently India accounts for about 56% of
• The plants bundles are soaked in water for
world’s jute production.
about 3 weeks for retting.
• Bangladesh is second largest with 25% of
• Retting is done to loosen the fibre from the
world’s jute production.
woody stalk.
• Over 99 per cent of the total jute of India is
• Stripping of the fibres from the stalk is done
produced in just five states of West Bengal, Bi-
after retting.
har, Assam (Brahmaputra & Surma valleys),
• Extracted fibres are washed in clean water and
Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.
dried for 2-3 days.
• West Bengal (close to 75%), Bihar (close to
• The bailing of jute fibre (jute fibre to jute bun-
15%) and Assam are the leading jute producers.
dle) is done.
• Andhra Pradesh (delta area) and Odisha are
other important producers.
Production

State Area (Mha) Production (MT)
1 West Bengal 0.5 (71.6%) 1.6 (75.4%) • hot and humid climate; alluvial loamy soil
2 Bihar 0.1 (12.2%) 1.5 (14.3%) • cheap abundant labour
3 Assam 0.1 (10.8%) 0.8 (8.3%) • enough jute mills located in the Hugli basin
4 Andhra Pradesh 0 (0.7%) 0.1 (0.5%) • a few jute mills are also located in AP
5 Odisha 0 (0.9%) 0 (0.4%)
All India 0.7 Mha 10.1 MT
Why is jute crop confined to the flood plains population density and most of the population
and delta regions of India and Bangladesh? is poor.
1. Just like cotton, jute also exhausts the fertility Jute industry
of soil rapidly. It is necessary that the soil is re-
plenished annually by the silt-laden flood water • After partition, most of the jute producing areas
of the rivers. went to Bangladesh.
2. Crop takes 8-10 months to mature and requires • However, most of the jute mills remained in
plenty of water for growth and processing. India.
3. Large supply of cheap labour is necessary. Del- • West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh are the two
ta regions of the subcontinent have very high largest jute goods producers.
• At present, a total of 75 jute mills are function- 2. Jute industry has over 3.7 lakh workers. Re-
ing in India. placing jute bags with synthetic bags would
• 60 of these are located in West Bengal and 7 in mean loss of employment for lakhs of work-
Andhra Pradesh. ers and farmers.
• Though the largest producer, India imports 3. There is no better alternative to jute crop in se-
significant quantities of jute fibre from verely flood prone regions.
Bangladesh as the local produce is not suffi-
cient to feed the jute mills. 1.5.3 Sugarcane
• India exports jute hessian to Bangladesh.
• It has the largest value of production among all
Schemes to support jute industry the commercial crops in India.
• It is the first choice of the farmers wherever
• National Jute Board (Ministry of Textiles) has geographical conditions favour its growth.
been implementing schemes for modernization • Sugarcane is indigenous to India. It belongs to
of jute industry. bamboo family.
• The Incentive Scheme for Acquisition of Plant & • Thickened sugarcane juice is used to make sug-
Machinery (ISAPM) scheme has been launched ar, gur (jaggery) and khandsari.
in 2013 with an incentive @20% of the cost of
machineries to Jute mills.
• Whenever the market price of raw jute falls be-
low a certain level, the Jute Corporation of India
(JCI) procures raw jute at Minimum Support
Price (MSP).
Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA)
• Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA), 1987

makes it compulsory to pack 100 per cent of
the food grains and 20 per cent of the sugar
in diversified jute (gunny) bags. • Two-thirds of the total sugarcane produced in
• Sugar industry has been vehemently opposing India is used for making jaggery and khandsari
the JPMA act as sugar as a commodity is un- and the rest goes to sugar factories.
suitable for packaging in jute bags due to issues • Molasses, bagasse and pressmud are the by-
like moisture contact and contamination by jute products of sugar industry.
fibres.
• Cement and fertilisers were initially included in
the JPMA but were later excluded due to seep-
age problems.
• Bangladesh has no compulsion to pack sugar in
jute bags. This makes their sugar industry com-
petitive compared to India.
• Molasses provides raw material for manufactur-
Why make it compulsory? ing alcohol (ethanol).
• It is also an efficient substitute for certain petro-
1. Gunny bags now account for about 63% of raw
leum products.
jute consumption.
• Bagasse (cane residue) is used for manufactur- • Flat plain or level plateau is an advantage for
ing paper and also as fuel in the mills. sugarcane cultivation (facilitates irrigation and
• Bagasse is more useful if it is used in paper transportation of cane to the sugar mills).
manufacturing rather than as fuel. (it can help
to save trees; as fuel, it is very inefficient) Labour
• Pressmud is used as soil amendment (compost)
• Cheap abundant labour is a prerequisite for
to increase fertility of the soil.
successful cultivation of sugarcane.
Sugar Crops
Climate
• Sugarcane and sugar beet.
• Sugarcane is predominantly a tropical crop. Sugarcane
• Requires hot (21°-27°C) and humid (75-150 cm)
climate. By-products of Sugar Industry
 (Sugar beet (tuber crop) is the temperate al- • Molasses, bagasse and pressmud.
ternative for sugarcane) • Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation.
• It requires 10 to 18 months to mature depend- • Bagasse for paper making and fuel.
ing upon the geographical conditions. • Pressmud used as soil amendment.
• Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar con- • Trash (green leaf + dry foliage) — the waste is
tent & deficiency in rainfall produces fibrous used for cattle feed.
crop. Sugar beet
• Temperature above 20°C combined with open
sky in the second half of the crop season helps • Sugar beet is grown in temperate region.
in acquiring juice and its thickening. • It is a tuber crop (Tubers are enlarged structures
• Short cool dry winter season during ripening in some plant species used as storage organs
and harvesting is ideal. for nutrients - carrot, radish, potato are tuber
• Frost is detrimental to sugarcane. crops). Sugar is extracted from the tuber juice.
• It must be harvested before frost season in • Sugar content in sugar beet is quite low com-
northern parts where frost is a common phe- pared to that in sugarcane.
nomenon. • It is grown in temperate region where it can be
• On the other hand, hot dry winds like “Loo” are economical compared to sugar imports.
hostile to sugarcane. (Both frost and loo are
absent in South India. So south is ideal) With reference to the usefulness of the by-
• Coastal plains and western side of Western products of sugar industry, which of the follow-
Ghats are generally avoided as the gusty winds ing statements is/are correct?
(monsoon winds) damage the crop.
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for the
Soil generation of energy.
2. Molasses can be used as one of the feed-
• Sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can stocks for the production of synthetic chem-
retain moisture. ical fertilizers.
• Sugarcane exhausts the fertility of the soil. 3. Molasses can be used for the production of
ethanol.
Select the correct answer using the codes given be- c) 1 and 3 only
low. d) 1, 2 and 3
a) 1 only Ethanol is alcohol.
b) 2 and 3 only Answer: c) 1 and 3 only
Sugarcane Crop Area
• Three distinct belts of sugarcane cultivation can be identified in India.

1. Sutlej-Ganga plain from • Low yield
Punjab to Bihar • High summer temperatures ranging from 30° to 35°C leads to low
growth and fibrous crop.
• Loo (dry scorching wind in May and June with a desiccating effect) ham-
pers the normal growth of the cane.
• In winter months (December and January) the crop is likely to be dam-
aged by severe cold and frost.
• Crushing cannot be done in winter. (only 8 month crushing season. Fac-
tories remain idle for 4 winter months)
2. Black soil belt from Maha- • High Productivity
rashtra to Tamil Nadu • No winds like ‘loo’ during the summer.
along the eastern slopes of • Reasonably high temperature during winter.
the Western Ghats (to pro- • Frost free climate throughout the year.
tect from high speed • Yearlong crushing. (factories keep running throughout the year)
monsoon winds).
3. Coastal Andhra and the • Maritime winds in the coastal areas moderate climate and lead to better
Krishna Valley sugar content + all points of (2)
Production • Sugarcane Research Institute, Coimbatore
introduced the system of ratooning to reduce
• India has the largest area under sugarcane cul- the costs of sugarcane cultivation.
tivation in the world. • Ratoon crop is the second or any other succes-
• But in production India lags behind Brazil – sive crop obtained from the roots left over in
world's largest producer of sugarcane. the field from the first crop. (Prelims point)
• Productivity is quite low compared to Colum- • In this system the sugarcane is cut leaving the
bia, Peru, Indonesia, Egypt, etc. root intact in the soil. This is widely practiced in
• Shortages of fertilizers, improper and untimely different parts of the country.
us of fertilizers, uncertain weather conditions, • Advantage of ratooning: Low cost of produc-
inadequate irrigation, poor varieties of cane, tion, relatively shorter maturation period, low
small and fragmented holdings and backward cost inputs and time is saved as there is no
methods of cultivation are some of the major need for fresh sowing and growing of roots.
causes of low yields in India (This is common for • However, productivity decreases with each
rice and sugarcane). passing year and ratooning becomes uncom-
mercial after one or two years.
1 Uttar Pradesh 2.2 (47.2%) 177.1 (47%) 79.3
2 Maharashtra 0.9 (19.1%) 83.1 (22.1%) 92.2
3 Karnataka 0.4 (7.4%) 28.3 (7.5%) 80.8
4 Tamil Nadu 0.2 (3.8%) 16.5 (4.4%) 92.0
5 Bihar 0.2 (5%) 14 (3.7%) 59.2
• Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Utta- previously non-existent in most parts of the
rakhand, Madhya Pradesh and Telangana are south.
the other major producers. • In the southern states, sugarcane had to face
tough competition for land from a number of
South India offers more favourable climatic other cash crops such as cotton, tobacco,
conditions for the growth of sugarcane, but the groundnut, coconut, etc.
most important sugarcane belt lies in north In-
dia. What is the reason for this paradoxical situ- Do you agree that there is a growing trend of
ation? opening new sugar mills in southern states of
India? Discuss with justification (5 marks) (100
• Before the World War I, the northern plain area words) (2013 GS1)
was mainly used for growing indigo.
• With the introduction of cheap aniline dyes, in- More sugarcane cultivation = More sugar mills.
digo lost its market by the time of WW I. • Most favourable weather conditions (loo and
• Consequently, indigo’s place was taken by sug- frost absent).
arcane cultivation in the north. • Development of extensive irrigational facilities
in the past few decades.
Other factors
• Yearlong crushing season. (In north, winter =
• Sugarcane needs good irrigational facilities very cold = There is no Crushing period in win-
throughout the year. Such facilities were availa- ter)
ble in the north due to perennial river systems. • High maritime influence = moderate climate =
• On the other hand, south has only non- doesn’t reduce sugar content (very high tem-
perennial rivers. Also, irrigational facilities were perature and low rainfall leads to fibrous crop).
Uttar Pradesh • Vast alluvial plains
• Large scale use of irrigation and fertilizers
• Suitable climate (but not as suitable as south Indian climate)
• There is no Crushing period in winter.
Maharashtra • Superior sugar recovery due to year round crushing period.
• Yields are high compared to that in UP.
Karnataka • Most of the sugarcane is grown with the help of irrigation.
TN • High productivity (coastal region).
Andhra Pradesh • Coastal areas having fertile soil.
• Bihar, Gujarat (its recovery of 10.31 per cent of • However, parts of Haridwar, Nainital and Dehra
sugar is one of the highest among the major Dun districts are plain areas or areas located at
sugar cane producing states of India), Haryana, the foothills), Punjab (wheat took over the sug-
Uttarakhand (mostly hilly and mountainous – arcane regions) are other important producers.
not much suitable.
1.5.4 Tobacco • As a result, it can be grown in many agro cli-
matic regions of India.
• Tobacco was brought to India by the Portu- • Tobacco needs fairly well distributed rainfall
guese in 1508. with an annual average of about 100 cm.
• Tobacco is mainly used for smoking and also for • It can be grown from low lying plains up to a
manufacturing insecticides. height of 1,800 meters.
• Returns from this crop are high. • Frost is injurious to its growth.
• Bright rainless weather is helpful at the curing
Conditions for Growth stage.
Climate Soil
• Tobacco is a plant of tropical and sub-tropical • For tobacco, soil is the most important geo-
climates. graphical distribution factor rather than the
• It can withstand a wide range of temperature climate.
varying from 16° to 35°C.
• Well drained friable sandy loams are ideal for • Cheap and abundant labour is required at all
cultivation. stages of its cultivation.
• Soils should be rich in mineral salts (facilitate
full development of roots) but not in organic Types of Tobacco
matter.
• Mainly two types of tobacco are grown in India.
Labour 1. Nicotiana Tobacum
2. Nicotiana Rustica
Nicotiana Tobacum Nicotiana Rustica
✓ Tropical climate is ideal ✓ Needs relatively cool climate
✓ Widely grown in many regions of India ✓ Mainly grown in northern and north-eastern parts
of the country
✓ Tall and has long broad leaves ✓ Comparatively shorter and has round and puck-
ered (contract into wrinkles) leaves
✓ Good quality ✓ Low quality compared to Nicotiana Tobacum
✓ Used for cigarette, hookah etc. ✓ Used for chewing and snuff
✓ 90 per cent of the total tobacco production in In- ✓ 10 per cent of the total production
dia
Production
• India is the third largest tobacco producing country after China and Brazil.
• India is followed by USA, Malawi, Indonesia and Argentina.
State Area – Thousand Hectares Production (Thou- Yield – tonnes/hectare
sand Tonnes)
1 Gujarat 167 (41.8%) 375 (46.6%) 2.2
2 Andhra Pradesh 78 (19.5%) 177 (22%) 2.3
3 Uttar Pradesh 27 (6.8%) 119 (14.8%) 4.4
4 Karnataka 90 (22.5%) 65 (8.1%) 0.7
5 West Bengal 15.7 (3.9%) 26.7 (3.3%) 1.7
6 Telangana 7 (1.8%) 19 (2.4%) 2.7
All India 399.6 THa 805.5 TT 2.0
Gujarat 90 per cent of Gujarat's tobacco comes from Kheda and Vadodara districts.
Andhra Pradesh Yield is higher than the yield of Gujarat and much lower than that of Uttar Pradesh
• Uttar Pradesh gives the highest yield – more than two times the national average.
Trade
• Brazil and USA are the leading producers and • Russia and U.K. purchase about two-third of our
exporters of tobacco. total tobacco exports.
• Only 20 per cent of the total production of India • About 90 per cent of the tobacco export trade
is traded externally. is handled by Chennai alone.
• Bulk of India's tobacco export consists of un-
manufactured tobacco.
1.6 Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in • The production of oilseeds has always fallen
short of our demand and India has always been
India a net importer of oilseeds.
• There is a very little scope for bringing addi-
• Major oilseeds include groundnut, linseed,
tional area under oilseeds. Increasing productiv-
sesamum, castor seed, rapeseed, mustard, sun-
ity is the only way to meet the domestic de-
flower and soyabean.
mand.
• Oil extracted from oilseeds is used in diet and
• Drylands of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Ma-
as raw material for manufacturing paints, var-
harashtra & Gujarat are the main producers of
nishes, hydrogenated oil, soaps, etc.
major oilseeds accounting for over two-third of
• Oil-cake which is the residue of oilseeds forms
the area and three-fourths of the production.
an important cattle-feed and manure.
• Other producers include Andhra Pradesh, UP,
• India has the largest area (18-20 % of the net
Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (gives maxi-
sown area) and production of oilseeds in the
mum yield in oil seeds) West Bengal, Odisha,
world.
Assam, etc.
• There had been a gradual increase in area, pro-
duction and yield of oilseeds, with the passage
of time.
Major oilseeds producing states Area – Million Hectares Production (MT)
1 Madhya Pradesh 6.6 (27%) 7 (22.2%)
2 Rajasthan 4.1 (16.7%) 6 (19.1%)
3 Gujarat 2.8 (11.2%) 5.9 (18.7%)
4 Maharashtra 4.2 (17.1%) 4.3 (13.6%)
5 Uttar Pradesh 1.1 (4.4%) 1.2 (3.7%)
All India 24.7 Mha 31.3 MT
• West Bengal, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Telangana are the other major produc-
ers of pulses.
1.6.1 Groundnut
• Groundnut is the most important oilseed of In-

• It is a tropical crop that requires 20°-30°C tem-
dia.
perature and 50-75 cm rainfall.
• It accounts for nearly half of the major oilseeds
• Isohyet of 100 cm marks the upper limit for
produced in India.
groundnut cultivation.
• Groundnut kernels are rich in proteins and vit-
• It is largely a rainfed kharif crop of drylands.
amins and have high calorific value.
• But in southern India, it is cultivated during
• It contains 40-50% oil which is used as edible
rabi season as well.
oil or hydrogenated vanaspati.
• It is highly susceptible to frost, prolonged
• The oil is used for manufacturing margarine,
drought, continuous rain & stagnant water.
medical emulsions, soap etc.
• Dry winter is needed at the time of ripening.
• Its oil cake is used as an important rich cattle
• Well drained sandy loams, red, yellow and
feed.
black cotton soils are well suited.
• It is often a rotation crop because of its atmos-
pheric nitrogen fixing abilities. Production and Distribution
• Yield of groundnut is comparatively high in • Groundnut is a rainfed crop and fluctuations in
Tamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated. its production is usual.
• But its yield is low in Andhra Pradesh and Kar- • Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Raja-
nataka. sthan are the four main producers.
• India (17.4%) is the second largest producer of • These four states together account for over 70%
groundnut behind China (40%). of total production of India.
• Unlike rice and wheat, there is no fixed crop-
ping area for groundnut.
1 Gujarat 1.7 (34.2%) 3.9 (42.9%) 2.3
2 Rajasthan 0.6 (13%) 1.3 (13.7%) 2.0
3 Andhra Pradesh 0.7 (15%) 1 (11.3%) 1.4
4 Tamil Nadu 0.3 (6.8%) 1 (10.6%) 2.9
5 Karnataka 0.6 (12.5%) 0.6 (6.1%) 0.9
• India's exports have drastically fallen due increased domestic consumption.
1.6.2 Sesamum
• The oil content of rapeseed and mustard is 25-

45%.
• Sesamum contains 45 to 50 per cent oil. • It is used for cooking, as preservative for pickles
• Sesamum oil is used for cooking and for manu- and lubricants.
facturing perfumery and medicines.
• They are mainly grown as rabi crop in pure or
• India accounts for one-third of the world pro- mixed form with wheat, gram and barley.
duction and is the largest producer. • Like wheat and gram, they thrive only in cool
• Since it is a rainfed kharif crop the production climate of the Sutlej-Ganga plain.
fluctuates greatly with time. • Very small quantity is grown in the peninsular
• Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop India.
in south India. • Rajasthan (40%), Haryana (13.3%) and Madhya
• Sesamum is produced in almost all parts of the Pradesh are the leading producers.
country.
• West Bengal is the largest producing state 1.6.4 Linseed
(one-third of the total production of India).
• The other major producers are Gujarat, Raja- • Linseed has 35 to 47 per cent oil content.
sthan, Maharashtra, etc. • Linseed oil has a unique drying property and is
used for manufacturing paints, varnishes, print-
1.6.3 Rapeseed and mustard ing ink, oilcloth, and water-proof fabrics.
• Soyabean is mostly grown in Madhya Pradesh
and Maharashtra.
• These two states together produce about 90
per cent of total output of soyabean in the
country.
• Sunflower cultivation is concentrated in Karna-
taka, Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas of
Conditions for Growth Maharashtra.
• It is a minor crop in northern parts of the coun-
• It is a rabi crop. try where its yield is high due to irrigation.
• This crop can be grown under varied geograph-
ical conditions. 1.6.6 India’s edible oil industry
• But it prefers cool (20°C) and moist climate (75
cm). • Indians used broadly these edible oils
• It can be cultivated up to a height of 800 meters 1. ‘vegetable’ oils obtained from crushing local
above sea level. oilseeds
• Madhya Pradesh, Bihar (2nd), Uttar Pradesh, ➢ mustard in northern and eastern
Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra are the main India;
producers. ➢ groundnut in Gujarat, Maharash-
tra, Karnataka and Andhra Pra-
Castor seed desh;
➢ sesame and groundnut in Tamil
Nadu; and
➢ coconut in Kerala
2. ‘animal’ fat – ghee from milk.
3. dalda – hydrogenated vegetable oil.
➢ hydrogenation — adding hydrogen
to convert “unsaturated” liquid fats
• Castor seed contains 50 per cent oil.
into “saturated” solid fats.
• The oil is used as hair oil, for lighting, manufac-
➢ hydrogenation is done to harden or
turing soap, leather tanning etc.
raise the melting point of the oil.
• Oil-cake is used as manure and leaves of the
➢ Just as ghee, dalda has higher melt-
plant are fed to silkworms.
ing and smoke point (at which the
Conditions for Growth molecules start breaking down).
➢ Advantages of dalda: Good shelf life
• It is a rainfed kharif crop in the north and a of foods, quite cheap compared to
rabi crop in the south. edible oils.
• Gujarat, Rajasthan and Telangana are the main ➢ Disadvantages of dalda: saturated
producers. fats are very bad for health
(http://www.pmfias.com/fats-lipids-
1.6.5 Soyabean and sunflower fatty-acids-healthy-fats-unhealthy-
fats/).
• Soyabean and sunflower are other important
oilseeds grown in India.
• Oil seeds = Yellow Revolution (National Dairy All port cities. Why?
Development Board (NDDB) played an im- 1) Easy to import oil – the main reason,
portant role). 2) Refining and discarding the waste reduces
transportation cost
In 1970s • The future for indigenous production lies only
in
• Groundnut accounted for almost 60 per cent of
1) mustard (because of its high oil content),
India’s edible oil consumption.
2) cotton-seed (thanks to the Bt revolution)
• Groundnut was followed by mustard, cotton-
and
seed, coconut, sesame, etc. (industry was based
3) rice bran (extensive rice cultivation).
totally on domestically produced oilseeds).
Edible oil consumption
Present
• India is the world’s second largest consumer of
• Groundnut oil’s share declined – hardly 1 per
edible oil next to China.
cent
• Mustard’s share declined to 10 per cent.
• Palm, soyabean and sunflower dominate (in-
dustry shifted towards imported oilseeds and
oil).
1. palm oil (45 per cent)
2. soyabean (20 per cent)
3. sunflower (rest).
Palm oil
• Most of it is used predominantly by the food

industry. Why? Because it’s cheap and suits all
types of frying.
• Vanaspati manufacturing, too, is now entirely
Imported Oil based on palm oil.
• Being cheap also makes palm oil ideally suited
• Virtually the whole of the country’s palm oil for adulterating other oils (palm oil is a neutral
consumption is imported. oil, with no aroma of its own and can easily
• Sunflower (92 per cent) and soyabean (71 per mingle with other oils).
cent) are also imported.
• Solvent extraction is replaced by refineries im- 1.7 Plantation Crops in India
porting crude palm, soyabean oil etc.
• Most of the refineries are located at Mundra, • Plantation crops are those crops which are
Kandla, Mangalore, Chennai, Krishnapatnam, grown on plantations covering large estates.
Paradip and Haldia.
• They take 3-5 years to bear returns after they • Frequent showers evenly distributed over the
are sown. year ensure continuous growth of tender
• They continue to bear returns for the next 35-40 leaves.
years after the first harvest. • High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog
• They cover small area in India but are of high favour rapid development of young leaves.
economic value. • Temperatures above 35°C and below 10°C are
• Tea, coffee (beverage crops) & rubber are the harmful for the bush.
principal plantation crops. • Alternate waves of warm and cool winds are
• Spices, palm plantations and coconut planta- very helpful for tea leaves.
tions are the other important ones. • Tea is a shade-loving plant and develops more
vigorously under shade.
1.7.1 Tea • Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free
climate all through the year.
• Tea is the dried leaf of a bush. It contains caf-
feine, tannin and theine (stimulants). Soil
• Tea bush is indigenous to China. It was intro-
duced the British in India in 1840. • Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, fria-
• The first commercial tea plantations were set up ble loams.
in the Upper Assam (upper Brahmaputra val- • Virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron con-
ley). tent are considered to be the best.
• Lower Assam and Darjeeling were also opened • Relatively large proportion of phosphorus and
up to tea plantations few years later. potash in the soil gives special flavour to tea as
• Later on, tea plantations were set up in Nilgiri is the case in Darjeeling.
Hills of South India, Terai along the foothills • Stagnant water or waterlogging is injurious
of the Himalayas and in some places in Hima- to its roots. It is, therefore, grown on hill
chal Pradesh. slopes.
• However, it grows equally well in the valleys if
Conditions for Growth the drainage is good.
• Climate and soil drainage are the determining Labour

factors for tea cultivation.
• Tea is a labour-intensive industry. It requires
• The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-
abundant, cheap and skilled labour at every
tropical climates endowed undulating topog-
stage.
raphy of hilly areas with deep and fertile
• It is one of the largest employers of women
well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic
among the organized industries of India.
matter.
• Tea is processed within the tea garden to re-
Climate store its freshness.
• Pruning (trim by cutting away dead or over-
• Yield and the quality of tea are greatly influ- grown branches) of the plant is an essential part
enced by the climatic conditions. of tea cultivation. It helps in maintaining the
• It thrives well in hot (20°-30°C) and humid cli- proper shape and height of tea bush.
mate (150-300 cm). • The aim of pruning is to have new shoots bear-
ing soft leaves and to facilitate the plucking of
leaves by women labourers from the ground.
• Black tea leaves are fermented whereas green • The Brahmaputra Valley extending from Sadiya
tea leaves are unfermented. to Goalpara comprises the main tea producing
belt.
Production and distribution • It accounts for 44 per cent of India's tea.
• Tea estates are located on the raised grounds
• Tea plantations in India are found at elevations
(upto 450 meters) so that annual inundations
ranging from 600 to 1,800 meters above sea
and stagnant water during the rainy season do
level.
not harm the crop.
• India is the second largest producer of tea in
the world, next to China. Surma Valley
• In terms of volume China produces approxi-
• Surma Valley lying in Cachar district produces
mately 35 percent of the world’s tea, followed
about 5 per cent of country's tea.
by India (21 percent), Kenya, Sri Lanka, and
• The climates here is not as favourable as in the
Turkey.
Brahmaputra valley.
• Tea cultivation in India is highly concentrated in
• The tea gardens are scattered over small
a few selected pockets.
mounds or well drained flats along the Brahma-
North-Eastern India putra river and its tributaries.
• Here the rainfall is 300-400 cm and no month is
• It is more or less a triangular area mainly in As- completely dry.
sam and West Bengal.
• This is the most important tea producing region West Bengal
of India.
• West Bengal (23%) is the second largest pro-
• About three-fourth production of India’s tea
ducer.
comes from here.
• Entire tea of WB is produced in Darjeeling,
• Tea plantations are small in number but fairly
Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar.
large in size.
• These districts are contiguous to the main tea
• Some tea gardens are also found in Tripura,
producing belt of Assam.
Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur.
Darjeeling district
Assam
• Darjeeling tea is the most valued tea because of
• Assam (51%) is the largest producer of tea in its special aroma.
India. • Annual rainfall of 300 cm, moderate tempera-
Brahmaputra Valley ture, soils rich in potash and phosphorous
give a special flavour.
• The area provides the most ideal conditions for • But the yields are quite low compared to other
tea cultivation. tea producing areas in the NE.
✓ Summer temperature of 30°C and winter • Tea estates are found within 900-1,800 m eleva-
temperature never falling below 10°C. tion.
✓ Frost free weather throughout the year. • The temperature beyond 1,800 m elevation is
✓ 300-400 cm annual rainfall extended over 9 low and does not support tea cultivation.
months.
South India
• Nilgiri, Cardamom, Palani and Anaimalai hills • 90 per cent of the tea bushes are in the age
in TN, Kerala and Karnataka extending from 9°N group of 40-50 years and are not capable of
to 14°N latitudes are the important tea produc- giving high yields.
ing areas. • Kolkata is the chief port of tea export from In-
• This region accounts for 25% production and dia.
about 44% of area under tea in India. • The other major ports through which tea is ex-
• Tea gardens are located on the hill slopes of the ported are Chennai, Mangalore and Kochi.
Western Ghats between 300 and 1,800 m alti-
tude. 1.7.2 Coffee
• The tea estates are quite large in number but
quite small in size. • Coffee is the next important beverage crop after
• The temperatures are uniformly high and the tea.
annual rainfall exceeds 400 cm. • It is a tropical plantation crop.
• There is no fear of frost in south India and • There are three varieties of coffee i.e. arabica,
weather conditions are quite congenial. robusta and liberica.
• Therefore, the productivity is higher, although • Coffee Arabica (49%) and Coffee Robusta
the quality of tea is inferior. (51%) are the two main varieties grown in India.
• In South India, Tamil Nadu is the largest pro- • Superior quality coffee, arabica, is in great de-
ducer of tea. mand in International market.
• Kerala is another important producer. Some tea
is produced in Hassan and Chikmaglur districts Conditions for Growth
of Karnataka.
• Coffee plant requires hot (15°C and 28°C) and
• Karnataka has the distinction of giving the
humid climate (150 to 250 cm).
highest yield of over 25 quintals per hectare.
• It does not tolerate frost, prolonged
North West India drought, high temperature (>30°C) and
strong sunshine.
• Some of tea is produced in Dehra Dun, Almora • Like tea, it is also generally grown under shady
and Garhwal districts of Uttarakhand and in trees.
Kangra Valley and Mandi district of Himachal • Stagnant water is harmful. So, this crop is grown
Pradesh. on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600
• Green tea is produced in Kangra valley of Hi- meters above sea level.
machal Pradesh. • Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are
• Tea in small quantity is also produced in Ranchi preferred as they are less exposed to strong af-
and Hazaribagh districts of Chota Nagpur plat- ternoon sun and the south-west monsoon
eau in Jharkhand. winds.
• Well drained, rich friable loams rich in humus
Trade and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for
coffee cultivation.
• China, Sri Lanka, Kenya and India are the larg- • Coffee cultivation requires plenty of cheap and
est tea exporters. skilled labour.
• Russia, U.K., the USA, are major importers of
Indian tea. Production and Distribution
• India’s exports are falling due to increasing do-
mestic consumption and competition.
• Coffee is indigenous to Abyssinia Plateau (Ethi- • Kodagu and Chikmagalur account for over 80%
opia). of the state's total output.
• Initially its cultivation was introduced on the • Most of the coffee plantations in Kerala are at
Baba Budan Hills and even today its cultivation an altitude of 1,200 m where annual rainfall is
is confined to the Nilgiri highlands in Karna- over 200 cm.
taka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. • About half of Tamil Nadu's coffee is produced
• Almost the entire production is shared by three in Nilgiri district.
states namely Karnataka (71%), Kerala (22%) • India is the seventh largest producer of coffee.
and Tamil Nadu (6.5%). • Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia (15%) and Indonesia
• In Karnataka, plantations are about 1,370 me- (7%) are the important producers.
ters above sea level where rainfall is 125-150
cm.
Trade • Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia and India

are the leading exporters of coffee.
• India exports coffee to a large number of coun- • It is mainly grown in Kerala (90%), Tamil Nadu,
tries including U.K., the U.S.A., Russia, Australia, Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Tripu-
Iraq and a large number of countries of conti- ra and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
nental Europe. • India lags behind Thailand, Indonesia and Vi-
etnam in natural rubber production.
1.7.3 Rubber • Small holdings account for 88 per cent of area
and production of rubber in India.
• It is an equatorial crop, but under special condi- • The average productivity realized by small
tions, it is also grown in tropical and sub- holders is much higher than that produced by
tropical areas. the large estates.
• Rubber is obtained from the latex of Hevea
brasiliensis and many other tropical trees. 1.7.4 Arecanut
• Hevea brasiliensis is a quick growing tall tree
(20-30 meter height). • Arecanut is used for chewing with betel leaves
• It begins to yield latex in 5-7 years after plant- and in pan masala (supari).
ing. • Areca stem is used for construction purposes
• It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall and leaves for thatching.
of more than 200 cm and temperature above • It is a tropical tree which, on maturity, attains a
25°C. height of 20-25 meters.
• Rubber is an important industrial raw material. • It flourishes well in warm (15° to 35°C) and
Most to the rubber produced goes into auto- humid climates (200-300 cm).
mobile tyre making. • It grows on a variety of soils ranging from well-
drained laterite, red loamy to alluvial soils.
Conditions for Growth • Its cultivation can be done from sea level to
1,000 meters.
• Hevea brasiliensis requires hot (25°-35°C) and
• India is the largest producer of arecanut in the
humid climate (200 cm).
world.
• The rainfall should be well distributed
• Major states cultivating this crop are Karnataka
throughout the year.
(40%), Kerala (25%), Assam (20%), Tamil Nadu,
• Deep well drained loamy soils are best suited
Meghalaya and West Bengal.
for rubber plantations.
• Most of the arecanut is consumed within south
• Suitable soil and climatic conditions occur on
Indian states and only a small quantity is ex-
the hill slopes at elevations ranging from 300
ported mainly to Nepal, UAR, Pakistan, Saudi
to 450 meters above sea level.
Arabia etc.
• The yields decline at higher elevations due to
fall in temperature and less mature soils. 1.7.5 Coconut
• Practically no rubber plantations are found
above 700 m elevation. • Coconut is a perennial crop.
• It has a long period of economic life span of
more than 60 years.
• The first rubber plantations were set up in Kera- • It also has a long gestation period of 5-7 years.
la in1895. • Coconut is predominantly a tropical crop.
• It requires warm (25° to 30°C) and fairly moist
(125 to 130 cm) climate.
• India is the third largest coconut producing 1.8.2 Cardamom
country next to Indonesia and Philippines.
• It is predominantly grown under rainfed condi- • Cardamom – ‘queen of aromatic spices’ – is
tion in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka (12%) and mainly used for medicines.
Andhra Pradesh. • It grows well in hot (15°C-32°C) and humid
• Well drained rich loamy soils are best suited for (150-300 cm) climates.
its cultivation. • Well drained forest loams, red & laterite soils
• It grows well on sandy loams along sea-coasts with plenty of humus are ideal.
and in adjoining river valleys. • Tropical rain forests at an altitude of 800-1,600
meters above sea level provide the most con-
1.8 Spices genial environment for its growth.
• It is a shade loving plant and is grown under
• Pepper, cardamom, chillies, turmeric, ginger etc. shady trees.
are some of the important spices produced in • India produces a major part of the world's total
India. cardamom.
• Well drained sandy, clayey or red loams and • The entire production comes from three states
laterites are best suited soils for the cultivation viz., Kerala (53%), Karnataka (42%) and Tamil
of most of the spices mentioned above. Nadu.
• These soil conditions exist predominantly in the • In Kerala, the crop is largely concentrated in the
hilly regions of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Cardamom hills.
Nadu. • India stands second after Guatemala in export
• India is an exporter of spices. There has been a of cardamom.
constant increase in area and production of
spices in India. 1.8.3 Chillies
1.8.1 Pepper • Chilli requires temperatures ranging from 10° to

30°C and moderate annual rainfall of 60 to
• Black pepper, “the king of spices” is the most 125 cm.
important dollar earning spice. • Too scarce or too heavy rainfall is harmful.
• Warm (10°C-30°C) and humid (200-300 cm) • It can be grown on a wide variety of soils in-
climate is required for its cultivation. cluding black cotton soil, and different types of
• The plant grows as a vine and needs support of loamy soils.
other trees for its growth. • It can be grown upto elevations of 1,700 me-
• The plant can be grown on a variety of well tres.
drained soils. • Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are the largest
• It thrives well on deep, friable, well drained producers of chillies.
loamy soils.
• It can be grown from almost sea level to an alti- 1.8.4 Ginger
tude of 1,200 m.
• India is the second largest producer of pepper • It is grown in tropical and sub-tropical climates.
in the world after Vietnam. • It requires 10° to 25°C temperature and 125-
• Its distribution is highly concentrated in West- 250 cm rainfall.
ern Ghats of Kerala (94%), Karnataka and • Well drained sandy, clayey or red loams and
Tamil Nadu. laterites are best suited soils for its cultivation.
• It can be grown from sea level to an altitude of • Onion crop is sensitive to highly acidic, alkali
1,300 m above sea level. and saline soils and water logging condition.
• India (80%) is the largest producer of ginger in
the world. Cropping season of onion crop
• Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, etc. are the
• Onions can be grown all-round the year &
main producers.
farmers across the country take two to three
crops per year.
1.8.5 Turmeric
• The rabi crop (sown in October-November and
• Turmeric is native to tropical South-East Asia. harvested after April), can be stored for a longer
• India is an important producer of turmeric in period.
the world. • Kharif (sown between May and July and har-
• Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (more than vested in Oct-Dec) and late kharif (sown in Aug-
half) are the largest producers. Sep and harvested in January-March) are not
amenable for storage as they have higher
moisture content.
1.9 Horticulture
• Rabi onion has longer shelf life than the kha-
• India is the second largest producer of fruits rif onion and hence commands premium price.
and vegetables in the world after China.
Storage of onion
• Horticulture sector contributes about 25-30 per
cent of GDP from agriculture. • Onion, being high in water content, is a delicate
commodity to store.
1.9.1 Vegetables • Farmers store their produce in moisture-proof
and dust-proof structures to prevent the bulbs
• India and China are the most important vegeta- from sprouting.
ble producers in the world. • Depending on the price, farmers release their
• As most of the vegetables are perishable, they produce, enabling steady supply for retail mar-
are grown around areas where there is ready kets.
market.
• Cereals are preferred over vegetables cultiva- Major producers of onion in India
tion in regions with labour shortages.
• India is the second largest onion growing
Onion country in the world.
• Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya
• Onion can be grown in a wide range of climatic Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and
conditions such as temperate, tropical & sub- West Bengal account for almost 90 per cent of
tropical. onion production in the country.
• The best yield can be obtained in a mild • Maharashtra is the largest onion producing
weather without the extremes of cold, heat & state that contributes nearly 1/3rd of the coun-
excessive rainfall. try’s production.
• Onion can be grown in all types of soils. How- • India is currently witnessing a spike in retail on-
ever, the most suitable soils are deep alluvial ion due to tight supply.
soils with good drainage, moisture holding ca-
pacity and organic matter. Onion price volatility
• Sometimes, there is a huge gap in demand and undertake agriculture marketing reforms to fa-
supply due to vagaries of monsoons, poor stor- cilitate direct purchase from the farmer.
age facilities, stock hoarding, lack of real-time • To strategize a sustainable policy, the seasonal
crop data, etc. This leads to high volatility in on- price and arrival pattern of onion must be re-
ion prices. searched.
• A combination of factors has led to the increase • Government should undertake special cam-
in prices at end of 2019. paign to promote processed onion and increase
✓ The rabi crop has decreased due to drought investment in producing dehydrated variety of
in 2018 & delayed monsoon in 2019. onions which has a long shelf life and has ex-
✓ Incessant rainfall in various onion producing port potential.
states has delayed the kharif harvest season.
• To bring down the prices, the government had Potato
to resort to export ban.
• Potatoes are a major food crop throughout the
Long term measures suggested to prevent vola- world.
tility of onion prices • They are a rich source of carbohydrate and have
been an economical food choice for every
• Encouraging imports, not banning exports, is household.
the remedy to augment supplies. • Potato is a temperate crop grown under sub-
• Up to 40 per cent of the total produced onions tropical conditions in India.
can be damaged due to primitive storage facili- • Potatoes are used for several industrial purpos-
ties. es such as for the production of starch and al-
• The government has incurred losses due to 25% cohol.
wastage in the buffer stock created for the first • They are an essential ingredient in the food
time. processing industry.
• Hence, India must invest in scientific storage
and processing facilities and set up onion dehy- Conditions for growth and production
drating units.
• The potato can be grown almost on any type of
• India should explore low-cost technology mod-
soil except saline and alkaline soils.
els from countries like Israel and Brazil for stor-
• Soils, which are naturally loose, offer least re-
ing onion.
sistance to the enlargement of the tubers is pre-
• In Israel, onions are stored in open ventilated
ferred.
warehouses with continuous forced air-
• Loamy and sandy loam soils, rich in organic
ventilation.
matter with good drainage and aeration are
• In Brazil, low-cost ventilated silos system is be-
most suitable.
ing used at farm level.
• Nutrient requirement of potato crop is quite
• Adoption of such measures will help in storage
high and hence the application of fertilizers is
of onions during the bumper production sea-
essential.
sons.
• Irrigation done through drip system is most
• The government's Tomato Onion Potato (TOP)
economical giving highest productivity.
scheme announced in the 2018-19 Budget ex-
• Potatoes are grown almost in all states of India.
pected to address the problem of surplus in
• However, they are grown only under such con-
producing areas has not taken off.
ditions where the temperature during the grow-
• There is a need to remove onion from the pur-
ing seasons is moderately cool.
view of the Essential Commodities Act and
• Hence, potato is grown as a summer crop in • The top carrot producing states in India are
the hills and as a winter crop in the tropical Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya
and subtropical regions. Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris).
• The crop can be raised up to an altitude of 3000
m above the sea level. 1.9.2 Fruits and Nuts
• Top potato growing states are Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh Mango
and Punjab.
• Potato being a short duration and fast growing • Mango (known as ‘King of Fruits’) is the native
crop is an ideal for intercropping with other to the Indian monsoon lands.
crops. • More than half of the world’s mangoes are
produced in India. It is also the largest ex-
Tomato porter.
• Alfonso mango is an important export variety.
• Tomato plant is short lived perennial herb. • Mangoes are grown in areas with temperature
• Tomato can be grown on a wide range of soils from 20°C-30°C & rainfall 75-250 cm.
from sandy to heavy clay. • It can grow in almost all soils of India.
• However, well-drained, sandy or red loam soils • It is largely grown in groves near towns and vil-
rich in organic matter (slightly acidic) are ideal. lages where it has a ready market (highly per-
• The best fruit quality is obtained at a tempera- ishable fruit).
ture range of 21-24°C. • Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bi-
• Temperatures below 10°C adversely affect the har, West Bengal and Odisha are the main pro-
plant tissues. ducers.
• Temperatures above 32°C adversely affects the
fruit development. Apple
• The plants cannot withstand frost and high hu-
midity. • Apple is a temperate fruit crop.
• The crop requires a low to medium rainfall. • It requires sunny climate with gentle winds.
• As tomato is highly perishable, it is most often Partial sun reduces yields.
grown in the vicinity of the consuming areas. • It requires average temperature (~22°C) during
• The top tomato producing states are Maharash- the growing season.
tra, Bihar, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. • In the non-growing season, apple crop can
tolerate very low temperatures.
Carrot • Low temperature, rain, fog and cloudy weather
hampers growth at the time of maturity.
• Carrots are one of the rich sources of Vitamin A • Well distributed 100-125 cm rainfall throughout
• Carrot is a cool season crop (15°C to 20°C – the growing season is optimal.
temperate crop). • Apple orchard regions should be free from
• Very high or very low temperatures are detri- hailstorms and frost.
mental to the crop. • Well drained loamy soils rich in humus are
• Carrots can be grown in both hilly and plain re- most suitable for apple cultivation.
gions. • These soil and climatic conditions are found on
• The ideal soils for commercial carrot farming hill slopes at altitudes ranging from 1,500-2,700
are deep, loose, well drained soils rich in humus. m.
• The duration of carrot crop is around 3 months.
• In most areas’ apple orchards have replaced • But commercial production is viable only in
millet crops which are of low value. well-drained loamy soil. Alluvial soils of river
• The Kashmir Valley, Kullu and Shimla dis- valleys are ideal.
tricts in Himachal Pradesh and hilly areas of • Bananas prefer tropical humid lowlands with
Uttarakhand are important apple growing areas. slightly acid soil.
Banana Economic Importance
• Banana is a tropical and sub-tropical crop. • Banana cultivation is labour-intensive and

• Although cultivation is spread all over India, hence it is an important job creator in banana-
peninsular India provides ideal conditions for its exporting countries.
cultivation. • Banana is a very popular fruit in India due to its
• Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra account for low price and high nutritive value.
about half of total production. • Processed products, such as chips, banana pu-
• Other major producers are Karnataka, Gujarat, ree, jam, juice, wine and halwa can be made
Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Madhya Pradesh. from the fruit.
• Major producers in the world: India, Ecuador,
Brazil and China. Orange
• Major Exporters: Ecuador and Costa Rica are
• Orange is widely grown both in north and south
the leaders in banana exports.
India.
• India’s banana exports are negligible as all of
• Soil is the important factor for orange than
the fruit is consumed internally.
climate.
Suitable Climatic and Soil Conditions for banana • Well-drained sandy soils which permit root
cultivation penetration up to 2-4 meters are best suited for
orange cultivation.
• It requires average temperature (~25°C) • Most of orange orchards are rainfed.
throughout in growth period. • They are located at heights from 600 to 1,500
• Chilling injury occurs at temperature below 12 m.
°C. • Although orange is grown in almost all the
• The rainfall should be fairly above 150 cm. states, its cultivation is more prominently con-
• In India, four monsoon months with an average centrated in the hilly region of Uttarakhand.
65-75 cm rainfall are most important for vigor- • Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh, Darjeeling in
ous vegetative growth of banana. W. Bengal, Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya,
• Banana cultivation is not viable under high Kodagu district of Karnataka are the important
speed windy conditions. orange growing regions.
• Regions that block high speed winds (e.g. lee-
ward side of Western Ghats, leeward side of Grape
Brazilian Highlands, etc.) are ideal.
• Grape is a sub-tropical vine plant.
• Coconut trees and banana plantations are culti-
• It requires long summer and short winter.
vated on the same piece of land to protect ba-
• Moderately fertile well drained soil is required.
nana plantations from wind).
• Relatively low water supply during the growing
• Bananas can grow and fruit under poor soil
period is good for the crop.
conditions.
• Bright sunshine during maturity is essential.
• In northern India, it is grown in summer only. • It is mainly grown in Kashmir valley, Himachal
• In south India the plant grows throughout the Pradesh and Kumaon region of Uttarakhand.
year and gives two crops a year.
• Grapes can be grown anywhere in India. Strawberry
Cashew • Strawberry, almond and walnut are other im-

portant temperate fruits.
• Cashew kernel is used as a dry fruit. • The hilly areas of J & K., H.P. and Uttarakhand
• Cashew requires average temperature (16°C are the main producers.
and 25°C). • Strawberry fields are under semi-aquatic to
• It can grow in regions with a wide range of rain- aquatic conditions for at least three months.
fall (50 to 350 cm). • Nainital district is the largest producer of
• It is grown widely on the poor laterite soils on strawberry.
the west coast and on sandy soils on the east
coast.
• At present, India holds first position in the world
in the production of cashew.
• Coasts of Maharashtra (29.9%), Andhra Pradesh
(15.7%), Odisha, Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu are the major producers.
• India is the largest producer and second larg-
est exporter of cashew in the world.
Peach
• Peach is temperate fruit that is highly perisha-

ble (more than apple).
• The main areas of peach cultivation are in Hi-
machal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Kashmir Val-
ley.
Pear
• Pear is another temperate fruit, mainly grown

in Kashmir, Kumaon region of Uttarakhand and
Himachal Pradesh in the north and the Nilgiri
hills in the south.
• These areas offer suitable conditions of cold
winters, cool summers, moderate rainfall, high
percentage of cloudiness and mist.
Apricot
• Apricot is also a temperate fruit which requires

130 to 200 cm rainfall.

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1.

GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns

Websites: https://www.pmfias.com and https://store.pmfias.com

1. GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns ................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Major Food Crops of India ..................................................................................................................... 8

1.3 Pulses ..................................................................................................................................................... 19

1.4 Major Cash Crops of India ................................................................................................................... 20

1.5 Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in India ..................................................................................................... 31

1.6 Plantation Crops in India ..................................................................................................................... 34

1.7 Spices ..................................................................................................................................................... 40

1.8 Horticulture ........................................................................................................................................... 41

Important Points • Important points and sentences are bolded and

Economic Factors Size of Land Holdings

Irrigation • In the case of smallholdings, the priority of the

Free Power, Minimum Support Price (MSP) and Social factors

Value 1.2.2 Crop Classification

Demand and Supply

Classification based on the type of crop

Classification based on growing season

Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops Summer/Zaid crops

Classification based on the life of crops/duration of crops

• Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle

Crop season Sowing Harvesting

Two crop seasons (irrigation not available in summer)

Kharif crop (Rainy season) July-Aug Oct-Nov

Kharif crop July-Sep Nov

Conditions for Growth

Climate • Generally, cold climate is less favourable for

State +ve factors -ve factors

Wheat Production • Wheat production is mainly confined to North-

Bajra (bull rush millet)

Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes)

• Gram like millets has suffered a lot at the hands of wheat.

• Cotton is the most important fibre crop. Labour

Region Sowing time Harvesting time Note

Jan-Feb in the regions of Aug-Sep TN remains dry during Aug-Sep. So the

Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes)

Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA)

• Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA), 1987

• Three distinct belts of sugarcane cultivation can be identified in India.

• Groundnut is the most important oilseed of In-

• The oil content of rapeseed and mustard is 25-

• Most of it is used predominantly by the food

• Climate and soil drainage are the determining Labour

Trade • Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia and India

1.8.1 Pepper • Chilli requires temperatures ranging from 10° to

Banana Economic Importance

• Banana is a tropical and sub-tropical crop. • Banana cultivation is labour-intensive and

Cashew • Strawberry, almond and walnut are other im-

• Peach is temperate fruit that is highly perisha-

• Pear is another temperate fruit, mainly grown

• Apricot is also a temperate fruit which requires

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