Taenia Saginata

Related terms:

Cyst, Cysticercosis, Diphyllobothrium, Taenia Solium, Hymenolepis Nana-

, Helminths, Protozoa, Taenia, Tapeworm, Intermediate Host

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Intestinal Tapeworms
Burton J. Bogitsh Phd, ... Thomas N. Oeltmann Phd, in Human Parasitology (Fourth
Edition), 2013

Epidemiology
Taenia saginata is distributed throughout the world. Humans acquire infection by
eating raw or insufficiently cooked beef infected with the cysticerci, as in dishes
such as steak tartare. Cattle acquire Cysticercus bovis by grazing in fields upon
which human excrement has been deposited either through fertilization with “night
soil” or from poor sanitation. Pastures flooded by rivers and creeks contaminated
with human excrement provide another source of infection for cattle. Under such
conditions, eggs may remain viable for 2 months or longer. Thorough cooking of
beef at 57°C until the reddish color disappears or freezing at −10° C for 5 days
effectively destroys infective cysticerci.

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Helminthic infections
Tim O'Dempsey, in Antibiotic and Chemotherapy (Ninth Edition), 2010

Taeniasis
Taenia saginata, the beef tapeworm, and Taenia solium, the pork tapeworm, are
the most common tapeworms affecting humans. Infection follows consumption of
undercooked beef or pork containing cysts. T. saginata cysts may occur in other
domestic bovines and a closely related Asian species has been shown to infect pigs,
ungulates and monkeys. T. solium cysts also occur in dogs and cats. A third species
of human Taenia, T. asiatica, which is also transmitted in pigs, has recently been
described in Asia where prevalence rates of up to 20% have been documented among
Indonesian villagers.

Most infections are asymptomatic, the host only becoming aware when a proglottid
segment is noticed in feces or felt as it passes through the anus. Gastrointestinal
symptoms may include loss of appetite, nausea or vague abdominal pain. A patient
who is vomiting profusely, for whatever reason, may be further distressed when sev-
eral meters of tapeworm appear in the vomit. Rarely, complications arise following
migration of proglottids to unusual sites, such as the appendix or pancreatic and
bile ducts.

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Tapeworms (Cestodes)
Charles H. King, Jessica K. Fairley, in Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and
Practice of Infectious Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2015

Taenia saginata
Taenia saginata, known as the beef tapeworm, is transmitted to humans in the form
of infectious larval cysts found in the meat of cattle, which serve as the parasite's
usual intermediate host.1,5 The T. saginata tapeworm is common in cattle-breeding
areas of the world. The areas with the highest prevalence (up to 27%) are in central
Asia, the Near East, and Central and East Africa. Areas of lower prevalence (<1%) are
found in Europe, Southeast Asia, Central America, and South America. Consumption
of “measly” (i.e., cyst-infected) uncooked or undercooked beef is the usual means of
transmission. Rare steak or kebabs and steak tartare are dishes typically associated
with T. saginata infection. In the definitive human host, adult T. saginata tapeworms
are long (10 m) and can contain more than 1000 proglottids, each capable of
producing thousands of eggs. If, through poor sanitary practices, eggs released in
the feces are allowed to reach grazing areas, cattle are subsequently infected with
T. saginata cysticerci. Alternative intermediate hosts include llamas, buffalo, and
giraffes.

Symptoms are absent in most patients with T. saginata infection. A small number
report mild abdominal cramps or malaise. The proglottids of T. saginata are motile
and occasionally migrate out of the anus, to be found in the perineum or on clothing.
The patient may report seeing moving segments in the feces or passing several feet
of strobila at one time. These events are often psychologically distressing and are
associated with significant anxiety-associated symptoms.

Specific diagnosis of T. saginata infection can be established by recovery of parasite

proglottids.1,5 If only eggs are found in the stool, it is important to note that T.
saginata eggs are morphologically indistinguishable from those of T. solium (see Fig.
291-3E and F). With T. solium tapeworms there is potential for autoinfection causing
cysticercosis; therefore, if any Taenia spp. eggs are detected, treatment should be
given without delay for further speciation. Effective oral treatment for either Taenia
spp. is obtained with praziquantel or niclosamide (see “Therapy”).12

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Helminths
D. Greenwood, in Medical Microbiology (Eighteenth Edition), 2012

Taenia species
Taenia saginata, the beef tapeworm, is much more prevalent than the related T.
solium, the pork tapeworm. Both have a relatively simple life cycle, alternating
between man and the intermediate host. Human infection is acquired by eating raw
or undercooked beef or pork containing the encysted larval stage, the cysticercus.
The larvae hatch in the small intestine and attach to the mucosal surface by four
suckers on the head (scolex) of the worm. The scolex of T. solium additionally carries
a crown of hooklets. The worm grows backwards from the head, first producing
immature segments (proglottids), which continue to develop as they become more
distant from the head. When sexually mature, the proglottids, which exhibit both
male and female characteristics, cross-fertilize one another, and eggs start to be
produced in the uterine canal. This becomes grossly distended as more eggs are
produced, so that the fully gravid segments at the end of the worm become nothing
more than bags full of eggs. The complete chain of segments is known as a strobila,
and may measure 10 m or more.

Eggs are not laid. They are retained within the proglottids, which become detached
from the end of the worm and are passed with the faeces. Animals become infected
by ingesting the eggs from pastures contaminated with inadequately treated sewage
or by the droppings of birds that scavenge in untreated sewage.

Considering the size of the worm, infection is usually remarkably asymptomatic.

However, in the case of T. solium, eggs may hatch in the human host and form
cysticerci. When these lodge in the brain, they may cause a serious epileptiform
disease, cerebral cysticercosis.

Laboratory diagnosis
Taenia infection is usually diagnosed by finding the typical segments in faeces.
Since eggs are not laid, faecal examination for ova is inappropriate. T. saginata
can usually be differentiated from T. solium if the segment is pressed between
two microscope slides and examined macroscopically. In the case of T. saginata,
numerous branchings of the central uterine canal are evident, whereas there are
usually far fewer branchings with T. solium (Fig. 63.5). The eggs (Fig. 63.6A) are thick
walled and contain an oncosphere with six hooklets. The eggs of T. saginata and T.
solium are indistinguishable.

Fig. 63.5. Segments of (A) Taenia saginata and (B) T. solium. The uterine canal has
been injected with Indian ink to show the branchings.

Fig. 63.6. Eggs of cestodes: (A) Taenia species; (B) Diphyllobothrium latum; (C) Hy-
menolepis nana.

Treatment
A single dose of praziquantel is usually successful. Niclosamide is also used, but
this drug causes the worm to disintegrate, with the consequent theoretical (but
unproven) risk of auto-infection in the case of T. solium through the intraluminal
release of eggs. Treatment of cerebral cysticercosis is problematical, but albendazole
and praziquantel have been used successfully.

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Mucosal Immune Response to Parasitic

Infections
Mohamed D. Abd-Alla, Jonathan I. Ravdin, in Mucosal Immunology (Third Edition),
2005

CESTODES
Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), T. solium (pork tapeworm), Hymenolepis nana
(dwarf tapeworm), and Diphyllobothrium species (fish tapeworm) are the cestodes
that most often infect humans. They live in the small intestine. The natural definitive
host of both T. solium and T. saginata adults is humans. Ingestion of raw or poorly
cooked beef (T. saginata) or pork (T. solium) containing cysticerci causes taeniasis.
The adult tapeworm produces eggs, which are shed with the feces. Eggs infect the
appropriate intermediate host and hatch to release hexacanth larvae, which migrate
and encyst in muscle. Cattle are the intermediate host for T. saginata and pigs for
T. solium. Cysticercosis occurs only in T. solium infection as a result of egg hatching
and extraintestinal migration of larvae in the definitive host (internal autoinfection).
Infection with adult worms is asymptomatic in most cases. The circulating larvae
in cysticercosis, on reaching the brain, eyes, and other organs, produce serious
complications.

A dwarf tapeworm named H. nana, the most common human cestode, causes
hymenolepiasis. Fecal-oral transmission of eggs is the route of transmission. The
ingested eggs hatch, producing oncospheres, which penetrate the small intestinal
mucosa. Oncospheres develop into cysticercoid larvae, which reenter the intestinal
lumen and grow into adult worms. Thus, a secondary host is not required and eggs
do not need soil for maturation. Internal autoinfection results from hatching of eggs
in a current infection. The disease is asymptomatic and self-limiting.

Diphyllobothrium cysticerci ingestion in poorly cooked fish causes diphyllobothriasis.

The life cycle of Diphyllobothrium species requires a crustacean as a second inter-
mediate host. Anemia from vitamin B12 deficiency is the most common clinical
presentation.
Cysticercosis occurring as a consequence of T. solium infection has a major clinical
impact. Research efforts have been directed mainly toward the humoral immune
response for diagnosis and vaccination purposes in both definitive and intermediate
hosts. Immunologic diagnosis with use of both crude and recombinant antigens
in antibody detection has acceptable levels of specificity and sensitivity. Whole
crude antigen from T. crassiceps and T. solium are successfully used in detecting
IgG and IgA antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and sera from patients with
neurocysticercosis (Bueno et al., 2000). A low-molecular-weight T. solium cysticercus
antigen (18 kDa) was recognized by CSF and serum IgG antibodies from patients
with neurocysticercosis in immunoblotting (Rossi et al., 2000). Glycosylation in-
creased the antigenicity of low-molecular-weight antigen (Obregon-Henao et al.,
2001). Sera from patients with cysticercosis identify the carboxyl end of T. cysticercus
paramyosin, an immunodominant antigen. Cell-mediated immunity did not show
any reaction to this antigen (Vazquez-Talavera et al. 2001). Recombinant antigens of
T. solium species, including NC-3, TS14, Ag1V1, and Ag1V2, were used successfully
to detect specific antibodies in neurocysticercosis (Greene et al., 2000; Hubert et
al., 1999; Sako et al., 2000). Serologic diagnosis of the intermediate host (pigs)
has an important role in prevention. Excretory-secretory antigen from cysticerci
helps to diagnose most cases of pig infection (D'Souza and Hafeez, 1999). Passive
transfer of anticysticercal antibodies to piglets occurs solely via colostrum (Gonzalez
et al., 1999). Vaccination of pigs with recombinant DNA (Cai et al., 2001) and
synthetic peptide (Huetra et al., 2001) significantly reduced infection burden and
induced protection. A Th1 profile response has been identified in mice vaccinated
with full-length recombinant paramyosin (Vazquez-Talavera et al., 2001) and KETc1
(Toledo et al., 2001) antigens.

H. nana can infect mice. In vivo suppression of T-cell immunity by tacrolimus

(FK506) is related to complete inhibition of IL-2 and IFN- mRNA expression in
mesenteric CD4+ cells that were induced by H. nana infection. Egg infection induces
a rapid increase in INF- . The Th2 immune response is predominant during luminal
infection (IL-4 and Il-5), whereas a Th1 response is apparent during the tissue phase
(Asano et al., 1996). An extract from oncospheres of H. nana induces eosinophilic
chemotactic activity in vitro and in mice. Intestinal mucosa from challenged mice
shows a markedly higher number of eosinophils than in primary infection. Intestinal
eosinophils may be a major contributor to oxygen radical production (Niwa and
Miyazota, 1996a,b).

As in humans, the larval form lives in the intestinal tissue, whereas adults reside in
the lumen. Strong immunity to reinfection develops, limiting the tissue phase, which
leads to gradual clearance of the adult worms. Infection initiates a mononuclear and
neutrophilic cellular infiltrate, with subsequent appearance of eosinophils and mas-
tocytosis. The process peaks 20 days after initiation of the infection and then declines
coincidentally with worm expulsion. The mice develop resistance to reinfection.
T-cell–deficient mice cannot clear the infection. Also, T cells from mesenteric lymph
nodes of immune mice adoptively transferred into naive neonatal or T cell–deficient
recipients afford nearly complete protection. Thus, it appears that T lymphocytes
are essential for an effective immune response against this organism (Asano and
Okamoto, 1991; Bortoletti et al., 1992). The parasite also elicits an antibody response
of unknown significance.

Parasites and conditioning of the immune response

An ongoing Th2-type response to a particular parasite can modulate the immune
response to other concomitant parasitic, bacterial, and viral infections. Data suggest
that humans with schistosomiasis are more resistant to infection with Ascaris and
Trichuris. Mice naturally susceptible to infection with the intestinal nematode T.
muris acquire resistance when coinfected with S. mansoni. Intraperitoneal injection
of schistosome ova into uninfected mice affords similar protection. Markers of Th1
and Th2 responses in vivo are production of IgG2a and IgG1. Levels of IgG2a are
high in mice infected with T. muris alone, yet no IgG2a is detectable in coinfected
animals, although the level of total IgG remains unchanged (Curry et al., 1995).

Mice injected with Mycobacterium avium develop chronic infection associated with
a strong Th1 response and granulomas in the lungs and liver. Splenocytes and gran-
uloma cells from these infected animals normally produce large amounts of IgG2a
and IFN- but no IL-4 or IL-5. Mice infected with S. mansoni following establishment
of an M. avium infection produce mycobacterial granulomas containing eosinophils.
Also, in coinfected mice, splenocytes and granuloma cells secrete more IgG but
much less IgG2a.

There are other examples of parasitic infection altering immune responses. Infection
of mice with S. mansoni delays clearance of vaccinia virus and alters responsiveness
to sperm whale myoglobin (Kullberg et al., 1992). Mice also develop a Th2 response
when infected with the microfilaria Brugia malayi or immunized with a soluble
filarial extract from this parasite. The ongoing Th2 response to this helminth anti-
gen modulates the Th1 response to mycobacterial antigen (Pearlman et al., 1993).
Moreover, N. brasiliensis, a murine intestinal nematode, stimulates Th2 activity, and
Nippostrongylus infection delays kidney graft rejection in rats. Cross-regulatory
suppression of Th1 activity probably is the mechanism (Ledingham et al., 1996).

These findings have important implications. Persons harboring helminths possibly

are more apt to mount a diminished Th1 response when challenged with other
antigens. This could render them more susceptible to infection with mycobacteria,
chronic hepatitis viruses, and other infections controlled by the Th1 response. How-
ever, helminth infections may afford protection against infectious agents controlled
by Th2-type inflammation.

Perhaps more than half the population of the world have had a helminthic infection
at some time. These infections are most frequent in childhood. In the past, humans
have always harbored parasites; now this is not the case. Individuals living in
increasingly hygienic temperate climates acquire helminths less frequently. Within
this population subset, there appears to be an increasing prevalence of autoimmu-
nity-related afflictions and Crohn's disease. In general, parasites often provide some
benefit to the host. Perhaps the failure to acquire these infections and to experience
Th2 conditioning predisposes humans to aberrant inflammatory illnesses.

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Parasitology
Jeffrey K. Actor PhD, in Elsevier's Integrated Review Immunology and Microbiology
(Second Edition), 2012

Taenia and Echinococcus

The cestodes include Taenia saginata (the beef tapeworm) and T. solium (the pork
tapeworm) and Echinococcus granulosus (the hydatid worm). Both Taenia spp. have
similar life cycles and their eggs are morphologically indistinguishable. Pigs serve
as the intermediate host for T. solium; humans are infected when they ingest an
immature tapeworm (a cysticercus) in undercooked pork, leading to harboring of
adult sexually active worms within the intestinal tract. However, if humans ingest T.
solium eggs, hatching cysticerci lead to cysticercosis. In this case, larvae produced
in the small intestine migrate to other tissues. Resulting cyst forms may lead to
tissue-related disease, such as neurocysticercosis when brain tissue is affected.

E. granulosus is the cestode tapeworm agent responsible for causing cystic

echinococcosis, a cystic disease that can have a strong hepatic obstructive com-
ponent in human infection. The human is an intermediate host, with members of
the canine species being the definitive host. Also known as “hydatid worm,” related
members of the genus are known to cause alveolar echinococcosis and polycystic
echinococcosis. Eggs ingested by an intermediate host hatch into larvae that travel
through the blood and form hydatid cysts in the host's tissues (liver, lung, or brain).
In the definitive host, the larvae transform into full tapeworms, which pass infective
eggs in the feces.
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Cestode and Trematode Infections

David J. Diemert, in Infectious Diseases (Fourth Edition), 2017

Taeniasis
For both the beef tapeworm, Taenia saginata (Figure 119-2), and the pork tapeworm,
T. solium (Figure 119-1), humans are the exclusive definitive hosts. Infection is
acquired by eating raw or undercooked beef or pork, respectively, that contains
living cysticerci. The clinical consequences of taeniasis are usually mild and are
limited to minor abdominal symptoms, such as epigastric discomfort, nausea and
vomiting with T. saginata, and abdominal pain, distention and diarrhea with T.
solium. T. saginata proglottids may migrate spontaneously from the anus, causing
considerable alarm in the host. Taenia spp. do not appear to have any significant
nutritional effect on their host. The principal complication of infection with T. solium
is that eggs may be passed in the feces and subsequently be ingested and cause
cysticercosis (see below) either in the same host or in others living in close proximity.

Figure 119-2. Taenia saginata. A mature worm may be up to 10 m (33 feet) long.

(Courtesy of Guy Baily.)

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Infections Acquired Through the Gas-
trointestinal Tract
Laura Nabarro MBBS BSc MRCP FRCPath DTM&amp;H, ... David A.J. Moore
MBChB MRCP MD MSc DTM&amp;H, in Peter's Atlas of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology (Seventh Edition), 2020

Taenia saginata (The Beef Tapeworm)

Fig. 3.163. Adult Taenia saginata.Humans are the definitive host of T. saginata with
cattle as intermediate hosts. The adult measures 2–5 m in length, occasionally up to
25 m, with around 2000 proglottids.

Courtesy, Dr R. Owen.

Fig. 3.164. Scolex of Taenia saginata.The scolex of T. saginata has four suckers but has
no hooks (unarmed). There is no rostellum. Compare this with the scolex of T. solium
in Fig. 3.151. (x 40.)
Fig. 3.165. Mature proglottid of Taenia saginata.Proglottids of T. saginata measure
15–20 mm by 5–7 mm and are commonly seen in stool. They are motile and may
be felt as they emerge from the anus and seen wriggling in the stool. The uterus has
a central stem with more than 15 lateral branches in contrast to T. solium which has
up to only 13 lateral branches (see Fig. 3.152). (x 6.)

Courtesy, Professor D. Greenwood.

Fig. 3.166. Taenia sp. ovum.Eggs of T. saginata and T. solium are morphologically
indistinguishable. They are spherical and measure 35 μm in diameter. The thick
radially striated shell contains a six-hooked oncosphere.

Courtesy, H. Edwards.
Fig. 3.167. Cysticercus in beef.The cysticercal stage of T. saginata occurs in cattle and
has not been documented in humans. The fluid-filled translucent cysts are 5–10 mm
in diameter.

Fig. 3.168. Kitfo, an Ethiopian delicacy of raw beef.Humans become infected with
adult tapeworm if they ingest raw or partially cooked beef. In Ethiopia, kitfo, spiced
and minced raw beef, is a traditional delicacy and T. saginata infection is common.

Fig. 3.169. Meat inspection: certificate of health.Taeniasis is prevented by strict

abattoir supervision, including adequate inspection of carcasses and condemnation
of ‘measly’ meat.
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Life Cycle of Parasites☆

M. McConnaughey, in Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences, 2014

Taenia solium, Taenia saginata

The larval stages of the tapewormsm Taenia solium and Taenia saginata, can produce
cysticercosis in humans. This disease usually causes only mild abdominal symptoms.
The main feature of this infection is the passage of proglottids in the stool. Cattle
are frequently the intermediate hosts. Eggs or oncospheres, usually from fecal
contaminated food, are ingested and localize in the intestine where they invade the
intestinal wall and migrate to striated muscles, brain, liver, and other soft tissues
and develop into cysticerci. Humans are the only definitive hosts for Taenia saginata
and Taenia solium. When humans ingest cysticerci from an infected intermediate
host, the cysts attach to the small intestine by their scolex, ultimately becoming
adult tapeworms that can reside in the intestine for years. Mature proglottids can
undergo self-fertilization and produce zygotes which divide and differentiate into
embryonated eggs called oncospheres. Both oncospheres and gravid proglottids
can be passed with feces and can survive for days to months in the environment in
sewage or rivers. Humans become infected when they consume undercooked meat
containing cysticerci.

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