Reviewer in Science

I. PLATE TECTONICS and PLATE MOVEMENTS

- Paleomagnetism is the study of the earth's past magnetic field. It may help you to recall this term if you
remember that it is the combination of two words: 'paleo,' which means ancient, and 'magnetism,' which
means exhibiting a magnetic field. So, paleomagnetism can really be thought of as the study of an ancient
magnet field.
- The direction of the Earth’s magnetic field has not been constant through geologic time. This direction, also
known as the polarity of the magnetic field, changes periodically on an irregular basis. The polarity can be
"normal" or "reversed." Normal polarity is where the magnetic north points (roughly) towards the
geographic north pole. This is how the magnetic field is aligned today. Reversed polarity is in the opposite
direction, and the north end of the magnetic field is close to the present-day south pole.
 RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING
- Absolute dating: Determining the number of years that have elapsed since an event occurred or the specific
time when that event occurred.
- Relative dating: Rocks and structures are placed into chronological order, establishing the age of one thing
as older or younger than another.
Studying the layers of rock or “strata” can also be useful. Layers of rock are deposited sequentially. If a
layer of rock containing the fossil is higher up in the sequence that another layer, you know that layer must
be younger in age. If it is lower in sequence it’s of a younger age. This can often be complicated by the fact
that geological forces can cause faulting and tilting of rocks.

The Earth’s lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, is made up of a series of pieces, or
tectonic plates, that move slowly over time.
 Types of Plate Boundary
1. Convergent boundaries: where two plates are colliding.
Subduction zones occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are composed of oceanic crust. The denser
plate is subducted underneath the less dense plate. The plate being forced under is eventually melted and
destroyed.
i. Ocean-Ocean
Island arcs and oceanic trenches occur when both of the plates are made of oceanic crust. Zones of active
seafloor spreading can also occur behind the island arc, known as back-arc basins. These are often associated
with submarine volcanoes.
ii. Continent – Oceanic Crust
The denser oceanic plate is subducted, often forming a mountain range on the continent. The Andes is an
example of this type of collision.
iii. Continent - Continent
Both continental crusts are too light to subduct so a continent-continent collision occurs, creating especially
large mountain ranges. The most spectacular example of this is the Himalayas.

2. Divergent boundaries – where two plates are moving apart.

The space created can also fill with new crustal material sourced from molten magma that forms below.
Divergent boundaries can form within continents but will eventually open up and become ocean basins.
i. On land
Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts, which produce rift valleys.
ii. Under the sea
The most active divergent plate boundaries are between oceanic plates and are often called mid-oceanic ridges.

3. Transform boundaries – where plates slide passed each other.

The relative motion of the plates is horizontal. They can occur underwater or on land, and crust is neither
destroyed nor created.
 Because of friction, the plates cannot simply glide past each other. Rather, stress builds up in both plates and
when it exceeds the threshold of the rocks, the energy is released – causing earthquakes. It causes faults.

II. GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

- Eons
Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and are hundreds of millions of years in duration. In the time scale
above you can see the Phanerozoic Eon is the most recent eon and began more than 500 million years ago.
- Eras
Eons are divided into smaller time intervals known as eras. In the time scale above you can see that the
Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: Cenozoic, Mesozoic and Paleozoic. Very significant events in Earth's
history are used to determine the boundaries of the eras.
- Periods
Eras are subdivided into periods. The events that bound the periods are widespread in their extent but are not
as significant as those which bound the eras. In the time scale above you can see that the Paleozoic is subdivided
into the Permian, Pennsylvanian, Mississippian, Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian periods.
- Epochs
Finer subdivisions of time are possible, and the periods of the Cenozoic are frequently subdivided into epochs.
Subdivision of periods into epochs can be done only for the most recent portion of the geologic time scale. This
is because older rocks have been buried deeply, intensely deformed and severely modified by long-term earth
processes. As a result, the history contained within these rocks cannot be as clearly interpreted.

Within Phanerozoic rocks, there are three Eras. In age order (oldest first), they are Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cenozoic. Paleozoic is divided into six Periods. From oldest to youngest, they are: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian. Mesozoic is similarly divided into three Periods: Triassic, Jurassic, and
Cretaceous. Cenozoic is similarly divided into Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary Periods.
All Phanerozoic Periods are divided into two or more Epochs. Some Epochs are named, for example, the
Miocene and Pliocene Epochs within Neogene, and some are given position names, such as the Lower and
Upper Cretaceous. Ages are named subdivisions of Epochs. Some Ages are not formally named within the
Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian Periods. Stage names, by international agreement, are based mainly on U.K.
and European reference locations and thus are named for the British and European sites where they are well
known.

- Precambrian
(Beginning of earth - 544 million years ago)
All geologic time before the beginning of the Paleozoic era. This includes about 90% of all geologic time
and spans the time from the beginning of the earth, about 4.5 billion years ago, to 544 million years
ago. Its name means "before Cambrian."
- Paleozoic
(544 - 248 million years ago)
"Age of Ancient Life"
An era of geologic time, from the end of the Precambrian to the beginning of the Mesozoic. The word Paleozoic
is from Greek and means "old life."
 Cambrian
(544 - 505 million years ago)
The earliest period of the Paleozoic era. It is named after Cambria, the Roman name for Wales, where
rocks of this age were first studied.
 Ordovician
(505 - 440 million years ago)
The second earliest period of the Paleozoic era. It is named after a Celtic tribe called the Ordovices.
 Silurian
(440 - 410 million years ago)
 A period of the Paleozoic. It is named after a Celtic tribe called the Silures.
 Devonian
(410 - 360 million years ago)
A period of the Paleozoic era. It is named after Devonshire, England, where rocks of this age were first
studied.
Carboniferous
(360 - 286 million years ago)
A period of time in the Paleozoic era that includes the Pennsylvanian and Mississippian periods.
o Mississippian*
(360 - 325 million years ago)
A period of the Paleozoic era. It is named after the Mississippi River valley, which contains good
exposures of rocks of this age.
o Pennsylvanian*
(325 - 286 million years ago)
"The Coal Age"
A period of the Paleozoic era. It is named after the state of Pennsylvania where rocks of this age
are widespread.
 Permian
(286 - 248 million years ago)
The final period of the Paleozoic era. It is named after the province of Perm, Russia, where rocks of
this age were first studied.

- Mesozoic
(248 - 65 million years ago)
"Age of Medieval Life"
An era of geologic time between the Paleozoic and the Cenozoic. The word Mesozoic is from Greek and
means "middle life."
 Triassic
(248 - 213 million years ago)
The earliest period of the Mesozoic era. The name Triassic refers to the threefold division of rocks of
this age in Germany.
The Break-up of the continent Pangea
 Jurassic
(213 - 145 million years ago)
The middle period of the Mesozoic era. It is named after the Jura Mountains between France and
Switzerland, where rocks of this age were first studied.
 Cretaceous
(145 - 65 million years ago)
"The Age of Dinosaurs"
The final period of the Mesozoic era. The name is derived from the Latin word for chalk ("creta") and
was first applied to extensive deposits of this age that form white cliffs along the English Channel
between Great Britain and France.

- Cenozoic
(65 million years ago - Present)
"Age of Recent Life"
An era of geologic time from the beginning of the Tertiary period to the present. Its name is from Greek and
means "new life."
 Tertiary
(65 - 1.8 million years ago)
The first period of the Cenozoic era (after the Mesozoic era and before the Quaternary period).
o Pliocene
 (5.3 - 1.8 million years ago)
Final epoch of the Tertiary period. It is named after the Greek words "pleion" (more) and
"ceno" (new).
o Miocene
(23.8 - 5.3 million years ago)
A epoch of the upper Tertiary period. It is named after the Greek words "meion" (less) and
"ceno" (new).
o Oligocene
(33.7 - 23.8 million years ago)
An epoch of the early Tertiary period. It is named after the Greek words "oligos" (little, few)
and "ceno" (new).
o Eocene
(55.5 - 33.7 million years ago)
An epoch of the lower Tertiary period. Its name is from the Greek words "eos" (dawn) and
"ceno" (new).
o Paleocene
(65 - 55.5 million years ago)
Earliest epoch of the Tertiary period. It is named after the Greek words "palaois" (old) and
"ceno" (new).
 Quaternary
(1.8 million years ago - Present)
The second period of the Cenozoic era. It contains two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene. It
is named after the Latin word "quatern" (four at a time).
o Holocene
(8,000 years ago - Present)
An epoch of the Quaternary period. It is named after the Greek words "holos" (entire) and
"ceno" (new).
o Pleistocene
(1.8 million - 8,000 years ago)
"The Great Ice Age"
An epoch of the Quaternary period. It is named after the Greek words "pleistos" (most) and
"ceno" (new).

The several geologic eras were originally named Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. The
first two names are no longer used. Tertiary and Quaternary have been retained but used as period
designations.
- Proterozoic Eon [2500 Myr - 541 Myr ]
Near the end of the Precambrian, there is fossil evidence of diverse and complex multicelled organisms.
Most of the evidence is in the form of trace fossils, such as trails and worm holes. It is judged that most of
Precambrian life forms lacked shells, making the detection of fossils more difficult. Plant fossils were found
somewhat earlier than animal fossils.
There is no coal, oil or natural gas in Precambrian rock.
Rocks from the middle Precambrian, 1200 - 2500 Myr hold most of the Earth's iron ore, mainly as
hematite (Fe2O3). This can be taken as evidence that the oxygen content of the atmosphere was increasing
during that period, and that it was abundant enough to react with the iron dissolved in shallow lakes and
seas. The process of oxidizing all that iron may have delayed the buildup of atmospheric oxygen from
photosynthetic life. There is an observable end to this formation of iron ore, so the increase in atmospheric
oxygen would have been expected to accelerate at that time.
Fossilized evidence for life is much less dramatic in the pre-Cambrian time frame, with amounts about
88% of Earth's history. The most common Precambrian fossils are stromatolites, which become common
about 2000 Myr in the past. Stromatolites are mounds of material deposited by algae. Bacteria and blue-
green algae fossils have been found in Gunflint Chert rocks at Lake Superior, dating to 1700 Myr. These are
prokaryotic life. Eukaryotic life has been found at about 1000 Myr at Bitter Springs, Australia in the form of
green algae.
Archean Eon [4000 Myr - 2500 Myr ]
Evidence for prokaryotic life such as bacteria and blue-green algae has been found in southern Africa,
dated to 3100 Myr. Banded iron formations have been dated to 3700 Myr, and presuming that this requires
oxygen and that the only source of molecular oxygen in this era was photosynthesis, this makes a case for
life in this time period. There are also stromatolites dated to 3500 Myr.
Hadean Eon [4500 Myr - 4000 Myr ]
The age of the Earth is projected to be about 4500 Myr from radiometric dating of the oldest rocks and
meteorites. There is evidence of a time of intense bombardment of the Earth in the time period from about
4100 to 3800 Myr in what is called the "late heavy bombardment". There is ongoing discussion about what
may have caused this time of intense impacts. There is no evidence for life in this Eon whose name
translates to "hellish".