Heat & Mass Transfer

(ME 330)

Instructor: Hafiz M. Abd-ur-Rehman

Contact: a.rehman@smme.nust.edu.pk
Phone: 6051

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 Text Book
Heat and Mass Transfer: A Practical Approach
Yunus Cengel (2nd Ed or 3rd Ed)

Reference Books
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
Frank P. Incropera (Author), David P. DeWitt (Author) 7th Edition

Heat Transfer
J.P Holman 8th Ed

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 Heat Transfer An Introduction
Difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer

Heat Transfer complement Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics tells us:

• How much heat is transferred (dQ)
• How much work is done (dW)
• Final state of the system

Heat transfer tells us:

• how (with what modes) dQ is transferred
• at what rate dQ is transferred
• temperature distribution inside the body
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 Heat Transfer An Introduction
Heat is energy in transit due to differences in temperature between two systems.

Heat always flows from the system with a higher temperature towards the system or
systems with a lower temperature.

System 1 System 2

System in a high System in a low

energy density energy density
state state
Arrow represents heat which is
being transferred from sys 1 (at
high temp) to sys 2 (at lower temp)

Before it is transferred, the energy which remains within the boundary of the system
is not heat, but internal energy or total available energy.
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 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a solid or liquid is defined as the heat

required to raise unit mass of substance by one degree of temperature.

Units for specific heats is

kJ/kg .°C or kJ/kg. K

The specific heat C in kJ/(kg-K) states how many kilojoules are required
to increase the temperature of 1 kg of material by 1 K (1 Kelvin)

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 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
Objects with Low specific heat
 Heat up fast
Show faster increase in temperature
 Cool down Fast
Show faster decrease in temperature
 Sensitive to temperature changes
A thermometer is made up of low specific heat capacities

Objects with High specific heat

 Heats up and cool down at the slower rate
Require more heat to raise its temperature by a specific amount
 Absorb large amount of heat

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 Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Rate and Heat Flux
The amount of heat transferred during the process is denoted by Q.

The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat transfer rate, and is denoted
by Q The over dot stands for the time derivative, or “per unit time.”

The heat transfer rate Q has the unit J/s, which is equivalent to W.

When the rate of heat transfer is available, then the total amount of heat transfer Q
during a time interval t can be determined from
t
Q   Qdt (J )
0

The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction of heat transfer is
called heat flux, and the average heat flux is expressed as
q  Q / A (W / m2 )
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 First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of
energy principle, states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
it can only change forms.

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process

 Total energy   Total energy   Change in the 

 entering the    leaving the    total energy of 
     
 system   system   the system 
     
Ein  Eout  Esys
Net energy transfer Changein int ernal energy
by heat , work and masstransfer
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 Example 1-2
1.2 kg of liquid water initially at 15°C is to be heated to 95°C in a teapot equipped with
a 1200-W electric heating element inside.

The teapot is 0.5 kg and has an average specific heat of 0.7 kJ/kg · °C.

Taking the specific heat of water to be 4.18 kJ/kg · °C and disregarding any heat loss
from the teapot,

Determine how long it will take for the water to be heated ????/

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 Example 1-2-Solution
Given: Find out:
Initial Temp of water= 15oC
The time to heat up water from
To be heated up to= 95oC 15oC to 95oC

Mass of Tea pot = 5 kg

Cp_teapot= 0.7 kJ/kg-oC

Cp_water= 4.18 kJ/kg-oC

Heat in put= 1200 W= 1200 J/s

Assumptions?????
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 Example 1-2
Ein  Eout  Esys Energy Balance of the system

Ein  U sys  U water  Uteapot

Ein  U sys  (mCT ) water  (mCT )teapot

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Heat Transfer Mechanisms

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through materials by the
direct contact of matter.

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic

particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as
a result of interactions between the particles.

Dense metals like copper and aluminum are very good

thermal conductors

Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.

In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion

In Conduction
-- Energy transfer at a molecular level
-- No physical movement of the material

Those materials that conduct heat well are called thermal conductors, and those
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that conduct heat poorly are known as thermal insulators.
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Conduction
Every atom is physically bonded to its neighbors in some way. If heat energy is
supplied to one part of a solid, the atoms vibrate faster.

As they vibrate more, the bonds between atoms are shaken more. This passes
vibrations on to the next atom, and so on

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Conduction
In metals, not only do the atoms vibrate more when heated, but the free
electrons charge around more as well.
These transfer the energy much faster than just vibrations in bonds

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Conduction
( Area)(Temp diff )
Rateof heat conduction 
thickness
or
T2  T1 T
Qcond A   A (W  J / s )
x x
In the limiting case of x 0, the equation
above reduces to the differential form

dT
Qcond A (W  J / s)
dx

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

Here dT/dx is the temperature gradient, which is the slope of the temperature
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curve on a T-x diagram (the rate of change of T with x), at location x
 Thermal Conductivity and Specific heat
Specific Heat capacity
 Specific heat Cp as a measure of a material’s ability to store thermal energy.

 For example, Cp 4.18 kJ/kg · °C for water and Cp 0.45 kJ/kg · °C for iron at
room temperature,

 Which indicates that water can store almost 10 times the energy that iron can
per unit mass

Thermal Conductivity

 k 0.608 W/m · °C for water and k 80.2 W/m · °C for iron at room temperature,

which indicates that iron conducts heat more than100 times faster than water can.

Thus we say that water is a poor heat conductor relative to iron, although water is
an excellent medium to store thermal energy
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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Conduction Thermal Diffusivity

This quantity reveals the material’s ability to conduct heat relative to its
ability to store heat

Thermal conductivity k represents how well a material conducts heat,

Heat capacity Cp represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume

Therefore, the thermal diffusivity of a material can be viewed as the ratio of the heat
conducted through the material to the heat stored per unit volume

The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material
and a small amount of heat will be conducted further.
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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Conduction Example
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25
m thick and is made of flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity
is k = 0.8 W/m · °C

The temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one night
are measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours.

Determine
(a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night

(b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner if

the cost of electricity is $0.08/kWh

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Conduction Example

Assumptions

•Steady operating conditions exist during the entire night since the
surface temperatures of the roof remain constant at the specified values.

•Constant properties can be used for the roof

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Heat Transfer Mechanisms Conduction Example

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Convection

Convection between a solid surface and the

adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, involves
the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.

The faster the fluid motion, the greater the

convection heat transfer

Heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent

fluid is by pure conduction

As the fluids become warmer, they become less

dense and rise away from the body in respect to
the surrounding colder fluids, allowing the colder
fluids to take their place.
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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Convection

Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by
external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind.

In contrast, convection is called natural (or free) convection if the fluid motion is
caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to the variation
of temperature in the fluid

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Heat Transfer Mechanisms Convection
 Convection depends on surface
area.

 If the surface contacting the fluid

is increased, the rate of heat
transfer also increases.

 Almost all devices made for

convection have fins for this
purpose.

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Convection
The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to the
temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of
cooling as:
Qconv  hAs (Ts  T ) (W )
where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 · °C,
The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of the fluid.

It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on all the

variables influencing convection such as the
Surface geometry, the nature of fluid motion,
Properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity

As is the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place,

Ts is the surface temperature, and T is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently

far from the surface

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms RADIATION

How does heat energy get from the There are no particles between
Sun to the Earth? the Sun and the Earth so it
CANNOT travel by conduction or
by convection.

RADIATION
?
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms RADIATION
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
temperature Ts (K) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as:

Qemited _ max   AsTs 4

Q = heat transfer per unit time (W)

σ = 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant

T = Temperature Kelvin (K)

A = area of the emitting body (m2)

The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody,
and the radiation emitted by a black-body is called blackbody radiation

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms RADIATION
The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation
emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

Qemited   AsTs 4

Where ε is the emissivity of the surface

The emissivity of a material (usually written ε or e) is the relative

ability of its surface to emit energy by radiation.

It is the ratio of energy radiated by a particular material to energy

radiated by a black body at the same temperature.

A true black body would have an ε = 1 while any real object would have
ε < 1. Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity.
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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms RADIATION
Another important radiation property of a surface is its
absorptivity 
Absorptivity is the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface
that is absorbed by the surface and value is in the range 0    1

A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it and is a perfect

absorber (= 1) as it is a perfect emitter

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms RADIATION

The emissivity, ε, of surface A will depend on the material of which surface A is

composed, i.e. aluminum, brass, steel, etc. and on the temperature of surface A

The absorptivity, α, of surface A will depend on the material of which surface A is

composed, i.e. aluminum, brass, steel, etc. and on the temperature of surface B

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 ( Area)(Temp diff )
Rateof heat conduction 
thickness
or Conduction
T2  T1 T
Qcond   As   A (W  J / s )
x x

Qconv  hAs (Ts  T ) (W ) Convection

Qrad   As (Ts  Tsurr ) 4 4

W RADIATION
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