Glass

In the current scenario, silicate glasses are so much a piece of our regular day to day existence. Glass
is broken and shattered into fragments or into minute particles during the commission of the crime
can be used to linked the suspect with the scene of crime. Sometimes the fracture of glass could be
the commission of an offense might be the consequence of an intentional act or unintentional act.
Glass fractures are of foremost significance in shooting cases where a firearm is used as it can
provide significant information and facilitates a variety of evaluations related to the occurrence.
Glass or glass fragments leave a great value for the investigation of any criminal offenses such as the
burglary, arson, hit and run cases, shooting, assault, etc. Glass is an inorganic result of the
combination, which has been cooled to a solid state condition without crystallization. The glass is a
non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent. When silicon oxides mixed with various
alkaline such as soda, lime, potash resultant will be glass [31,26]. Scientifically, the term "Glass" is
often defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that possesses a non-crystalline structure
at the atomic scale and that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state.

About the history of glass

Stone age social societies were used the volcanic glass obsidian for production of sharp cutting
apparatus. Archeological confirmation proposes that the first true glass was made in seaside north
Syria, Mesopotamia or old Egypt. The earliest known glass objects of the mid-third thousand years
were beads, maybe at first made as unintentional results of metal-working (slags) or during the
generation of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material.
In the Medieval era glass was widely used. Anglo Saxon glass has been found crosswise over Britain
amid archeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo Saxon time
frame was utilized as a part of the produce of a scope of items including vessels, windows, dabs and
was additionally utilized as a part of gems [35].
Tenth century onwards, glass was utilized in recolored glass windows of holy places and houses of
prayer with popular cases at Chartres Church building. In the Fourteenth century, draftsmen were
planning structures with dividers of recolored glass. For example: Holy person Chapelle, Paris and
the East end of Gloucester Church building.
In Germany, Latin term “Gloesum” started, likely from a Germanic word for a transparent and
radiant substance [7]. These were at first small sheets led together, yet with the adjustments in
innovation the glass could be fabricated moderately inexpensively in progressively bigger sheets.
This prompted bigger window sheets. In the Twentieth century with substantially bigger windows in
customary local and business structures. Bohemian flashed and engraved ruby glass (nineteenth
century) have started in 1730 BCE. The term “Glass” created in the late Roman Empire [9].As the
time changes, glasses were also changed in their used and also chemical composition. It shown in the
Table 1.
In the Twenty first century, scientists watch the properties of observed colored glass windows, into
which suspended nano-particles keep UV light from causing compound reactions that change the
color of an image, are making photographic techniques that usage relative recolored glass to get
genuine nature pictures of Mars for the 2019 ESA Mars Vagabond mission [40].
 Years Work carried out
1226 "Wide Sheet" first created in Sussex.

1330 "Crown glass" for artwork and vessels at firstly made in Rouen, France. Moreover
"Broad Sheet" was also created.
1500 A technique for making mirrors to out of plate glass was produced by Venetian.
1620 "Blown plate" first created in London. Utilized for mirrors and coach plates.
1678 "Crown glass" first created in London. This procedure dominating until the
nineteenth century.

1843 An early type of "float glass" concocted by Henry Bessemer, pouring glass onto the
fluid in. Costly and not a business achievement.

1874 Tempered glass is created by Francois Barthelemy Alfred Royer de la Bastille

(1830– 1901) of Paris, France by quenching almost molten glass in a heated bath of
oil or grease.

1888 Machine-rolled glass introduced permitting designs.

Table 1: Order of advances in glass [10, 2,34,24,8]

Formation of glass
The arrangement of crystal, fluid and glass can be clarified from the temperature volume
relationship, that eases slow cooling process prompts the formation of crystal nuclei and
crystallization happens. In the event that the cooling rate is fast, leaving no opportunity to the
arrangement of crystal nuclei, a structure of supercooled fluid state turns to rigid and forms a glass.
Glass can be express by the accompanying formula:
R2SiO3. M SiO3. 6 SiO2
Where; R= Mono-valent Metal
M= Divalent Metal
Consequently, the formula of glass might be express as:
Na2 SiO3.Ca SiO3. 4 SiO2
Following fixing are required for manufacturing the glass.
1. Acidic oxides: For the most part SiO2, P2O5 and so on are used.
2. Basic Oxides: Na2O, CaO are utilized. It may carbonates of Na and Ca are used. These carbonates
get the change over into their oxides on warming.
Na2CO3→ Na2O + CO2
3. Coloring material: All together gives color in the glass, following compounds are utilized by
required shading shown in the Table 2.

Sr. No. Compound color

1. Ferrous oxide, sodium chromate Green

2. Gold Chlorides or Purple of Cassius Purple or Dark Blue

3. Cupric Salt Peacock Blue
4. Selenium Red
5. Potassium Di Chromate Green and Greenish Yellow
6. Carbon Amber
7. Cadmium Sulfide Lemon
8. Sodium Urenite Yellow
9. Cobalt oxide Blue
10. Ferric Salts Yellow
11. Ferric oxide, Cupric Oxides, Black
Excess of Nickel and Manganese
12. Manganese Pinkish Blue

Table 2: coloring Materials

Doping Salts
Dopants like halides or sulfates are acquainted in the host glass with differing the properties of the
glass like the conductivity. For example: AgI, NaI, NaF, NaCl, NaBr, KI, KF, LiI, LiF, LiCl and so
forth are added to the host glass framework to deliver versatile particle species Li+, Ag+, Na+, K+
and so forth. It was observed from different examinations that the dopant salts don't go into the
macromolecular chain of the glass. Along these lines, glasses are great solvents of the metal ion.
Manufacturing process involves following two steps:
1 . Formation of Batch: All fixings are taken in proper proportion and grind. In this mixture
porportion are as follows: SiO2 : Na2CO3 : CaCO3 :: 100 : 35 : 15.
2. Formation of glass by batch: Batch is warmed up to 1400 oC in tank heater with the help of
producer gas (CO+N2). At this temperature, all fixing respond together and shape the glass.
CaCO3 + Na2CO3+6SiO2→Na2SiO3 + Ca + SiO3 + 4SiO2 + 2CO2

Different types of glasses are as follows.

Based on the structure of glasses (or now and again in view of their applications) they are grouped
extensively into two classifications as oxide glasses and non-oxide glasses. The constituents in the
glass piece assume the significant part in the application and order of glasses. Oxide glasses relying
upon structure might be additionally arranged and some of these oxide glass frameworks are
discussed quickly here are as follows [31].
Laminated glass: These glasses are by sandwich with
plastic sheet in between the two layers of glasses. The
plastic sheet is sandwiched in between the layers to
provide the strength. For example: Windshield of a car
(see Fig. 1).

Fig1: Laminated glass used in

windshield of car.

Tempered glass: These glass are stronger than ordinary

glass they were made by introducing stress through
rapid heating and cooling of the glass surfaces. For
example: Windows in oven (see Fig. 2).

Fig 2: Tempered glass used in

window of microwave oven.

Soda-lime glass: Lime is added to the sand and soda

mixture so that the “Soda-lime” glass will not dissolve
in water. This glass is otherwise called Soft glass.
This is more affordable, business glass It is utilized as
window glasses as a result of their great light
transmission. Soda–Lime glasses are additionally
utilized as glass compartments, containers and so on.
It is meant by Na2O.CaO.6SiO2. It relaxed at 600 oC Fig 3: Soda-lime glass used in
window glasses.
temperature (see Fig.3).

Borosilicate Glasses: This soda potash glass is also

known a sort of borosilicate glass. Pyrex Glass is the
blend of the borosilicate of the sodium and aluminum.
The essential components of borosilicate glass are
silica (SiO2-70-80%) and boric corrosive (7-13%).
Oxides of potassium, sodium and aluminum are added
to borosilicate association to get more durability. In
perspective of their warmth safe properties and warm
assurance, they are used as a piece of synthetic
industry. Borosilicate glass is generally utilized as a Fig 4: Borosillicate glass used in
part of the fabricate of research center dishes, formation of test-tube.
pharmaceutical compartments,test- tube high-control
electric knobs and so forth (see Fig. 4).
Alumino Silicate Glasses: These type of glasses having large percentage of Al 2O3. They can also
bear more heat as compare to the borosilicate glass. Aluminosilicate glasses were used to
make the utensils used in the laboratory.

Lead Alkali Silicate Glasses: In these type of glasses the maximum percentage is lead oxide. It
have high reflection & dispersion capacity. Such glasses are used in video tube, neon light, etc.
Glass Fractures
Griffith rule states that “Fracture start from the previous flaw” [13]. Laws of material science
expresses, the exchanges of a specific measure of vitality that is consumed by the glass will scatter
along the easy way out accordingly splits are made. As opposed to most different materials, the sub-
atomic structure of glass does not comprise of a standard geometry of crystals, but of an irregular
network of silicon and oxygen particles with basic parts in the middle.
Any force is applied to any of the glass surfaces it bends; when the breaking point of its flexibility is
achieved, the glass cracks. As often as possible, cracked window glass will uncover data that can be
identified with the power and direction of an effect; such information might be valuable for
reproducing crime scene investigation.
Radial Fractures: When any projectile hit the
glass surface, the stretching occur and
compression occur in the inside layer. When it
crossed the threshold limit of elasticity, results
the crack will occur as a wavy line runs in a
straight line called the Radial fracture [26] as
shown in Fig. 5.

Concentric Fracture: A crack in a glass that

structures a rough circle, called concentric Fig 5: Sample shows the Radial and concentric
fracture [26] as shown in Fig. 5.. fracture

Cone or crater (Hertzian cone): It is a funnel or round crater shaped which is surrounded by the
radial and concentric fractures, damage caused by a high-velocity impact [11,26]. Cone fractures
determined the point of impact and the direction of the force applied on the glass [31,26,22].

Rib mark (Stress mark): The edges of the broken fragment of glass bears a number of curved lines
or conchodial lines, that marks is known as the Rib mark or Stress mark. Stress marks are like curves
that are opposite to one glass surface and bent almost parallel to the contrary surface. The
significance of stress marks comes from the perception that the opposite edge dependably faces the
surface on which the break started [26].

Walner Lines: In the high energy impact the glass fragments get rubbed with another fragment, due
to this small intended lines are formed called the Walner lines.

The shape of the mist zone may help to determine the angle of impact. If the bullet strikes at right
angle, the chip pattern around the hole is evenly distributed. If bullet strikes from the right side, it
will make the elliptical hole and also the considerable chipping pattern [31,26,29].

Frequently it is hard to decide just from the size and hole in glass whether it was made by a bullet or
by some other projectile. For example, a little metallic ball throned at a sufficient velocity against a
sheet of glass will frequently deliver an opening fundamentally the same as that created by a
projectile. Then again, a big stone can totally smash a sheet of glass in a way intently taking after the
consequence of a close run shot. In any case, in the last instance, the presence of black powder
deposited on the fractured glass pieces caused by the air gun.
When it penetrates glass, a high-speed shot, for example, a projectile regularly leaves around hole
shaped opening that is encompassed by an almost symmetrical example of spiral and concentric
breaks. The hole is inevitably wider at the exit side, and subsequently, its examination is an essential
factor in deciding the bearing of effect. As the speed of the penetration shot decreases, the
abnormality of the state of the gap and of its encompassing splits builds, so that sooner or later the
gap shape will give no help to deciding the course of effect. Right now, data got from an examination
of the radial and concentric fractures lines may demonstrate a valuable option in the investigation. A
convenient way for remembering these observations are as follows.
3R Rule: Radial cracks form a Right angle on the Reverse side of the force.
4R Rule: Radial cracks form a Right angle on the Rim of Reverse side of the force. The Walner lines
on the radial cracks nearest the point of impact are at right angles to the side opposite, or to the rear
of the impact, this phenomenon is called as the 4R Rule. Although, the 4R Rule is unreliable for
laminated, tempered and window glass which are tightly held in a frame [19].
Multiple Fracture Rule: The radial crack of the second target do not cross the crack of the first
target [26].

Analysis of Glass Fragments.

Glass pieces have various physical properties like thickness, refractive index. For the most part
thickness, refractive index and photograph’s offer the examination of the broken glass sections.
Rather than it, physical coordinating of the glass pieces can look at the part.
Every analytical test available is not always performed on each specimen. There are several reasons
for this occurrence. The aim of a comparative glass analysis is to exclude possible sources. When a
difference is detected, no further comparison is necessary. Additionally, sampling is typically beyond
the control of the forensic scientist and is subject to what happens to be preserved on suspects, on
victims and at crime scenes. The glass must then be recovered.
Finally, a glass fragment may be too small to be analyzed with reproducible results even when a
feature is preserved. Consequently, the actual tests performed on a set of specimens depending on the
size and shape of the glass fragment, as well as analytical considerations.

Preliminary examination could be done by considering the following parameters.

 Color: Materials can be added to the batch to produce glass in practically any color.
Alternately, impurities present in the raw materials used to produce glass can impart
unintentional color. Differences in color represent a change in glass chemistry and can be
used to differentiate specimens.
 Fluorescence: Many glass specimens will fluoresce when exposed to short wave (~254 nm)
and/or long wave (~350 nm) ultraviolet light. This fluorescence can be used as a basis to
differentiate glass specimens. Fluorescence throughout the body of a piece of glass can be
caused by the presence of certain elements such as uranium in chrome green glass. During the
production of modern glass manufactured using the float process, liquid glass is poured onto
a bath of molten tin. The glass surface that was in contact with the tin bath will fluoresce
when exposed to short-wave ultraviolet light. This fluorescence is caused by the uptake of tin
on one side of the glass during manufacturing. It has been reported that some coatings applied
to glass will also fluorescence.
 Thickness: Thickness is usually tightly controlled by the manufacturer, on the order of
thousandths of an inch in a single sheet. Variations in thickness can produce unsightly ripples
 in the glass sheet, lessening the market value of the glass. Thickness is a function of the
viscosity of the glass. Viscosity can be changed only by changing the glass composition or
the furnace temperature.
Thickness in the Forensic laboratory can be measured using a micrometer or caliper but requires that
fragments possess both original surfaces. Because thickness produces a quantitative measure, the
precision and accuracy of the micrometer must be considered when evaluating the results of
thickness measurements. When the thickness of a piece of flat glass is measurably different from the
range expressed in the known glass standard, those glasses can be determined to have come from
different sources.
 Surface Features: Surface features are imparted during glass manufacturing and fabricating
processes or during use. These features can include mold and polish marks, mirrored
backings, scratches, and decorative finishes such as texturing, etching or frosting, and
coatings. The majority of these features can be compared visually using a stereomicroscope,
but coatings are not usually apparent to the naked eye and may require sophisticated
instrumentation for detection and comparison. Transmission electron microscopy, X-ray
scattering, atomic force microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy have all
been used for the analysis of glass coatings. These features also can be used to discriminate
between glass objects.
 Curvature: Whether or not a fragment of glass is flat or curved often can be determined
visually with the aid of low-power magnification. For small particles, interferometry can be
used. The curvature of glass can be used as a point of comparison and as a method of
determining a broad product type.
 Refractive index (n): It is a unit less measure of the speed of light in a transparent medium
and is defined by Snell’s law as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of
the wave in the transparent medium. Refractive index is the most commonly measured
property in the forensic examination of glass fragments because precise refractive indices can
be measured rapidly on the small fragments typically found in casework.
(1.) It can aid in the characterization of glass.
(2.) It provides good discrimination potential.
Refractive index and dispersion can be measured by many methods.
(1.) The precision refractometer measures indices only at the surface of the glass. A V-block
refractometer can measure only the average refractive index through a block of glass.
Although both methods when applied appropriately are accurate to six decimal places, they
require the use of large polished glass samples. Samples adequately large for these methods
are rarely encountered in forensic casework.
(2.) Immersion methods are used to measure refractive index in some laboratories. These
methods take advantage of the fact that when using monochromatic light, a particle immersed
in a liquid of identical refractive index will become invisible. The particle is viewed through
a microscope. A classic technique used is called the Becke line method. In the Becke line
method, a bright light (Becke line) is observed around the particle. Movement of the Becke
line with respect to the particle on changing the microscope focus indicates refractive index
of the particle relative to the immersion oil. The amount of contrast between the particle and
the immersion liquid indicates the magnitude of the difference in refractive index. The
fragment is then removed from the liquid, washed, and placed in another liquid with a
 refractive index closer to the match point. This process is repeated until the refractive index
of the match point has either been reached or bracketed by two oils. When the match point is
approached, the results can be plotted on Hartmann dispersion nets, which allows for the
extrapolation of the results of liquids.
 Density: Density is mass per unit volume. Density is a function of chemical composition and
atomic arrangement, which are controlled by the composition of the batch and the cooling
history of the glass. Density in glass can be assessed either quantitatively by direct
measurement or qualitatively by simultaneous comparison of two or more specimens.
Accurate density measurements require a sample that is two to three millimeters in diameter, much
larger than particles typically encountered in Forensic casework. Additionally, particles of this size
are suitable for chemical analysis, which is a more discriminating technique. Density and refractive
index are correlated with the majority of glass samples. Refractive index determinations are more
rapid and can be performed with smaller samples, so most laboratories choose to perform refractive
index determinations first.
Elemental Analysis
Manufacturers control the concentrations of many chemical elements to impart specific properties to
their glass product. The concentrations of trace elements, however, are generally uncontrolled unless
they alter the glass in some undesirable way. Trace elements can be introduced to glass as impurities
in the raw materials and from deterioration of the glass furnace. Glass composition analysis,
therefore can be used to differentiate between glasses made by different manufacturers. Glasses from
different production lines of the same manufacturer.
The Forensic scientist should use the most discriminating technique available in the examination of
glass or other forms of trace evidence because it is the most effective means of both avoiding false
associations and exclude two similar, but separate sources. It is in the best interest of the court for the
scientist to use the most discriminating analytical technique even if this means that exact probability
figures for a conclusion cannot be calculated.
Many methods have been used for compositional analysis of glass. These methods include semi-
quantitative techniques.
 Scanning Electron Microscopy
 X-ray Fluorescence

 Neutron Activation Analysis

 Spark-Source Mass Spectrometry

 Flameless Atomic Absorption Spectrometry