New Media and Communication Research:

Current Epistemological Approaches

-----------------------------------------

Dr. Wail Ismail A. Barry

University of Sharjah - UAE

Abstract:

Presumably, communication research was developed according to

a timeline that focused on the era of: modernization, media effects,
globalization and lately the information society. New ontological
and epistemological terms have been coined to help elaborate the
theoretical underpinnings of communication research. The current
article seeks for examining the development of communication
within the paradigm of the “new media.” The researcher is going to
use the focus group technique to address the main theme. Also, he
adopts an integrative theoretical framework that may explain the
diverse paradoxical communication issues. Frank Webster, Manuel
Castells, and other veteran theorists paved the way for new avenues
of current epistemological approaches utilized in the media genre.

Key Concepts:
Synergism - Public Sphere - Information Society- Epistemology

285
Introduction:

Actually, the epoch of digitization led to the development of

communication research. Coincidently, the major issues of the: use,
reception, integration, and practices of new media have become
commonly tackled in the scholarly communication journals.

Critically, communication scholars conceived of the major changes

all over the globe while theorizing on the current status quo of the
mass media research. For example, many new research techniques
have been lately incorporated in the genre of online journalism.
Similarly, new ontological and epistemological terms have been
coined to help elaborate the theoretical underpinnings of broadcast
communication research.

To begin with, the concept of the new media can be defined as the
combination of digital, computerized, networked information
and communication that lead to the production of various types
of media content. Since the end of the 20th Century, a substantial
transformation occurred in the communication process due to the
rapid innovation and diffusion of the applications of the new media.
For example, web-based newspapers, podcasting, You-tube,
streaming videos…etc are many manifestations of the introduction
of new media in the genre of mass media.

In light of the increasing pace of new media development,

communication scholars started asking the question of how to
relate between communication research in the era of traditional
theoretical approaches and paradigms and the epoch of digitization
with its new realities?

Bryant and Miron (2004) sketched out a profile of mass

communication theory during 1956-2000. Indeed, they tried to
assess mass communication theory over time till the end of the

286
century and the emergence of the new millennium. The authors
found that communication research was affected in terms of
content, substance, audience and the media system itself due to
the impact of convergence lately since the diffusion of the Internet
in the mid 1990s.

To this effect, it can be argued that the new challenges and

developments in the media genre may definitely require
reassessment of the epistemological ideas inherent in
communication research nowadays. It was found that there were
three major epistemological schools of thoughts that governed the
flow of communication research since its inception. They were the
British Cultural Studies, the Chicago School of Sociological Studies,
and the Frankfurt School of Critical Theory.

The aim of this article is to deconstruct the paradoxes of the use of

epistemological approaches. Critically, these approaches are in a
state of continuous development especially within the research
spectrum of the new media. The current research argument is
theoretical and rooted in the epistemological debates on media in
the past and the present.

Literature:

The literature surveyed reveals that handling the epistemological

dimensions can be categorized according to the theoretical and
methodological core factors in many communication research
studies. The researcher maintains that there are five distinguished
chronological milestones in the history of communication
research that shape the way communication scholars tackle
the epistemological questions. First, the development of the
communication theory widens the scope of studying the symbolic
interactive relationships resulting from the use of the media being

287
traditional or new. Second, the emergence of interdisciplinary
communication research incorporates new epistemological
thoughts like that of Manuel Castells’ “the enlightenment tradition
of critical emancipatory of social science.” Third, the creation of
Jurgen Habermas’ concept of the “public sphere” formulates and
coins many of the current epistemological conceptualizations of the
media genre. Fourth, the tri-dimensional paradigm of Mark Poster’s
“synergism, pluralism, and fragmentation” seems functioning while
communication scholars study the effects of new media. Finally,
the concept of Pierre Bourdieu’s “the new shape of the society”
can be utilized epistemologically in interpreting the socio-cultural
phenomenal aspects of the new media.

Kamhawi and Weaver (2003) studied mass communication research

trends from 1980 to 1999. Their study analyzes 10 major research
journals in the field of communication research. They found that
qualitative research methods continued to be less common than
quantitative methods during the said period. The two authors were
also seeking for identifying the common theoretical frameworks.

Critically, it can be maintained that the development of

communication research can be scholarly analyzed in terms
of figuring out these categories: the rationales, methods,
epistemological aspects and the theoretical innovations. In turn,
this may represent a crucial question regarding the effective
functionality of the same categories while applying them to the
new media studies. The researcher, here, presumes that the
formulations of the information and the networked societies
in addition to the existence of the public sphere in the era of
globalization would definitely lead to reconfiguring the nature of
communication research. A major primary point appears substantial
to be highlighted here that revolves around the applicability of using
old research methods in conducting current new media research.

288
James Slevin (2000) maintained that new media has expended at
a phenomenal rate, converging different modes of conventional
communication being print or electronic into interactive (p: 1).
To this effect, the development of mass media recently have
transformed the nature of communication in the society to the
extent that individuals experience events outside their current
social environment. This is exemplified in the transmission of
satellite channels, the use of the Internet and so on. On due course,
communication scholars find themselves encountered with new
paradigms of research aspects that may need to take into account
the socio-cultural and political epistemic realities in the 21st. Century.
Slevin indicated three factors that help communication scholars
in understanding the new media. The first one is the interactional
impact of the Internet and this requires some critical analysis in the
theories of knowledge. The second is the need for understanding the
socio-cultural and political development existing in the information
age because this would help in understanding and assessing the
development of mediated content. The third is studying new media
as a cultural phenomenon.

Thus, it can be stated that the synergy of all the said aspects and
categories is governing the process of identifying the new epistemic
approaches of studying the new media. However, there is still a need
for examining the new research tools that are currently used in new
media communication research. Ulla Carlsson (2007) studied the
status of media and mass communication over the past 50 years. She
found that the scholarly communication research was developed
since the 1950 due to the major political changes. In addition,
Carlsson maintained that the epoch of the 1980s represented the
“cultural turn” during the last century (p: 225). During that time,
communication research witnessed the incorporation of many
interdisciplinary approaches in the media studies. Furthermore,
she raised critical points regarding the information society that
we are supposedly living in now. For example, the author asked

289
communication scholars to examine the use of new media and
how does this relate to the idea of social change and improving the
every day life of individuals. Besides, she investigated the idea of
knowledge cultivation of the new media (p: 227).

John B. Thompson (1994) assessed the impact of new media of

communication and came up with an argument. He contended
that the deployment of communication media establishes new
forms of interaction and new kinds of social relationships between
individuals (p: 34). This can be seemingly applied to the current
discussed topic. In terms of the epistemological development, one
can argue that the theory of “symbolic interaction” was developed
long times ago but it can still be used in analyzing many of the
human relationships. Thompson coined three types of interaction:
interpersonal, mediated and quasi mediated. Typically, this is what
new media offers the online audience now. The Internet, You-Tube,
Face Book, and all types of social networking are clear examples of
new patterns of interactivity with various levels. Indeed, Thompson
referred in his article to the importance of the cultural domain and
the public sphere in studying the idea of interactivity.

Theory:

Based on many of the previous arguments, I assume that studying

the epistemological approaches that may interpret the functionality
of new media requires the conceptualization of communication
research from a knowledge-based prism that may offer critics
many facets of theoretical underpinnings. To this effect, I found
while reviewing the literature that there are clear landmarks in the
history of communication research. They include the following:
uses and gratifications, the post-industrial society, interpretation
and hermeneutics, demographics and psychographics, the value
system, the diffusion of the Internet.

290
As a matter of fact, globalization plays a role in explaining the current
epistemological developments in the genre of communication
research. Jan Ekecrantz (2007) argued that globalization works on
developing new epistemologies and cross disciplinary approaches
in the media studies (p: 169). He asked how media research can be
conducted in a global era. In addition, he questioned the needs for
new approaches, paradigms, and methodologies that interpret
communication research in the digital era. Ekecrantz’s questions
seem crucial when we face new research tools and methods
in the media genre like: conversation analysis, diary research,
ethnography, genre analysis, grounded theory, historical approach,
logfile analysis, narration analysis, network analysis, qualitative
reception analysis, usability research, and visual content analysis.

Actually, four core elements led the researcher in the current study
to examine the need for hitting the issue of epistemology in the age
of new media. First, the current development in communication
research methods reflects on the development of the knowledge
itself. Second, the nature of media audience changes over the last
two decades with the rapid diffusion of the Internet. Third, social
science theorists and communication scholars became interested in
examining new avenues of cross disciplinary approaches towards the
media studies. Finally, the emergence of a diversified and pluralistic
media content led to the inspection of the epistemological resources
that may confer new theoretical rationales and conceptualizations
upon the genre of communication research.

Evidently, many recent studies showed that it sounds substantial

to develop the epistemological manipulation of media studies in
many tracks like: the audience, the content, the method, and the
empiricism of research. In light of this, (Philip Napoli, 2007), (Shan
Li, 2007), (Virginia Nightingale, 2007), (Wei He, 2007), (Waddick
Doyle, 2007), (Keren Weinblatt, 2007), (Lars Christinsen, 2007),

291
and (Chun-Fu Chen, 2007) handled new areas of research addressing
the said aspects.

It is true that the introduction of new media is widely diffused

which marks the real existence of what is called the “information
age.” However, this age is not only branded with the diffusion of
communication technologies. There is a need for understanding it
epistemologically.

Frank Webster (2005) studied the information society with some

sort of critique. He questioned the idea of change in societies from
a sociological point of view with special focus on the virtual society
(p: 440). He believed that both technology and technique are the
two major drivers of the information society in which new media are
functioning. However, he criticizes the use of only the technological
determinist framework in studying the informationsociety.That why
Webster referred to Manuel Castells, a sociologist, who introduced
new epistemological approaches in studying the information age
that may include the concepts of: change, political engagement,
and stratification (p: 448).

Furthermore, the thorough views of Webster went further to

include the cultural dimension within the new approaches inherent
in studying the information age. Webster contented that culture
emphasizes on the mediation of relations and the rearrangements
of new areas of research.

Thus, a major question appeared important to be raised after

reviewing the critical views of Webster. Are the traditional media
theories offering communication scholars new avenues and
horizons to study the relationship between the audience and the
new media?

292
Functionally, one can say that the traditional theoretical approaches
may be of effective use in interpreting the relationship between
the audience and the new media. However, some media studies
offer the scholars crucial questions that may raise the need for
developing new epistemological approaches. For example, a whole
set of questions revolved around the following issues:

- To what extent the Internet (which is a manifestation of the

new media) allow an advance in the relationships between media
organizations and individuals?
- What is the relationship between the Internet and fulfilling the
social goals in a given society?
- What types of new forms induced by the new media on both
society and the individuals?

I think that the said questions represent three types of issues related
to the societal effect of new media, the social reality of new modern
digital society and the idea of networking which is a common issue
now in communication research. The following table in the method
section explains the possible development in communication
research in different fields over the past three decades with special
reference to

Method:

The researcher surveyed the Journal of Communication Research

starting the first issue in 1974 till recently and could figure out the
major following outcomes. Such a process is currently called in the
genre of media studies research (Logfile Server Analysis).

293
Table (1)- Journal of Communication Research- SAGE Publications
1974-2008 (N= 179 articles).

Methods &
Theory Fields Covered
Approaches

-Information Theory

-Agenda Setting -TV News

-Media Effects -Film Preferences

-Political Communication -Message Content

-Knowledge Gap
-Organization Theory
-Dependency Model
-Social Theory
-Social Construction of Reality
-Framing Theory
-Diffusion and Social Impacts
-Cultivation
-Communication Networks
-Globalization
-Computer Mediated Communication
-Communication and Development
-Audience Perception
-Opinion Formation
-Media Behaviour
-Cognitive
Development
-Information Processing
-Experimental Studies
-Gender and Communication
-Content Analysis
-Communication Influence
-Network Analysis
-Internet Connectedness
-Connectedness and Community
-Communication and Social Class
-Socio-Cultural Evolution
-Audience Assessment
-Communication and Social Change

The previous table shows the various types of theories, research

techniques and topics covered. The issue of networking appears
evident in the last studies of communication research. This may
draw the attention of scholars to consider it as a new area of research
since new media diffusion is sweeping the human society nowadays.
Furthermore, the above table will lead us to methodological
considerations.

294
Based on the issues, arguments and findings of the literature,
the researcher managed to use the “focus group method” to
gain knowledge about the topic of the current study. Its use
is justified on the basis that the focus group technique offers
supposedly quality data to be later employed. And this is what
the researcher is after. In addition, the topic discussed here does
not need a quantitative method which is common in many of the
mass communication articles. The researcher conducted three
sessions of the focus group technique over three weeks with the
attendance of 16 communication scholars each time. Each session
focused on a specific epistemological core point. For example, the
first empistemological item focused on the duality of globalization
and culture. Meanwhile, the second addressed the development of
media concepts and the demanding effect of the media concepts
like the public sphere. The final concluded the major epistemological
and theoretical developments within the realms of both the
methodology and the techniques of mass media.

The major research questions of the current study revolved

around the following:

1-Does communication research need contemporary innovation of

theory, method, and technique?

2-What is the relationship between the diffusion of new media and

the viability of the traditional epistemological and methodological
paradigms?

3-What are the possible advancements in communication research

in terms of knowledge accumulation, theoretical approaches, and
new research tools?

295
Findings:

The consecutive intellectual three sessions revealed cumulative

issues that need to be epistemologically considered.

To begin with, the process of globalization is a stressing issue that
governs the academic scholarly literature not only in the media
genre but also in many intellectual disciplines. Indeed, globalization
affects culture and the value system in any given society. This
research outcome attracts the attention of communication
scholars to incorporate the global effect in their topics. It is evident
in many studies that scholars deal with globalization as a theoretical
framework by itself. Objectively, this can be regarded as a new
epistemological aspect in the media studies.

Besides, the mass communication concepts and terms have been

reproduced with new explanation and interpretation. This is due
to the diffusion of communication technology. For example, new
concepts like: synergism, fragmentation, niche media markets,
convergence, digital divide, interactivity, new media, the
information society, and social networking are becoming regular
subjects to be addressed in the new information age.

Critically, these terms need an epistemological coinage to build

upon these concepts new theoretical approaches and paradigms.
One believes that there is a need for developing the epistemological
and methodological pillars of the media studies because scientific
knowledge is cumulative. Furthermore, such knowledge should
address the new realities of the human society. However, the
development of knowledge should bear the answers for many
methodological questions in the media genre.

Regarding the third outcome of the focus group findings, many

points have been raised. First, it was found that the development

296
of new theoretical paradigms can’t cope with the increasing
development of new media. Second, there was a need for setting
up an epistemological framework that explains the possible effects
of the new media. Third, the empirical media studies seemed to be
lacking because they need some more analytical knowledge which
raises the importance of the new epistemological approaches.
Fourth, it was found that some communication scholars argue
that new media are correlated with the “end of the audience.” This
is because the term audience itself was changed with the wide
diffusion of new media. Actually, the audience is receiving and
producing the media content. Fifth, it was also found that the mass
media traditional research tools need to be reconsidered to cope
with new developments in the media genre.

The new research tools that the researcher could come up with
include:
Table (2)

Type of Research Tools & Methods:

- Conversation analysis
- Diary analysis
- Ethnography
- Genre analysis
- Historical approach
- Logfile analysis
- Narration analysis
- Network analysis
- Observation analysis
- Psychological measuring
- Qualitative reception analysis
- Reception analysis
- Textual analysis
- Usability research
- View recording
- Visual content analysis

297
Discussion:

The previous table reveals the stressing demand for incorporating

new patterns of knowledge and approaches of theories in
communication research. It was mentioned before that three
core elements characterize the epistemological approaches
of communication research recently. They are the duality of
globalization and the cultural aspects of the media, the existence of
the public sphere, and the introduction of new research methods to
cope with the diffusion of the new media.

In his edited book Media and Power, James Curran (2002) sketched
out many approaches that can establish an epistemological
framework. He contended that media analysis should be studied
through the examination of content, organization, and audience.
To this effect, he proposed some approaches like these: pluralist,
conservative, feminist, post modern that help in understanding
the media (p: 166). Critically, I presume that these approaches are
bearing the essence of knowledge accumulation since they reflect
the historical development of the modern intellectual society.
Curran explains more by maintaining that the history of the media
can be assessed and understood by identifying five positions:
liberal, feminist, populist, libertarian, and anthropological. Curran’s
view does not contradict with what the researcher found in the
current study that culture plays a major role nowadays in studying
new media. Besides, globalization intermingles with culture to the
extent that led Curran to highlight the “cultural globalization theory”
as a new theoretical rationale which may be required in studying the
mass media in the information age.

In another chapter titled “New Revisionism in Media and Cultural

Studies,” Curran introduced a new epistemological approach in
studying the media. He named this approach the new revisionism
which is mainly attacking the traditional premises and assumptions

298
of the media. In addition, he coined the new episteme to criticise
the ways of conceptualizing the role of media and the explanatory
frameworks and paradigms in mass communication research (p:
105). The researcher, here, agrees with Curran’s argument. This is
because communication scholars need to set up and incorporate
new ontological and epistemological paradigms that explain the
actions of the new media.

It can be argued that the use of new media leads communication

scholars to make the utmost benefit form other interdisciplinary
fields. This study found that there is a new research method called
the “narrative analysis.” Coincidentally, Michael Cornfield (1992)
explained the origins of the method as being drawn from “non-
deconstructionist” literary criticism. The importance of this new
research method is that it enables journalists to cover a certain
topic with comprehending the associated meanings. I assume that
this represents a new step forward in the media studies because it
takes into account the knowledge aspect which is the corner stone
of epistemology.

I think that examining communication research in terms of

epistemology needs a sort of formulating a cognitive framework
that enables communication scholars to innovate in theorizing on
the media. In addition, this framework would act as the launch pad for
those scholars to socially and culturally understand the new media.

The findings of the current study assert on the importance of

renovating communication research after the rapid expansion
of the new media. Similarly, Thomas Hanitzsch (2007) was
concerned with proposing a new theoretical foundation on the
basis of which systematic and comparative research of journalism
cultures becomes feasible and meaningful. He did so by introducing
three conceptualizations of journalism genre: institutional,
epistemological, and ethical. Again, this highlights the role of

299
diffusing new ideas in the media genre to cope with the new
applications of the new media.

I found in the current study that if there is a need for coining new
research methods that would answer the new questions and
imperatives of new media, then there are needs for some criteria
to be imposed by scholars. Clearly, table (2) showed a whole set
of newly introduced research methods that are currently utilized
in many media studies. I believe that these methods need the
epistemological frameworks that intellectually originate them in
the media genre. As for the criteria, they need to include the points
of: criticism, verification, objectivity, contemplation, cause-effect,
rationalism, experimentation and the exact evidence. Hence, these
criteria supposedly offer communication scholars a chance to
conduct media studies with new epistemological aspects. Actually,
the said criteria match with what the famous Arab theorist Ibn
Khaldoun once set as the basics of the integrative methodological
approach.

In the mean time, the current study revealed that the notion of the
“public sphere” is a recurring epistemological factor that directs
scholars in the information age. It was found that one of the major
concepts is the social networking and networking analysis is also
an important research method. I believe that both of the terms
are closely related to the existence of the new media. In addition,
they introduce scholars to study the public sphere with the new
imperatives of the information age. This means for example to
examine the issues of interactivity, access, Internet diffusion,
digital divide, global news dissemination, the digital audience
and so on. I assume that many of the tackled findings answer the
major research questions of this study. I tried to present the new
research methods and techniques but still I have not answered yet
the question related to the viability of using traditional theories in
new media studies. In terms of the functional approach, scholars

300
can depend on these traditional underpinnings in describing and
analyzing the major issues of media studies. However, the current
study calls for renovating the media genre on both levels: theories
and techniques. Indeed, the possible epistemological view that the
current study offers references communication research at three
levels: globalization, culture, and the public sphere. In addition, it
can be said that the roles of media organization, audience, and media
content are determining the shape of communication research
currently.

Conclusion:

The current article has illustrated the role of epistemological

approaches in developing the horizons of communication research
in the information age. The findings of the study hold three
important implications. First, the research outcomes are the first
step in the establishment of new epistemological approaches that
illustrate the new possible theoretical paradigms that can help
communication scholars in examining the effects of new media
empirically. Second, the duality of the globalization model and the
cultural imperatives reveals their demanding effect on the scholarly
communication research as offering a chance for interdisciplinary
approaches to be used in the media studies. Third, the incorporation
of the public sphere represents a core epistemological point in
communication research nowadays due to the interconnectivity of
the global society. Indeed, communication scholars are encouraged
to thoroughly consider the development of new research methods
in communication research.

301
References:

Bryant, J. and Miron, D. (2004. Dec.) “Theory and Research in Mass

Communication.” Journal of Communication, 54, (4), pp: 662-
704.
Carlsson, U. (2007) “Media and Mass Communication Research:
past, present, and future- reflections from a Nordic horizon.” Nordic
Review, Jubilee Issue, pp: 223-229.
Chen, C. (2008) The Construction of “Audience Knowledge” in
Cable TV Market: a case study of the popular music channels. A paper
presented at the IAMCR Annual Convention in Stockholm, Sweden,
20-25 July 2008.
Christensen, L. (2008) Performing Media Consumption: an
experimental view on media audiences. A paper presented at the
IAMCR Annual Convention in Stockholm, Sweden, 20-25 July 2008.
Cornfield, M. (1992. Jan.- Mar.) “The Press and Political Controversy:
the case for narrative analysis.” Journal of Political Communication,
9, (1), pp: 47-59.
Curran, J. (2002) (Ed.) Media and Power. New York: Routledge.
Doyle, W. (2008) Dragging Audiences into the Political Sphere: the
case of Italy. A paper presented at the IAMCR Annual Convention in
Stockholm, Sweden, 20-25 July 2008.
Ekecrantz, J. (2007) “Media and Communication Studies Going
Global.” Nordic Review, Jubilee Issue, pp: 169-181.
Hanitzsch, T. (2007. Nov.) “Deconstructing Journalism Culture:
toward a universal theory.” Journal of Communication Theory, 17,
(4), pp: 367-385.
He, W. (2008) Mob or Citizen? The Rise of Networked Users and its
Impact on China Society. A paper presented at the IAMCR Annual
Convention in Stockholm, Sweden, 20-25 July 2008.
Kamhawi, R. and Weaver, D. (2003. Spring) “Mass Communication
Research Trends from 1980-1999.” Journalism & Mass
Communication Quarterly, 80, (1), pp: 7-27.

302
Li, S. (2008) Border-Crossing and Media Consumption: theory
and empirical exploration. A paper presented at the IAMCR Annual
Convention in Stockholm, Sweden, 20-25 July 2008.
Napoli, P. (2008) Toward a Model of Audience Evolution: new
technologies and the transformation of media audiences. A paper
presented at the IAMCR Annual Convention in Stockholm, Sweden,
20-25 July 2008.
Nightingale, V. (2008) Qualitative Audience Research: reflections
on contemporary practise. A paper presented at the IAMCR Annual
Convention in Stockholm, Sweden, 20-25 July 2008.
Slevin, J. (2000) The Internet and Society. UK: Polity Press.
Thompson, J. (1994) “Social Theory and the Media.” (In) Crowley,
D. and Mitchell, D. (eds.) Communication Theory Today. California:
Stanford University Press.
Webster, F. (2005. Dec.) “Making Sense of the Information
Age: sociology and cultural studies.” Journal of Information,
Communication & Society, 8, (4), pp: 439-458.
Weinblatt, K. (2008) Journalists as Audiences of Popular Culture.
A paper presented at the IAMCR Annual Convention in Stockholm,
Sweden, 20-25 July 2008.

303