CHAPTER I:

DEFINITION OF TRANSLATION

Before going to the content, we have to know firstly about what the

translation is. Translation is defined in many ways and by many experts or

sources. The followings are some of them.

According to Brislin (1976:1), translation is a general term referring to the

transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language to another, whether the

language is in written or oral form, whether the languages have established

orthographies or not; or whether one or both languages is based on signs, as

with signs of the deaf.

Another expert, Wilss (1982:3), states that translation is a transfer process

which aims at the transformation of a written source language text (SLT) into

an optimally equivalent target language text (TLT), and which requires the

syntactic, the semantic, and the pragmatic understanding and analytical

processing of the source text. Syntactic understanding is related to style and

meaning. Understanding of semantics is meaning related activity. Finally,

pragmatic understanding is related to the message or implication of a sentence.

This definition does not states what is transferred. Rather, it states the

requirement of the process.

1
 Nida and Taber (1982:12) see translating as a process of reproducing in

the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language

message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. In other words,

translation is a transfer of meaning, message, and style from one SLT to the TLT.

In the order of priority, style is put the last. Here the things to reproduce (transfer)

is stated, message.

Newmark (1991:27) defines the act of translating very briefly. It is the act

of transferring meaning of a stretch or a unit of language, the whole or a part,

from one language to another. (The discussion on meaning can be seen at sub-

point F. Meaning, Message, and Style.)

According to Ghazala (1995), "translation is generally used to refer to all

the process and methods used to convey the meaning of the source language in to

the target language" (P.1. Ghazala's definition focuses on the notion of meaning as

an essential element in translation. That is, when translating, understanding the

meaning of source text is vital to have the appropriate equivalent in the target text

thus, it is meaning that is translated in relation to grammar, style and sounds

(Ghazala, 1995).

According to Manser (1996:441), translation is the activity of changing

something spoken or written into another language. It means that whatever we are

doing with something (e.g. information, idea), when changed into another

language is called translation

2
 Nida and Taber (1974:12) state that translating consists of reproducing in

the receptor language (RL) the closest natural equivalent of the source language

(SL) message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.

Catford (1965:1) defines that translation is an operation performed on

languages: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another.

The writer assumes that all of the activities of transferring a text from one

language to another are called translation.

Larson (1984:1) states that translation consists of studying the lexicon,

grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the SL

text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, then reconstructing the same

meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which appropriate in the RL

and its cultural context. Larson also says that translation has three steps; they are

studying the source text, analyzing it and reconstructing the meaning.

According to Wilss in Rudi Hartono (2009) in Widarwati’s research

paper 2015, translation is a transfer process which aims at the transformation of a

written source language text (SLT) into an optimally equivalent target language

text (TLT), and which requires the syntactic, the semantic, and the pragmatic

understanding and analytical processing of the source text.

3
 Based on Nord (shutttleworth and Cowie, 2007:182), Translation is the

production of a functional target text maintaining a relationship with a given

source text that is specified according to the intended or demanded function of the

target text.

According to Sager (1994:293), Translation is an extremely motivated

industrial activity, supported by information technology, which is diversified in

response to the particular needs of this form of communication.

Koller (1995: 196) said that Translation can be understood as the result of

a text-processing activity, by means of which a source-language text is transposed

into a target-language text. Between the resulting text in L2 (the target-language

text) and the source text L1 (the source language text) there exists a relationship

which can be designated as translational, or equivalence relation.

Meetham and Hudson (1972:713) define Translation as the replacement

of a text in one language by a replacement of an equivalent text in a second

language.

Translation is an act through which the content of a text is transferred from

the source language in to the target language (Foster, 1958).

Hatim and Munday (2004: 6) define translation as “the process of

transferring a written text from source language (SL) to target language (TL)”. In

4
this definition they do not explicitly express that the object being transferred is

meaning or message. They emphasis on translation as a process.

Yusuf (1994:8) says that translation can be defined as all of human

activities in transferring information or message-verbal or non-verbal- from

original information into target information. It means that when we transfer

information from one source to another then we do translation.

Simatupang (1999:2) defines translating is transferring the meaning of SL

into RL and rewaken it in RL with natural forms that follow the valid rules in RL)

Haryanto (2007) collected some definition of translation appearing from

1960s until 1970s. He concludes that translation are: (1) a change of expression

from one language to the other, (2) the meaning and message that are rendered in

the TL, and (3) that the translator has an obligation to seek for the closest

equivalent in the target language (TL). There is process of transferring meaning

and from one expression to the other with good equivalent in target language.

Bell (1991) says that the expression in another language (or target

language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving

semantic and stylistic equivalences is a definition of translation.

5
 From the definitions above, the writers conclude that translation is defined

as the process of transferring the idea or information from the source language to

the target language through interpretation. For instance, when a teacher explains

his idea to the students, he does a translation activity, i.e. he transfers the idea (the

material of the lessons) from his mind to the students by using language that can

be understood by them. In short, translation is the process of transferring the

meaning of the idea, verbally and non-verbally from one to another.

SOURCE:

Catford, J. (1995) Alinguistic Theory of Translation. London. Oxford University

Press.

Ghazala, Hasan, (1995) Translation as problems and solutions (4th ed.) Syria: Dar
Elkalem ElArabi.

Yowell, A. Muftan, S. L (1999) principles of Translation. Dar Annahda

Alarabiya.

Baker, Mona (1992). In Other Words, A Coursebook on Translation. London:

Routledge Hatim dan Munday (2004: 6) Translation, An Advanced Resource

Book.

Larson (1984: 6) Meaning Based Translation: A Guide to Cross Language

Equivalent. Boston: University Press of America. Machali,

Newmark (1988). A Textbook of Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall

International Nida,

6
 CHAPTER II:

TRANSLATION TYPES

According to Jacobson (Bassnett, 2002: 23), there are three types of

translation ‘on account of his semiotic approach to language’ (Haque, 2012:

108). They are Intra-lingual translation, Inter-semiotic translation and the last

is Inter-lingual translation. The first one, Intra-lingual translation or

‘rewording (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs in the

same language)’ deals with making things clear of something by rephrasing a

text or expression in the same language. The second one is Inter-semiotic

translation or ‘transmutation (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of

signs of nonverbal sign systems)’. It involves transferring the essence of the

original (such as a written text) to a different medium as the vessel, such as

music, painting or film. The last one is the Inter-lingual translation or

‘translation proper (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other

language).’ In other words, it is a translation from one language to another. It

is regarded by Munday (2001:2) as the traditional one which is the ‘focus of

translation’.

In a different approach, Catford (Heidary, 2009) states three types of

translation which he describes as ‘very broad types’ First is ‘The extent of

translation (full translation vs partial translation). In full translation, the entire

text is submitted to the translation process, that is, every part of the source

7
language text is replaced by the target language text material. In partial

translation, some parts of the source language text are left un translated. They

are simply transferred to the target language text. The second is The

grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank

bound translation vs. unbounded translation). Rank-bound translation is

translation in which the selection of TL equivalents is deliberately confined to

one rank or a few ranks in the hierarchy of grammatical units, usually at word

or morpheme rank, that is, setting up word-to-word or morpheme-to-

morpheme equivalence. In contrast with this, normal total translation in which

equivalences shift freely up and down the rank scale is called unbounded

translation. The third is The levels of language involved in translation (total

translation vs. restricted translation). Total translation means the replacement

of SL grammar and lexis by equivalent TL grammar and lexis with

consequential replacement of SL phonology or graphology by non-equivalent

TL phonology or graphology. While restricted translation means the

replacement of SL textual material by equivalent TL textual material at only

one level, that is translation performed only at the phonological or at graphic-

logical level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.

House (Manfredi, 2008: 84) classifies two types of translation: Overt

translation and covert translation. In overt translation, she claims that it does

not have to try to be the ‘second original’ because an overt translation favors

to keep the source text’s cultural value into the target text. She also reckons

that the source text worth to be refer as an overt translation is the one which

8
“both culture bond and potentially of general human interest, so ’timeless’…

and offering a message that can be seen as a generalization on some aspect of

human existence.” (Manfredi, 2008: 85). He says a literary text is one of the

examples that fall into these criteria because it may transfer ‘any specific

historical meaning, or aesthetic creation which distinct historical meanings”

(Manfredi, 2008: 85). While overt translation favors the source text, the covert

translation on the other hand, is ‘a translation which present itself and function

as a second original and …may conceivably have been written in its own

right’ (Manfredi, 2008: 85). This type of translation attempts to reproduce the

functions from the source text into the target context as close as possible.

Based on the purpose of translation, Brislin (in Choliludin, 2007: 26-29)

categorizes translation into these following types.

Pragmatic Translation

It refers to the translation of a message with an interest in accuracy of the

information that was meant to be conveyed in the source language form. It

is not concerned with other aspects of the original language version.

Aesthetic-poetic

Translation This refers to translation in which the translator takes into

account the affect, emotion, and feelings of an original agnate version, the

aesthetic form used by the original author, as well as any information in

9
 the message. The examples of this type are the translation of sonnet,

rhyme, heroic couplet, dramatic dialogue, and novel.

Ethnographic Translation

The purpose of ethnographic translation is to explicate the cultural context

of the source language and target language versions. Translators have to be

sensitive to the way the words are used and must know how the words fits

into cultures.

Linguistic Translation

This is concerned with equivalent meanings of the constituent morphemes

of the source language and grammatical form. The example is the

language in a computer program and machine translation.

According to Larson (1984: 15) translation is classified into two main

types, namely form-based and meaning-based translation. Form-based translation

attempts to follow the form of Source Language and is known as literal

translation, while meaning-based translation makes every effort to communicate

the meaning of the SL text in the natural forms of the receptor language. Such

translation is called idiomatic translation.

SOURCE:
Nida,Eugene A and Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation.Leiden:
E.J.Brill.1969.p16

Munday, jeremy and Basil Hatim.Translation an advanced resource book.

Newyork: Routledge. 2004. p5

10
A S Homby Oxford. 1995. Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English
(fifth edition).Oxford University press: Oxford.p.389 Munday, J. Introducing
Translation

Baker, Mona. In Other Words: a Coursebook on Translation, London:

Routledge.1992. p.12

CHAPTER III:

TRANSLATION PROCESS

There are attempts to describe how the process of translation works inside

the translator’s mind. Some use only explanation and description of the stages

in a sequence and some add schemes or diagrams. One of prominent linguist

who engaged in translation field is Nida. He proposes the very basic concept

of translation process that many other models follow and adapt. Nida

(Bassnett, 2002: 25) illustrates his model of the translation process as follows.

In Nida’s model of translation process, the first step taken by translator is

to analyze the surface structure (the material/meaning as given in source

language) of the ST into basic elements of the deep structure. Then, these are

continued to be transferred in the translation process (presumably in the

11
translator’s mind while conducting the process of translation) and the last step is

to restructure the material into the TT’s surface structure in so that it will fully

function in the TT’s language. Though Newmark (1988: 20) doubts that there is

an actual way to describe or make a diagram about the process of translation, he

himself proposes “two approaches to translating (and many compromises between

them)”. These approaches are described as follows.

 The translator starts translating sentence by sentence, for example, the first

paragraph or chapter, to get the feel and the feeling tone of the text, and

then deliberately sit back, review the position, and read the rest of the SL

text;

 The translator reads the whole text two or three times, and find the

intention, register, tone, mark the difficult words and passages and start

translating only when the translator feels composed. The second approach

is definitely the most challenging one because the translators are expected

to understand the source text first before starting the translation process

while the first approach is less challenging and seems easier however

consume much more time compared to the second approach’s process

because the translators must review the translation again right from the

beginning.

12
 Larson (1984: 476-90) in his book Meaning-Based Translation A Guide to

Cross-Language Equivalence divides the process of translation into eight different

steps, they are:

1) Preparation

There are two kinds of preparation. First, there is the preparation

which the translator should have before beginning the translation task, and

secondly, there is the preparation which he undertakes as he begins work

on a specific translation project. The first kind of preparation should have

included training in writing, in linguistics and in translation principles.

There may be cultural barriers which immediately strike him as potential

problems. He will study more in detail or deeply on these. As he

researches, he should make notes for later use he should. When he feels

acquainted with the text he is ready to begin the analysis.

2) Analysis

As the translator reads through the text, he should note down any

lexical items which seem to be the key words. These will be words which

are crucial to an understanding of the text. One of the first steps in the

analysis should be a careful study of these key words, in order to find a

good lexical equivalent in the receptor language. Often it will be necessary

to consult dictionaries and encyclopedias for more information. The

components of meaning which are crucial and need to be transferred

should be identified.

13
 How detailed the analysis will be vary with the difficulty of the

text. The more difficult the text, the more need there will be for a careful

re-writing into semantic structure before any transfer begins. The

translator should not become burdened by making extensive semantic

displays. It is a tool to help in his analysis. Some find it most helpful to

simply re-write the text in a near semantic presentation.

3) Transfer

Transfer is a process of going from the semantic structure analysis

to the initial draft of the translation. The transfer takes place in the mind of

the translator. The semantic analysis will have eliminated most of the

skewing between the deep and surface structure of the source text. After

this is done the translator is faced with transferring this meaning into the

second language, and introducing the appropriate receptor language

skewing.

In carrying out this process, he will find a lexical equivalent for

concepts of the source language and culture. The translator will decide

whether or not the figurative and rhetorical devices of the source language

will be transferred or if some adjustments will need to be made, he will

consider what grammatical forms to use to communicate the correct

meaning. Without an adequate study on the translation principles the

transfer process can be very difficult and the result is unsatisfied.

14
4) Initial draft

The translator begins making his initial draft after moving back and

forth from the source to the receptor text. He may need to go back for

more background reading or check again the dictionary. In this process,

the translator should work at paragraph level. He must be sure of what the

paragraph communicates, and then he composes the draft naturally,

without looking at the SL or even the semantic rewrite. He should just let

it flow naturally and express the meaning clearly.

However, there are number of things which the translator should

keep in mind as he does the initial draft. He should know who will use the

translation, and their level of education. He should know about the

author’s purpose, the topic of the paragraph, and semantic structure

analysis. If the number things are combined, the initial draft will be

accurate and natural.

5) Reworking the initial draft

The reworking of an initial draft should not be undertaken until a

larger section is completed. It is best if the draft has been left untouched

for a week or two. In this way the translator comes with a fresh look at it

and is able to be more objective in his evaluation and reworking of it. The

reworking of the initial draft includes checking for naturalness and for

accuracy.

The first thing that the translator will do is to read through the

manuscript of this larger unit which he is checking. In doing this, first, the

15
 translator should look for:  wrong grammatical forms or obscure

constructions, places that seem too wordy, wrong order, awkward

phrasing, places where the connections do not seem right and it does not

flow easily, collocation clashes, questionable meaning, and Style

The second, the translator needs to check for accuracy of meaning.

He can only do this by a careful comparison with the source text and the

semantic analysis. Some trouble he may find are: something omitted,

something added, a different meaning, or a zero meaning, that is, the form

used just doesn’t communicate any meaning at all. When checking for

meaning, he will look not only at the meaning of the words, but also of the

sentences and especially the relations between the sentences and the

paragraphs and larger units.

The third, the translator need to check whether or not the theme

comes through clearly. He should have a look at the draft for a while and

evaluate this. This may be one of the things that will be more easily

evaluated. After the translator himself has done the drafting, he will have it

tested.

6) Testing the translation

This step is needed to know whether the translation product had

done by the translator perfectly transferred or not. There are three main

reasons in doing testing translation. They are accurate, clear and natural.

In order to make the translation as accurate, clear and natural as

possible, the translation must involve at least four persons. They are

16
 translator, consultant, tester, and reviewer. The translator will do self-

checks by making a comprehension testing. He asks people to read the

translation whether they understand or not. He also does the naturalness

checking by comparing his translation with the TT. The consultant helps

the translation in accuracies and correcting use of translation principles.

He can train the translator in how to do other kinds of testing. He also

encourages the translator throughout the project. A consultant can often

help with difficult exegetical questions. The tester tests the translation with

people whether the ST familiar or not. The reviewer reads through the

translation and makes comments concerning clarity and naturalness.

7) Polishing

After doing all those steps above, the translator needs to polish the

translation he had done. He needs to know whether he makes an adequate

translation or not.

8) Preparing the Manuscript for the Publisher

In this last step, the translator checks the translation by having it

tested over and over again until he is sure that there is no missing

information from the ST.

SOURCE:

Nida,Eugene A and Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation.Leiden:

E.J.Brill.1969.p16

17
http://eprints.uny.ac.id/19330/1/Imanina%20Resti%20Sujarwanto%2009211144

17.pdf

http://eprints.uny.ac.id/19409/1/Herdani%20Kantiastuti%2007211144035.pdf

https://khoirulhasyim.wordpress.com/2012/11/11/the-process-of-translation-ii/

http://digilib.unila.ac.id/31894/3/SKRIPSI%20TANPA%20BAB

%20PEMBAHASAN.pdf

CHAPTER IV:

TRANSLATION IDEOLOGY

In a broad sense, ideology can be defined as ideas, perspectives, mythes

and principles which are trusted by a community group (Silalahi 2009: 72).

Hence, she perceives an ideology as a cornerstone for someone to act and

think (2009: 72). In her words generally, ideology can be defined as idea,

perpective, myth and principle that are trusted by community groups. Ideology

can also be interpreted as the values of culture agreed and owned by the

community and serves as a cornerstone in thinking and acting.

Hoed (Silalahi, 2009: 72) implies that an ideology used in a TT proves

that translation (both as the activity and the product) and culture are indeed

inseparable. In his words … an ideology in translation gives a super macro

perspective in discussing a translation process as a part of social culture’s

activity and the product of translation as a part of a society’s culture.”

18
 Hatim and Mason (Nugroho, 2009: 8) perceive the ideology in

translation as a choice made by the translator in bringing the TT either

towards mass readership [the receptors’ culture] or towards the individual

voice of the text producer [the author]. In his words, the choice between

communicative and semantic is partly determined by orientation towards the

social or the individual, that is, towards mass readership or towards the

individual voice or the text procedure. The choice is implicitly presented as

ideological.

As Hatim and Mason imply that there are two different goals or

orientations in translating a text, it is generally accepted that the ideologies in

translation are commonly analogous to two opposite poles, namely

foreignization and domestication. Pedersen refers this as Venutian scale, since

the terms of foreignization and domestication are proposed by Venuti.

Pedersen defines Venutian scale as a scale that “ranging from the most

foreignizing to the most domestication strategies” Pedersen (2005: 3).

According to Humanika (2011:4), foreignization and domestication are

two ideologies that work on two levels, namely macro and micro level. The

first one decides what text need to be translated and the other one decides the

strategies, methods or techniques applied in the process of translation. He

further continues that whatever ideology preferred by the translator can be

identified through the strategies he applied. In other words, the researcher can

19
reveal the ideology preferred by the translator through looking at the

translation strategies used by him. This method is called the bottom up

(Humanika, 2011: 5-6). It means the researcher needs look for the most

bottom level (translation strategies) first and then move on to the higher level,

which is the translation ideology.

Pym (2011: 83) states that there is a “…classical dichotomy between “two

methods of translation”, proposed by Schleiermarcher (1813) and resurrected

by Venuti (1995).” These macro approaches shift either to the source text or

the target text. Schleiemacher in Pym (1995: 1) states thateither the translator

leaves the author in peace as much as possible and moves the reader toward

him; or he leaves the reader in peace as much as possible and moves the writer

toward him.

1. Foreignization

To move the readers toward the author is considered as the

rough concept of foreignization. It means the target readers are

being forced to leave their comfort zone and venture to the foreign

or alien cultures. This method is intended to evoke the sense of the

ST’s foreignness and making the readers aware that they are

reading a translation. Venuti (Katan, 1999: 156), regards

foreignization as a mean to take “the reader over to the foreign

culture, making him or her see the (culture and linguistic)

20
 differences … A foreignizing strategy seeks to evoke a sense of the

foreign”.

Foreignization can be done by retaining or importing some

essential characteristics/elements/concepts of source culture in the

TT. Hopefully, through such a method, the TT can evoke not only

the spirit of the ST but also can enrich the reader’s knowledge

about various cultures around the world. In his words, Venuti states

that foreignization “has meant a close adherence to the foreign text,

a literalism that resulted in the importation of foreign cultural form

and the development of heterogeneous dialects and discourses

(Baker, 2001: 242).”

2. Domestication

Domestication is obviously the opposite of foreignization.

To move the author towards the target reader means that the ST is

‘forced’ fit into the TT’s culture. It is meant to meet the target

culture’s expectation. This method is resulted in translating a text

with the transparent, fluent and invisible style in purpose to

minimize the foreignness in the TT (Yang 2010: 78). It can be

done by exploiting and turning some significant foreign and

unfamiliar concepts of the ST into some “familiar ones so as to

make the translated text intelligible and easy for target reader” (Ni

in Silalahi, 2011: 74).

21
 In Fahim and Mazaheri (2013: 67), Venuti regards

domestication as the ideology that …conform[s] to values currently

dominating target-language culture, taking a conservative and

openly assimilationist approach to the foreign, appropriating it to

support domestication canons, publishing trends, political

alignments (Fahim and Mazaheri 2013: 67).

In an extreme way, this method ‘forces’ the ST to give up

its identity; of what makes it unique and special, and being

domesticated instead, e.g. excluding the translator’s name in the

TT, intentionally removing sensitive foreign concepts or replacing

them with familiar domestic elements. This ideology is said to

‘protect’ the target culture from the potentially damaging foreign

aspects that can harm the domestic culture in some ways.

SOURCE:

http://eprints.uny.ac.id/19330/1/Imanina%20Resti%20Sujarwanto%2009211144

17.pdf

http://eprints.uny.ac.id/19409/1/Herdani%20Kantiastuti%2007211144035.pdf

https://khoirulhasyim.wordpress.com/2012/11/11/the-process-of-translation-ii/

http://digilib.unila.ac.id/31894/3/SKRIPSI%20TANPA%20BAB

%20PEMBAHASAN.pdf

Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A course book on translation. London:

Routledge.

22
Bell, R. T. (1991). Translation and translating: Theory and practice. London and

New York: Longman.

CHAPTER V:

TRANSLATION METHOD

Method is a way of teaching a language which is based on systematic

principles and procedures which is an application of how views on how

language is best taught and learned.

Hurtado Albir (1999: 32) stated that translation method refers to the way

a particular translation process is carried out in terms of the translator’s

objective, i.e., a global option that affects the whole text. There are several

23
 translation methods that may be chosen, depending on the aim of the

translation: interpretative-communicative (translation of the sense), literal

(linguistic trans codification), free (modification of semiotic and

communicative categories) and philological (academic or critical translation).

Meanwhile, in Siboro’s research paper, she said that translation method

(global translation strategy) is the overall strategy as if the translator applies to

a text as a whole. It is used if the translator is willing to make the target text in

the same purpose as well as the source text. In addition, the writer states that

translation method is the way to translate a text, or sentence or phrase in

certain rules, it depends on the ideas or messages which will be translated

from the source language. It could help the translator to translate a text in

order to produce a good translation.

Based on Newmark’s book Textbook of Translation (1988 p. 45-47),

there are eight translation methods in translating. The eight methods are separated

into two classifications: Source Language (SL) and Target Language (TL)

emphasis. Below are the following of translation methods by Newmark:

1) Word-for-word Translation

This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with The TL

immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the

words translated. Examples:

 A : Look, little guy, you-all shouldn’t be doing that.

B : Lihat, kecil anak, kamu semua harus tidak melakukan ini.

24
  A : I like that clever student.

B : Saya menyukai itu pintar anak.

 A : I will go to New York tomorrow.

B : Saya akan pergi ke New York besok.

 A : Joanne gave me two tickects yesterday.

B : Joanne memberi saya dua tiket kemarin.

2) Literal translation

The SL constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalent but the

lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-

translation process. This indicates the problems to be solved. For instance,

 Tsu : Look, little guy, you-all shouldn’t be doing that.

Tsa : Lihat, anak kecil, kamu semua seharusnya tidak berbuat

seperti itu.

 Tsu : It’s raining cats and dogs.

Tsa : Hujan kucing dan anjing.

 Tsu : His hearth is in the right place.

Tsa : Hatinya berada di tempat yang benar.

25
  Tsu : The Sooner or the later the weather will change.

Tsa : Lebih cepat atau lebih lambat cuaca akan berubah.

3) Faithful Translation

A faithful Translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual

meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical

structures. It ‘transfers’ cultural words and preserves the degree of

grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’ (deviation from SL norms) in the

translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the-

realization of the SL writers. For examples:

 Tsu : Ben is too well aware that he is naughty.

Tsa : Ben menyadari terlalu baik bahwa ia nakal.

 Tsu : I have quite a few friends.

Tsa : Saya mempunyai samasekali tidak banyak teman.

4) Semantic Translation

Semantic translation differs from faithful translation only in as far as it

must take more account of the aesthetic value. The distinction between

faithful and semantic translation is that the first is uncompromising and

dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative exception

100% fidelity and allows for the translator’s intuitive empathy with the

original. For example:

26
  Tsu : He is a book-worm.

Tsa : Dia (laki-laki) adalah seorang yang suka sekali membaca.

5) Adaptation

This is the ‘’freest’ form of the translation. It is used mainly for plays

(comedies and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved,

the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten. The

deplorable practice of having a play or poem literally translated and then

rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor

adaptations, but other adaptations have ‘rescued’ period plays. For

examples:

 SL : hey, Jude don’t make it bad Take a sad song and make it

better Remember to let her into your heart Then you can

start to make it better. (Hey Jude-The Beatles, 196)

TL : kasih, dimanakah mengapa kau tinggalkan aku. Ingat

ingatlah kau padaku. Janji setiamu tak kan lupa.

6) Free Translation

Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content

without the original form. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the

original. So-called intra-lingual translation, often prolix and the

pretentious, and not translation at all. The result of translation is often

totally different from Source Language and a paraphrase is longer than the

27
 original text. This method is used in a special use and special purpose such

as in mass media. For instance:

 SL : The flowers in the garden.

TL : Bunga-bunga yang tumbuh di kebun.

7) Idiomatic translation

Idiomatic translation reproduces the ‘message’ of the original but tends to

distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where

these do not exist in the original. The translator tries to find the meaning of

idiom and use the word choices correctly for Target Language. For

example:

 I don't have my eye on you = I don’t remember you

 I don't have my eye on you = I’m already to go

8) Communicative Translation

Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual

meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are

readily acceptable and comprehensible to readership. For example:

 Tsu : Beware of the dog.

Tsa : Awas anjing galak.

28
SOURCE:

Newmark, Peter.A Textbook of Translation.China:Shanghai Foreign Language

Education Press. p.45

https://www.academia.edu/9587599/Method_of_translation

http://eprints.uny.ac.id/19330/1/Imanina%20Resti%20Sujarwanto%2009211144

17.pdf

http://eprints.uny.ac.id/19409/1/Herdani%20Kantiastuti%2007211144035.pdf

http://digilib.unila.ac.id/31894/3/SKRIPSI%20TANPA%20BAB

%20PEMBAHASAN.pdf

CHAPTER VI:

TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

Technique is skill or command in a particular activity. It is the basic

method for making or doing something, such as an artistic work or scientific

procedure. Below are the details of techniques which can be implemented to

(written) translation based on some experts.

A. Molina & Albir (2002, p.508)

29
 Translation technique is defined as the realization of translation

process i.e. method and strategy of translation. According to Molina &

Albir (2002, p.508), it refers to translation product and works for the micro

unit of the text. However, translation technique constantly misunderstood

with the term of method and strategy translation due to the confusion

between translation process and translation product. Furthermore, Molina

states that over-lapping terms make it difficult to be understood as well,

Terminological diversity and the overlapping terms make it

difficult to use these terms and to be understood. The same concept is

expressed with different names and the classifications vary, covering

different areas of problems. In one classification one term may over-lap

another in a different system of classification. The category itself is given

different names, for example, Delisle uses procedure, translation strategy,

etc. (ibid., p.506).

However, there is a clear distinction to distinguish method,

strategy, and technique of translation (The writer merely emphasizes the

definition of translation techniques and a little bit explanation about

method to make it clearer). It is mentioned by Molina & Albir (ibid.), “The

translation method affects the way micro-unit of the text are translated:

translation techniques (p.508).” It means that translation method and

technique are connected each other. The translation technique can be seen

and analyzed by which translation method used by the translator, for

example: literal or adaption method which is used by the translator. The

30
translator who uses adaptation method somehow leads to translation

techniques which tend to be figurative or adapted, for example discursive

creation. It works the opposite if the translator employs literal method

which leads to more literal translated texts e.g. literal translation.

According to Molina & Albir (ibid., p.509), translation techniques

have five basic characteristics, they are:

 They affect the result of the translation

 They are classified by comparison with the original

 They affect micro-unit text

 They are by nature discursive and contextual

 They are functional

In the light of the above, there are 18 translation techniques

proposed by Molina & Albir (ibid., p.509-511):

1. Adaptation

This technique is used to replace a source text (ST) cultural or

social element with one from target text (TT) which more familiar for

target readers, e.g. to change biscuit (UK) to cookie (US).

It is a well-known fact that in order to obtain a perfect translation,

one must go beyond the superficial meaning of the words. It is very

important to extract what the words mean in a particular situation

31
according to the cultural context. Considering the cultural element

helps us understand that the translator is not the only person involved

in the translation process. Eugene Nida has noted that “language is a

part of culture, and in fact, it is the most complex set of habits that any

culture exhibits. Language reflects the culture, provides access to the

culture, and in many respects constitutes a model of the culture.

In this context, adaptation is a very important translation technique.

It is necessary when something specific to one language culture is

expressed in a totally different way that is familiar or appropriate to

another language culture. It is a shift in cultural environment. Should

pincho (a Spanish restaurant menu dish) be translated as kebab in

English? It involves changing the cultural reference when a situation in

the source culture does not exist in the target. The notion of

“adaptation” is traditionally played against the notion of “translation”

when commenting on the origin of a text: “Is it a translation?” “No, it

is an adaptation”. What this means is that the text was not simply

translated, there was a process of manipulating the text for a particular

reason. We can give you some relevant examples:

1) The proto-text was long in comparison to the space available for the

meta-text; In this case, the customer will ask for a shortened translation

in order to fulfil his needs. This procedure is mainly used in the case of

32
technical and technological texts, but there are situations when even

literary texts have to go through this process of adaptation.

2) When the meta-text is addressed to children, the publisher must

adapt the text in order to avoid language that might be inappropriate

for a child, and prepares a censored adaptation. Any sexual reference

must be eliminated, as well as violent language. Words that are too

difficult to understand will also be eliminated, as well as all types of

behavior that are considered contrary to public moral.

3) Ditto, this is another type of censorship, applied even if the text is

devoted to an adult public.

4) Cultural features of the public differ to the point of demanding a

major modification of the text contents so that it is better accepted in

the reality in which it will be used. The latter point refers mainly to

text of a practical character, instructions, functioning of machines or

programs etc.

It is hard to perceive a difference between translation and

adaptation because translation is actually a sort of adaptation. The

translator must adapt the text even if he doesn’t encounter one of the

enumerated situations. The reason is that the complexity of the text

simply forces the translator to do so. He must adapt to all the nuances

of the language in order to obtain good results.

33
2. Amplification

This technique is employed to introduce details that are not

formulated in ST by adding some words (addition) or information,

paraphrasing, making it explicit, or creating footnote to make the

translation clear and help target readers understand the text. In detail

Molina states, “This includes SCFA’s explicitation (Vinay &

Darbelnet), Delisle’s addition, Margot’s legitimate and illigitimate

paraphrase, Newmark’s explicative paraphrase and Delisle’s

periphrasis and paraphrase. Footnotes are a type of amplification.

Amplification is in opposition to reduction.”

Example:

ST : Doing her thesis, she drinks a cup of coffee.

TT : Sambil mengejakan skripsinya, dia meminum secangkir

kopi.

3. Borrowing

This technique is used to take a word or expression straight from

another language. There are two types of borrowing i.e. pure and

natural borrowing. Pure borrowing refers to word of ST which purely

loaned by TT without any change e.g. keyboard (English)

to keyboard (Indonesian). A translator uses pure borrowing frequently

because no equivalence found in TT for the word. Meanwhile, the

natural borrowing means the word in ST is naturalized by the spelling

34
rules in TL. It aims to make the translated word more acceptable and

common in TL.

Borrowing is the taking of words directly from one language into

another without translation. Many English words are "borrowed" into

other languages; for example software in the field of technology and

funk in culture. English also borrows numerous words from other

languages; abbatoire, café, passé and résumé from French; hamburger

and kindergarten from German; bandana, musk and sugar from

Sanskrit. Borrowed words are often printed in italics when they are

considered to be "foreign". Unless you are one of these people that

confuses borrowing and lending, then this should cause you little

trouble. Borrowing is the idea of taking the word from the source

language (SL) and maintaining it in the target language (TL). It is

considered the simplest of the procedures and tends to be employed in

two situations: either when discussing a new technical process for

which no term exists within the TL, or when maintaining a word from

the SL for stylistic effect, in which the translator uses the foreign term

to add flavor to the target.

Example:

ST : The medical forum will discuss about Tourette syndrome

this week.

35
 TT : Forum medis akan membahas tentang

sindrom turette minggu ini.

4. Calque

It is literal translation of foreign word or phrase and it can be

lexical or structural. language and translated literally word-for-word.

You often see them in specialized or internationalized fields such as

quality assurance (aseguramiento de calidad, assurance qualité taken

from English). Examples that have been absorbed into English include

standpoint and beer garden from German Standpunkt and Biergarten;

breakfast from French déjeuner (which now means lunch in Europe,

but maintains the same meaning of breakfast in Québec). Some

calques can become widely accepted in the target language (such as

standpoint, beer garden and breakfast and Spanish peso mosca and

Casa Blanca from English flyweight and White House). The meaning

other calques can be rather obscure for most people, especially when

they relate to specific vocations or subjects such as science and law.

Solución de compromiso is a Spanish legal term taken from the

English compromise solution and although Spanish attorneys

understand it, the meaning is not readily understood by the layman. An

unsuccessful calque can be extremely unnatural, and can cause

unwanted humor, often interpreted as indicating the lack of expertise

of the translator in the target language.

36
 A calque is when an expression from the source text (ST) is

transferred literally into the TT. Calques either follow the syntax of the

TL while translating each word literally or ignore the syntax of the TL

and maintain the syntax of the SL, rendering the calque in an awkward

syntactical structure in the TT.

For example:

ST : The Ministry of Defense takes responsibility for the

terrorist attack in Jakarta.

TT : Menteri Pertahanan bertanggungjawab atas serangan

teroris di Jakarta.

5. Compensation

In general terms compensation can be used when something cannot

be translated, and the meaning that is lost is expressed somewhere else

in the translated text. Peter Fawcett defines it as: "...making good in

one part of the text something that could not be translated in another".

One example given by Fawcett is the problem of translating nuances of

formality from languages that use forms such as Spanish informal tú

and formal used, French tu and vous, and German du and sie into

English which only has 'you', and expresses degrees of formality in

different ways. As Louise M. Haywood from the University of

Cambridge puts it, "we have to remember that translation is not just a

movement between two languages but also between two cultures.

37
 Cultural transposition is present in all translation as degrees of free

textual adaptation departing from maximally literal translation, and

involves replacing items whose roots are in the source language culture

with elements that are indigenous to the target language. The translator

exercises a degree of choice in his or her use of indigenous features,

and, as a consequence, successful translation may depend on the

translator's command of cultural assumptions in each language in

which he or she works".

This technique is to introduce a ST stylistic effect or element of

information in another place in the TT because it cannot be reflected in

the same place as in the ST.

Example:

ST : A flock of bird flies to the north.

TT : Sekawanan burung terbang ke arah utara,

6. Description

This technique uses description to describe word or expression

from ST which is not understood in TT.

Example:

ST : Gado-gado

TT : A traditional cuisine of Indonesia that consists of

vegetables and special local ingredients.

38
7. Discursive Creation

This technique is employed to establish a temporary equivalence

which is totally different, unpredictable, and out of context. It

commonly used for translating book title or any sort of literary texts.    

Example:

ST : Love is an open door.

TT : Cintamu yang indah.

8. Established Equivalent

This technique applies recognized term or expression in dictionary

or language use as an equivalence in TT. The meaning and style of ST

are the same as TT.

Example:

ST : Cold

TT : Dingin

9. Generalization

This technique is employed to use neutral or more general term e.g.

to translate Indonesian terms becak, bajaj, bemo,

39
 delman into vehicle in English. This technique is in opposition to

particularization.            

10. Linguistic Amplification

This technique is used for adding linguistic elements. It is

frequently employed in consecutive interpreting and dubbing. It is in

opposition to linguistic compression.

Example:

ST : Absolutely right!

TT : Ya, itu benar sekali!

11. Linguistic Compression

It is opposed to linguistic amplification, hence its use is for

suppressing linguistic element to make it brief due to the consideration

of time and space. It is commonly employed in subtitling and

simultaneous interpreting.

Example:

ST : Let it go

TT : Bebaskan.

12. Literal Translation

40
 This technique is used to translate words, terms, or expressions

word for word. This technique will be properly applied when the form

coincides with the word and meaning.

A word-for-word translation can be used in some languages and

not others dependent on the sentence structure: El equipo está

trabajando para terminar el informe would translate into English as

The team is working to finish the report. Sometimes it works and

sometimes it does not. For example, the Spanish sentence above could

not be translated into French or German using this technique because

the French and German sentence structures are different. And because

one sentence can be translated literally across languages does not mean

that all sentences can be translated literally. El equipo experimentado

está trabajando para terminar el informe translates into English as The

experienced team is working to finish the report ("experienced" and

"team" are reversed). The third translation method is only to be used

under certain circumstances according to Vinay and Darbelnet. The

idea of translating word for word in a way that does not alter the

meaning is considered an acceptable use of literal translation by the

two scholars. Literal translation, put simply, expands the scope of a

calque but in a much more acceptable way.

Example:

41
 ST : Your smile as sweet as the honey.

TT : Senyummu semanis madu.

13. Modulation

Modulation consists of using a phrase that is different in the source

and target languages to convey the same idea: Te lo dejo means

literally I leave it to you but translates better as You can have it. It

changes the semantics and shifts the point of view of the source

language. Through modulation, the translator generates a change in the

point of view of the message without altering meaning and without

generating a sense of awkwardness in the reader of the target text. It is

often used within the same language. The expressions es fácil de

entender (it is easy to understand) and no es complicado de entender (it

is not complicated to understand) are examples of modulation.

Although both convey the same meaning, it is easy to understand

simply conveys "easiness" whereas it is not complicated to understand

implies a previous assumption of difficulty that we are denying by

asserting it is not complicated to understand. This type of change of

point of view in a message is what makes a reader say: "Yes, this is

exactly how we say it in our language". The fifth of Vinay and

Darbelnet's procedures is modulation. Modulation refers to rendering

the TT from a different point of view to that of the ST. Vinay and

Darbelnet consider this procedure to be necessary when the results of

the former procedures would produce an awkward-sounding

42
 translation, despite it being grammatically, syntactically, and lexically

correct. Modulation is a way for the translator to find a degree of

naturalness in their TT without sacrificing any meaning or accuracy

originating from the ST. A great example given by Vinay and

Darbelnet shows how the double negative construction used in English

is uncommon in French, and how modulation would render this in

French as a simple affirmative statement using a positive modifier.

This technique is employed to change the point of view, focus, or

cognitive category in relation to the TT.

Example:

ST : Watch your step!

TT : Awaslah!

14. Particularization

It is the opposite of generalization, therefore this technique creates

TT more specific, concrete, and precise than ST e.g. to

translate vehicle in English to becak, bajai, bemo, delman in

Indonesian.

15. Reduction

43
 This technique is opposed to amplification which signifies that it

suppresses information items of ST into TT. This is including omission

and implicitation.

Example:

ST : I’ve been searching my whole life.  

TT : Seumur hidup.

16. Substitution

This technique is used to substitute paralinguistic element (signs,

gestures, etc) into linguistic element or vice versa.

Example:

ST : (A nodding head). (Hindi)

TT : No. (English)

17. Transposition

This is the process where parts of speech change their sequence

when they are translated (blue ball becomes boule bleue in French). It

is in a sense a shift of word class. Grammatical structures are often

different in different languages. He likes swimming translates as Er

schwimmt gern in German. Transposition is often used between

English and Spanish because of the preferred position of the verb in

44
 the sentence: English often has the verb near the beginning of a

sentence; Spanish can have it closer to the end. This requires that the

translator knows that it is possible to replace a word category in the

target language without altering the meaning of the source text, for

example: English Hand knitted (noun + participle) becomes Spanish

Tejido a mano (participle + adverbial phrase). Vinay and Darbelnet

referred to transposition as changing word class without changing

meaning. This refers to when translators (often without thinking)

change the word type, such as from nouns to verbs. Vinay and

Darbelnet considered transposition to be either obligatory or optional,

and referred to the ST as the base expression and the TT as the

transposed expression

This technique is employed to change grammatical categories. It is

including shift of class, unit, structure, and level/rank. The following

example is changing the word class from noun peace (eng) into

verb berdamai (Ind).

Example:

ST : I make peace with the past.

TT : Aku berdamai dengan masa lalu.

18. Variation

45
 It refers to the change of linguistic or paralinguistic elements

(intonations, gestures) which affects linguistic variation, such as style,

changes of textual tone, social and geographical dialect, etc. For

example: change of dialectal indicators for characters when translating

for the theater.

Example:

ST : The party talking or the chocolate fondue

TT : Sebabkan pesta ataupun makan coklat itu

B. Gladys Matthews, PhD (2015)

Basically, a translator has two options for translating: 1. Direct or

literal translation 2. Oblique translation. There are several translation

techniques available under each of these two options.

Procedural Knowledge

Direct translation techniques

 Borrowing

 Calque

 Literal translation Oblique translation techniques

 Transposition

 Modulation

 Equivalence

 Adaptation

46
DIRECT TRANSLATION

Possible because of parallel categories

 Structural parallelism → grammatical categories Are you there? → ¿Está

usted ahí? → Êtes-vous là?

 Meta-linguistic parallelism → parallel concepts The book → el libro → le

livre The judge → el juez/la jueza → le juge/la juge

DIRECT TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES:

Borrowing. Borrowing is used:

 To overcome a gap or lacuna (a new technical process, a new concept) e.g.

dumping (trade law): There is no equivalent in Spanish or French

 To create stylistic effect e.g. chic, déjà vu

 To recreate the flavor of the source language (SL) e.g. margarita, tortillas,

Pisco sour, sushi, sauerkraut, spaghetti In the legal field, Latin expressions

(prima facie, nolo contendere, pro se) are an excellent example of

borrowing that has been made through time.

Calque (From the French verb "calquer"). Calques are a special kind of borrowing

where a language borrows a word or an expression from another language and

translates literally each of its elements.

47
  Lexical (paranonyc) calque: Football → Fútbol → Balmier 4 X 4 (four

wheel-drive car → cuatro por cuatro (4 X 4 = 16) Should be: doble

tracción [i.e. two sets of wheels are driven: front and back]

 Structural calque: You are intelligent enough to realize that… → Usted es

suficientemente inteligente como para darse cuenta de que… Usted es

inteligente y puede darse de cuenta de que… [Back-translation: You are

intelligent and can realize that…]

 Calque Lexical (paranonyc): calque Problematic lexical calques for the

novice translator: Complexion/complexión assault/asalto drug/droga

facilities/facilidades find guilty/encontrar culpable grade/grado;

misery/miseria.

Literal translation. Literal translation can be used when the languages share

parallel structures and concepts. It is NOT a translation made word for word:

literal translation carries the imprint of the original. This technique is used when it

is possible to transpose the source language (SL) message element by element into

the target language (TL) and obtain a text that is idiomatic.

 The girl is sick → La niña está enferma → La fille est malade

 How are you? → ¿Cómo está usted? → Comment allezvous?

 Good morning → Buenos días → Bonjour

Spanish syntax requires that we add ¨s¨ to both words, but this continues to be

literal translation. It is just a case of syntax normalization.

OBLIQUE TRANSLATION

48
There comes a time when direct translation techniques do not work because:

1. They are structurally impossible

2. The target language does not have a corresponding expression. Consequently,

the generated text would have: a different meaning, no meaning and a foreign

structure

OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES:

Transposition. Transposition within the same language: Reconstruction of the city

is very important Reconstructing the city is very important to reconstruct the city

is very important From a stylistic view point the transposed expression does not

have the same value, but the meaning is the same. Transposed expressions are

generally more literary in character. It is important to choose the form that best

fits the context.

Transposition can be: Free: When the transposition used depends mostly

on context and desired effect. The course is of interest to all of us. → El curso nos

interesa a todos (nosotros). [Back-translation: The course interests all of us.]

Compulsory: When only a transposition is acceptable. Keep your voice up. →

Hable en voz alta [Back-translation: speak in a high voice]

Types of transposition

 Adverb → verb I only defended myself. → No hice sino

defenderme. [Back-translation: I did nothing but defend myself.]

49
 Adverb → noun I wrote to you early this year. → Le escribí a

principios de año. [Back-translation: I wrote to you at the

beginning of the year.]

 Adjective → noun To achieve a stellar education system…. →

Para alcanzar la excelencia en el sistema educativo… [Back-

translation: To reach excellence in the education system…]

 Possessive adjective → definite article Thoroughly enraged at this

treatment, the creature [a scorpion] sped towards Leslie, her sting

quivering with emotion. → Ciega de ira ante semejante trato, la

criatura se lanzó hacia Leslie, con el aguijón temblando de furia.

[Back-translation: Blinded by rage at such treatment, the creature,

bolted towards Leslie, the sting shaking of fury.]

 Verb or past participle → noun I intended to tell you the whole

truth. → Mi intención fue (era) decirle toda la verdad. [Back-

translation: My intention was to tell you the whole truth.]

OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES: Transposition Types

of transposition

 Adverb → noun I wrote to you early this year. → Le escribí a

principios de año. [Back-translation: I wrote to you at the

beginning of the year.]

 General → Concrete Teacher’s terms and conditions →

Condiciones contractuales de los profesores. [Back-translation:

Teachers contract conditions] OBLIQUE TRANSLATION

TECHNIQUES: Transposition Types of transposition:

50
  Interchange (permutación or transposición cruzada - Vásquez

Ayora) Swap of two lexical items with respect to form and

function so that they switch their respective parts of the speech.

The burglars forced their way into the house → Los ladrones

entraron a la casa por la fuerza. [Back-translation: The burglars

entered the house by the force] She leapt to her feet → Se puso de

pie de un salto. [Back-translation: She got on her feet in one leap].

Modulation. Modulation is variation of the form of the message obtained by a

change in the point of view. Although the main characteristic of modulation is a

change of point of view, it may involve also a change of grammatical categories.

It is used when the other techniques would generate a text that is grammatically

correct, but unsuitable, not idiomatic, or awkward.

Modulation can be: Free It is not difficult to show → Es fácil demostrar

[Back-translation: it is easy to show] Remember → Recuerda, or → No olvides (if

it fits the context better) [Back-translation: Remember; do not forget] Compulsory

(fixed by use, listed in dictionaries: lexicalized) Dress rehearsal → Ensayo general

[Back-translation: General rehearsal]. Modulation is a technique that experienced

translators use to produce an accurate and idiomatic text. It requires an excellent

knowledge of both languages involved in the translation. This includes knowing

the mechanics of the language. For example:

 The manner in which negative and positive formulations are used in the

two languages. Do not enter. → Se prohibe entrar. → Défense d’entrer.

51
  The general register of the language. For example French and Spanish tend

to use more “intellectual” terms than English. Eye doctor → oftamólogo;

bird watching → ornitología; dog show → exposición canina

 Use of the passive voice

 The greater the structural difference between the two languages, the

greater the challenges for the translator There are many types of

modulation

Modulation

1. Abstract → Concrete or vice-versa I haven’t heard a word from him →

No he tenido noticias suyas [Back-translation: I have not had news

from him.]

2. Means → Result or vice-versa I’ll drive you home → Te llevo a casa

en [mi] auto [Back-translation: I’ll take you to your house in [my] car]

3. Substance → Object brain drain → éxodo de especialistas (double

modulation) [Back-translation: the exodus of experts]

4. Term reversal This cage cannot hold an animal this size. → Un animal

de ese tamaño no cabrá en esta jaula. [Back-translation: An animal this

size will not fit in this cage.]

5. Negative contrast Make sure you call us every week. → No olvides

llamarnos todas las semanas. [Back-translation: Don’t forget to call us

all of the weeks.]

6. Active voice → passive voice (and vice-versa) The votes (in an

election) were counted. → Se contaron los votos. (impersonal form)

52
7. A part → the whole The cathedral’s ceiling draws the eye as soon as

one enters. → El techo de la catedral atrae la vista al entrar. [Back-

translation: The cathedral’s ceiling draws the view.]

8. A part → another part I know the city like the back of my hand. →

Conozco la ciudad como la palma de la mano. [Back-translation: I

know the city like the palm of my hand.] Hand to hand combat→

Combate cuerpo a cuerpo [Back-translation: body to body combat.]

9. Space → Time In grammar school I was very shy. → Cuando asistía a

la primaria era muy tímido. [Back-translation: When I attended

elementary school I was very shy.]

10. Intervals and boundaries (in time and space) In time: See you in a

week → Nos vemos de hoy en ocho. [Back-translation: We’ll see each

other in eight days from today.]

11. Change of symbol He earns an honest dollar. → Se gana la vida

honradamente. [Back-translation: He earns an honest living.]

12. Explanatory modulation like a deer in headlights → Quedarse

paralizado [Back translation: remain paralyzed] Statistics confirm that

by the age of 14, fewer than six in ten students are in age-appropriate

classes. → Las estadísticas confirman que a la edad de 14 años, menos

de seis de cada diez estudiantes están en las clases correspondientes a

su edad. [Back-translation: Statistics confirm that by the age of 14,

fewer than six in ten students are in classes in corresponding to their

age.]

53
SOURCE:

MOLINA, Lucía and HURTADO ALVIR, Amparo. “Translation Techniques

Revisited: A Functional and Dynamic Approach”. Méta, XLVII, 4, 2004, pp.498-

512. http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2002/v47/n4/008033ar.pdf

SAGER, Juan C and M.-J. Hamel (tranls) (2000). Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean

Darbelnet. A Method for Translation, in Lawrence Venuti (ed.) The Translation

Studies Reader, London: Routledge: 85- 93.

Gladys Matthews, PhD, “Translation Tecniques”, eCPD Webinars, 2015

https://www.ecpdwebinars.co.uk/wp-

content/uploads/2015/04/Matthews_TRANSLATION_TECHNIQUES.pdf

54
 CHAPTER VII:

TRANSLATION STRATEGY

The word strategy is used in many contexts. In translation studies many

theorists have used the term translation strategies widely but with some

considerable differences in the meaning and the perspective from which they look

at it. A list of more general definitions of the word strategy is given below:

 A strategy is a long-term plan of actions designed to achieve a particular

goal (Wikipedia Committee, n. d.).

 A systematic plan, consciously adapted and mentioned, to improve one's

learning performance (Instruction Curriculum Reading Glossary, n. d.).

 A strategy is a planned, deliberate, goal-oriented (has an identifiable

outcome) procedure achieved with a sequence of steps subject to

monitoring and modification (Curriculum Learning Literate-Futures

Glossary, n. d.).

 A set of explicit mental and behavioral steps used to achieve a specific

outcome (Deep Trance, n.d.).

55
 Clearly, these definitions are general and can be related to different fields of

study. This study mainly concerns translation strategies, although the above-

mentioned definitions can be narrowed down to this research field, as well.

Translation strategies have their own characteristics, through which one can gain

an appropriate understanding of them.

Hesterman (1997), as Bergen (n. d.) stated, believes that in translation

strategies' field there is "considerable terminological confusion". As Chesterman

(1997) believes, the general characteristics of translation strategies are as follows:

1. They involve text manipulation.

2. They must be applied to the process.

3. They are goal-oriented.

4. They are problem-centered.

5. They are applied consciously.

6. They are inter-subjective. (It means the strategies must be empirical and

understandable for the readers not the person who used them.)

Different scholars have various perspectives to the aspects of the act of

translation, so, they define and describe different types of strategies. Bergen's

classification of the strategies includes three categorizations: 1. Comprehension

strategies, 2. Transfer strategies, 3. Production strategies. By his classification, he

meant: first, we read and comprehend a text. Second, we analyze the differences

between the source text and the target one, and we must decide on the kinds of

56
strategies which we are up to use them. And lastly, we produce the equivalent text

in the target language.

Lorscher (1996: 28) identifies nine basic elements, or as he called,

building blocks of translation strategies. These building blocks are as follows -

Original elements of translation strategies:

1. Realizing a translational Problem RP

2. Verbalizing a translational Problem VP

3. Searching for a possible solution to a translational Problem SP

4. Solution to a translational Problem SP

5. Preliminary Solution to a translational Problem PSP

6. Parts of a Solution to a translational Problem SPa, SPb…

7. Solution to a translational Problem is still to be found SPø

8. Negative Solution to a translational Problem SP=ø

9. Problem in the reception of the Source Language text PSL

The first complex notation means that there is a translation problem of

some sort, and the translator immediately finds a preliminary solution to the

problem [(P) SP], and stops working on this problem [#], or [/] decides to leave

this problem unsolved and return to it later [SP ø].

Hatim and Munday (2004) stated that some of the main issues of

translation are linked to the strategies of form and content of literal and free

translations. This division can help identify the problems of certain overly literal

57
translations that impair comprehensibility. However, the real underlying problems

of such translations lie in areas such as text type and audience.

Chesterman (1997) believes, as quoted by Bergen, that the taxonomy of

translation strategies can be presented simply. It includes a basic strategy which

is: change something. In his statement, Chesterman (1997) does not refer to the

replacement of elements in the source text words by their equivalent in the target

text; it means that this replacement cannot be the only task of a translator and it is

not sufficient. The normal types of changes made by the translators can be

classified as:

a) The words which are used in the source text

b) The structure of these words

c) The natural context of the source text

The term strategy is often said similar to the term technique. In some ways

it can be called similar because some experts use these terms with the same

purpose. For example, Mona Baker says that she proposes some strategies to

translate idiomatic expressions, whereas Andreas Veisberg proposes some

techniques to translate idiomatic expressions. Both expressions aim at the same

point. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, technique is a

method of doing or performing something whereas strategy is a plan to

accomplish a specific goal. This research will use the term strategy related to

Mona Baker’s theory of strategies to translate idiomatic translation. Mona Baker’s

view of translation strategies are applied when a translation difficulty occurs and

the translator wishes to solve the problem and produce a good translation.

58
 Thus, translation strategies are means which considers to be the best in

order to reach the goals. Based on many experts in translation, there are many

translation strategies to translate a text. Every translator uses different strategies to

translate a text since different people may understand a word in different ways.

Furthermore, there are kinds of expressions such as idioms and proverbs which

are the products of culture. Idioms in one language probably have different forms

in other languages. It may have distinctive form but the same meaning. The way

in which an idiom can be translated into another language depends on many

factors, such as the availability of an idiom with a similar meaning, the

significance of the specific lexical items which constitute the idiom, and the

appropriateness of using idiomatic language in a given register in the target

language.

Mona Baker (1992: 72) proposes some strategies that can be used to

translate idioms.

 Using an idiom of similar meaning and form

This strategy involves using an idiom in the target language which

conveys roughly the same meaning as that of the source-language idiom

and, in addition, consists of equivalent lexical items (Baker, 1992: 72).

The example is given as follows.

SL: In a little while, however, she again heard a little pattering of

footsteps in the distance, and she looked up eagerly, half hoping

that the Mouse had changed his mind, and was coming back to

finish his story.

59
 TL: Beberapa saat kemudian, sekali lagi dia mendengar suara

langkah kaki di kejauhan. Alice menatap dengan penuh semangat,

berharap si Tikus berubah pikiran dan kembali untuk

menyelesaikan ceritanya.

The English idiomatic expression change his mind is translated

into Bahasa Indonesia idiomatic expression berubah pikiran. According to

Dictionary of American Idioms and Phrasal Verbs, change one’s mind

means to alter one’s decision or opinion. The word change has similar

meaning with berubah and mind has similar meaning with pikiran.

According to the context in the sentence, the word his is optional. In

conclusion, both English and Bahasa Indonesia idiomatic expression refer

to the same meaning and consist of similar lexical item.

 Using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form

It is often possible to find an idiom or fixed expression in the target

language which has a meaning similar to that of the source idiom or

expression, but which consists of different lexical items (Baker, 1992: 74).

This strategy uses different lexical items to express more or less the same

idea. The example is presented below.

SL: It would twist itself round and look up in her face, with such a

puzzled expression that she could not help bursting out laughing.

TL: Tapi, burung itu memutar dirinya dan menatap wajah Alice

dengan sangat bingung sehingga Alice tidak dapat menahan diri

untuk tertawa.

60
 According to Dictionary of American Idioms and Phrasal Verbs,

the idiom could not help (doing something) means could not prevent or

avoid on doing something. It means could not restrain, the word restrain

refers to prevent oneself from doing something. Thus, idiomatically could

not prevent means tidak dapat menahan diri. Therefore, both expressions

in the source language and its translation in the target language refer to the

same meaning. In terms of form, both expressions cannot be said as

equivalent. If the idiomatic expression could not help translated literally, it

will become tidak dapat menolong and it will be confusing to the reader.

 Translation by paraphrase

This is by far the most common way of translating idioms when an

equivalent cannot be found in the target language or when it seems

inappropriate to use idiomatic language in the target text because of

differences in stylistic preferences of the source and target language

(Baker, 1992: 74). Below is the example of the paraphrase strategy.

SL: They all sat down at once, in a large ring with the Mouse in

the middle.

TL: Seketika anggota rapat itu duduk dalam lingkaran besar,

sementara si Tikus berada di tengah-tengah.

The English idiom at once is translated into seketika in the target

language text. Since the translator cannot find the equivalent of the

English idiom in the idiomatic form of the target language, the translator

does not translate it into idiomatic expression. The idiom at once means

61
 immediately or at the same time, the word seketika means dengan serta

merta.

The idiomatic expression in the source language text is translated based on

its context which is more acceptable and understandable.

 Translation by omission

As with single words, an idiom may sometimes be omitted altogether in

the target text. It is because it has no close equivalent in the target

language, its meaning cannot be easily paraphrased, or for stylistic reasons

(Baker, 1992: 77). The example is presented below.

SL: I shall have to ask them what the name of the country is,

you know.

TL: Tapi aku harus bertanya pada mereka nama negeri ini.

It can be seen in the example above that you know is not realized

in Bahasa Indonesia. According to Dictionary of Idioms and Phrasal

Verbs, the idiomatic expression you know is used to open a conversation

or switch to a new topic. The translator applies the omission strategy by

letting the idiom you know be not translated to get effectiveness and

considers that the readers will easily understand the meaning of the idiom.

Since it is very difficult to translate idioms into idioms, then a translator

may apply non idiomatic translation in order to maintain the meaning of

the translated expressions in the target language. Moreover, he or she has a

choice not to realize an idiom in the translation since it has no close match

in the target language or its meaning cannot be easily paraphrased.

62
 A translation strategy is a procedure for solving a problem

encountered in translating a text or a segment of it (Baker, 2005:188).

Given the distinction between micro-level and macro-level problems,

strategies can be divided between Local ones which deal with text

segments and global strategies which deal with the whole texts. Both local

and global strategies interact with relevant elements of the translator’s

background knowledge: critical awareness of the style and content of

similar texts, of linguistic conventions, register and intuitions about what

constitutes the target language (ibid). Translation strategies can be

categorized into general and

 Domestication strategy

Also called normalization or naturalization strategy, is employed to

bridge cultural gaps and achieve intelligibility in line with the hermeneutic

approach which focuses on interpretation and grants the translator the right

to manipulate the text so as to make it natural, comprehensible and

readable (for naturalness in translation, see As-Safi, 1997) , an approach n

which the original text undergoes adaptation so as to bere-created to

comply with the target linguistic and cultural conventions and to fulfill the

function or purpose of translation, i.e. skopos. This strategy is often

adopted by literary translators in the translations of the following excerpts

from Shakespeare’s

SOURCE:

63
Eugene A and Charles R. Taber (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation..

Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A course book on translation. London:

Routledge.

Bell, R. T. (1991). Translation and translating: Theory and practice. London and

New York: Longman.

Hatim, B., & Munday, J. (2004). Translation: An advanced source book. London:

Routledge.

Kelly, D. (2005). A handbook for translator trainers: A guide to reflective

practice. Manchester, UK: St. Jerome.

Miremadi, S. A. (1991). Theories of translation and interpretation. Tehran:

SAMT.

Venuti, L. (2000). The translation studies reader. London and New York:

Routledge.

64
 CHAPTER VIII:

TRANSLATION SHIFT

Translation shift is a translation method that involves replacing the source

language elements into the target language without changing the meaning.

There are two major types of shifts occur: level shift and category shift.

According to Catford (1965: 76) there are four kinds of category shifts:

structure shift, unit shift, class shift, and intra-system shift.

a. Level Shift

Level shifts are the shifts from grammar to lexis. It means that a

grammatical unit in one language, such as the tenses of time reference,

the passive meaning in a sentence, etc., has a lexical unit in another

language as its translation equivalent. For example, “John has stopped

crying” and its translate into John sudah berhenti menangis. The form

65
 “has…ed” in the grammatical form of “have+Vb3” as a unit in English

grammar showing perfective is translated into Bahasa Indonesia by the

lexis “sudah”.

b. Category Shift

Category shifts are departures from formal correspondence in

translation. Formal correspondence is any grammatical category in the

target language which can be said to occupy the same position in the

system of target language as the given source of language category in

the source language system. The category shifts include structure shift,

class shift, unit shift, and intra-system shift.

 Structure shift

It involves a change in grammatical structure between the

source language and target language. In grammar, structure

shift can occur at all ranks. For example, “Antony loves

Rossaline” in English becomes “Is-love at Antony on

Rossaline” in Gaelic. Structure shifts can also be found at other

ranks, such as phrase/group rank. For example: “the red shoes”

in English becomes “sepatu yang merah” in Bahasa Indonesia.

Notice that there is a shift from MH (Modifier+Head) to HQ

(Head+Qualifier). It can be seen that the modifier „red‟

preceding the noun „shoes‟ is translated into qualifier „merah‟

(red) combined with „yang‟ (which). Structure shift also

66
 happens when an active sentence in the source language

changes into a passive one in the target language or vice versa.

This shift is called voice shift.

Examples:

SL: I wash myself. (S – V – O)

TL: Saya mandi (Margono, 1999: 20). (S – P)

SL:  The book is on the table. (M – H)

TL: Buku itu ada di atas meja (Erhans, 2007: 154). (H – M)

In the example above, it can be found that the source language has

different structure of sentence level and phrase level with the target

language. In the example (1) the source language has sentence

structure I (S), wash (V) and myself (O). Its translation has different

sentence structure in the target language, that is saya (S) and mandi (P).

From its translation, it can be seen that one element that is object myself in

the source language is not translated in target language.

In example number (2) it is found that the translation has different

structure of phrase from the the book into buku itu. The phrase the book in

the source language consists of Modifier-Head (MH) pattern,

67
modifier the and head book. It is translated into buku itu, which consists of

Head-Modifier (HM) pattern; head buku and modifier itu.

 Class shift

Class shift occurs when the translation equivalent of SL item is

the member of a different class (part of speech) from the

original item. For example: “medical students” is translated

into “mahasiswa kedokteran”. In this example, the adjective

„medical‟ operating at M (Modifier) in the noun phrase

structure of source language, is translated into a noun

„kedokteran‟, operating at Q (Qualifier) in the target language.

From that example, the adjective changes into another class,

that is a noun.

And here are the examples of class shift:

1) SL: Mereka bekerja dengan lambat.

TL: They are working slowly. (Sneddon, 1996: 336)

2) SL: Mereka melawan teroris dengan gigih.

TL: They opposed the terrorists resolutely. (Sneddon, 1996: 336).

From the example above, the source language is Indonesian and

the target language is English. In the example (1), the word lambat in

68
the source language functions as an adjective; and the word slowly in

the target language functions as an adverb. So, the translation

equivalent of the adjective lambat in the source language is the

adverb slowly in the target language. Class shift also occurs in the

example (2). It happens from an adjective into an adverb. The

word gigih in the source language is an adjective and it is translated

into resolutely which is categorized as an adverb in the target

language.

 Unit shift

Unit shift means changes of rank, that is, departures from

formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a

unit at one rank in the SL is translated into a unit at a different

rank. The language ranks may change among the morpheme,

word, phrase/group, clause, to sentence, and sometimes even

further up including paragraph and text. According to Machali

(1998:16), the unit shift shows a change of rank, i.e a lower is

translated into a higher rank or vice versa. For example, the

source expression “adept” becomes “sangat terampil”. In this

example, a word (adept) is translated into a phrase (sangat

terampil). It means that a lower rank changes into a higher

rank.

69
 A shift of unit can happen from word to phrase, phrase to word or

phrase to clause. Here are examples of unit shifts:

1) SL: Your watch is very sophisticated.

TL: Jam tangan anda sangat canggih (Margono, 1999: 6).

2) SL: There is an exhibition.

TL: Ada pertunjukan (Margono, 1999:15).

In the example (1), it is found that a unit shift in translation shows

a change of rank. As we see, the word watch (in lower rank) in the source

language is translated into a phrase jam tangan (in higher rank) in the

target language.

Unit shift is also found in the second example, the noun phrase an

exhibition (higher rank) in source language is translated into a

word pertunjukan which is a part of the lower rank in the target language.

 Intra-System shift

Intra-system shift means a departure from formal

correspondence in which one system in the SL has a different

(non-corresponding) system in the TL. Intra system shift is

used to indicate that the shift occurs internally within the

system of the languages concerned. For example, the certain

„plural‟ noun in English become „singular‟ noun in Bahasa

Indonesia, such as: “a pair of trouser” is translated into “sebuah

70
 celana”. In this example, although in Bahasa Indonesia there is

a corresponding plural form for „trousers‟ (that is through

repetition of the word „celana-celana‟), the Indonesian

language system requires the use of the singular form for to the

concept of „a pair of trousers‟ since Indonesian people

conceive them as one piece of cloth.

Examples:

1) SL: Balinese people go to the exhibition.

TL: Orang Bali menonton pertunjukan itu. (Margono, 1999:

15)

2) SL: Tourists pay attention to the exhibition.

TL: Wisatawan menaruh perhatian kepada pertunjukan itu.

(Margono, 1999: 15)

From both examples, it can be found that there are departures from

the source language into target language. There is a corresponding plural

form for people through a repetition of the word orang (orang-orang) in

Indonesian, but the Indonesian language system shows it in a singular

form orang. It also has a corresponding plural form for tourists through a

repetition of the word wisatawan (wisatawan-wisatawan) or using

additional word para + wisatawan in Indonesian, but the system of

Indonesian language still shows it in a singular form wisatawan.

71
SOURCE:

Learning with Prida, “Translation Shift”, Blogspot, 2012

http://nimadeparidayanti.blogspot.com/2012/06/translation-shift.html

English for Indonesia-English Decode, Shift, 2013

http://englishdecode.blogspot.com/p/definition-of-translation-shifts.html

CHAPTER IX:

TRANSLATION QUALITY

Translation has always been connected with the notion of quality. There

has been a more discussed issue in the field of translation studies than the

definition of translation quality. The perception of what is “good” is highly

subjective and depends on a number of various factors. For that reason, it is

virtually impossible to devise a universal set of criteria to measure translation

quality objectively (Nerudova, 2012: 7). There is no universal set of criteria to

evaluate what we consider “good” or “poor” translation. House (1997: 1)

states that evaluating the quality of a translation presupposes the theory of

72
translation. The different concepts of translational quality, and different ways

of assessing it preceded by the different views of translation itself.

Larson (1998:529) asserts three main reasons the translator wants to be

sure his translation is accurate, clear and natural. So that the important points

in translation process are accuracy, clarity, and naturalness. Accuracy means

correct of the source message and transfer of the meaning of that message as

exactly as possible into receptor language. Clarity means the translator choose

the way, which communicates most clearly, and which way ordinary people

will understand. And naturalness means the translator use the natural form of

the receptor language, if the translation is to be effective and acceptable. A

translation should not sound foreign.

Meanwhile accuracy, readability, and acceptability are the criteria

proposed by Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997: 3). Accuracy is a term that is

used in translation evaluation to refer to the extent to which a translation

matches its original, while it is usually refers to preservation of the

information content of ST in TT, its actual meaning in the content of a given

translation must depend on the type of equivalence. The accuracy of the

message is an important thing in translation as stated by Baker (1992:57) that

accuracy is no doubt an important aim in translation, but it is also important to

bear in mind that the use of common target language patterns, which are

familiar to the reader, plays on important role in keeping the communication

channel open. Acceptability in translation means that the translation fulfills

73
the requirement of „reading as an original‟ written in the target language and

sounds natural for the target reader rather than that of „reading as the original‟

Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997: 2).

It seems that accuracy is the main concern in defining translation quality.

According to Satria (2014: 9) meaning is an essential element in translation.

Understanding the meaning of the source text is vital to have the appropriate

equivalent in the target text. In conclusion, the first aspect that must be

assessed in translation is the appropriateness of the originality. Means, if the

information deliver and author‟s message consist in the source language

change and the reader will not obtain the original message, it will ruin all the

target text and can be considered as a bad translation. Furthermore, based on

Larson (1998: 529) and Shuttleworth & Cowie‟s (1997: 3) theories, researcher

assumes clarity and readability as a similar constituent. It means whether a

translation text can be easily understood by common people include non-

bilingual people. Meanwhile, naturalness and acceptability are about the

readers‟ feeling when reading the translation text. Does the text language

seem strange? Is it obvious that the text is a translation? Those questions will

be answered by considering acceptability and naturalness aspect.

Furthermore, researcher will use the theory by Shuttleworth and Cowie

(1997: 3) considering accuracy, readability and acceptability as the criteria in

assessing the quality of students‟ translation. To gain more objectivity, the

researcher decides to use Nababan‟s criteria. He conceives of three levels for

74
each of the criteria that are accurate, less accurate and inaccurate for accuracy;

acceptable, less acceptable, unacceptable for acceptability; and readable, less

readable and unreadable for readability.

1. Accuracy in Translation

Accuracy is a term of translation quality assessment, which refers to the

extent to which a translation has the same idea toward its original. It is

without addition or reduction meaning from source language to target

language. It usually refers to preservation of the information content of SL

in TL. It could be said that in translating a text, the translator should also

concern to the familiar language pattern which is usually used by the target

readers.„Accurate‟ indicated that the source language meaning is

accurately conveyed into the target language text, there is no meaning

distortion. „Less Accurate‟ means that the source language meaning is less

accurately conveyed into the target language. There are some meaning

distortions. „Inaccurate‟ indicated by the source language meaning that is

definitely not accurately conveyed into the target language. It is omitted or

deleted. Nagao, Tsuji & Nakamura in Nababan (2004: 4).

Here is some issues related to the Accuracy of translation

according to Specia and Shah (2014).

 Terminology: Normative terminology infringed. This issue is

not directly covered by current approaches to quality

estimation. However, as a proxy to it, both monolingual (target)

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 and bilingual terminology lists could be used for simple checks,

such as whether all content words (or nouns) in the translation

belong to the terminology list.

 Mistranslation: Incorrect word translation chosen (overly

literal, false friend, should not have been translated, entity,

date/time/number, unit conversion).

 Omission: Translation for source word is missing.

 Addition: Word that is not in the source segment is added to the

translation. Existing features approximate this issue as in the

case of “omission”.

 Untranslated: A source word is left not translated in the

translation. This issue is currently covered by out-of-

vocabulary features based on language model of the target

language.

2. Readability in Translation

Readability involves the average sentence length, number of new

words and grammatical complexities of the language used. There are some

factors of low readability which makes the text difficult to be understood

by the reader 18 especially non-bilingual readers, include such as the use

of ambiguous words and sentences, the use of incomplete sentence,

punctuation, grammatical aspect, sentence construction etc. The

readability analysis is used to make sure that the target readers can receive

76
 the idea presented by the word in the target language and it is also used as

the strategy accuracy parameter.

Readability refers to the easy degree of a text to be understood

(Sakri in Nababan1999: 62). The same definition is stated by Richard et al

in Nababan (1999: 62) that readability is how easily written materials can

be read and understood. Readability can be said as the easy indicator that a

written text to be read by the readers and understood the content. In

translation context, the readability is not only related to the readability of

the target language text. This is appropriate with the reality of every

translation process, which always involves two languages at once.

Here are some issues related to the readability of translation

according to Nababan (1999: 64).

 Diction. The choice and use of words, style, or manner of

speaking and writing. Diction is used to emphasize the

manner of writing on the text.

 Sentence Forms. Sentence forms which are related to the

factors of readability are ambiguous sentences, length of

sentence, complex sentence. Ambiguous sentence is a

sentence which has two meanings.

3. Acceptability in Translation

Acceptability related to the notion of naturalness and readers‟

feeling. The success indication of translator in producing the translation as

77
natural as the original text is from the level of acceptability. According to

Williams (2004), acceptability is the quality of translation which is related

to the applicable norms of target language. The implementation

acceptability shows that the translator follows the norms of target culture.

The translator breaks the norms of target language if he uses the structure

of language which is rarely used and has different function. Thus, may

affect the target reader in understanding translation text. Acceptability

deals with the language naturalness of the translation which is compatible

with the target language. A translation which is thought as acceptable

should fulfill the requirement of “reading as an original” written in target

language rather than that of “reading as the original”. A translation is

acceptable when the readers feel like reading an original text which is

written in target language. It means that the target text sounds natural.

Here are some issues related to acceptability of translation based

on Roturier (2006) and Nababan (2010).

 Relevancy. The relevance a text has for its receiver and

how textual characteristics are accepted, tolerated or

rejected by the target language user.

 Naturalness. Whether the words, phrases, clauses, and

sentences of the source text are appropriate or inappropriate

with the target language’s principles.

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SOURCE:

Catford, J. C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Oxford

University Press.

Duff, Allan. (1989). Translation. London: Oxford University Press. Hatim, B and

Mason, I. (1990). Discourse and the Translators. New York: Longman.

Larson, M. L. (1984). Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-Language

Equivalence. Lanham Md: University Press of America.

Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. London: Prentice Hall

International. Tou, A.B. (1989). “Some Insights from Linguistic into the

Processes and Problems of Translation”. TEFLIN Journal 1. P. 123-148.

CONCLUSION

Translation is defined as the process of transferring the idea or information

from the source language to the target language through interpretation. For

instance, when a teacher explains his idea to the students, he does a translation

activity, i.e. he transfers the idea (the material of the lessons) from his mind to the

students by using language that can be understood by them. In short, translation is

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the process of transferring the meaning of the idea, verbally and non-verbally

from one to another.

Translation, specifically, consists of 9 categories. They are: the definition

of translation, translation types, translation process, translation ideology,

translation method, translation technique, translation strategy, translation shift and

translation quality. All of those are discussed in this paper briefly. The compilers

hope that this paper can be useful for all parties, especially in English education

field.

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