Chapter 4

Traffic Engineering Studies

4-1
What are the advantages and disadvantages of machine vision (video image
detection) when compared with other forms of detection?

The greatest advantage of video image detection is that it is non-intrusive;

at detectors need not be installed in the roadway (as with inductive loops or
magnetometers). Systems such as the Autoscope can detect traffic in many
locations within the camera’s field of view. Because of this, a single camera can
replace many inductive loop detectors, thereby providing a wide-area detection
system. Unlike inductive loops, with video image processing traffic need not be
disrupted to install the device and the detection configuration can be changed
either manually or by using a software routine. Disadvantages of this method
include higher initial costs and that cameras must be dedicated to this purpose and
must be detection zones must be placed precisely for accurate detection.

4-2
Select and describe the method and equipment you will recommend for each of the
road sections given below. Give reasons for your recommendations.
(a) A private road leading to an industrial development
(b) A residential street
(c) A rural collector road
(d) A section of an interstate highway

(a) For a private road leading to an industrial development, which would

likely be low volume and low speed, pneumatic tubes would be an appropriate
choice. Concerns about impact of data collection method on driver behavior
would likely be minimal on such a facility.
(b) For a residential street, which would likely be low volume and low speed,
radar would be an appropriate choice as concerns may exist about the conspicuity
of pneumatic tubes affecting driver behavior.
(c) For a rural collector road, where speeds and volumes may be somewhat
high, radar would be appropriate. If expense were not substantial, machine vision
would be worth considering.
(d) For a section of Interstate highway, given the high speed and high volume
nature of the facility, it would be preferable to not have observers close the
roadway. Therefore, methods such as machine vision or inductive loops (if an
opportunity to temporarily close a lane is available) would be preferable. If
observers can safely be placed, radar would also be acceptable.

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

4-3
Speed data collected on an urban roadway yielded a standard deviation in speeds of
±4.8 mi/hr.
(a) If an engineer wishes to estimate the average speed on the roadway at
a 95% confidence level so that the estimate is within ±2 mi/hr of the true
average, how many spot speeds should be collected?
(b) If the estimate of the average must be within ±1 mi/hr, what should
the sample size be?

(a) Using Equation 4.5,

N = [(z σ)/d]2
N = [1.96(4.8) / 2]2
N = 22.1 => 23 spot speed observations
Note: z=1.96 for 95% confidence interval

(b)
For speeds within ±1 mi/h:
N = [1.96(4.8) / 1]2
N = 88.5 => 89 spot speed observations

4-4
An engineer wishing to obtain the speed characteristics on a bypass around her city
at a confidence level of 95%, and an acceptable limit of ± 1.0 mi/hr collected a total
of 130 spot speed samples and determined that the variance is 25 (mi/hr)2. Has the
engineer met with all of the requirements of the study?

This can be answered using Equation 4.5 to determine whether minimum sample
size requirements are met.
For the 95% confidence level, z = 1.96
The acceptable margin of error, d =1
The variance, σ2 = 25; σ = 5
2
⎛ Zσ ⎞ ⎛ (1.96)(5) ⎞
N =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 96.04
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
The minimum sample size is 97 observations. Since 130 were collected, the
data collection requirements are met.

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

4-5
An engineer wishing to determine whether there is a statistically significant
difference between the average speed of passenger cars and that of large trucks on a
section of highway, collected the data shown below. Determine whether the engineer
can conclude that the average speed of large trucks is the same as for passenger
cars.
Trucks Passenger Cars
Average Speed (mi/hr) 62 59
Standard deviation of speed ± 5.5 6.3
mi/hr
Sample size 275 175

To determine whether the difference in mean speeds was statistically significant,

first, the pooled standard deviation must be determined, using Equation 4.6.
S12 S22 (5.5) 2 (6.3) 2
Sd = + = + = 0.58
n1 n2 275 175
Then, compare the absolute value of the difference of the sample means with the
product of the appropriate z-statistic and the pooled standard deviation.
Absolute difference in means = 62 – 59 = 3.
ZSd = (1.96)(0.58)
3 > 1.13
Therefore, a statistically significant difference exists between the two data sets,
and it cannot be concluded that the average speed of large trucks is the same as
that of passenger cars.

4-6
Assuming that the data shown in Table 4.2 were collected on a rural road in your
state and consideration is being made to set the speed limit on the road. Speed limits
of 50, 55, 60, and 65 mi/hr are being considered. Plot the expected non-compliance
percentages vs. the associated speed limit on a graph and recommend the speed for
the road. Give reasons for your selection.

Examination of the data in Table 4.2 show that the number of observations
exceeding 50, 55, 60, and 65 mi/hr are 38, 17, 5, and zero, respectively. In
percentages, these are 44.2%, 19.7%, 5.8%, and 0%, respectively. The plot
appears below.

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

Problem 4-6

50
Percent non-compliance 44.2
40

30

20 19.7

10
5.8
0 0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Possible speed limit (mi/hr)

4-7
The accompanying data show spot speeds collected at a section of highway located
in a residential area. Using the student’s t test, determine whether there was a
statistically significant difference in the average speeds at the 95% confidence level.
Before After Before After
40 23 38 25
35 33 35 21
38 25 30 35
37 36 30 30
33 37 38 33
30 34 39 21
28 23 35 28
35 28 36 23
35 24 34 24
40 31 33 27
33 24 31 20
35 20 36 20
36 21 35 30
36 28 33 32
40 35 39 33

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

First calculate average and standard deviation for both sets of data.
ub = 35.1 mi/h sb2 = 3.2092
ua = 27.5 mi/h sa2 = 5.4442

Next, calculate the pooled standard deviation for both sets of data.
sd = [(sb2/ nb)+(sa2/ na)]½
= [(3.2092 / 30)+(5.4442 / 30)]½
= 1.154

Then compare the difference in average speed with the product of the z-statistic
and standard deviation.
|ub-ua | = 7.6 Zsd = 1.96(1.154)
= 2.262
Since 7.6 > 2.262 therefore the speeds are significantly different.

4-8
Using the data furnished in Problem 4-7, draw the histogram frequency distribution
and cumulative percentage distribution for each set of data and determine (a)
average speed, (b) 85th-percentile speed, (c) 15th-percentile speed, (d) mode, (e)
median, and (f) pace.

(a) average speed = Σui / Σfi

“before” average = 1053/30 = 35.1 mi/h
“after” average = 824/30 = 27.5 mi/h

(b) 85%-ile speeds from cumulative distribution plots

before = 38.4 mi/h
after = 33.6 mi/h

(c) 15%-ile speeds from cumulative distribution plots

before = 30.8 mi/h
after = 20.5 mi/h

(d) mode from histograms

before = 35 mi/h
after = 21 mi/h

(e) median from cumulative distribution plots

before = 34.5 mi/h
after = 31 mi/h

(f) pace from histograms

before = 30 – 40 mi/h
after = 21 – 31 mi/h

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

4-9
Define the following terms and cite examples of how they are used.
Average annual daily traffic (AADT)
Average daily traffic (ADT)
Vehicle-miles of travel (VMT)
Peak hour volume (PHV)

Average annual daily traffic (AADT) is the average of 24-hour traffic counts
collected every day in the year. These counts are used to estimate highway user
revenues, compute accident rates, and establish traffic volume trends.

Average daily traffic (ADT) is the average of 24-hour traffic counts collected
over a number of days greater than one but less than a year. These counts are
used for planning of highway activities, measuring current traffic demand, and
evaluating existing traffic flow.

Vehicle miles of travel (VMT) is a measure of travel usage along a section of

road. It is the product of the volume (ADT) and the length of roadway in miles to
which the volume is applicable. This measure is used mainly as a base for
allocating resources for maintenance and improvement of highways and to
establish highway system usage trends.

Peak hour volume (PHV) is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point
on a highway during a period of sixty consecutive minutes. This volume is used
for functional classification of highways, geometric design standards selection,
capacity analysis, development of operational programs, and development of
parking regulations.

4-10
Describe the different traffic count programs carried out in your state. What data
are collected in each program?

The Traffic Engineering Division of the Virginia Department of

Transportation conducts an "Interstate, Arterial and Primary Traffic Count
Program." Vehicle classifications consist of passenger cars, 2-axle 4-tire trucks,
2-axle 6-tire trucks, 3-axle 6-10 tire trucks, tractor-trailers, twin trailers, and
buses. There are a total of 1,345 counting stations for this program. Counts are
taken either 2, 4, or 9 times per year at each location. The data collected is then
published in a manual entitled “Average Daily Traffic Volumes on Interstate,
Arterial and Primary Routes” which includes 24-hour average daily traffic (ADT)
by section of roadway, 24-hour vehicle miles traveled (VMT) by route and
county, and 24-hour VMT statewide. In addition, counts are taken on secondary,
and unpaved roads on a less frequent basis. Intersection turning movement counts
are taken at specific locations when needed for detailed traffic operational studies.

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

4-11
A traffic engineer, wishing to determine a representative value of the ADT on 250
highway links having similar volume characteristics, conducted a preliminary study
from which the following estimates were made: Mean volume = 45,750 veh/day,
Standard deviation = 3750 veh/day. Determine the minimum number of stations for
which the engineer should obtain 24-hr volume counts for a 95-5 precision level.

Use Equation 4.7: n = [t2α/2,N-1(s2/d2)]/ [1+ (1/N)(t2α/2,N-1)(s2/d2)]

α = 100 - 95 = 5
S = 3750
m = 45,750 therefore d = (0.1)(45,750) = 4575
V = N-1 = 250 - 1 = 249

(tα/2,N-1) = 1.96
n = [(1.96)2(37502/45752)]/ [1+(1/250)(1.96)2(37502/45752)]
n = 2.57
Use 3 count stations.

4-12
Describe the following types of traffic counts and when they are used.
(a) screen line counts
(b) cordon counts
(c) intersection counts
(d) control counts

Screen line counts involve dividing the study area into large sections by
drawing imaginary lines (screen lines) across the study area. Counts are then
taken at each place a road crosses this line. This data is then used to detect
variations in traffic volumes and flow direction attributable to changes in land-use
patterns in the area.

Cordon counts are similar to screen line counts with the imaginary line
completely surrounding an area, for example, a CBD. Counts are taken at each
place a road crosses the line, giving information about vehicle accumulations
within the area. The information from cordon counts can be used to plan for
parking facilities, evaluate traffic operational techniques, and long range
infrastructure planning.

Intersection counts are counts of vehicular turning movements and

classifications at an intersection. The data gathered is used to develop signal
timing and phasing plans for signalized intersections and for geometric design
improvements.

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

Control counts are taken at strategically located locations chosen to

obtain representative samples of traffic volumes for specific types of highways or
streets. There are two types of control counts; major and minor. Major control
counts are taken monthly with 24-hour directional counts being taken at least
three days during the week

4-13
How are travel time and delay studies used? Describe one method for collecting
travel time and delay data at a section of a highway. Explain how to obtain the
following information from the data collected: (a) travel time, (b) operational delay,
(c) stopped time delay, (d) fixed delay, and (e) travel time delay.

Travel time and delay studies are used to aid the traffic engineer in
identifying problem locations, which may require special attention in order to
improve the overall flow of traffic on the route. Data from these studies may be
used to determine the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry
traffic, identify bottleneck locations with relatively high delays and the causes for
those delays, perform before and after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of
traffic operations improvements, determine the relative efficiency of a route by
developing congestion indices, determine travel times on specific links for use in
assignment models, and perform economic studies in the evaluation of traffic
operation alternatives that reduce travel time. There are several methods for
collecting travel time and delay data including the floating car method, the
average car method, and the moving vehicle technique. In the average car
method, the test car is driven along the length of the test section at a speed that, in
the opinion of the driver, is the average speed of the traffic stream. The time to
traverse the section is noted and the test run is repeated for a minimum number of
times, with the average time then being recorded as the travel time. An additional
stop watch would be used to measure the amount of time the test vehicle is
delayed by impedance of other traffic such as vehicles parking, or by a reduction
in the capacity of the roadway such as a work zone. This value is recorded as the
operational delay. During the test runs, the amount of time the vehicle is stopped
would also be recorded and the average from all runs would be recorded as the
stopped-time delay. The fixed delay would be measured as the time spent waiting
for a traffic signal along the route to turn green. This delay is independent of
other traffic. The travel time delay would be determined by subtracting the travel
time for a vehicle to traverse the study section under uncongested conditions from
the actual travel time.

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

4-14
Table 4.10 shows data obtained in a travel time study on a section of highway using
the moving-vehicle technique. Estimate (a) the travel time and (b) the volume in
each direction at this section of the highway.

To determine volume using the moving vehicle technique, use Equation 4.9:

( N S + O N + PN )60
VN =
TS + TN

NN = 104.2 NS = 93.9 VN= (93.9 + 1.6 - 1.1)60 / (5.25 + 4.90)

ON = 1.6 OS = 1.1 VN= 558 veh
PN = 1.1 PS = 1.0 VS= (104.2 + 1.1 - 1.0)60 / (5.25 + 4.90)
TN = 5.25 TS = 4.90 VS= 617 veh

To determine travel time using the moving vehicle technique, use Equation 4.10:

TN= TN - [60(ON - PN )/VN ] TS= TS - [60(OS - PS )/VS ]

TN= 5.25 - [60(1.6-1.1)/558] TS= 4.90 - [60(1.1-1.0)/617]

TN= 5.20 min TS= 4.89 min

4-15
An engineer, wishing to determine the travel time and average speed along a section
of an urban highway as part of an annual trend analysis on traffic operations,
conducted a travel time study using the floating-car technique. He carried out 10
runs and obtained a standard deviation of ±3 mi/h in the speeds obtained. If a 5%
significance level is assumed, is the number of test runs adequate?

tα (σ ) 2
Use Equation 4.8: N = ( )
d

For trend analysis, assume ±3 mi/h acceptable error.

N = [1.833(3)/3]2
N = 3.36 runs
Therefore, 10 runs is adequate

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

4-16
Briefly describe the tasks you would include in a comprehensive parking study for
your college campus, indicating how you would perform each task and the way you
would present the data collected.

Parking studies, in general, are used to determine the demand and supply
of parking facilities in an area, the projection of the demand into the future, and
the collection of the views of various interest groups on how best to solve any
problems. A comprehensive parking study usually includes an inventory of
existing parking facilities, collection of data on parking accumulation, parking
turnover, and parking duration data, identification of parking generators, and
obtaining information on parking demand. On a college campus, this would
include faculty, staff, and student lots, as well as visitor parking facilities. The
college administration would also have to be interviewed to determine their policy
on parking as it relates to the provision of on-campus parking.
Parking accumulation data would be obtained by checking the amount of
parking at 2-hour intervals from 7:00 am to 5:00 pm on weekdays, when demand
is highest. Parking accumulation would then be plotted against time of day for
each lot. While collecting accumulation data, license plates of vehicles in
selected spaces should be recorded to determine duration and turnover. When the
data is analyzed, the average length of time an individual vehicle occupies a space
can be estimated. The college itself is the parking generator and therefore this
step can be omitted as parking facilities of varying capacity exist throughout
campus; however, the location of the larger parking facilities could be identified
on a map. Parking demand would be collected by interviewing drivers as they
enter the parking facility. The interviewer should attempt to identify the driver’s
trip origin, purpose of their trip and the driver’s destination after parking. This
information could indicate a need for a parking facility in a new location or the
enlargement of an existing facility.

4-17
Select a parking lot on your campus. For several hours, conduct a study of the lot
using the methods described in this chapter. From the data collected, determine the
turnover and duration. Draw a parking accumulation curve for the lot.

To conduct a parking accumulation study of a parking lot, detailed data on

space usage and vehicle turnover must be collected. The number of spaces in use,
as well as license plate numbers of those vehicles and their entry and exit times,
must be collected to monitor turnover and duration.

Turnover is calculated as the ratio of the total number of different vehicles

parked to the number of available spaces. Turnover for the entire study period
can be calculated by dividing the number of vehicles parked during the study
period by the number of spaces available.

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 Chapter 4: Traffic Engineering Studies

Duration is the average amount of time a vehicle spends in a parking

space, which is a surrogate measure for the availability of parking spaces. By
recording the entry and exit times for each vehicle during the study period,
durations for each of these vehicles can be calculated and then averaged to
determine average duration.

The parking accumulation curve can be drawn to display percent of spaces

used (on the y-axis) as a function of time-of-day (on the x-axis). By noting the
number of spaces that are occupied at discrete intervals (e.g. every hour), the data
for drawing the accumulation curve are obtained.

4-18
Data collected at a parking lot indicate that a total of 300 cars park between 8 a.m.
and 6 p.m. 10% of these cars are parked for an average of 2 hr, 30% for an average
of 4 hr, and the remaining cars are parked for an average of 10 hr. Determine the
space-hours of demand at the lot.

Use Equation 4.12: D = (0.10)(300)(2) + (0.30)(300)(4) + (0.60)(300)(10)

D = 2,220 space-hours

4-19
If 10% of the parking bays are vacant on average (between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m.) at the
parking lot of problem 4-18, determine the number of parking bays in the parking
lot. Assume an efficiency factor of 0.85.

Use Equation 4.12:

2220 + (2220)(0.10) = 2442 space-hours (assuming 10% vacancy)
(0.85)(10)(N) = 2442
N = 288 spaces

4-20
The owner of the parking lot of Problems 4-18 and 4-19 is planning an expansion of
her lot to provide adequate demand for the following 5 years. If she has estimated
that parking demand for all categories will increase by 5% a year, determine the
number of additional parking bays that will be required.

Find space-hours of demand in 5 years:

(1+0.05)5 (2442) = 3,117 space hours
Additional space hours = 3117 – 2442 = 675
Find number of spaces:
(0.85)(10)(N) = 675
N = 79.4
N = 80 spaces

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