Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(BUMA-331)
Adama 2010
CHAPTER ONE
CONCEPTS AND ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH
Research is a means by which you will be able to acquire knowledge. For your understanding
of how it is help full to acquire knowledge you need to know about its meaning and
characteristics.
Further Emory and cooper defined Research as, “It is any organized inquiry carried out to
provide information for the solution of a problem”. Research is an investigation undertaken
in order to discover new facts, get additional information, etc. In general research can be
defined as an inquiry in to the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any
particular set of circumstances, either these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur. Research can be a means to an end or an end in it self.
1
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Both are perfectly valid uses, but each entails a rather different approach to the definition of
the problem at hand and formulation of objectives.
In simple words research can be defined as any scholarly investigation in search for truths,
for facts, for certainties. (Gupta,S. ----) human being do not operate under controlled
conditions, on the contrary, they are always under the diverse influences such as
environmental, psychological and Social and these influences freely interaction with each
other and seldom operate in isolation. The complexity is further in testified by the uniqueness
of each individual’s behavior. Trial and error method can no longer be appreciated and
decision is to be accurate and timely and should be based on facts and realities. It is in this
context that business decisions are now tremendously influenced by research and research
findings.
While searching for a definition of research the novice research is Likely to get various
definitions. This is because the term is used in different ways by different authorities Let us
see how some leaders in the area have defined it.
Research is the manner in which we solve knotty problems in our attempt to push back
the frontiers of human ignorance. Research is ultimately a way of thinking. It is a way of
looking at accumulated fact so that a collection of data speaks to the mind of the
researcher.
Research can be defined as any scholarly investigation in search for truths, or for
certainties.
Research is essentially a systematic inquiry seeking facts through objectively verifiable
methods in order to discover the relation ship among them and to deduce from it the
broad principles /Laws.
Research refers to a critical and exhaustive examination / investigation of
experimentation having as its aim the revision of accepted conclusion in the light of new
discovered facts.
Research is the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the
planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data
2
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Research is the activity of solving problems which leads to new knowledge using
methods of inquiry which are currently accepted as adequate by scholars in the field.
Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. The terms
systematic and controlled in this definition refer to the degree to which the observations
are controlled and alternative explanations of the outcome are ruled out. On the other
hand the terms empirical and critical point to the requirements for the researcher to test
subjective beliefs against objective reality and have the findings open to further scrutiny
(detailed examination) and testing.
Therefore, the best research should be reliable, variable and exhaustive.
Research starts with a problem, collection of data or facts, analyzing them critically, and
reaching to decisions based on the actual evidence.
In general, a synthesis of the above definitions indicates that research is structured inquiry
that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates newly
applicable knowledge.
3
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Research is characterized by patient and un unhurried activity ;
Research is carefully recorded and reported, and
Research sometimes requires courage.
To have knowledge for the sake of knowledge is termed as pure research, but gathering
knowledge that could aid in the better meat of human destiny is known as applied research. It
is very difficult to draw demarcation between these two types of research, as each is
dependent on the other for development and verification.
Social research can be defined as; the part of research which studies human behavior as a part
of society.
1.1.4 Characteristics of Social Research
Social Research is devoted to a study of mankind in his social environment and is concerned
with improving his understanding of social orders, groups, institutions and ethics. (Rummel).
4
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Systematized investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomena and surveys, we
call social research. (prof. C. A. Moser).
From the above few, but more, accepted definitions the following characteristics of social
research may be drawn
A. Social Research Deals with Social Phenomena
It studies the behavior of human being as members of a social and their feelings, responses
and attitudes under different circumstances. It encompasses the study of social phenomena
covering economic, political, Social, educational, administrative and related aspects of social.
Life also the Social groups and institutions. Thus, the social research was born out to solve
man’s problem.
B. Social Research Aims at Discovering of New Facts
The scientific research techniques are applied to find out truth reasoning or relationship of
various kinds of human behavior.
C. Social Research is a Scientific Undertaking
Social research is a scientific undertaking in which logical and systematized techniques are
used. Social research also develops new scientific tools and concepts which facilitate reliable
and valid study of human behavior.
5
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Since in social research, we study social phenomena or human behavior, therefore,
experimentation is not possible in social sciences. However, in some cases social sciences
take shelter of controlled experimentation.
H. In Social Research Inter – relationship between Variables Understudy is Must
Besides it, the variables of social research study can not be measured correctly; only rough
estimation of variables is possible.
I. Social Research is of Dynamic Nature
Social research is of dynamic nature; therefore, what was true of past might not be true of
present.
J. Social Research in Any Field is Inter-related
Therefore, we can not draw water – tight compartments for each sector or we can not say
whether it is purely political, economical or sociological research.
K. Social research fells that the social events are also governed by the rules and regulations
as Physical events.
L. Research is Social Science is Complimentary to Research in Physical Science
Research is social science is complimentary to research in physical science and actually both
branches of knowledge help each other and the way to progress. In this context Good and
Scats states. “ The good life makes demand on all fields of science. The problems of
producing a good life are in part Physiological in part biological and in part physiological or
sociological. Man finds his need distribution through all areas of knowledge and he like wish
finds his satisfaction arising from the meeting of his need in all areas. Continued study and
research programs must, therefore, be maintained over a broad range of interest.”
1. 2 Types of Research
Methods of research may be classified from many points of views
Application: pure research or applied research
Character of data :- objectives, Subjective, quantitative or qualitative
Field of application: social science, education, philosophy,, etc
Purpose:- reporting description, explanation, or predication
Forms of reasoning: - inductive, deductive, or combination of the two.
Place where it is conducted:- the laboratory or in the social setting
Extent of control of factors:- controlled or uncontrolled experiments
Techniques of data gathering :-tests, observations, or questioning
The two type of research that deserve description at this point are Basic Research and
Applied research.
7
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
1.2.1 Basic Research
Basic research that is sometimes known as “pure research “or “fundamental research” has as
its main purpose the disclosure of its fundamental truths or principles. It is usually sent
towards the testing and development of theory and are not immediately concerned with direct
application. Thus in basic research control and precision are emphasized while less attention
is paid to direct application of the outcomes in field situation. Basic research in the business
arena might involve a researcher for an advertising agency who is studying the results of the
use of coupons versus rebates (discounts) as demand stimulation tactics, but not in a specific
instance or in relation to a specific client’s product. It is usually conducted to develop
theories, principles, and laws that are found in different subjects (areas) and helps to extend
the frontiers of knowledge.
Applied research has a practical problem solving emphasis. The problem – Solving nature of
applied research means it is conducted to reveal answers to specific questions related to
action, performance, or policy needs.
Pure or basic research is also problem solving based, but in a different sense. It aims to solve
perplexing (puzzeling) problems or questions of a theoretical nature that have little direct
impact on action, performance, or policy decisions. It is used to understand natural
phenomenon, but not to solve problems directly and immediately.
8
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Thus, both applied research and pure research are problem based, but applied research is
directed much more to making decisions.
9
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Conclusion Justified Decision based conclusion are matched with detailed
findings.
CHAPTER TWO
RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Generally, under social and economic research importance is given to the following methods.
2.1.1 Definition
According to Walter R. Borg, “Historical Research is the systematic and synthesis objective
location, evaluation synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions
concerning past events.
10
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
To quote Sheik Ali “Historical research is digging in to the past in order to re - enact the past
in its entirety to reconstruct the past events as fully as they have happened to explain the
meaning and significance of these events to correct the wrong notions so long prevalent, if
any, and to elaborate analyse, synthesise and philosophies the ideas in the light of the
knowledge we possess.
Robert G. Murdik says that “Historical research is concerned with establishing the
occurrence of unique events”. Although one phase of historical research consists only of
determining of past events the ultimate phase deals and present the establishment of pattern
of relation ships and the starting point of projecting trends”.
In the simple words, “Historical method seeks to find explanation of questions of current
interest by an intensive study of the past. Past always contains elements of the present. Past,
present and future are all well inter-linked. Infect every project of research has more or less
historical approach. In discussing any problem we must know the history of the problems and
only then the problem can be solved easily, quickly and accurately. To quote P.V. Young,
“The past, if it can be located, contains the key to the present, though today is different from
yesterday, it was shaped by yesterday. Today and yesterday will probably influence
tomorrow.
2.1.4 Advantages
The advantages of historical methods are
A. Some problems are such which can be investigated only by this method and may not
offer other methods. Therefore, historical method fills in the big gap of making the
research possible and also meaningful on the problems that would otherwise have
remained unexplored.
B. Historical data is not repeatable under any circumstances and therefore, historical
method serves a needy hand method to the researchers whose problems depend on
historical observations. It is fairly easy to repeat observations in laboratories under
controlled conditions but can not be done in case of historical data. Historical method,
therefore, has an advantage to offer the past data under the then prevailing conditions and
afford an opportunity to the researcher to view these observations in the past setting.
C. Historical records provide very useful information that goes a long way towards the
solution of research problem. As already said the researcher is compelled to fall back up
on past data since he can to create these afresh and hence it is highly advantageous to
follow historical method where the use of time series data is unavoidable in any case.
2.1.5 Limitations
Historical method is not free from limitations. The main draw backs are:-
A. Non-Matching situations
B. Over-generalization
12
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
C. Subjective Interpretations
13
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Formulation of hypothesis
Preparations for collection of data
Testing of hypothesis
Evaluation of data
Organization of data
Interpretation and writing report
2.2.1 Definition
Important definition of the case study method is
P.V young- “case study is method exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, a
personal, a family, institution, cultural groups or even an entire community”
Goode and Hatt- “Case study is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary
character of the social object being studied. Expressed some what differently it is an
approach which views any social unit as a whole”
F.I. Whitney –“Case study is a complete analysis and report of the status of an individual
subject with respect as a rule to specific phase of his total personality”
14
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
- An insight on detail provides valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation, and
strategy. This detail is secured from multiple sources of information. It allows evidence
to be verified and avoids missing data.
- Although case studies have maligned (criticized) as “Scientifically worthless” because
they do not meet minimal design requirements for comparison, they none the less have a
significant scientific role. Thus, a single, well-designed case study can provide a major
challenge to a theory and can provide source of new hypothesis and constructs
simultaneously.
2.2.3 Advantages
The main advantages of case study method are it:
- produces new ideas and fresh suggestions,
- helps in formulating a sound hypothesis, and
- may also help in exploring new areas of research
Since the case study method makes an in depth study of a particular unit of investigation and
is always approached with an open mind, it bestows upon the researcher further exploration
of the research field.
2.2.4 Limitations
Though the case study method has contributed much to the social research, some social
scientists have raised some objections against the value and validity of case study. The case
study method has often criticized on the basis of the following limitations.
It develops false sense of confidence which is detrimental to any scientific out look.
Every thing about the subject can’t be known although each unit is studied.
Generalizations about similar cases are impossible
It does not provide universal, impersonal and common aspects of phenomena.
It is quite unsystematic in the absence of any control up on the informant or the
researcher.
Case study situations are seldom comparable
It is difficult to apply the usual scientific methods without destroying the unique value of
the personal document will be lost if it is formalized and abstracted.
15
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
2.2.5 Basic Assumptions of the Case Study Method
A. The case study method is not in it self a scientific basic at all, it is
merely a first step in scientific procedure.
B. It is assumed that in the fact of apparent diversity among different units,
there is an underlying unit. A particular unit has its uniqueness. But it is
not different from other units in all respects.
C. Under this method it is assumed that a unit selected is the representative of a
group. In many respects it is similar to measures of central tendency or
averages. It tries to locate the variations in the reactions and activities of the
subject.
D. It is also assumed that the study of a particular unit is helpful in the
prediction and discussion of other units of the same universe.
E. A unit is indivisible whole and can not be studied piece-meal and in
fragments. We must study its life history and its back ground and to
explain the behavior at a particular time are few, but more.
16
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
2.3.1 Definitions of Social Survey
Some of the important definitions of social survey are as follows:-
A.F Wells- “Social survey is fact-finding study dealing chiefly with working class,
poverty and with the nature and problems of community”.
C.A. Moser- “The sociologists should look up on surveys as way and a supremely useful
one of exploring the field of collection data around as well as directly on the subject of the
study so that problem is brought in to focus and points worth studying are suggested”
Mark Abrams- “A social survey is process by which quantitative facts are collected about
the social aspect of community’s composition and activities”.
F.L. Whitney-“survey research is an organized attempt to analyze, interpret and report the
present status of social institution group or area.”
Survey method is, thus, the technique of investigation by direct observation of phenomena or
systematic gathering of data from population. Survey research is defined as an organized
attempt to analyze, interpret and the present status of social group.
2.3.3 Advantages
Survey method has the following merits in comparison on with other methods:
fosters direct close contact between researcher and respondents.
greater objectivity – it avoids the possibility of personal biases.
useful in testing the validity of many theories.
proved its usefulness in leading to the formulation and testing of hypothesis.
social surveys are based on actual observations.
it has a universal application.
2.3.4 Limitations
Survey method is costly, time consuming and wasteful in certain cases where the
objectives are limited.
Unsuitable if the number of persons to be surveyed is very large or where they are
spread over a large geographical area.
Under this method personal bias may vitiate the result.
It lacks flexibility.
18
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
It is only useful for current problems and is not suitable for the problem that requires
the study in the historical retrospect.
Does not permit more comprehensive and dynamic study of the society.
Under this method most of the surveys are conducted on sample basis.
2.3.5 Steps of a Social Survey
a. Selection of a problem
b. Preliminary study or pilot study
c. General objective of the study and specific objectives
d. Resources and personnels
e. Sampling
f. Method of collecting data
g. Training the investigating staff
h. Organizing of the field work
i. Content analysis
j. Reporting
In the words of Greenwood, “An experiment is the proof of a hypothesis which seeks to look
up two factors in a casual relation ship through the study of contracting situations which have
been controlled on all factors except the one of interest the later being either the hypothetical
case or the hypothetical effect.”
This research method goes by various names, the experimental methods, the cause and effect
method, the pretest- post test control group design and the laboratory method. The basic idea
behind this method is to attempt to account for the influence of a factor or, as in the case of
complex designs, of multiple factors conditioning a given situation.
19
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
In its simplest form, the experimental method attempts to control the entire research
situation, except for certain input variables which then become suspect as the cause of what
ever change has taken place with in the investigation design. The experimental research
method requires us the understanding of different variables. But what are variables?
The term variable is used by scientists and researchers as a synonym for the property being
studied. In this context, a variable is “a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned.”
The numerical value assigned to a variable is based on the variable properties. For example,
referred to as being dichotomous, have only two values reflecting the presence or absence of
a property: employed- unemployed or male- female have two values. Variables can be seen
in to two categories:
21
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Under identified conditions, a lot of it depends on the behavior of the respondents. A
respondent is always under the in thecae diverse social organism and it all depends on the
type of mental frame that he has at the time the researcher approaches him for
information.
A field experiment is generally credited with a few virtues which are supposed to be unique
to this category of a research. This virtues may be listed as: (1) the variables in a field
experiment. This is because of the fact that field situation takes stock of realistic natural
operations. (2) field experiments have the advantage of investigating more fruitfully the
dynamics of inter- relationships of small groups of variables. (3) Field experimental studies
are as so ideal to testing of the theory and the solution of the real world problems.
22
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
2.5.2 Ex-post facto Research
This is an empirical research and the researcher does not have any control over independent
variables, because they have already been manifested. Ex-post facto researches systematic
empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables
because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are in hearth not
manipulability.
Inferences about relations among variables are made, with out direct intervention, from
concomitant variation of independent are dependent variables.
This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical examination of dependent and
independent variables- Independent variables are studied in retrospect for seeking possible
and plausible relations and the likely effects that the changes in independent variables,
produce on a single or a set of dependent variables.
In es-post facto research, the researcher’s control on the behavior of independent variables is
very weak and in many cases no control is possible.
Some of the weaknesses of ex-post facto research are summarized here under.
The inability to control the charging patterns of independent variables.
The ex-post facto research findings owe the risk of improper interpretations
The ex-post facto research may not have any particular hypothesis as there is a likely
hood that such an hypothesis may predict a spurious relationship between independent
and dependent variables.
A laboratory experiment is a research study in which the variance of all or nearly all of the
possible influential independent variables not pertinent to the immediate problem of the
investigation is kept at a minimum.
23
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
This is done by isolating the research in a physical situation apart from the or ordinary living
and by manipulating one or more independent variables under rigorously specified,
operational zed and controlled conditions.
This type of research has a limited application in social sciences as it extremely difficult to
study social variables in isolation of each other.
However, it may, at times be possible to create a situation; where in a maximum control can
be exercised to keep the variations among the independent variables at a maximum. In such
cases laboratory experiment types of research may find its applicability in social research as
well.
2.5.4 Action Research
This is a recent classification. This type of research is conducted through direct action. The
actual study may consist of a number of phases, say, base-line survey, systematic action,
periodical assessment, etc. A good example of action research is a study of test marketing. A
base line survey is initially conducted and the informants are identified; and this is followed
by the distribution of the product under study, and then an assessment of survey.
It is very useful method in consumer product. Even in the case of industrial products,
machinery and consumer durables, the action research method is used when, instead of
distributing the product, demonstration is made as part of action research. Action research is
also termed as applied research because it is a type of research that will be conducted to solve
immediate practical problem(s). By its very definition, it is research through launching of a
direct action with the objective of obtaining workable solutions to the given problems.
In conducting research through launching of actions, this type of research has the quality of
adapting itself to the changes take place in a given population. Action research is spread over
different phases such as a base line survey, where all the possible information of research
interest is collected to enable the researcher to acquaint him self with the existing operational
situations. This also aims at collecting information from the other sources that have direct or
planned action is particularly launched and then at the next phase action research carries out
periodical assessment of the project.
24
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
At subsequent stage, changes, modifications and other improvements are made in the
functional aspect of the project and finally the whole process culminates in the evaluation of
the project as a whole.
The method used for this type of research is usually personal interviews method and the
survey method. Some times attitude measurement techniques are also made use of some
problems associated with action research are the personal values of the personal values of the
individuals, lack of social scientists interest and exclusion locations with the respondent.
Generally, action research is directed to the solution of immediate, specific and practical
problems. The findings of action/ applied research will be evaluated in terms of local
applicability and not in terms of universal validity (usefulness). It is mainly intended to
improve certain contextual problem and helps to add greater effectiveness in a certain
practical manner. It focuses on the solution of day-to- day problems at the local level.
25
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
CHAPTER THREE
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM AND
HYPOTHESIS
Identification of a research problem is the first step in scientific inquiry. A problem in simple
words is some difficulty experienced by the researcher in a theoretical or practical situation
solving this difficulty is the task of research.
The problem defines the goal of the researcher in clear terms. Thus, with out a problem,
research can not proceed because there is nothing to processed from and proceed toward. In
social sciences, quite a number of researchers may be faced with this problem, i.e., the
problem of not being able to see a problem.
Personal values play an important role in the selection of a topic for research. Social
scientists with different values tend to choose different topic for investigation. Of course,
personal values are not the only determinants in selecting a topic for inquiry. Social
conditions do often shape the preference of investigators in a subtle and imperceptible way.
There are also a number of powerful and overt inducements to selection of one topic rather
than another. Societies differ in respect of premium they place on the work in different fields.
These differential premia affect the choice of research topics. In a given society, it may bring
26
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
greater prestige to do research on a deadly disease rather than on say, the patterns of
socialization.
The selection of a topic for research is only half a step forward.
3.1.1 How to Proceed?
The formulation of the problem consists in making various components of the problem
explicit.
Says John Dewey: It is a familiar and significant saying that a problem well put is half-
solved. To find out what the problem or problems are which a problematic situation
presents…. Is to be well along in inquiry. To mistake the problem involved is to cause
subsequent enquiry to be irrelevant. With out a problem there is blind grouping in the dark.
There are three principle components in the formulation of a problem.
A. The originating questions (what one wants to know?)
B. The rational- theoretical or practical (why one wants to have the questions answered?)
C. The specifying questions (possible answers to the originating) questions in term of that
satisfy the rationale.)
A. The Originating Questions
- Represent the beginning of certain difficulties or challenges
- Are formulated in such specific indicate where exactly the answers to them can be
searched for.
- Constitute the initial phase in the process of problem formulation.
- May be formulated in terms of broadly delimited categories of social variable but do
not indicate specifically which particular variables in each class might be germane to
the issues.
- Usually derive from a general theoretical orientation rather than a definite theory.
B. Rationale of Questions
- Is the statement of reasons why a particular question is worth putting a cross .
- States what will happen to other parts of knowledge or practice if the question
posed is answered, i.e., how the answer to the question will contribute to theory
and/ or practice.
- Helps to effect a discrimination between scientifically good and scientifically
trivial questions.
27
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
C. Specifying Questions
o Culminate the process of formulating a research problem
o Involve the breaking down of originating question in to several specifying questions
related to particular aspects and their consequences.
C. Discussions with persons having rich practical experience in the filed of study.
This is often known as an experience survey, which again is an exercise at exploration. These
people help in sharpening the focus of attention on specific aspects with in the field.
Research problem can also be selected on the basis of daily experience of a researcher.
Everyday problems constantly present something new and worthy of investigation and it
depends on the worthy of investigation and it depends on the sharpness of the researcher
intellect to knit his daily experiences in to a research problem.
Technological changes in a fast changing society are constantly brought forth new problems
and new opportunities for research. What is the impact of a changed technology on the
existing socio – economic set up, always interests the researcher and tempts him to under
take such studies as are revealing regarding the impact of new technology on the existing
system.
Research problems can be both abstract and of applied interest. These may also be selected
from those areas which have not been explored so far. Such area may be theoretical or
empirical in nature.
Some times the researcher while discussing the interest with some other people may come
across a problem that can be researched by the investigator. The problem may relate to any
source as discussed above. In the same way reading assignments in text books, special
assignments, research reports and term papers may also suggest some additional areas of
needed research. Many research articles suggest some additional areas of needed research.
Many research articles suggest problem for further investigation that may prove fruitful.
29
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
criteria include such consideration as interest, training, cost and time. The following are
move detailed list of criteria for the choice of research problem.
A. Novelity
It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve objectionable duplication.
Ignorance of prior studies may lead a student to spend time a problem already investigated.
The study should also employ the most recent data. Although originality is an important
consideration, there is also a constant need for verification of the findings of the previous
investigations, using newer and better devices and procedures. There is also a need for the
testing of former findings under changed conditions.
B. Interesting
The problem should be interesting for the investigator him self. If he is not interested in to,
he will be able to face and overcome the obstacles which come at every step in research. His
interest should be purely intellectual and should not be there only for a reward, material
benefit, advancement in position, increased authority, etc.
C. Importance
If it is not worth while, if adds to neither knowledge nor lead to any improvements in the
current practices, it would be in vain set up as a discipline and to previous research findings
in any way.
D. Immediate Application
The investigator should ask him self question, “will my research help in solving an urgent
problem”
E. Feasibility or Amenability
The suitability of the problem for a particular research worker is the matter of its feasibility.
The investigator should be able to carry it to a successful conclusion. He should possess the
required competence, knowledge and understanding. He should be skillful enough to
develop, administer, and interpret the necessary data – gathering devices and procedures etc.
Feasibility issue of research includes the following
Availability of data
Availability of cooperation
Availability of guidance
30
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Availability of other facilitates
Experience and creativity,
Coverage and confidence
3.1.5 Formulating and Stating the Problem
After the problem has been selected it must be definitely formulated and stated in precise
terms. The type of statement to be employed depends on the preference of the worker and the
nature of the problem.
There are two alternative ways of stating a problem.
Posing question (s)
Making declaration statement (s)
One may choose any of these ways remembering that the question form has an advantage in
sharpening and focusing the issue, but the declarative form is perhaps more common and
both of the ways may be combined easily in an initial statement .
3.1.6 Definition of the Problem
It implies the separation of the problem from the complex of difficulties and needs. It means
to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful distinction from like questions found in
related situations of need.
To decline a problem means to specify it in detail and with precesion. Each question and
subordinate question to be answered is to be specified. Sometimes it is necessary to
formulate the point of view or educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If
certain assumption is made they are explicitly noted.
It is important to define and elucidate the problem as a whole and further define all the
technical and unusual terms employed in the statement.
31
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
C. Lock of Precisions in the Instrument
It the tools, tests, or devices, which are proposed to be used in data collection and analysis
are no precise enough, they may result in another constant error.
3.2 Hypothesis
The derivation of a suitable hypothesis goes hand in hand with the selection of a research
problem.
Hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the time,
known about the phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search of new
truth.
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as a
guide in the investigation of other facts and theories that are yet unknown.
A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition
which can be put to a test to determine its validity.
32
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
B. It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of situations which are relevant from
the stand point of the problem in hand. It spells the difference between precision and
haphazardness, between fruitful and fruitless research.
C. It. Is a guide to thinking process and the process of discovery. It is the
investigators eye – a sort of guiding light in the world of darkness.
D. It focuses research with out it research would be like a random and aimless
wandering.
E. It places clear and specific goals before us. These clear and specific goals provide
the investigator with a basis for selecting samples and research procedures to
meet these goals.
33
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
3.2.3 Difficulties in the Formulation of Hypothesis
-Lack of knowledge and clarity of the theoretical frame work of the area in which the
investigator chooses to work.
-Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical frame work logically.
-Lack of acquaintance with available research techniques. This result in failure of
phrasing the hypothesis properly.
-Vagueness of the statement
CHAPTER FOUR
THE RESEARCH PROPSAL
Research proposal is a written document of the research topic chosen and why, a plan of
future research and an explanation of how it will be achieved. The document is prepared for
both requesting authorization and funds to under take a specific research project. It is an
activity that incorporates decision made during early research – project planning phases of
the study including management – research question hierarchy and exploration. The proposal
thus incorporates the choices the investigator makes in the preliminary steps.
It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the process that will
be utilized at each stage of the research process.
A written proposal is often required when a study is being suggested. It ensures that the
parties concur on the projects purpose and on the proposal method of investigations.
Depending on the needs and desires of the investigator, substantial background detail and
elaboration of proposal techniques may be included.
It is also the road map of the research which reveals about the what, who, who, why, how of
the research project.
4.1.2 As a Plan
It helps the researcher to organize his idea in a systematic manner and look for strength and
flows. A good proposal set out the plan in step by step detail and provides an inventory of
what must be done and which materials have to be collected as preliminary step.
4.1.3 As a Contract
A complete proposal approved for execution and signed by all parties constitutes a bound of
agreement between the parties.
The length and complexity of research proposals range widely. Business research proposal
normally range from one to ten pages. Applicants for foundation or government research
grants typically file a proposal request of a few pages, often in standardized format specified
by the granting agency. A research proposal may also be oral, where all aspects of the
research are discussed but not codified writing. This is more when a manager directs his own
research.
35
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
purpose of both as to communicate clearly. It provides no opportunity for fine writing, for
literary composition, for verbal extravagance. The language must be clear, precise, and
sharp, A proposal provides a chance to show with what ultimate clarity and precision the
researcher can state a problem, delineate the treatment of the data, and establish the
logical validity of a conclusion.
4.2.1 Objectivity
The objectivity of the findings pertains to the methods of collection of data and scoring of
the responses. The objectivity of the procedure (either collection of data or scoring of the
response or both) may be judged by the degree agreement between the final scores assigned
to different individuals by more that one independent observer. The more “subjective” the
observation, recording and evaluation of the responses, the less different observes agree.
Thus any research design should permit the use of measuring instruments which are fairly
objective in which every observer or judge seeing a performance arrives at precisely the same
report. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which will be used for the analysis,
inferences and generalizations.
4.2.2 Reliability
Reliability refers to “consistency thorough out series of measurements. That is to say, if a
respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to gives the same
response tot hat item when ever he is asked subsequently. On the contrary, if the respondent
keeps on changing his response to the same item when he is asked repeatedly, then the
investigator will be facing a difficulty in considering which one of these responses is the
genuine response of the respondent. So the investigator should frame his item in such a way
that the respondent can not but give only one genuine response. There are different methods
in determining the reliability of the response give out by a respondent. Some of these
36
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
methods are using ‘chick item’ administering the same test repeatedly; using a series of
‘parallel’ forms etc.
4.2.3 Validity
Any measuring instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it purports to measure.
For example, an intelligence test, constructed for measuring intelligence should measure only
intelligence and noting else. As in the case of reliability there are a good number of
procedures for establishing the validity of test. Some such procedures are validating the
present data against a concurrent, criterion of a future criterion or theory etc.
37
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Excessive length in titles is often attributable to ‘waste’ or fat words such as ‘an investigation
on …’ or ‘studies to example….’and the use of the words that should appear in the main text.
B. Kinds of title
I. Inductive Title
This type of title states the subject of the research (proposal) rather than the expected out
come.
Eg. ‘The role of agricultural credit in alleviating poverty in low-Potential Areas of Ethiopia’
II. Hanging title
The hanging title has two parts a general first part followed by a more specific second part. It
is useful in rewording another wise long, clumsy and complicated indicative title.
E.g ‘Alleviation of Poverty in low-Potential Areas of Ethiopia: the impact of Agricultural
Credit’
C. Abstract
An abstract is known by different names like executive summary, synopsis, and epitome. It
gives executives the chance to grasp the essentials of the proposal with out having to read the
details. It should also include a brief statement of the problem, the research objectives/
research question (s) and the benefits of your approach.
It is the section which reflects the whole content of the proposal. It should be concise,
informative and should provide brief information on about the whole problem to be
investigated.
An effective abstract should present highlight, of the main aspects of the proposal concisely
and clearly. A good informative abstract starts by stating the problem to be solved through
the purpose, expected outcomes, beneficiaries, expected impact of the work being proposed
and the method to be used.
38
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
4.3.2 The Body Parts
A. Statement of the Problem
The problem statement contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually
represented by a management question or originating question. This problem is usually
represented by a management question. It is followed by a more detailed set of objectives.
Once the investigator is able to collect different studies conducted in his field of investigation
from various source and examine each one of them critically for the points mentioned above,
he will be in a position to state his problem in unambiguous and more precise terms. Usually,
the problem of investigation is stated in two ways – (a) in the form of a statement or (b) in
question form. In some cases the problem is stated with the help of more than one statement
or question.
Thus, in this part of your work, you have to explain what the problem is all about. Problem
statement must do better than produce merely a splutter of wordy and meaningless fragments.
Accordingly, it you know the problem, state it clearly. Each word of the problem should be
expressive, sharp, indispensable and definitive. Always state the problem in a compute
grammatical sentence. Your problem should be stated so well, infect that any one (who
understand English) could read it and react to if with out benefit of your presence If, for any
reason, your problem is not stated with such clarity, then you are merely deciving your self
that you, yourself know what the problem is such deception will merely cause you trouble
later on.
Clarity in statement of the problem is import ant for the following three basic reasons
i, It is the foundation for the development of research problems which aare necessary for
securing funds.
ii, It enables the researcher to describe the problem practically, to think about its importance,
its priority and to point out all the necessary points
iii. It provides the research with the basis for discussion with people in the community, the
relevant government \agency, and /or the potential funding agency.
As a general rule in research proposal writing, the other possible approach is to have an
introduction section which discusses the background of the problem followed by a problem
statement or rationale (can be separate section) discussing the need for undertaking the study.
39
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
A statement of the problem or description of the background of the study topic is the first
major section of the research proposal.
Recall that the research question can be further broken down in the investigative questions. If
the proposal is for a descriptive or casual study, then the objectives can be restated as a
hypothesis.
The objective flows naturally from the problem statement, giving the sponsor specific,
concrete, and research proposal must be SMART (Specific Measurable, Achievable,
Realistic and Time- bound). It is best to list the objective either in order of importance or in
general terms first, moving to specific term (i.e, research question followed by underlying
investigative questions). The general objectives of a research provide a short statement of the
specific goal being pursued by the researcher. The research questions (or hypothesis, if
appropriate) should be set off from the flow of the text so they can be found easily. The
specific objectives are operational in nature.
1. They should be stated in a form which shows the relations between variables
2. Must clearly state the target of the research activity, i.e, what kind of results are expected
or sought from conducting the research.
The research objectives section is the basis for judging the remainder of the proposal and,
ultimately the final report. Verify the consistency of the proposal by checking to see that each
objective is discussed in the research design, data analysis, and results sections.
40
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
both. Some researches extend the frontier of knowledge. This section, therefore, enable the
researcher questions like.
What is the usefulness of this study?
What does this study contribute?
Also, if the particular study is exploratory in nature, its importance to serve as an input for a
further detailed study will be stated.
The significance of the study is usually stated as follows. The purpose of the research is to:
shed the light on the nature of the problem
give solutions to the problem
extend the frontiers of knowledge
enrich the literature
In this section you (as a researcher) indicate the boundary of the study. The problem should
be reduced to a handy (manageable) way. The rule is “Don’t bite more than what you can
chew”. The motto of the researcher is “this one thing I do; this one area I investigate; this one
question I attempt to answer, this one problem I am to solve.”
Delimitation is done to solve the problem using the available financial, labor and time
resources. This does not, however, mean that we should delimit the research topic to
particular issue and/ or organization or place because it is less costly and take less time.
Delimitation is done not to necessarily reduce the scope of the study for the sake of
minimizing the effort to be exerted. This means that we should not sniff the life of the topic
in the name of making it manageable. Thus, there should be a balance between manageability
and representativeness of the universe being studied.
41
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
This is a part that you will include some constraints or difficulties you think that they have
influence on the weaknesses in the methodology , lack of access to data, faulty instruments,
sampling restriction, lack of recent literature in the area, financial constraints, lack of
cooperation, time, constraints and others.
Generally, limitations are difficulties the researcher faced during doing the research. Even
though the researcher designs and plans his study carefully, there could still be certain
constraints that might hinder the researcher from doing the research as it should be.
This is usually written after the work is completed because it is known only then. Thus, it is
not usually indicated in the proposal However, it is possible to indicate limitations expected
and solutions envisaged.
Nominal definitions are used in cases where a given word is synonymous with certain other
expressions, the meanings of which are already established.
Sometimes, the investigators even define a variable operationally with the help of items in
the questionnaire or interview schedule.
The investigator usually engager himself in the following exercises before arriving at the
operational definitions of the different terms.
42
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
The investigator will:(a) discover the various dimensions involved with in the concept, (b)
correlate these different dimensions so that all possible types can be discerned, (c) reduce the
number of types to be studied, (d) translate those types selected for study in to operational
categories and empirical indices.
It is always advisable to define each concept both: (i) in abstract terms giving the general
meaning it intends to convey, and (ii) in terms of operational categories by which it is
represented in particular study.
It is recommended that you should avoid the extraneous detail of the literature by doing a
brief review of the information, not a comprehensive report. Emphasize the important results
and conclusions of other studies, the relevant data and trends from previous research, and
particular methods or designs that could be duplicated or should be avoided. Discuss how the
literature applies to the study you are proposing; show the weakness or faults in the design,
discussing how you would avoid similar problems. Close the literature section by
summarizing the important aspects of the literature and interpreting them in terms of your
problem.
The review of related literature should give readers the context for the present study. The
review should not merely summarize a series of books and articles; rather, it should call
attention to the most important previous work, identify the place of your study in relation to
other research, and delineate areas of agreement and disagreement in the field. The review
43
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
should evaluate and interpret existing research rather than simply repeat it. Organizing the
review by topic rather than by author and avoiding un necessary direct questions can help
you focus the review of research.
44
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Be systematic and thorough “make haste slowly” is a sound rule for the researcher.
It would be much better to take the required care and to give proper attention to doing the
job right in the first place.
Relate your bibliography to your problem.
The competent researcher never forgets that everything be does serves only one
purpose to contribute to the solution of the problem.
45
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Emphasize relatedness keep your reader constantly aware of the manner in which the
literature you are discussing is related to your problem. Point out precisely what the
relationship is. When ever you cite a study, make your self account for that particular study
in terms of the problem you are researching.
f. Use proper Citation Style
Citation refers to indicating the source of borrowed or quoted idea “ Plagiarize” is defined as
to steal and pass off (the ideas or word of another) as ones owns to use(a created production )
with out crediting the source. The three ways one can be quality of plagiarism are
i. Paraphrasing some one else’s words at length with out giving
him/her credit
ii. Copying some one else’s word or sentence- verbatim with out
quoting appropriately and showing a reference.
iii. Using ideas that have been strongly influenced by some one else’s
work with out giving appropriate credit.
Paraphrasing is taking some one else’s word and putting it in to own word.
Quoting is copying taking some one else’s word or sentences variation. If the question
appears as part of a paragraph, it should be preceded and followed by quotes. If the quotation
is longer that four typed lines, it should be set off as a paragraph of its own, single spaced,
and typed with out quotation make. Both paraphrased and quoted materials should be
reference carefully.
H. Reference Styles
Three of the most commonly used referencing styles are the APA (American Psychological
Association), MLA (Modern Language Association of America), and Turbian (named for its
creator, kate L. Turbian) Styles. The APA style relies on in text mention of the author’s name
and year of publication.
Examples:
1. Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think. Typically,
75-85% of the information the grapevine carries is true. (Davis,1981)
2. Davis (1981) reports that grapevine communications are more accurate than most people
realize. Typically, 75-85% of the information the grapevine carries is true.
46
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
3. The underlining show the alternative referring styles. If the writer quotes Davis directly
as in the following except, then the page number might be added to the reference
“The degree of grapevine activity is a misuse of company’s spirit and vitality. If employees
are so disinterested in their work that they do not engage in shop talk, they are maladjusted.”
(Davis, 1973:45 )
The MLA style is similar to APA form of textural citation the main difference is that the
PAP will cite the authors’ name and date of publication, where as the MLA will provide the
authors last name, Title of work, and page numbers.
Example.
Universality of management suggests that the manger uses the same managerial skills and
principles in each managerial positions help in various organizations. (Dalton, “Business
management,”64)
What ever the writer chooses, he should be careful to maintain consistency. When the author
of the referenced material is two or three, the last name of each of the authors should be
indicated.
However, if the authors are more than three, only the name of the first author is written
followed by et.al., which means “ and other”, the abbreviation et. al. should be underlined as
it is Latin word written in English
Example
According to Thompson et.al., there is a general agreement that once a training program is
over we should try to check its effectiveness.
Under the Turbian style, each citation is given a number starting with 1 and proceeding
consecutively through the paper. The number are typed slightly above the line to distinguish
them from the text. Corresponding foot notes may be typed as endnotes or at the bottom of
the page. If typed at the end of the page, a line about 1 and ½ inches long should be typed to
separate the text from the footnotes. Here is an example of a reference and the accompaning
footnote using Turbian style.
Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think. Typically 15-
85% of the information the grapevine carries is true.3
47
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Another style concern is how to repeat references, that is reference to sources that have been
cited and are now being cited again.4 consider the example that follows. The turbian using
the following Citations. 5
The notion Ibid is the abbreviation fort he lation ibidem, meaning “ in the same place”, It is
used when a repeated reference immediately follows the original reference.
In the case where other references come between the original and the repeated citation of a
given reference, the author’s last name and the latin op.cit. (Operacitato, in the work cited)
4 Gibson and Hdgetts, op.cit
The notation Loc.cit is the abbreviation for the Lafin loc citamus, meaning, the work cited
earlier the same place (page). When the page is the same, we use loc.cit and when the page is
different, we use op.cit
a, To elaborate the ideas or information presented in the text. If discussing some thing with in
the body is difficult (or not necessary), one can type the number slightly above the term (s)
to be explained at the foot of the page.
b, To give cross reference to different parts of the same paper.
48
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
4.3.3 The Supplemental
A. Budgets and Schedules
I. Cost Budget
The budgets should be presented in the form of the sponsor request. It should on more than
one to two pages. But if should contain all the costs needed.
Most proposals put together with the expectation that funding will be necessary and an
itemized list of the items needed to carry out the research is listed in some detail. A carefully
developed budget reflects the seriousness of the proposal and the degree to which it is a
realistic assessment of what is needed. A detailed, carefully through out budget will, be
useful in planning, implementing and monitoring the project. The following points should
come in mind when preparing the budget.
It may be convenient to use the work plan as a starting point
Specify for each activity in the work plan what resources are required.
Determine for each resource the unit cost and the total cost.
Keep some amount of contingency-5%
A work plan is a Schedule, chart or graph that summarizes in a clear fashion, various
components of a research undertaking and how they fit together. The plan includes the
following components like:
-task to be performed
-when the tasks will be performed
-who will perform the tasks.
Your schedule also include the major phases of the project (study), their time tables, and
milestones that signify completion of a phase. For example, major phases may be
(1) exploratory interviews,
49
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
(2) final research proposal
(3) questionnaire revision,
(4) field interviews,
(5) editing and coding,
(6) data analysis, and
(7) report generation. Each of these should have on estimated time schedule.
B. Reference Section
All works cited in the proposal are listed here. The sources are many, i.e., text books,
Journal, articles, etc…., Published and/or unpublished, could be possible to cite, quote, or
paraphrase as to their relevance to your study
50
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
CHAPTER FIVE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methodology constitutes two major elements. These are (1) the sampling
procedures, (2) the source and collection of data. The methodologies are the core and the
largest part of a scientific research proposal which are largely descriptive in nature. This
section is an essential prerequisite for validating the results and hence acceptability of the
proposal. Methodologies should give full details to show how the research activity is going to
be carried out. Since this section is the largest and the most important of the research
proposal, researchers are advised to split it in to sub-sections. Such effort makes the proposal
transparent and clear to the readers as well as to the sponsor and therefore, minimizes the
risks of being rejected.
It is needless to say that no investigator can study the entire population and hence selects a
few individuals belonging to a population for the purpose of his investigation. These selected
51
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
individuals form a sample and while selecting these individuals the investigation should
consider the following facts.
The different techniques usually complied by the investigators in selecting the sample varies
accordingly- the one selected depends on the requirements of the project, its objectives, and
funds available.
Further more, the members of a sample are selected either on a probability or non-probability
basis. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random- selection- a controlled
procedure that assures that each population element is given a known non zero chance of
52
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
selection. Non- probability sampling, on the other hand, is subjective and each member does
not have a known non zero chance of being included.
53
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
I. Simple Random Sampling
A simple random sampling is one in which each item in the universe has an equal or known
opportunity of being selected. It is more suitable in more homogeneous and comparatively
large groups. Three methods are generally used for drawing out a sample on simple random
basis.
a. Lottery Method
A simple method to do this is to list numbers and to drew lotteries or to use dies or charts or
systems prepared for this purpose.
b. Use of Tables of Random Numbers
These numbers are very widely used in all the sampling techniques and have proved to be
quite reliable as regards accuracy and representative ness.
c. Precautions in Drawing a Simple Random Technique
Population to be sampled and the unit must be clearly defined.
Different units should be approximately of equal size.
The unit must be independent of each other
Method of selection should be completely independent
Every member should be accessible units once selected should not be ignored or
replaced by any other unit of the universe
d. Merits of the simple Random Technique
It eliminates bias and is more scientific method of taking samples
Assessment of the accuracy of the result is possible by sample error estimation
The sample drawn under this method is true representative of the universe
It is very simple and easily practicable of selecting samples.
e. Demerits of the simple Random Technique
It requires complete list of the universe that restrict the use of this method
It is not suitable for respondents (dispersed) over a large geographic area.
For a given degree of accuracy, this method usually requires large samples as
compared to stratified sampling.
II. Complex Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is often impractical. It requires a population list that is often not
available. The design may also be wasteful because it fails to use all the information about a
54
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
population. In addition, the carrying out of a simple random design may be expensive in time
and money. These problems have led to the development of alternative designs that are
superior to the simple random design in statistical and /or economical efficiency. In the
discussion that follows, four alternate probability sampling approaches are discussed;
systematic, stratified, cluster and double sampling methods.
a. Systematic Random sampling
Under this method a sampling is taken from a list prepared on a systematic arrangement
either on the basis of alphabetic order or on house number on the basis of alphabetic order or
on house number or any other method. In this method only the first sample unit is selected at
random and the remaining units are automatically selected in a definite sequence at equal
spacing from one another.
Steps Involved in systematic random sampling
-Arrange population in serial numbers from 1 to N and determine the size of the sample,
-Determine the sample interval by dividing the population by sample size as follows.
N/n=K
Where, K= Sample interval
N= Sample size
N= Population size
-Select any number at random from the first sampling interval. The subsequent samples are
selected at equal or regular intervals
ii. Merits of systematic random sampling
-It is easy to operate and checking can also be done quickly
-It results in representative sample because of its randomness and
probability features.
iii. Demerits of systematic Random sampling
-It works well only if the complete and up- to – date frame is
available and if the units are randomly arranged.
-Any hidden periodicity in the list will adversely affect the
representativeness of the sample.
b. Stratified Sampling Method
55
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
When the population is heterogeneous with respect to the variable or characteristics under
study, then the techniques of stratified sampling is used to obtain more efficient and accurate
results. Stratification means division of the universe into groups according to geographical,
sociological or economic characteristics.
i. Processes Involved in Stratified Sampling
-Divide the universe in to sub-groups. Then the required units are selected at random from
each sab-group.
-Conduct the stratification in such a way that item in one stratum should be similar to each
other but different significantly from unit of other strata
-Each and every unit in the population must belong to one and only one stratum, i.e., various
strata must be non-over lapping
-The size of each stratum in the universe must be large enough to provide selection of item in
random basis.
-Size of the sample from each stratum can be proportional or disproportional to the size of
each stratum.
ii. Merits of Stratified Sampling
-If a correct stratification has been made even a small number of units will form a
representative sample.
-Under this method, no group is left unrepresented
-It is more precise and avoids bias to a great extent.
-It is the only sampling plan, which enables us to achieve different degrees of accuracy for
different segment of the population.
-Replacement of case is early in this method if the original case is not accessible to study
-It enables different research methods and procedures to be used in different strata
-Stratification is usually more efficient statistically than simple random sampling and at
worst is equal to it. With the ideal stratification, each stratum is homogeneous internally and
heterogeneous with other strata.
iii. Demerits of Stratified Sampling
-It is a very difficult task to divide the universe in to homogeneous strata the universe in to
homogeneous strata
56
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
-If the strata are over-lapping, unsuitable or disproportionate, the selection of samples may
not be representative
-Disproportionate stratification requires weighting which again introduces selective factor in
the sample and under weighting makes the sample unrepresentative.
c. Cluster sampling
In a simple random sampling, each population element is selected individually. The
population can also be divided into groups of elements with some group randomly selected
for study.
This is cluster sampling. An immediate question might be how does this differ from stratified
sampling? They may be compared as follows.
In stratified sampling, we divide the population into a few sub- groups, each with
many elements according to some criterion that is related to the variable under
study; while in cluster sampling, we divide the population in to many sub- groups,
each with a few elements in it. The sub groups in the later are selected according
to some criterion of ease or availability in data collection.
In the former one, we try to secure homogeneity with in sub-groups and
heterogeneity between subgroups; while in the later one, we try to secure
heterogeneity with in sub group and homogeneity between sub- groups, but we
usually get the reverse.
In the former one, we randomly choose elements from with in each group; while
in the later one, we randomly choose a number of the sub-groups, which we then
typically study in to.
When properly done, cluster sampling also provides an unbiased estimate of population
parameters. Two conditions foster the use of cluster sampling are (1) the need for more
economic efficiency than can provided by simple random sampling and (2) the frequent un
availability of practical sampling from for individual elements.
i. Principles of cluster sampling
-Cluster should be as small as possible with the cost and limitation of the survey
-The number of sampling units in the cluster should be approximately the same
ii. Merits of cluster sampling
57
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
-It gives significant cost gain
-It is easier and more practical method, which facilitates the field work
iii. Demerits of cluster method
-Probability and the representativeness of the sample are sometimes affected if the number of
the clusters is very large
-The results obtained under this method are likely to be less accurate if the number of
sampling units in each clusters not approximately the same.
B. Non-probability Sampling
Probability sampling procedures that include some form of random selection are not always
appropriate or desirable. There are a number of reasons why simple random sampling may
not be appropriate. For example, a researcher may not have access to the whole group. Also
it may be economically difficult and time consuming to take samples from the possible study
population. In non- probability sampling method there is no assurance that every member has
some chance of being included in a sample. This can be employed in different ways.
Non-probability sampling, also called judgmental sampling method is based on the personal
judgment. Under this method a desired number of sample units are selected deliberately or
purposely depending up on the object of the inquiry so that only the important items
representing the true characteristics of the population are included in the sample. Under such
conditions, there is greater opportunity for bias to enter the sample selection procedure and to
distort the findings of the study. If this is so, why would anyone choose it?
There are some practical reasons for using these less precise methods. These are:
It is appropriate for exploratory types of researches where one may wish to contact
only certain persons or cases that are clearly non-typical. This is the case when there is no
desire to generalize about population.
It saves time and money probability sampling clearly calls for more planning and
repeated call backs to assure that each selected member is contacted.
While probability sampling may be superior in theory, there are break downs in its
application.
Sometimes non-probability sampling may be the only feasible alternative.
58
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
a. Convenience Sampling
Non-probability samples that are unrestricted are called convenience samples. They are the
least reliable design but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct. Researchers or field
workers have the freedom to choose whomever they find, thus the name convenience.
Examples include responding to question of the researcher.
While a convenience sample has no controls to ensure precision, it may still be a useful
procedure. In the early stages of exploratory research when you are seeking guidance, you
might use this approach.
b. Purposive Sampling
A non-probability sample that conforms to certain criteria is called purposive sampling.
There are two major types- judgment sampling and quota sampling.
i. Judgment sampling
Judgment sampling occurs when a researcher selects sample members to conform to some
criterion. In a study lab our problem, for example, you may want to talk only with those who
experienced on-the-job discrimination.
When used in early stages of an exploratory study, a judgment sample is appropriate.
When one wishes to select a biased group for screening purposes, this sampling method is
also a good choice.
ii. Quota Sampling
Quota Sampling is the second type of purposive sampling. We use it to improve
representativeness. The logic behind quota sampling is that certain relevant characteristics
describe the dimension of populations.
In most quota samples, researchers specify more than one control dimension each should
meet two tests
(1) it should have a distribution in the population that we can estimate, and
(2) it should be pertinent to the topic studied.
We may relieve that responses to a question should vary, depending up on the gender of
respondents. If so, we should seek proportional responses from both men and women. We
59
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
may also feel that diploma and TVET students differ from degree students, so this would be a
dimension.
Quota sampling is a special type of stratified sampling. Here, the population is first stratified
on some basis, preferably on the basis of the characteristics of the population under study.
After this the number of sample units be selected from stratum is decided by the researcher in
advance. This number is known as quota which may be fixed according to some specific
characteristics such as in come groups, sex, occupation, political/ religious affiliations, etc.
The choice of the particular units for investigating is left to the investigators themselves. The
investigators try to get required in formation quickly by applying their judgment in the choice
of the sample
60
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
The investigator should now find instruments for collecting the data required by the
hypothesis. The investigator himself may have to construct these instruments or he may have
to adopt the readily available instruments to suit the local conditions. In the later case, the
investigator may make certain necessary changes in the format, etc., with the help of the feed
back received by conducting a pilot study on a very small sample.
Besides using the instruments, like questionnaires, interview schedules, projector techniques,
attitude scales, etc…, the investigator may adopt other methods like observation, examination
of records and so forth for data collection each of these various methods has its own
advantages and limitations, which will be discuss in details forward.
61
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
The following points are note worthy for the preference of primary source in comparison to
secondary sources:
The primary source gives data in greater details compared to secondary source.
The Secondary source often omits part of the information.
In the secondary source, there is a possibility of mistakes due errors in
transcription made then the figures were copied from the primary source.
The primary sources include definitions of terms and units used. It is essential
that the investigations understand the meaning of units in which data are
recorded.
The primary source also includes a copy of the schedule used in data collection
together with the prescription of the procedure used in selecting the sample and
the size of a sample.
The availability of time at the disposal of investigations also affects the choice
of the method to be adopted in the collection of data. If the data are needed
immediately, we have to depend on the secondary source. On the other hand, if
the time is sufficient it is recommended to use primary method of data are
more accurate and reliable compared to secondary data
The availability of finance also influences the method to be adopted in the
collection of data. If the data collecting authority has vast financial resources at
its disposal it is better to adopt primary method. On the contrary, it the data
collecting agency has less financial resources, secondary source should be
adapted even though the secondary data are not as reliable as primary data.
The availability of trained investigators also affects the choice of the method to
be employed in data collection. If trained investigators are availability, primary
method should be adapted for the collection of data. In case of non-availability
of trained investigators, it is recommended to adopt secondary method of data
collection.
The objective and the scope of the inquiry also determine the method to be
adapted in the collection of data. The selected method must suit the objective
and the scope of the inquire.
62
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
D. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data
It is common for researcher to make a clear distinction between quantitative researches (also
known as positivistic) that focuses on scientific sampling and the analysis of numerical data,
and qualitative research (also known as interpretative) that focuses on less rigorous (or
convenience based) sampling and gathering textual information for non-statistics analysis.
Often, however, more mixed approaches (pluralistic) are used in which both quantitative and
qualitative approaches are blended and used to inform the findings of each other.
There are vast differences between the first two methods, and it is necessary to understand
their special characteristics in order to make the right selection.
Quantitative Research is
The traditional mainstay of the research industry and it is sometimes
referred to as ”survey Research”
Quantitative research is defined as research involving the use of
structured questions where the response options have been
predetermined and a large number of respondents are involved.
Quantitative research often involves a sizable representative sample
of the population and a formalized procedure for gathering data.
The purpose of quantitative research is very specific, and this
research is used when the manager and researcher have agreed that
precise information is needed.
Data format and source are clear and well defined, and the
compilation and formatting of the data gathered follows an orderly
procedure that is largely numerical in nature.
Qualitative Research, in contrast
Involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing
what people do and say.
Observation and statements are in a qualitative or non- standardized
form.
Because of this, qualitative data can be quantified but only after a
translation process has taken place. For example, if you asked five
63
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
people to express their opinions on promoting alcoholic beverages to
college students, you would problem get five different statements,
but after studying each response, you could characterize each one as
“positive”,” negative”, or” neutral”. This translation step would not
be necessary if you instructed them to predetermined response
options such as “yes” or “no”.
Any study that can be ducted using an observational technique or
unstructured questioning can be classified as qualitative research.
Pluralistic Research
Although there are proponents of both types of research, many social researchers have been
adopting pluralistic research.
It is defined as the combination of qualitative and quantitative
research methods in order to gain the advantage of both
With pluralistic research, it is common to begin with exploratory
qualitative techniques as for example, in–depth interviews of
selected dealers or a series of group discussion with customers in
order to understand how they perceive a certain product and /or
service as compared to those of competitors.
The qualitative phase serves as a foundation for the quantitative
phase of the research project because it provided the research
problem. Armed with this knowledge, the researcher’s design and
execution of the quantitative phase is invariably superior to what it
might have been without the qualitative phase.
With pluralistic research, the qualitative phase serves to frame the
subsequent quantitative phase.
Qualitative input is especially useful in helping to select areas for
surveying. The input gained through semi-structured interviews or
focus groups conducted with key participants in the social
64
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
relationship often helps to surface important new areas that warrant
inclusion and investigation.
And in some case, a qualitative phase is applied after a quantitative
study to help the researcher understand the findings in the
quantitative phase.
N.B. Source of secondary data includes official publications of central government,
publications of semi-government statistical organizations, publications of research
institutions, publications of commercial and financial institutions, Reports of various
committees and commissions appointed by government, news papers and periodicals,
internationals publications, etc.
5.3 Types of Data Collecting Tools
5.3.1 Questionnaires
The collection of data through questionnaire is one of the most popular methods used these
days. A questionnaire contains many questions pertaining to the field of inquiry and provides
space for answers.
It may be defined as an instrument for collecting information from a number of persons,
supposed to posses it by making them record their replies to a number of questions. It may be
sent to the informants by mails or delivered at hand. The informant’s sends back the
questionnaire duly filled in with in the stipulated time mentioned in the questionnaire’s
preface or introductory lines.
A questionnaire is an instrument consisting of a series of questions about the topic of the
research. It is a highly structured method of data collecting tool. It is a format containing a
list of questions sequentially ordered to obtain information relevant to the objective of the
study.
Questionnaires can be classified in terms of the nature of questions that are used: You might
have employed true/ false, multiple choice, matching, short answer questions. In this case,
“X” or “V” on some alternatives provides provided or by writing responses in words. Here
while the question that require you to put a mark are called close-ended questions; those
which require you to write your responses, in words, are known as open-ended questions.
A. Close Ended Questionnaire
65
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
These are also called restricted or structured type. Here respondents are given a set of
alternatives from which they are asked to choose the one that most closely represents their
view. They are categorical questions, which offer a list of options or answers from which the
respondent selects the one fits his/her situation. They are objective type in their nature.
Can you mention some advantages of presenting close- ended questions?
They are easy to responds,
Face little time to fill out,
Easy to tabulate and analyze etc.
An extensive field may be surveyed and information elicited from
persons living over a wide geographical area.
Very economical both in time and money because it is usually a one
– person job.
Can you mention the major limitations related to close-ended questions?
Sometimes the choices given may not be exhaustive
The researcher should strive to include all possible choices. However, sometimes, the list of
possible choices could be very long. Under such Circumstance, only the major options
should be included by making intelligence questions. For minor ones, put the option “others”
with blank space to be filled on
Some questions are not mutually excusive
To be effective, but the items in the choice should be matually exclusive and should not over
lapping.
Some questions that are asked might be defective that demand other questions to
be answered before them.
Preparing close –ended questions is time consuming
More over, all thought questions are good and convenient for busy respondents and
enhances or simplifies tabulating, they deprive opportunity to comment on issues by
some of the curious respondents, preparing such questions presupposes deep knowledge
of the problem understudy and possible responses to the questions.
B. Open-ended Questionnaires
66
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
A questionnaire consisting of questions that are not followed by and kind of specified
choice but requires respondents to write their answer is referred to as open-ended
question.
Direct questions dealing with motives rarely elicit useful answers. Instead of approaching
the respondents with a fixed list of questions, the researcher attempts to get respondents
to talk freely about the subject of interest. By doing so, the researcher hopes to put
respondents at ease and to in coverage them to express any ideas which they have on the
subject.
Open- ended questions invite free responses. Here the respondent is not provided with a
list of answers and is given n opportunity is not provided with a list of answers and is
given an opportunity to give responses that go beyond statistical data and/or factual
information.
It enables to get opinions, attitudes, presupposes, decisions and so on.
They provide the opportunity for an in depth and detail treatment of questions for the
respondents none the less, because it takes much of the respondents time and requires
deep knowledge, many of such questions practically may not given answers. The task of
tabulating and summarizing such questions would also be firesome.
How do you make preference between close – ended and open- ended questions?
The preference between close-ended and open-ended questions depends on the following
points.
The aim of the researcher
If the objective is to categorize subjects, close ended questions are appropriate. If detailed
information is needed on the issues, open-ended questions are preferred
The subject level of knowledge on particular issue
If the subject has through knowledge on the issue, open-ended questions are preferred and
vice versa
The extent of structure that features subject opinion on the issue
If the respondents, views on the particular issue, are properly formulated, we should opt for
closed-end questions. Other wise, open – ended questions are preferred.
The convenience with which the material can be communicated
67
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
If there are no outstanding obstacles to communicate, close ended questions would be
appropriate.
The researcher’s information and insight into the subjects` condition
If the researcher is knowledgeable about the subject, the best option would be to make close
ended questions and vice versa.
Mean while, the types of questions can not mutually exclusive, i.e, we can use
both of them at the same time. However, it is preferable to use many close-
ended questions and to include few open ended questions.
C. Developing a Good Questionnaire
A good questionnaire is one that helps the researcher to obtain data related to the objectives
of the study. The topic areas to be covered or the content of the questionnaire value out of
what the researcher wants to accomplish from the proposed project. The types of questions or
items to be included in the questionnaire and the questionnaire and the format depend to a
large extent on the types of data sought and the questionnaire design concepts and alterative.
The researcher can not develop a good questionnaire simply by increasing down what he
thinks will provide him the type of data for which he is looking. Various steps are involved in
developing a questionnaire that will provide the researcher with needed data. These steps are.
68
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Based on decisions made on item to be included in the questionnaire, the researchers do not
develop the initial draft. This phase used a trial and error approach with regard to the
sequencing or arranging of items or questions and reviewing and revising until the researcher
feels that the items are appropriate.
Sequencing items in a proper order is necessary because the questions included in the
questionnaire, should be organized into logical groups. Grouping can be made on the basis of
questionnaire content or on type of format of the items. Each section in every items or
question must be reviewed to determine the type of instruction that should be given to the
informants to facilitate each and accurate completion of the questionnaire.
Organization of the testing procedure and control are essential to reap the full benefits of per-
testing and arrive at a questionnaire which will accomplish the objectives of the study. After
the test questionnaire is revised, the researcher should prepare the final questionnaire. In
preparing the final questionnaire, the researcher must take in to account every aspect of the
criticism of the initial draft and the results of pre-testing.
5.3.2 Interviews
Interviews are the process of interaction or communication in which a sample subject gives
the needed information verbally in a face to face situation. Interviewer involves interaction so
that there will be at least two individuals- the interviewer and interviewee.
69
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Interview is to be conducted verbally, the interviewer and the interviewee being in a face to
face situation, it is intended to get information.
There are various types of interviews, and person administered interviews such as, (1) the in-
home interview, the mall intercept interview, the in-office interview, and the telephone
interview, and their variations are largely based on the location of the interview.
Using interview will enable a researcher to get in –depth information by clarifying questions
he asks more and more to interviewee.
A. Merits
Following are the advantages of direct personal interview method:
As the investigator approaches the informants personally, it enable to
secure depth and detail, information.
The results obtained by this method are generally accurate and
reliable as the enquiry is intensive and is conducted personally. The
investigator can remove the doubts of the informant about certain
questions. Also if the investigator has any doubt about the answer to
a question he can get it removed from the informants by asking the
question again.
70
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
The interviewer establishes personal contact and can twist the
questions keeping in mind the informant’s reaction.
The language of communication can be adopted according to
educational level of the informant.
Any other additional information about the personal characteristics
of the informants may be collected, which will provide a background
at the time of interpretation of data
Interviews can use special scoring devices and visual materials.
B. Limitations
Some limitations of this method are:
Its nature limits its scope. It can not be extensive in its scope. If the
number of persons to be interviewed is large and they are spread
over a wide area, these methods can not be useful as it requires the
personal attention of the investigator.
If the inquiry is a bigger one, then it can not be completed with in a
reasonable time. Thus it is costly in terms of many and time.
The subjective factor is generally involved either consciously or
unconsciously.
The interviewers have to be thoroughly trained and supervised, other
wise results obtained may not be accurate and reliable.
On the other hand, unstructured interview, like open-ended questionnaire, provides greater
flexibility- Although the series of questions to be asked and the procedure to be followed are
decided before hand; the interviewer is largely free to arrange the form and filming of the
questions. He can thus rephrase the questions, modify them, and add some new questions to
his list while conducting the interview.
72
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
5.3.3. Observation Method
Observation is the technique which involves systematic collection, watching, and recording
of behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or other phenomena. In our every day
life we are all observers. We constantly observe the physical environment and the people
around it. Observation involves watching but information from sight is supported by that
received through other senses: through hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting. The
information from these various senses are usually combined, processed and interpreted in
complex ways to form our observations our mental images of the world and what is going on
in it.
Observation in research, similarly, fulfils more or less & similar purposes. But there are some
important differences. Also the aim of observation in research is to collect information about
the world, how ever, observation in enable the researcher to improve his participation in the
world. Its aim is the production of knowledge about specific issues, which can be used by
others in a variety of ways. Hence, in observation type of data collection, the researcher’s eye
is the most important research tool, and the method is the most straight forward approach of
studying the subject’s outward behavior.
73
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
reanalyzed to include many different aspects of the event. It is also less costly in time and
money.
II. Concealment
A second factor affecting the observer –subject relationship concerns whether the presence of
the observer should be known to the subject, when the observer is known, there is a risk of a
typical activity by the subjects. The potential bias from subject awareness of observers
should, therefore, be a matter of concern. Observers use concealment to should themselves
from the object of their observation. Often technical means are used such as one-way mirror,
hidden cameras, or microphones. These methods reduce the risk of observer bias but bring up
a question of ethics. Hidden observation is a form of spying, and the property of this action
must be reviewed carefully. A modified approach is partial concealment. The presence of the
observer is not concealed, but the objective and subject of interest are.
III. Participation
Participation is the third observer – subject issue refers whether the observer should
participate in the situation while observing. A more involved arrangement, Participant
observation, exists when the observer enter the setting and acts both as an observer and a
participant. Sometimes he is known as an observer to some or all of the participants, while at
other times the true role is concealed. While reducing the potential for bias, this again rises
an ethical I Often subjects will not have given their consent and will not have knowledge of
or access to the findings. After being deceived and having their privacy invaded, what further
damage could come to the subjects if the results become public? This needs to be addressed
when concealment and covert participation are used.
Participant observation makes a dual demand on the observer. Recording can interfere with
participation, and participation can in interfere with observation. The observer’s role may
influence the way others act. Because of these problems, participant observation is less used
in social/business research than, say, in anthropology or sociology.
B. Advantages of Observational methods
There are many positive aspects of the observational research approach.
Observations are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured
around a hypothesis (remember a hypothesis is a statement about what you expect
74
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
to observe). For instance, before undertaking more structured research a
researcher may conduct observations in order to form a research question. This is
what we call exploratory research.
Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the
researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior
It permits collection of data on facts that can’t be collected using questionnaire
and/ or interview.
The behavior of the observer can influence the situation of the observation leading
the subject to pretend and might not enable to see the reality.
In sum, all the instruments have got their strength and limitations. Thus whether we use
questionnaire, interview or observation, we have to establish the validity and reliability of the
instrument as well as practicality. Hence, practicality has been defined as economy,
convenience, and interpretability exactly.
75
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
CHAPTER SIX
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Processing of data requires editing, coding, classification and tabulation. And these are
crucial stages in a scientific research. Data collected during the research is processed with a
view to reducing them to manageable proportions. A careful and systematic processing will
highlight the important characteristics of the data, facilitates comparisons and render it
suitable for further statistical analysis and interpretations. A brief discussion of some broad
areas of work for statistical processing is given below.
Editing is always done in the office, far away from the place of data collection. In many
cases it is not possible to check all schedules. In such cases, a sample of required size is
sufficient to ascertain the degree of accuracy of filled schedules. The duty of editing the
76
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
schedules must be entrusted to honest, efficient and sincere editors who are committed to the
job. Negligence on the part of an editor may do a lot of harm to the findings of the study.
Therefore, an editor should be a person of unquestionable integrity. The editors are required
to check the filled schedules in the following respects:
6.1.1 Editing for Consistency
The schedules are to be edited for consistency. They should see whether answers to questions
supplied by informants are consistent or not. If the answers are of contradictory nature then
the editors are required to send such schedules to respective supervisors for recording the
correct answers from concerned informants. For illustration, an informant might enter as
‘unmarried’ in one column, while the second column he may enter ‘two children’. Such
contradictory replies are to be corrected. Some is the case with age and date of birth
information, which may not agree.
6.1.2 Editing for Completeness
It is the duty of the editor to examine whether all questions in the schedule or questionnaire
are answered or not. In many cases, important questions are not answered and the analysis of
the problem is not possible due to such unanswered questions. The editor should send such
schedules to concerned investigators for recording the answers from informants.
6.1.3 Editing for Accuracy
The Job of the editor is highly specialized; therefore, he must know the nature of information
which is to be supplied by the informants. The accuracy and the reliability of the findings
depend up on accurate information, therefore, the editor has to examine whether all questions
are answered correctly or not. In case, any doubt develops about any question in the mind of
the editor, he must seek clarification from the supervisor or from the informants.
6.1.4 Editing for Uniformity
The problem under study can be rationally analyzed when there is a uniformity in the
answers of the questions supplied by different informants. Uniformity of answers mean
whether all questions are interpreted in the same sense by all informants or not. If the
questions are interpreted in different ways by different informants then the data supplied
becomes heterogeneous such data should not be employed for analysis.
6.1.5 Editors for Competitions
77
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
It is advised not to ask the investigators or the respondents supplying information to make
any computation. This additional work may give risk to errors computations, if necessary,
should always be made by editors.
6.2 Coding
After editing of the collected data, the next step to follow is coding. Coding refers to
assigning of number digits or letters or both to various responses so as to enable tabulation of
information easy. The purpose of coding is to classify the answers to a question in to
meaningful categories which is essential for tabulation.
The need of coding arises more in the case of quantitative data which is a pre- requisite for
any meaningful interpretation of social data. Coding in the modern age of computers is done
after translating the information collected in the usual manner in to language of machine.
In most surveys, certainly whenever results are to be put in quantitative form, the
intermediate stage is the coding of the answers. Some times this and the initial editing are
joined in a single operation.
The purpose of coding is to classify the answers to a question in to meaning full categories,
so as to try out their essential pattern.
The process involves two distinct steps. The first is to decide on the categories to be used, the
second, to allocate individual answers to them. The set of categories to be used will be
referred to as the coding frame. The set of coding frames covering all the information to be
abstracted from the questionnaires is commonly known as the code book.
6.3 Classification
Once the data is collected and edited, the first task of the statistician is the organization of the
figure in such a form that their significance, for the purpose in hand, may be appreciated that
comparison with masses of similar data may be felicitated, and that further analysis may be
possible. This is done through classification and tabulation. But be for tabulating the data in
to different homogeneous classes, it is necessary to sort out the relevant and significant
features from the irrelevant and insignificant ones. The process of arranging the data in to
groups or classes according to resemblance and similarities is technically called classification
It is of interest of give below the following definitions of classification.
Classification is the process of arranging data in to sequences and groups according to their
common characteristics, or separating them in to different but related parts. (- secrist)
A classification is a scheme for breaking a category in to a set of parts, called classes,
according to some precisely defined differing characteristics possessed by all the elements of
the category.(- Tuttle A.M)
Thus classification impress up on the ‘arrangement of the data in to different classes which
are to be determined depending up on the nature, objective and scope of the enquiry.
79
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
6.3.2 Characteristics of Classification
The classification system must be exhaustive
The classes must not over lap
Stability is crucial- classification must proceed at every stage in accordance with one
principle, and that principle should be maintained throughout.
A good classification should be flexible and should have the capacity of adjustment to
new situations and circumstances.
The items included in one class should be homogeneous.
The classification should conform to the object of enquiry- i.e., suitability of the
classification scheme.
Arithmetical accuracy is mandatory- the total of the items included in different classes,
should tally with the total of the universe.
Total 400
b. Exclusive Type of Series
Exclusive type is that a value equal to the lower limit should be included in the class interval
and a value equal to the upper limit should be excluded e.g., Mark of 400 students
Class interval (marks) No of students
0-10 50
11-20 70
21-30 120
31-40 90
41-50 70
Total 400
6.5 Tabulation
After the data has been classified, the next step is to arrange them in form of table. It is an
intermediate process between the collection of data on one hand and statistical analyses on
the other. Tabulation is regarded as the last stage in processing of data and forms the gate
way for further statistical treatment.
82
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
6.5.1 Definition of Tabulation
L.R Connor has said, “Tabulation involves the orderly and systematic presentation of
numerical data in a form designed to elucidate the problem under consideration”.
According to A.M Tuttle, “A statistical table is the logical listing of related quantitative data
in vertical columns and horizontal rows of numbers with sufficient explanatory and
qualifying words, phrases and statements in the form of titles, headings and notes to make
clear the full meaning of data and their origin.”
83
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
It occupies less space than textual reports, hence saving of paper and time Required figures
can be located more quickly.
C. Helpful in Comparison
Tabulation makes comparison easy comparable figures are placed in Juxtaposed columns,
hence a comparative study can be made.
D. Facilitates of Computation
It helps in computation of different statistical measures. For calculating average, dispersion,
correlation, etc. data must be presented in tables
E. Helps Classification
While classification is a theoretical process of data analysis, tabulation is an applied process.
Tabulation is helpful in classification also. After classifying data the characteristics of
different classes are not clear till they are placed in a suitable table.
F. Helps in Reference
Tabulated data are good for reference purposes.
G. Helps in Interpretation and Presentation
It is convenient to interpret and tabulated data make it easy to present the facts in graphical
and diagrammatic form.
Prof. John Gating had made distinction between analysis of data and the processing of data.
He is of the opinion that processing of data refers to concentrating, recasting and dealing with
the data so that they are amenable to analysis as possible, while analysis of data refers to
seeing the data in the light of hypothesis or research questions and the prevailing theories and
drawing conclusions that are as amenable to theory formation as possible.
Goods, Barr and Scates write-“Analysis is a process which enters in to research in one form
or another from the beginning…. It may be fair to say that research consists in general of two
larger steps- the gathering of data, and the analysis of these data, but no amount of analysis
can validly extract from the data factors which are not present.”
Martz has pointed out- “….bare facts, objective data, never determine anything. They
become significant only as interpreted in the light of accepted standards and assumptions,
and these standards in the final analysis are not succeptible to scientific determination. In
ordinary life we seldom deal with bare facts but facts interpreted. This interpretation or
evaluation is determined by the purpose to which we relate the facts.”
85
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
The data may be adequate, valid and reliable to any extent, it does not serve and worth while
purpose unless it is carefully edited, systematically classified and tabulated, scientifically
analyzed, intelligently interpreted and rationally coincided.
The aim of analysis, eg., if it is in regard to election study is: (1) to characterize what is
typical in a votes group, (2) to indicate how widely individuals in a group vary, (3) to show
other aspects of how the individuals are distributed with respect to the variable being
measured, (4) to show the relation of the variables in data to one another, and (5) to describe
the difference between two or more groups (of voters).
The steps envisaged in the analysis of data vary depending on the types of study. If there
exists a set of clearly formulated hypothesis to start the study with, then each hypothesis can
be seen as a work prescribing a certain action to be taken vis-a- vis the data. The more
specific the hypothesis, the more specific the action. In such a study, the analysis is almost
completely a mechanical procedure. The task of analysis is reduced just to getting the
appropriate combinations of data and reading them off against the instructions for
verification and falsification of hypothesis.
Part of analysis is a matter of working out statistical distribution, constructing diagrams, and
calculating simple measures like averages, measures of dispersion, percentages correlation,
etc. Thus, statistical analysis form part of survey analysis. The case of complicated statistical
techniques in survey often stems up from the desire to establish and interpret multivariate
relationships. The analysis means verification of hypothesis. Under ideal conditions of
precision and simplicity, analysis presents very few problems since the statement of
hypothesis and the elaboration of the experimental design will automatically provide for the
analysis of the data.
86
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
6.6.3 Characteristics of Analysis of Data
Following are the main characteristics of data:
Analysis of data is one of the most important aspects of research, carried out by the
researcher himself or under his close supervision.
Data, facts and figures are silent and they never speak for themselves. It is through
systematic analysis that the important characteristics which are hidden in the data are
validly generalized.
The function of systematic analysis is to build an intellectual edifice in which properly
sorted, facts and figures are placed in their appropriate settings, and broader
generalizations beyond the immediate contents of the fact under study draw in up. So that
general inferences can be derived from them for showing consistent relation ships.
The data to be analyzed and interpreted should (i) be reproducible, (ii) be readily
disposed to quantitative treatment, and can serve as a basis for broader generalization
If the data are collected according to vague clues rather than according to the specific
hypothesis, in such cases the data are analyzed inductively or invested during the process
and not by means of any prescribed set of rules.
The task of analysis is incomplete with out interpretation. In fact analysis of data and
interpretation of data are complementary to each other. The end product of analysis the
setting up of certain general conclusions while the interpretation deals with what these
conclusions really mean.
Since analysis and interpretation of data are interwoven, the interpretation should more
properly be conceived of as a special aspect of analysis rater that a distinct operation.
Interpretation is the process of establishing relationship between variables which are
expressed in the findings and why such relation ship exists.
For any successful study the task of analysis and interpretation should be designed before
the data are actually collected with the exception of formulative studies where the
researcher had no idea as to what kind of answer he wants. Other wise there is always a
danger of being too late and the chances of missing important relevant data.
6.6.4 Statistical Methods in Analysis
Statistics is not merely for collecting numerical data but as a means of sound techniques for
their handling, analysis and drawing valid inferences from them. When the data are collected,
87
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
edited, classified, and tabulated, they are analyzed and interpreted with the help of various
statistical techniques and tools depending up on the nature of the investigation. Thus, the
basic knowledge about statistics becomes inevitable for research workers for systematic
analysis and accurate and precise interpretation of data.
A. Types of statistical methods
Statistical methods are the principles employed for the description, analysis and
interpretation of the data. They may be classified in to two categories, namely
These two categories of statistical method are not mutually exclusive but analytical statistical
methods are based up on and make use of descriptive methods for analyzing and interpreting
data.
In some of the investigations, the sole purpose is to analyze and interpret what has been
observed rather than describing it, while in special studies conducted by government such as
population census per acre-yield etc., the data are collected and reported in order to describe
the situation and they are analyzed and interpreted to determine trends and possible future
developments.
III. Basic Statistical Techniques
While analyzing the data, researchers usually make use of many simple statistical devices
statistical methods widely employed with research data are the following.
a. Average
88
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Average holds a very important place in all types of statistical work because they describe
the inherent characteristics of a frequency distribution in a concise manner and help in
comparative study of different distributions
Averages are of different kinds but we will consider five, namely, arithmetic mean, median,
mode, geometric mean and harmonic mean.
i. Arithmetic Mean
Most widely used in statistical research because it is easy to understand and calculate. If the
measure of each item in a series is known, the mean can be derived by adding the measures
together and dividing by the number of items. In Economics it is used where all the items are
of equal importance. It takes in to consideration of all items from first to last and is
considered to be more representative.
The mean is simply the arithmetic average symbolized by M or X:
Where M= Mean
M =∑ N xi❑ E= Summation
¿¿ ¿
Xi= the ith score
N
N= Total no of scores
89
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
Median
M =∑ xi fi❑
¿¿ ¿ Where fi= frequency of the ith score.
N
4 3 12 3
5 2 10 5
6 5 30 10
8 10 80 20
10 8 80 28
12 4 36 32
14 2 28 34
N=34 EXifi=276
The mean will be
M= 276/34 = 8.12
c. Harmonic Mean
It is reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the given observations. It is
rapidly defined, based on all observations and is amenable to further algebraic treatment. It
can be used in phenomena involving time, rate and price. It is most suitable average when it
is desired to give greater weight to smaller observations and less weight to the larger ones.
(N.B.: For Detailed and brief accounts of Basic statistical techniques, please refer
S. GUPTA’S “Research Methodology and statistical Techniques”
91
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
CHAPTER SEVEN
STYLE AND FORMAT OF REPORT WRITING
Report writing is a basic task of the researcher, since no research can be completed with out
its report, infact, a research without a report can be considered as a house with out roof. Any
amount of observation or data analysis would be in vain from the manager’s point of view, if
its report is not made available in aid of his decision-making process. Hence report writing
has a pivotal position in research.
92
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
should be purposeful and should take in to account the reader and his tastes and preferences
when it is written. In the normal course, the report writer should consider such questions as:
? - Who will read the report?
? – In what way is the report going to be useful?
? – What re the questions the report should answer?
?- How much information is needed?
? – What is the best way of presenting the information? and so on?
An effective report stimulates the interpersonal relationships in the given target area. In this
connection, Arthur D. Little observes; “… remember that the reader is a human being not
corporation. He is not omniscient; if he were, he wouldn’t have asked for your help.
Remember also that he doesn’t want to devote his whole career to deciphering what you have
to say. The project you are reporting on is undoubtedly only one of many that require his
attention. Your report should provide answers, not create more problems.
On the basis of presentation, reports may be classified as
- Inductive reports;
- Deductive reports;
- Step-by-step reports;
- Time sequence reports.
The Inductive Patterns of report writing is one of the olderst patterns
of presenting ones thoughts. Aristotle had pointed out long ago:” A whole is that which
has a beginning, middle, and an end.” This type of report goes from the specific – facts,
figures, materials of research – to general conclusions, summary, recommendations.
7.1.1. Conclusion
In this section, the conclusions are given based on the findings put in the summary section
discussed above. Findings (summary) state fact, while conclusions represent inferences
drawn from the findings. A writer is sometimes reluctant to make conclusions and leave the
task to the reader. Avoid this temptation when possible. As a researcher you are the one best
informed on the factor that critically influences the findings and conclusions.
93
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
The conclusions are the generalizations one makes from the findings, and contribute to the
body of knowledge. They must have one to one equivalence in answering basic questions
posed in the first chapter (proposal stage) and it is the past in which you give answer to your
basic questions.
In drawing conclusion, the researcher should make sure that the conclusion drawn is with in
the frame work of the study or data presented over under generalization should be avoided no
new data must be introduced at this stage and wordiness should be minimized.
7.1.2. Summary
In this section major highlights of the research findings, are given in a summarized form. The
summary is a brief statement of essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if there
are many specific findings. These may be combined in an overall summary. In simple
descriptive research, a summary may complete the report, as conclusions and
recommendations may not be required.
The purpose of a summary is to provide the major findings on a nut shell. It should, thus
enable the reader understand the major findings of the study with out going to the details.
According to Galfo, Summarization is like a preparation of a perfume. It is the ways that
distill the essence from a large quantity of material without destroying or changing the
essence.
7. 1. 3. Recommendations
This part culminates the research Activity. Recommendations are meant to be suggestion by
way of providing solutions to the problem to the study. Recommendations should, however,
be feasible. They should take in to account objective reality of the situation. This should not
be unrealistic or high sounded . In academic research , the recommendations are often
further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the subject. Area. In applied
research the recommendation will usually be for managerial action rather than research
action. The writer may after several alternatives with justifications.
The Deductive pattern of report writing is the most accepted type of report writing in the
business world. It is known as the executive report, the management report or the
action – getting report. This is the pattern of presentation that goes from general to
94
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
specific, i.e. from the more important to the less important. It ends to become more
detailed or more specialized in its last pages because it is designed for a reader whose
fundamental questions “What do I need to know, to act or decide?” He wants to answer at
the very outset. The writer has a special obligation to think his way through to the central
issue or to the main point.
A step – by –step presentation doesn’t follow any hard and fast rule, it simple presents
material blow-by – blow. It is a way of presenting the events or step in an operation
frequently following one another in a point of time. But the steps need not necessarily
come to a conclusion or an end.
The time – sequence pattern of report writing is almost like that of the step-by-step
presentation; but it lays greater emphasis on the time element. It is an easy way of writing
a report by merely following the pattern the research material it self offers in a sequence
of time.
96
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
- Hypothesis or research questions
- Significance of the study
- Delimitations of the study
- Limitations of the study
- Definition of important terms.
B. Review of related literature or Analysis of previous Research
C. Design of the study (Research methodology)
- Sampling techniques and procedures used
- Data gathering methods and instruments used.
D. Presentation, analysis and Interpretation of data
- Text
- Tables
- Figures
F. Reference Section
- Bibliography
- Appendix
- Index (if any)
97
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
the question is keeping consistency in employing one and the same format amongst of these
through out your citation.
7.4.2 Books
The author for a book may include one or more authors, editors, compilers, and translators,
or a corporate author or institution. The title category includes the title and subtitle. The facts
of publication category identify the series in which the work appears the place (city) of
publication, the publisher and the year of publication.
The name of the author for non-Ethiopian authors must be used as a sir name first
followed by a comma.
E.g., Santosdh Gupta is cited as:
Gupta, Santosh. 1993. Research Methodology and statistical Techniques. New- Delhi:
General Publishing House. Indian Research Association.
Notice that the name of the author is inverted name, the title of the source martial
underlined and period marks used after the name of the author, the title and the publisher
excerpt the place of publication is followed by a collon.
E.g., 2 March, James G. and Herbert A. Simon. 1958. Organizations. Newyork:
Wiley
The second example shows a two author citation
Eg.3. Ebbit, Wilam R. and David, E. 1990. Writers Guide and Index of English.
(6th ed.). Glenview: scott. Forest man
98
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
The third example shows the inclusion of edition (if any) in the specific reference
source.
When no authors name appears on a work or when the title page lists anonymous, then
the work is listed by title as:
E.g. . The Wind . Newyourk : Harper, 1995
When the author is a group or corporation, then the publication is listed under the name
of the organization as:
99
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
When a paper bound book is original edition, it is listed just as nay other book would be. But
when it is reprint of the original hand cover edition, the entry indicates the date of publication
of the hand cover edition. This information generally appears on the copyright (c) page.
100
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
7.5.4 News Papers
The bibliography raphy entry for a news paper should include the name of the (if available)
the news paper underlined
E.g., Rasky, Susa, Susa “ Senate Calls for Revision in New tax Health care”
Newyork Times 8 june 1998, A20
Reference
1. Anderson, T.R. & Zelditch. Basic Cause in Statistical Methods. NewYork: Halt.
Rinchart & Winston, 1968.
2. Bajpai, S.R. Methods of Social Survey and Research. NewDdhi Ramputr Rampur,.
KitabGhar, 1960.
3. Connolly, T.G. & Sluckin, W. Introduction to Social Research and Statistical
Method. London: Cleave, 1957.
4. Dasputa, Sugate. Methodology of Social Science Research New De(hi)1987
5. Indian Council of Social Science l Research. Training Research Methodology in
Social Science. New Delhi:1971
6. Ggupta,S. Research Methodology and Statistical Techniques. NewDelhi: Indian
Commerce Association, 1982.
7. Kaufinan, Felix. Methodology of the Social Sciences. Humanities Press-1988
8. Lundberg, G.A. Socials Research: Study in Methods of Gathering Data. NewYork :
1979
9. Pande, G.C. Research Methodology in Social Sciences. Delhi: Anmol
Publications.1989.
10. Pellur, V.V. Marketing Research Theory and Practice. NewYork: McGraw Hill
Book company. Lowis, 1987
11. Tandon, B.C. Research Methodology in Social Sciences Allahabad: Chaitanya
publishing House. University Road, 1992
12. Westfall Boyd and Stasch. Marketing Research. Bombay: Himalayas Publishing
House. 1989
101
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)
102
Copy © Rift Valley University College Adama
Research Methodology (BUMA-331)