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Introduction To Education
• • Introduction
• • Conceptualization of Term: Origin, Meaning and Views of Eminent Experts
• • Education: Definition and Concept
• • Determinants of Education
• • Philosophy as Determinant of Education: Concept, Definition, Branches of Philosophy,
Types of Philosophies
• • Aims of Education: Various Aims of Education, Aims of Nursing Education
• • Factors Influencing Philosophy of Nursing Education
• • Educational Process: Process and Elements of Education.
• • Impact of Social, Economical, Political and Technological Changes in Education
• • Professional Education
• • Current Trends and Issues in Education
• • Educational Reforms and National Education Policy (Review)
• • Recommendations of Various Committees Pertaining to Nursing Education
• • Trends in Development of Nursing Education in India
• • Trends in Nursing Education
• • Issues Related to Nursing Education
EDUCATION: MEANING, CONCEPT AND VIEWS OF
EXPERTS ON EDUCATION
‘Teaching is a very noble profession that shapes the character, caliber, and future of an
individual. If the people remember me as a good teacher, that will be the biggest honor for
me.
—A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
INTRODUCTION
I would like to dedicate this ‘unit-1 Introduction to Education’ in memory of our great
Indian leader, philosopher, great Scientist, India's pride, Bharat Ratna The Missile Man of India
–Dr Abdul Kalam. Despite the range of titles he had earned in his lifetime, the visionary preferred
to call himself A Teacher. Abdul Kalam, he is the only president—who has a lot of love for
children and feels that the future of India lies in them. According to Dr APJ Abdul Kalam (2006),
the education system has a tremendous responsibility to transform a child to a leader-the
transformation from ‘what can you do for me’ to ‘what can I do for you?’ The most important part
of education is inculcating in the students the spirit of ‘we can do it’. Education is an endless
journey—through knowledge and enlightenment. Real education enhances the dignity of a human
being and increases his or her self-respect and universal brotherhood in its true sense becomes the
sheet anchor for such education. According to Dr. Kalam, Education is a fundamental right of
every Indian child. He emphasized that education is a pillar of a developed and a powerful country,
besides the most important element for growth and prosperity of a nation.
MEANING OF EDUCATION
Generally speaking, ‘Education’ is utilized in three senses: Knowledge, Subject and a Process.
Etymological meaning of education
Etymologically, the word ‘Education’ has been derived from different Latin words.
1. ‘Educare’ which means ‘to bring out’ or ‘to nourish’.
2. ‘Educere’ which means ‘to lead out’ or ‘to draw out’.
3. ‘Educatum’ which means ‘act of teaching’ or ‘training’.
4. ‘Educatus’ which means ‘to bring up, rear, educate’.
5. ‘Ēducātiō which means ‘a breeding, a bringing up, a rearing.’
The Greek word ‘Pedagogy’ is sometimes used for education.· The most common Indian
word ‘Shiksha’ is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ‘Shas’ which means ‘to discipline’, ‘to
control’, ‘to instruct’ and ‘to teach’. Similarly the word ‘Vidya’ is derived from Sanskrit verbal
root ‘Vid’ which means ‘to know’. Vidya is thus the subject matter of knowledge.
Narrower and Broader Meaning of Education
Education in the Narrower Sense
Education, in the narrower sense, is regarded as ‘equivalent of instruction’. It consists of
the ‘specific influences‘ consciously designed by a school or college or in an institution to bring
in the development and growth of the child. The word school includes the whole machinery of
education from Kindergarten to the University. The purpose is to achieve mental development of
children entering school. To make the narrow meaning of education more clear, the following
views of some other educationists are being given:
• The culture which each generation purposefully gives to those who are to be its successors,
in order to qualify them for at least keeping up, and if possible for raising the level of
improvement which has been attained.
—JohnStuart Mill
• In a narrow sense, Education may be taken to mean, any consciously directed effort to
develop and cultivate our powers.
—SS Mackenzie
• Education is a process in which and by which knowledge, character and behavior of the
young are shaped and molded.
—Prof. Drever
• The influence of the environment of the individual with a view of producing a permanent
change in his habits or behavior, or thought and attitude.
—GH Thompson
Education in the Broader Sense
In its wider sense, Education is the total development of the personality. Education in the
wider sense is a lifelong process. It begins with the birth of a child and ends with his death.
Continuity is the law of life. Education is not limited to the classroom only; it is also not limited
to a particular period of life. Life is a continuous process of growth and development and so
education is also a continuous process. Throughout life one goes on learning to adjust oneself to
the changing patterns of life. In this way, education is a lifelong process of growth and
development. To make the broader meaning of education more clear, the following views of some
other educationists are being given:
• In the wider sense, it is a process that goes on throughout life, and is promoted by almost
every experience in life.
—SS Mackenzi
• By education, I mean the all-round drawing out of the best in child and man's body, mind
and soul.
—MK Gandhi
• Education in its widest sense includes all the influences, which act upon an individual
during his passage from the cradle to the grave.
—Dumvile
• Education, in its broadest sense, is the means of the social continuity.
—John Dewey
AIMS OF EDUCATION
The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think—
rather to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the
memory with thoughts of other men.
— Bill Beattie
The individual is the product of the society while society finds its advancement in the
development of its individual member. An Individual cannot develop in a vacuum. According to
John Adams, ‘Individuality 5requires a social medium to grow.’ According to T.P. Nunn,
‘Individuality develops in social environment.’ The true aim of education cannot be other than the
highest development of the individual as a member of society. Morover, we cannot ignore
Professional Aims of Education. Let us discuss individual, social and professional aims in detail.
1. The Individual aims: According to Sir Percy Nunn, ‘Nothing goods enter into the human
world except in and through the free activities of individual men and women. Education
should give scope to develop the inborn potentialities through maximum freedom.’
Development of an individual-physically, mentally and spiritually is well known aim of
education. Objectives related to this aim of individual development have been expressed
in following ways:
o Developing physical and mental abilities of an individual.
o Acquiring the capacities of understanding, appreciation and expression through
word and action.
o To make children self-confident and self dependent, and to make them physically
and mentally strong. Education is meant to develop every child's character,
personality and culture.
▪ The Knowledge or Information Aim: According to various educationists,
knowledge is indispensable for all right action and it is the source of all
power. ‘It is knowledge which makes a realist a visionary successful in any
profession.’
▪ The Spiritual Aim: According to idealist thinkers, the spiritual
development of an individual should be the supreme aim of education.
Mahatma Gandhi has attached great importance to spiritual values in
education.
▪ The Character Formation Aim: Character is the cream of life and, as
such, it should be the aim of education. Vivekananda and Gandhi both
emphasized character building in education. Character formation or moral
education is concerned with the whole conduct of man. The Secondary
Education Commission (1951-52) has rightly remarked: ‘Character
education has to be visualized not in a social vacuum, but with reference to
contemporary socio-economic and political situation.‘
▪ Moral Values: The aim of Education must enable the student to inculcate
moral values. Such as faithfulness, goodness, purity, courage and honesty.
2. Social Aims: No individual can live and grow without society. Individual‘s security and
welfare depend on the society. Education should make each individual socially efficient.
A socially efficient individual is able to earn his livelihood. The individual is only a means.
The progress of the society is the aim of education. Education is for the society and of the
society. The function of education is for the welfare of the state. The state will make the
individual as it desires. It prepares the individual to play different roles in society.
Individuality has no value, and personality is meaningless apart from society. If society
will develop individual will develop automatically. Here society plays an important role.
The social aim of education should also take the form of social service and citizenship
training. The spirit of service, sacrifice and co-operation should be developed through all
the school programmes and practices.
The purpose of education should be the development of the fullest possible capacities and
potentialities physical and spiritual of a `total man’. It should make a man capable of earning his
livelihood reasonably well to enjoy a happy and secure life, while making effective contributions
to the society and national effort of making India strong, advanced and prosperous.
o The Culture Aim: The cultural aim of education has been suggested to supplement
the narrow view of knowledge aim. The cultural aim of education produces men of
culture.
o The Adjustment Aim: The adjustment is the primary rule of human life. Without
adjustment to the environment, no-one can survive. Life is a struggle for
adjustment. In the words of Horney: ‘Education should be a man's adjustment to
his nature, to his fellows and to the ultimate nature of the cosmos.’
o The Citizenship Training Aim: A citizen has to perform various civic duties and
responsibilities. Children should be so trained by education so that they can
successfully discharge their various civic duties and responsibilities. The
Secondary Education Commission in India (1951-1952) has greatly emphasized
citizenship training in schools. Such training includes the development of certain
qualities, such as clear thinking, clarity in speech and writing, art of community
living, cooperation, toleration, and sense of patriotism and sense of world
citizenship.
3. Professional Aims
o The Vocational Aim: The vocational aim is also known as ‘the utilitarian aim or
the bread and butter aim.‘ The above stated ideals of education are useless unless
these aims enable us to procure the primary needs of our life-food, shelter and
clothing. Education must help the child to earn his livelihood. Education, therefore,
must prepare the child for some future profession or vocation or trade. The
vocational aim is a narrow aim of education. Therefore, the vocational aim is not a
complete aim in itself.
o The Leisure Aim: ‘Free and unoccupied Time‘ of an individual is generally known
as leisure. It is a time which we can use in a creative way. During leisure, we can
pursue an activity for own sake and not for earning a living, which is dull and
monotonous. During leisure we can also regain our lost energy and enthusiasm.
Leisure can make our life dynamic and charming.
4. Self-Actualization Aim
o The Complete Living Aim: Some educationists have insisted upon the need of an
all-comprehensive aim of education. This viewpoint has led to the development of
two aims–‘the complete living aim‘ and the ‘harmonious development aim.‘
According to Horney ‘there is no one final aim, subordinating all lesser aims to
itself… There is something in all these aims but not everything in any one of them.‘
o The Harmonious Development Aim: Educationists are of the opinion that all the
powers and capacities inherited by a child should be developed harmoniously and
simultaneously.
INTRODUCTION
Philosophy is a scientific, systematic inquiry about the ultimate reality in the universe; it is
the basis for understanding man. Etymologically, the word philosophy has been derived from the
Greek words: ‘Philos’ means ‘Love’, ‘Sophia’ means ‘Wisdom’. It is the loving and searching for
wisdom and truth. The etymological meaning of the word ‘Philosophy’ is ‘love of learning’. It
signifies a natural and a necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in
which they ‘live and move and have their being’. It is impossible for man to live without a
philosophy.
MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY
• It is a living force, a way of life, an attitude towards life, or search for truth and reality.
• It is a search for deeper and finer values of life.
• It is a search for a comprehensive view of nature.
• Philosophy refers to a certain way of thinking. It arises out of an attempt.
• To arrive at the solution of the problem through the use of human reasoning and experience.
• To find the deeper meaning of the problems.
• Philosophy is the study of the general principles and understanding all, i.e. God, the World.
• Each individual should have a philosophy of life, i.e. a set of standards, ideals which are
based on the principles that have been chosen as being acceptable to him.
• It is what we believe and the principle which governs our life.
• It is acting like a guide to have a concrete outlook on the world, life, human conduct and
actions.
• Philosophy is the most earliest and original intellectual discipline.
1. It sets the ideals, principles, goals, standards, Education works out those values.
values thus it is in reality and truth.
3. It is contemplative and tells way of life It denotes practically walking on that path.
6. Philosophy formulates the method. It deals with the use of this method.
TYPES OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophies are divided into 2 major types given as follows (Fig. 1.2):
A Synopsis of ‘Schools of Philosophy‘
Schools Characterizations
Realism Reality exists unperceived. Values are natural and absolute knowledge comes via
the senses.
Essentiallism Certain skills and knowledge are essential for rational living.
Progressivism Children are naturally good. The child's needs and interests are relevant to the
curriculum.
IDEALISM EDUCATION
An idealist is one who on, noticing that a rose smells better than a cabbage, concludes that it
is also more nourishing.
— Mencken HL
MEANING OF IDEALISM
The word ‘idealism’ has been derived from ‘ideals’ or ‘ideas’. According to this
philosophy, ideals or lighter values are the most important thing in human life than anything else.
The idealist believe in the world of mind (metaphysics) and in truth as ideas (epistemology).
Idealism idolises ‘mind and spirit’. So, an idealist emphasize on spirituality of human being rather
than scientific facts. Ultimately this philosophy believes that ideas or higher values in their mind
make the human being perfect.
EXPONENTS OF IDEALISM
Guru Nanak, Mahatma Gandhi, Plato, Socrates, Kant, Tagore
CHIEF ASSERTIONS OF IDEALISM
• Idealism believes in ‘Universal mind’ means ‘GOD’: It means ‘GOD’ is creator and
others are created. As the Human mind is a part of Universal mind (God), so He is the
source of all values, knowledge and activities of human. Man is considered as ‘spiritual
being’ who is superior to all animals. So the main aim of human life is to achieve spiritual
values, e.g. truth, goodness, etc., which are permanent, undying and absolute. By following
these values, human being become higher in moral values and ultimately realization of
universal mind or god in ownself.
• Idealism regards man as a spiritual being: As the human being is superior to all animals
because of spirituality, so every individual soul (Atma) has to identify and merge into
universal mind (God) so by following spiritual values he will achieve this ultimate goal of
his life.
• The world of ideas and values is more important than the world of matter: Idealism has
full faith in eternal values which never change. These values can neither be created nor
destroyed. Man can only discover them, if they try. According to Plato, the outstanding
eternal values are; truth, goodness and beauty (sathyam, shivam, sundarum)
• Real knowledge is perceived in mind: The knowledge which is gained through activity
and creativity of mind is more important than the knowledge acquired through the senses.
IDEALISM IN EDUCATION
All idealists believe that man is born with the spiritual self. Education helps in increasing spiritual
values by developing moral values, self-realization and character development.
THE CURRICULUM
• Idealists believe that ideas can change lives and that classical literature can be used and
explored to help solve problems in today's world.
• Creativity will be encouraged when students immerse themselves in the creative thinking
of others and when they are encouraged to reflect.
• The curriculum is based upon the idea or assumption of the spiritual nature of man. This
idea in turn leads to an idea of the nature of the larger units of family, community, state,
earth, the universe, and infinity.
• In preserving the subject-matter content, which is essential for the development of the
individual mind, the curriculum must include those subjects essential for the realization of
mental and moral development. These subjects provide one with culture, and they should
be mandated for all pupils.
• Moreover, the subject matter should be kept constant for all. The idealist tradition of
subject matter is basically literary and places its primary emphasis on the subject matter of
books, especially those literary pieces considered the masterworks of information about
ideas.
• Because of the idealist's reliance on the world of the mind, their curriculum calls for little
contact with the experiential universe. The idealist educator has little place in his
curriculum for field trips and empirical or sensory data.
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
• Idealist education involves depth of learning, a holistic approach that involves teaching the
whole rather than its parts. Knowledge was not important just for the material needs that it
met.
• The idealist is not concerned with turning out students with technical skills so much as
having students with a broad view and understanding of the world in which they live.
• Idealism emphasizes the role of the teacher, a skillful questioner, who should be a model
for the person we want children to become. While the lecture method is still important in
an idealist's education system, it is considered more of a way to convey information and to
help students comprehend ideas.
• Self-realization and self-education are very important in idealism. While teachers cannot
always be present when learning occurs, they must attempt to stimulate students so that
learning occurs even when they are not present. Project based learning is one example of a
self-directed learning activity where learning can occur without a teacher's presence.
• As the curricular emphasis is the subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy,
and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and
Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and
clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring
to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed
through imitating examples and heroes.
• The classroom structure and atmosphere should provide the learners with opportunities to
think, and to apply the criteria of moral evaluation to concrete within the context of the
subjects.
• The teaching methods must encourage the acquisition of facts, as well as skill in reflecting
on these facts. It is not sufficient to teach pupils how to think. It is very important that what
pupils think about be factual; otherwise, they will simply compound their ignorance.
Teaching methods should encourage learners to enlarge their horizons; stimulate reflective
thinking; encourage personal moral choices; provide skills in logical thinking; provide
opportunities to apply knowledge to moral and social problems; stimulate interest in the
subject content; and encourage learners to accept the values of human civilization.
CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE
• Idealists feel that strict discipline is essential for self-realization. These is no situation in
which restraint is not required.
• Teacher's guidance is necessary at every step because he will impress upon his pupils the
importance of higher values by leading a virtuous life and they will try to follow his
example. In this way, the teacher will make the environment suitable for his pupils to
realize the higher values of life through self-discipline.
• It may, however, be noted that idealists are not against freedom. But for them freedom is
not a means as it is with the naturalist; it is an end. It is a well-deserved reward for the
youth who has learnt to live under self-imposed regulation and discipline.
LIMITATION OF IDEALISM
• Idealism may be considered to be outmoded in the prevailing scientific world-view.
Idealistic concepts like ‘spirit’, ‘mind’, ‘soul’, the ‘cosmos’ have little relevance in
classroom teaching.
• The idealistic education stresses on imitation of models, but younger generation prefers
invention and originality rather than imitation.
• Too much emphasis on good manners and modesty may be mistaken for
diffidence/hesitancy.
• Idealistic scheme of education, by and large, pays less attention to physical, industrial,
electronic and social environment of today.
PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION
What we want and need is education: Pure and simple, and we shall make surer and
faster progress when we devote ourselves to finding out just what education is and what
conditions have to be satisfied in order that education may be a reality and not a name or a
slogan. Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.
—John Dewey, Experience and Education
INTRODUCTION TO PRAGMATISM
This philosophy deals with the practical utility of things. A pragmatist lives in the world
of facts and not in a world of ideas. In other word, pragmatism believes in practical and utilitarian
philosophy. The term ‘pragmatism’ derives its origin from a Greek word meaning ‘to do, to make,
to accomplish’. Meaning ‘action or practice or activity’. Beliefs and ideas are true, if they are
workable and profitable; otherwise false. Nothing is fixed in advance, everything is changing with
time.
CHIEF EXPONENTS
William James, John Dewey
PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM
• No ultimate values: The main principle of Pragmatic philosophy is that man creates his
values during the course of activity. There are no fixed values for all times to come. Even
truths are manmade products. There is nothing like absolute truth. According to
pragmatism, whatever fulfils man's purpose and ‘desires and develops his life, is true. Truth
is that which gives satisfactory results when put into practice.
• Emphasis on experimentation: Pragmatism lays a special stress on the value of
experimentation. It stands for testing every statement by finding out its practical
implications. If these implications are desirable, the statement is accepted otherwise
rejected. Man is always carrying out various experiments in his life. But no judgment is
possible before an experiment is tested by experience
• Belief in practical philosophy: Pragmatism believes that philosophy is not simply wisdom
of the past. True philosophy is one that helps in the solution of practical problems of life.
It should be practical and useful in influencing the conduct of life and not a passive enquiry
or contemplation’. According to pragmatism, ‘philosophy is thinking what to do in a life
situation and it is brought into existence when problems occur’.
• Human development according to environment: Pragmatism believes that growth of
human personality takes place because of interaction with environment. Man tries to adjust
himself to his environment and this results in his growth. During the process of adjustment,
man not only adopts himself to his environment but he also tries to mould the environment
according to his needs, purposes and desires.
• Faith in democracy: Pragmatism has deep faith in democracy. It is only through
democracy that an individual can realize the maximum development of his personality.
This development is possible only in a social context. Individual development also leads
to the development of society. Thus a democratic social order is considered essential for
the healthy growth of individuals.
• Revolt against traditionalism: Pragmatism believes that reality is in the making truth
works in a practical situation. Whatever fulfils one's purpose and develops his life, is true.
So it is a revolt against traditionalism and absolutism.
• Pragmatism in education: This philosophy does not believe in imparting education for its
own sake. It is to be imparted with reference to human needs. It should enable the child to
solve his daily problems and also to lead a better and happier life by creating new values.
Education, therefore, must have its intellectual, moral, aesthetic, social and physical
aspects.
CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK
• The curriculum for the pragmatic philosophy supports a connection between knowledge
and experience. It is important for children to connect the two so that learning can become
meaningful.
• Pragmatists are of the opinion that the curriculum at the school should reflect the society.
They have rejected the traditional approach to subject matter curriculum which is
associated with formal schooling, where knowledge is separated from the child's own
interests, needs and experiences and fragmented or compartmentalized. They emphasize
the needs and interests of the children.
• Pragmatists believe in a broad and diversified curriculum. They endorse a more general
education as opposed to narrow specialization. Pragmatic curriculum is composed of both
process and content.
• Pragmatists focus some attention on process, because ends should not be dissociated from
means.
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
• The widest variety of techniques have been justified in the name of pragmatic philosophy,
ranging from the almost complete laissez-faire to the relatively structured. Classroom
discussion in a free and open atmosphere is encouraged, as well as individual problem
solving research. All of this may well involve a tremendous amount of reading, studying,
and traditional subject matter mastery.
• This philosophy believes that not all children learn the same way, so it is important to vary
educational methods. This philosophy supports large print text, small desk, and things that
move easily. The classroom would be a functional atmosphere with the interest of the
children at hand. Problem-solving, themes, experiments are all parts of the pragmatic
philosophy.
• Pragmatic method is rooted in the psychological needs of the students rather than in the
logical order of the subject matter. Thus, method is nothing more than helping the students
to use intelligence and the scientific method in the solution of problems that are meaningful
to the child.
METHODS OF TEACHING
• Pragmatics believes in experimenting with new methods. These methods are devised by
the teacher in the light of real life situations. Education is not teaching or imparting
knowledge but to encourage learning through self-effort and creative activity. Knowledge
is not obtained from books but by actually doing things.
• Pragmatism stresses on “action rather than reflection“. The child should be put in real
situations so that he may himself solve the problem practically, which arise out of those
situations. He must be engaged in purposeful creative activity and problematic acts.
• The most important contribution of pragmatism to educational practice is the ‘project
method’, which is ‘a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting’. The child
is given a real and purposeful task to carry out. While doing so, he experiences the need of
certain principles, skills and methods which he acquires, not formally but incidentally.
Thus, the child gets knowledge and skills from the experiences gained in the
accomplishment of that task. Psychologically also, this method is sound because the child
is always interested in doing things with his own hands. In such a method, the school, the
curriculum and the subject-matter are all considered from the child's points of view.
LIMITATIONS
• The pragmatic philosophy of education, by and large, ignores the place of spirit of the
essence.
• Problems selected by the students may be unreal, having no relation to real life situations.
• Pragmatism does not provide for regular and systematic instruction.
• Pragmatism leaves many curricular gaps and deficiencies in the learning process.
• Pragmatism puts heavy demands on the teacher. Only a few resourceful and gifted teachers
may be able to cope with the demands of teaching in an environment set up under pragmatic
conditions.
NATURALISM
From the solemn gloom of the temple children run out to sit in the dust, God watches them
play and forgets the priest‘
— Rabindranath Tagore
Naturalism is a concept that firmly believes that ultimate reality lies in the nature of the
matter. Matter is considered to be supreme and mind is the functioning of the brain that is made
up of matter. The whole universe is governed by laws of nature and they are changeable. It is
through our sense that we are able to get the real knowledge. The sense works like real gateways
of knowledge and exploration is the method that helps in studying nature.
CHIEF EXPONENTS
Democritus, Bacon, Herbert Spencer, Huxley
METHODOLOGY OF INSTRUCTION
• Methods of instruction should be inductive. This follows from Nature's advice that teaching
make fullest use of the self-activity of the pupil, telling him as little as possible and
encouraging him to discover as much as possible for himself. To tell a child this and to
show him that only makes him a recipient of another's observations. If the learning intellect
is to be guided to its appropriate food, children must master the art of independent
observation and direct acquaintance.
• The educational implications of the naturalistic theory holds that good education is
pleasurable, thus, methods of teaching should be based upon the belief that the child is not
averse to learning, but enjoys it. Teaching methods and materials will appeal to student's
natural inclination to learn. Difficult tasks should be made pleasant.
• The natural mode of self-expression is play and learning should be done through cheerful
spontaneity and creativity of play. The process of discovery is given importance. The
activities like excursions, field trips and practical experiments are recommended to
enhance learning.
• Pupil activity should be in form of recitation or written and oral examinations.
• Naturalism maintains that all teaching methods should be based on experience. Since, they
rely on the inductive method; they insist that the first criterion for judging the value of a
teaching method should be based on self-activity of the pupil finding the answers for
himself.
• The pupil himself must observe nature in order to find facts and discover answers to his
problems. All teaching methods should be characterized by pupil activity involving direct
experience; the pupil must educate himself.
• A second characteristic of naturalistic teaching-learning methods is found in their
conformity to the natural development of the pupils. It means readiness of the organism for
any given learning. Negatively stated, this principle means that it is not the teacher or
society that determines what the child should learn, but his own developmental level.
Positively stated, it means that when the organism is ready for a certain type of learning
activity, it will seek in naturally, that is, without being forced by the teacher or by adult
society. Thus the pupil will learn about his physical environment when his interests and
instincts lead him to such learning; boy-girl relationships will be developed when children
reach the age for such relationships; pupils will learn to read when they are ready.
• A third characteristic of naturalistic methodology is that all educational activities should
be enjoyable to the child. The tasks assigned by traditionalist teachers were designed to
discipline the student and therefore were considered unpleasant by the student, but the
naturalist felt that any task that is against interest of pupil should be avoided.
METHOD OF TEACHING
• Learning by doing: Naturalists are not in favour of direct teaching through lectures of
textbooks. In place of book-learning, they emphasize the value of concrete objects. They
advocate the direct experience of things and believe in the principle of ‘learning by doing’.
Rousseau says, ‘Give to your pupil no verbal lesson’. He should be taught experience alone.
Teaching by doing whenever you can and fall back on words when doing is out of the
question. Book knowledge should be as little as possible. In the study of language, direct
method of teaching is advocated to ensure the vocabulary of a student. In the teaching of
science and mathematics, Heuristic method is emphasized, in a place of ‘chalk-and-talk’
procedure. Geography is to be taught with practical through actual excursion and
observation.
• Play-way method: The naturalists advocate play-way as another important method of
imparting education. Its underlying principle is that all learning should take place in the
spirit and by the method of play-way. It is, therefore, regarded as the most natural and most
outstanding method of creative education. It creates the spirit of joyful, spontaneous and
creative activity.
• Observation and experimentation: The naturalists criticize the time-table, and disfavour
any type of rigidity in the daily time schedule. So they have devised such schedules as the
Dalton plan, which gives freedom to the pupils to choose his own schedule of work. They
learn through observation and experimentation.
• Self-government and self effort: The naturalists also emphasize open-air schools, self
government in schools and the establishment of coeducation in educational institutions.
Self-government will give direct experience of social life while coeducation will develop
the right type of family and community life. Thus, the contribution of naturalism to the
field of modern methodology of education is most outstanding and most abiding.
CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE
• Punishment should be constituted by the natural consequences of wrong deeds; should be
certain, but tempered with sympathy. As we should teach in accordance with the rhythms
of nature, so we should also punish as nature punishes.
• Naturalism aims at making education free from the bondage of rigid discipline under which
children were tortured.
• The freedom of child disciplines him and he is naturally controlled by his own learning and
experiences. It is believed that discipline is regulated by natural consequences.
• The situation will provide a form of innate discipline that should replace that of the teacher.
To illustrate, a child learns to avoid hot objects because he has experienced the discomfort
and pain which follow his touching them, the pupil learns to cooperate with other pupil
when he finds himself excluded by his classmates. For example, every time a child puts his
finger into the candle flames he gets a burn. Always it happens; always it is a burn. There
are no harsh words, no snapping and snarling, just a burn proportionate to the size of the
flame and the extent and duration of the contact. By this means nature quickly teaches the
normal child the dangers of fire, and exemplifies for parents and teachers what is desirable
in corrective relations with children.
WEAKNESS OF NATURALISM IN EDUCATION
• Naturalism in its extreme form neglects books and other media. It is very difficult to assume
that we can neglect the vast quantities of printed materials.
• Physical nature alone is not sufficient for providing, education.
• Absolute freedom to child is a myth. It cannot exist. Child cannot be allowed the freedom
to hang himself.
• Naturalism ignores the higher ends in the education process.
• It is very difficult to find naturalistic surroundings for locating educational institutions.
• Naturalism plays very little importance to the teacher in the educative process.
REALISM IN EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
For the realist, the world is as it is, and the job of schools would be to teach students about
the world. Goodness, for the realist, would be found in the laws of nature and the order of the
physical world. Truth would be the simple correspondences of observation. The realist believes in
a world of things or beings (metaphysics) and in truth as an observable fact. The realist would tend
to view the learner as a sense mechanism, the teacher as a demonstrator, the curriculum as the
subject matter of the physical world (emphasizing mathematics, science, etc.), the teaching method
as mastering facts and information, and the social policy of the school as transmitting the settled
knowledge of western civilization.
HUMANISM IN EDUCATION
‘The four characteristics of humanism are curiosity, a free mind, belief in good taste, and
belief in the human race.’
—EM Forster
INTRODUCTION
Humanism is a belief that individuals control their own destinies through the application
of their intelligence and learning. According to Humanism, Fundamental principles of education
in Humanism are self evaluation, feelings and environment. Self-evaluation is the only meaningful
evaluation of a student's work, Feelings are as important as facts, Students learn best in a non-
threatening environment. Humanism believes in respect for ancient culture, respect for
intellectuals and literary scholarship and respect for language.
HUMANISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
As described by Gage and Berliner (1991), there are five basic objectives of the humanistic view
of education:
• According to humanism, teacher is expected to be well read, well trained in humanities,
and all subjects.
• Promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory system).
• Develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and affective
systems).
• Develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition).
• Curiosity (exploratory behaviour, a function of imbalance or dissonance in any of the
systems).
• An interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective/emotional system).
EXISTENTIALISM IN EDUCATION
Introduction: Existentialism rejects the existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth
about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible for determining
for themselves what is ‘true‘ or ‘false,‘ ‘right‘ or ‘wrong,‘ ‘beautiful‘ or ‘ugly.‘ For the
existentialist, there exists no universal form of human nature; each of us has the free will to develop
as we see fit.
CURRICULUM OF EXISTENTIALISM
• The curriculum should be chosen, sorted out and owned by the learner.
• According to existentialist, Curriculum can be explored as a means of providing students
with vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression.
For example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists focus upon the
actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides possible models for the students’
own behavior.
• Existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and
imitating established models. In an existentialist curriculum, students is given a wide
variety of options from which to choose.
• Existence of individuals must constitute the ‘core of studies‘ both in and out of school.
• The existentialist has made extensive use of the art forms as the media for conveying their
beliefs about philosophical matters. The existentialist is not much concerned with the actual
courses or subjects in a curriculum.
• The central place is given to ‘humanities’, poetry, drama, music, art, novels etc. as they
exert the human impact in revealing man's inherent guilt, sin, suffering, tragedy, death, hate
and love. Humanities have spiritual power. Art and literature, they say should be taught, as
they represent power of human nature.
• History should be taught in order to help the students to change the course of history and
to mould future.
• Scientific subjects and mathematics should be included in the curriculum but they should
not be given more stress, as they deal with objective knowledge. Self-knowledge precedes
universal knowledge.
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
• In reality, the way in which subject matter is handled seems to be more important to the
existentialist than the subject matter itself.
• Existentialist methods focus on the individual. To recognize the ‘individual differences’
and wish to have diverse curricula suiting the needs, abilities and aptitudes of the
individual, Learning is self-paced, self-directed, and includes a great deal of individual
contact with the teacher, who relates to each student openly and honestly.
• Any teaching method must place the responsibility for choosing what to learn and learning
depends on the individual. This assumption is entirely in harmony with the existentialist's
insistence upon the absolute freedom of the individual. Obviously, an self-respecting
existentialist would employ the traditional lecture-recite-assign-test method. He would
reject with equal zeal the problem-solving method of instrumentalism because of its social
emphasis. Any method which fosters group thinking or group action would be alien to the
existentialist.
CONCEPT OF TEACHER
• The teacher's role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various
paths they may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely choose
their own preferred way.
• There are five characteristics of this ideal that are formulated by this existential framework.
These include becoming more authentic, more spiritual, having a critical attitude, having a
clear sense of personal identity and a developing empathetic awareness towards others.
• The teacher's characteristic of being ‘open’ to possibilities includes a willingness to allow
others to re-evaluate those aspects of one's understandings that can be articulated. If one
chooses to ‘close’ oneself off from the criticisms of others, one is no longer teacher.
Having, openness, in this regard allows one to come to an understanding of self and others.
• An important characteristic of a teacher is that they have the ability to make judgments
with regards to what is worthwhile and valuable in them and in others.
• The teacher must build positive relationships between himself and his students. He should
avoid applying labels to children (such as ‘lazy’, ‘slow learner’, etc.) for individuals may
indeed come to think of themselves this way. The teacher is also changing and growing as
he guides the pupil in his discovery of self.
CONCEPT OF STUDENT
• The existentialists want to give full freedom to the child. But the child should know the
nature of his ‘self’ and recognize his being and convert imperfection into perfection.
• They do not want the child to become selfish, autocratic and irresponsible. Freedom is
needed only for natural development. Education should be provided according to the child's
powers and the needs. The child has to make ‘choices’ and decisions.
• Child thrives better when relieved from intense competition, harsh discipline, and fear of
failure. Thus each child can grow to understand his own needs and values and take charge
of the experiences for changing him. In this way self-evaluation is the beginning and end
of the learning process, as learning proceeds, child is freely growing, fearless,
understanding individual.
• Primary emphasis must always be on the child, as learner and not on the learning
programmed. Child needs positive evaluation, not labels.
CONCEPT OF SCHOOL
• The school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals develop in a healthy way.
Any subject in school (even extra activities like athletics, music, etc.) can present
existential situations for teaching and the development of human beings. The aim of school
tasks should be to nurture self-discipline and cultivate self-evaluation.
• Democratic ideals should pervade the school. Democracy must be the soil in which the
individual grows. It should be the democracy of unique individuals who value differences
and respect one another. Self-government, pupil participation in planning and the
encouragement of a free atmosphere characterize the school.
• Mechanization and impersonality should be counteracted in school. Student's timetables
and work programmers are computerized. And thus the relationships between the
individual students and the school programme become an impersonal one. Besides this, the
use of programmed instruction, teaching machines and other equipments tend to decrease
the personal contact between teachers and pupils.
• Concern and respect for the individual student should be a feature of the school.
ECLECTICISM
‘Eclecticism is the synthesis or harmonious blend of the diverse philosophies of
education. It is the process of pulling out and putting together of the useful and essential
aspect of various philosophies of education.’
Introduction: In education eclectic tendency is the tendency to familiarize with different
philosophies, to draw best and essential points out of them and to make one harmonious whole and
make one new philosophy of education. No school of philosophy meets the entire requirement of
varied situations of life. In fact, no educator can be exclusively idealistic, naturalist, or pragmatist.
For the modern educationist, it will be beneficial and effective if they make a thorough study of
these different schools of philosophy and then relate and rearrange the essential principles into one
harmonious whole and thus build their own theory of education with the best material. This would
be the basis for eclectic tendency in education.
METHODS OF TEACHING
• Play way method.
• Learning by doing
• Direct experiences through project and problem-solving, etc.
AIMS OF EDUCATION
• Education should give a child a command of the basic processes of learning.
• The child should become an efficient member of the society.
• The development of moral character.
• Promotion of good health.
• Skilful training.
• To prepare a person to take his place in life.
• To be able to think, reason and to adapt himself to his environment.
• Interests and motivation of the child has to be improved.
• The child should be educated in the favourable and congenial environment.
PROGRESSIVISM
‘A typical progressivist slogan is ‘Learn by Doing!’’
Introduction: It is an American philosophy which is a revolt against the formal/
conventional/traditional system of education. It became popular in USA, in year 1929 which
adversely affected the educational system of the country. Education is centered around present life
itself. The development of an individual and the society is only possible, when education facilitates
the growth of every phase of child.
EXPONENTS
John Dewey; William James; G Thomas Lawrence; William Kilpatric.
AIMS OF EDUCATION
• To develop the personality of an individual by providing a democratic environment in the
educational institutions.
BEHAVIORISM
Person's behavior is the result of environmental conditioning. Man is a passive recipient,
who reacts to external stimuli, in his external environment. According to Skinner, each individual
is having any ego/‘mind’ centre of consciousness which enable him to choose any course of action,
that he wanted to do. Individual's actions are predetermined by his heredity or immediate
surroundings because man is not separate from his surrounding environment.
Techniques/Methods of Teaching
• Reinforcement provided by correct answers is a source of encouragement to the slow
learners.
• It requires technical proficiency.
• Goals are not kept in mind, in controlling human behavior.
• Modelling, Self-control technique, Assertiveness training, Punishment
• Relaxation technique.
RECONSTRUCTIONALISM
Introduction: Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social
questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist
educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education.
AIMS OF EDUCATION
• The primary aim of education is an all-round development of personality. It mainly
includes physical, mental, moral and spiritual development. Along with it, reasoning,
thinking, and intelligence should also be developed.
• The aim of education is to develop faith in democratic principles. To inculcate the feelings
of social service in the student and create in him the capacity for adoption to environment
and earning his living.
• Emotional integration with the people of other states should also be developed. People
should also be taught the skill of utilizing their leisure in constructive activities.
CURRICULUM
• The curriculum will be based on the age, capacity, social status, environment and
geographical conditions.
• Free Education: The education should be entirely free and this expenditure should be
done by the state up to secondary stage. It is necessary to adopt democratic principles in
curriculum and in the administration of educational institutions.
DISCIPLINE
• Education should be so organized and conducted that the problem of indiscipline may not
arise at all, in the educational institution. For this, qualities like liberalism, tolerance and
discretion may be developed in students.
PERENNIALISM
Exponents: Advocates of this educational philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who
developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler.
AIMS OF EDUCATION
• For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understanding
about the great ideas of Western civilization.
• These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas
that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural
and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging
principles is critical.
• Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the
intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education.
• The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students’
growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are
emphasized– the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science.
Concept of Increasing Dynamic in ‘Material world is To prepare the Promote positive self-
aims of spiritual values nature. the real world’ practical man of direction, independence
education by developing the world.
Self-preservation Develop the ability to
moral values
take responsibility for
Securing the
Self-realization what is learned
necessities of life
Character Develop creativity
development.
Curiosity
CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATION
Education has following characteristics:
• A tripolar process
• A bipolar process
• A continuous and life long process
• A process of individual development
• A deliberate process
• A dynamic process
• Preserver and transmitter of heritage
• A science as well as an art
• It is progressive
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN INDIVIDUAL IN PRESENT CONTEXT –
INDIVIDUAL AND NATIONAL CONTEXT
INTRODUCTION
Change is the law of nature. The word ‘change’ denotes the difference in anything observed
over some period of time. Everything changes, every organism grows, every life flows. The society
composed of human beings also undergoes changes. These changes occur in its cultural pattern, in
its structure and consequently in its members. Society is the web of social relationships, therefore
observable differences in any social phenomena over any period of time. This process of change
is quite complicated and needs a careful understanding. Education and society are closely related
to each other. The report of the Indian Education Commission, appropriately entitled Education
and National Development 1966, forcefully stated, ‘Education cannot be considered in isolation
or planned in a vacuum. It has to be used as a powerful instrument of social, economic and political
change.’ Let us understand the impact of various changes such as social, economical, political and
technological changes on Education.
Fig. 1.6: The changing faces of nursing and midwifery in India over the year
CURRENT TRENDS AND ISSUES IN EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Trends means movement in a particular direction. When we speak of a trend in nursing
education, we mean a change currently taking place in nursing education and influencing the
profession as a whole. For example, the present trend in nursing education is towards a higher
level of education in the basic preparation of a professional nurse. This is a change happening right
now and causing the entire profession to move in the direction of higher education for the
professional nurse. The knowledge of trends is important for all members of nursing profession
Planning for nursing education and nursing services as well as controlling the direction in which
the profession moves are only-possible if we are aware of current trends.
1892 Many hospital in Bombay started nursing associations which were intended to provide
additional facilities for the training of local nurses.
1946 Four year BSc nursing program was started in RAK College, New Delhi and CMC,
Vellore.
1947 INC act was passed.
2015– Revision of GNM syllabus and decrease duration from 3.5 years to 3 years by INC.
2016: