1 General periodizaton of the development of English grammars

There are two periods. The prescientific grammar and the scientific grammar.
I – Begins at the end of the 16th century and lasts till 1900-the first grammar-Early Premonative Grammar of
English.It begins with a grammar book called “Brief Grammar of English”.”Prescriptive(nominative grammar)”-set
up standards of English.By the end of 1900 it had reached its highest level of development.
II -1900- Appeared the grammar book of Henry
Sweet.This was the first grammar that belongs to classical scientific grammar(both descriptive and
exclamatory).After 1950 two types of grammars developed-Structural grammar –It has been replaced by
Generative Transformational Grammar(syntax).
Until the 17th.c. the term grammar was applied only to the study of Latin.Latin grammar was the only
grammar and there were no English grammars.Latin Grammars-William Lily.Early grammarians were interested
only in the structure of Latin.Latin grammars were not concerned with the syntax.Atthe beginning of the 18 th.c.
appeared Brightland’s grammar.There we find an important innovation-the study of syntax.All sentences are
divided into simple and compound.The simple sent. consists of one verb and one name.In addition Brightland
defines the sentence.17th.c.-Robert Lowth-“Short Introduction to English Grammar”.The aims of prescriptive was
to set up a standard of correct usage.They transfer rules from Latin grammars and try to impose them on the
English.They disregarded the usage of English by English classical authors.The theory of subordination was
developed.(Clause=Phrase ).
Henry Sweet-He says that the prescription of usage is wrong.You can’t change language by using
laws.Grammar should be descriptive not prescriptive.
The period of scientifical grammar:
1. From the beginning of the 20th.c. till 1940
-the prescriptive grammar.
-the classical scientific grammar.
2. From 1940 onward
-structural grammar
-generative transformational grammar.
Otto Jespersen-He introduces the concept of ranks, theories of junction.”Analytic Syntax”.He attempted to
introduce a symbolic representation(S.,V.,O.).
1950-The appearance of the structural grammar-Charles Freeze,Lenart Bloomfield,Charles Hocket.Bloomfield-
represents the sentence not as a string of words or symbols but layers of meaning.
Example: Poor John ran away
Sosure-string of symbols-Poor+John+ran+away.
Bloomfield-number of layers.
Poor John(noun cluster-NP) ran away(verb cluster-VP)
Distribution –it is defined as the sum total of all different positions in which an element can occur.
Substitution-the ability of an element to replace another.
Structural analyses-it disregarded the meaning of the constituents and it was based solely on the structure.
Noam Chomsky-Sentences have surface structure(more complicated-one or more underlying simple
structures).Sentences are described as phrase markers(derivational tree).He introduces different transformations.
Transformational grammar is organized in 3 parts:
1. Syntactic-phrase markers
2. Semantic-semantic interpretation
3. Phonological components
Chomsky’s next theory ( “Aspects in theories in syntax”1965).There he introduces the standard theory-he stresses
that sentences don’t derive from other sentences but are derived from abstract structures.The grammar contains
two sets of rules-1.Phrase structure use-it generates deep structure.2.Transformation-changes deep structure to
surface structure.All sent. have categorial constituent structure.All sent. are hierarchically structured out of words
and phrases.
The relation between syntax and semantics – All transformationalists split into two scools.1.followers of Chomsky-
they claim that there exists a separate component.2.generative semantics-claim that syntax cannot be separated
from semantics
“The Minimalist Program”-1998 Noham Chomsky-He reduces the 4 levels of representation to two-LF, and
PF.LF(logical form) interfaces with the semantic conseptual systems of cognition.PF(phonetic form)-connected
with articulation.

2 English Phrases

Syntax-a Greek word-to put together. It is a science concerned with lows of gathering of phrases and how
they are put together in a sentence.
There are three main groups of views.
- The sentence is a kind of phrase.
 - The study of the sentence alone. Disregard of the phrase.
- The units of the sentence and phrase belong to two different levels :
 -non-communicative-phrases(minor syntax)
 -communicative-sentence(major syntax)
Definition of phrase-every combination of words which makes grammatical unit but is not analytical form of
some word is turned a phrase: 1.a blue sky-a phrase / 2.has been writing-not a phrase but analytical form.
Differences between sentences and phrases- A phrase is a unit used to name some object, process,
phenomena. It is a unit of nomination. A sentence is a unit of predication and it is used as a vehicle to convey
information-1.the constituents of a phrase can be changed according to grammatical category and it will not lose
the meaning-blue sky=blue skies (the same phrase).Every sentence constituent has a definite form which cannot
be changed because it will leave to changes in the sentence.2.-Intonation-phrases outside of the sentence have
no intonation. All sent. Are characterized by a definite intonation pattern.
Classification of phrases (structuralistic)-Ch.Hacket.-The structuralists developed various analytical
techniques-1-distribution,-2-substitution.
Distribution – the sum total of the entire linguistic environment (what precedes and follows the element) in
which this element can appear.
Complementary distribution-the distribution of one of the element excludes the other.
Distributional equivalence-the two units occur in the same range of contexts.
Partial equivalence-The distribution of one of the element includes the other.
Bloomfield (classification)
Endocentric-a phrase in which there exists distributional equivalence between the phrase as a whole and one
of its constituents. This constituent is called the head of the phrase. These phrases are known as headed.
Exocentric-the constituents of the phrase are in complementary distribution with the phrase as a whole
1. Endocentric can be replaced by their heads
2. Exocentric cannot be replaced by no one of their constituents
Examples: Yesterday poor John got married. (Endocentric it can be only John).
Dinner over, they went for a walk. (Exocentric).

Endocentric-1. subordinate-we have a leading element more important.

2. coordinate-no leading element, all the constituents are equal.
Blue sky-subordinate(sky is the head, blue is modifier (attribute) )

Subordinate-1.AH(attribute+head)-red wine/preposed modifier

2.HA(head + attribute)-knight errant/post posed modifier
3.AHA(attribute+ head + attribute)-the last <volume> to come out
4.HAH-with a split head- can never go

Coordinate-1.Additive-have constituents joined by and - black and white

2.Alternative-have constituents joined by or - boys or girls
3.Appositive-consist of constituents not joined by any conjunction(asyndetic-безсъюзен)
4.Other-neither john nor Bill,two plus two,
Queen Marry-appositive phrase(two constituents which refer to the same object.(the republic of Bulgaria, the
city of London)

Exocentric- I –Directive-Consist of two part.Apart called a director and a per called an axis.If the director is a
verb and the axis is an object-Objective phrase.Prepositional phrase-the director is a preposition and the axis is a
noun phrase.Conjunctional phrase-the director is a conjunction and a clause for an axis.
1. Objective-1.It has as an object (axis) a single word or an endocentric phrase(saw the green car,saw
John).
2.Takes a non – finite verb for an object(nexus)-wanted to learn, stopped driving.
3.Take clauses(non finite)-can’t make the car go,
4.It contains two objects-send him a present,
2. Prepositional-beyond the river, in the box.
3. Conjunctional-after she comes, before he leaves
II – Connective-Consists of a connector and a predicative attribute. The connector is a link verb.-
is a big man.

III – Predicative(topic +comment)

1.transitive
2.intransitive
3.equational – they have the outward form of sentences but they have no
intonation.They are formally equivalent to sentence

3 The sentence – characteristic features and classification

The clause is just a theoretical construction. It corresponds to a sentence or forms a separate part. The clause is
larger than a sent. though it may coincide with it. There are different types of definition of the
sentence.1.Logical.2.Psychological.3.Structural.4.Phonetic
Psychological is not typical for the English grammar. Logical-it predominated in the preceding periods.
Structural-based on grammatical and phonetic criteria(typical for mid20s). In fact the whole grammar is
definition of the sentence, that is why the Modern Generative syntax refrains from giving a definition.
Logical definition-a sentence is a word or a group of words capable of expressing a complete thought or
meaning(Henry Sweet).It is based partly on structural criteria, but is chiefly based on logic. It relies heavily on
meaning. The logical definition is not complete and is outdated.
Structural definition-it is based on structural criteria.”The sentence is an independent form, not included
by virtue in any grammatical construction in any other larger independent form.No mention is made of the
meaning of the sentence.
The sentence is the basic unit of verbal communication. It is distinguished from all other units by certain
characteristic features. The sent. is also the maximum unit of grammatical analysis. It is the largest unit in which
all grammatical structures of a language can occur. It can be used alone as a piece of communication completing
an idea by itself. The sentence is intended for communication and it carries information.
1. He mailed the letter.-it is intended for communication. It carries information and has a definite
intonation pattern.
2. to mail a letter-it is a unit of nomination. It can be pushed from non-communicative to communicative
level by putting it into the right context :
A:Why has he gone to the post office?
B:To mail a letter.
The sentence tells us a certain fact from the extra linguistic world.
The speaker expresses the modality of the sentence.
Intonation-every sentence is characterized by a definite intonation pattern.Intonation alone is also
capable of making a sentence out of a word or a phrase:water-word,cold water-phrase,Cold water!,Water!-
imperative
Jane smiled./Jane(noun phrase-denotes the doer of an action-S.)
/smiled(verb phrase-expresses some action or state-Predicate)
The simplest sentence consists of subject and predicate.These are the main parts of the
sentence.Besides these the sent. may contain different elements.They are used to modify one another.They
are secondary parts.A sentence may contain main parts and secondary parts.
Every sentence contains a message.So a sentence can be examined from the point of view of their
informational structure.They also have a semantic sructure.
Example:”John wrote a poem”.
Grammatical structure-John-S.,wrote-V.,a poem-O.,
Semantic structure-John-the doer,wrote-the action,a poem-the goal of the action.
Informational structure-John-the theme,wrote-transition,a poem-the rheme(the problem of functional
sentence perspective).It is connected with dividing the sentence into part which carries the old information
and the other part which carries the new information-the rheme.
John Ferbas-Communicational Dynamism(CD)-It is a property(ñâîéñòâî, îòëè÷èòåëíî êà÷åñòâî) of the
developing communication.This is the degree to which a certain sentence element contributes towards the
developing of the communication.Using the notion of CD we can define the theme of the sentence to this
part which carries the lowest degree.The rheme carries he hihgest degree of communicational dynamism.
Languages have developed different structures used to point out the theme and the rheme of the
sentence.
1. The cleft sentence-It was john who raised the objection.
2. The pseudo cleft sentence-What they have done is ruined the economy.
3. Double inversion-Hanging on the walls are pictures of English poets.
4. The existential sentence(There)-There is a cat on the table.
5. Subject focusing inversion-Came frightful days of cold and frost.
6. Fronting of different secondary parts-Not a word did he say.
7. The passive construction-The picture of Dorian Grey was written by Oscar Wild.

Types of sentences-Traditional classification:According to three different principles-1.The principle of type of

communication
2.The structural
principle
3.The number of main
parts.
According to 1-four types- 1. Declarative-They are statements>They convey some information about a certain
extra linguistic fact.
2. Interrogative –A question.Used to seek information.
3. Imperative-Used to urge somebody to do something.
 4. Exclamatory-Express emotion, feelings.

According to 2-two types- 1.Simple-They are said to be monopredicative(have only on e subject – predicative
group).
-Unextended-only main parts
-Extended-has secondary and main parts
2. Composite-They are poly-predicative.
-Compound
-Complex-The difference between the two is in the manner of syntactic
connection.

According to 3-two types- 1.One-member-They do not have separate S. and P.They have one main part.
2.Two-member-They have separate S and P.