Journal of Food Engineering 198 (2017) 81e90

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Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Industrial avocado waste: Functional compounds preservation by

convective drying process
Jorge Saavedra a, b, Andre
rdova a, b, *, Rosa Navarro a, Paulo Díaz-Caldero

s Co
n c,
Claudia Fuentealba a, Carolina Astudillo-Castro a, d, Lea Toledo a, b, Javier Enrione c,
Lena Galvez a
a
lica de Valparaíso, Waddington 716, Playa Ancha, Valparaíso 2360100, Chile
Escuela de Alimentos, Pontificia Universidad Cato
b
DATACHEM AgroFood: Group of Data Analysis and Applied Chemometrics on Agriculture and Foods, Waddington 716, Playa Ancha, Valparaíso 2360100,
Chile
c
n y Diet

Biopolymer Research and Engineering Lab (BiopREL), Escuela de Nutricio etica, Universidad de los Andes, Monsen~ or Alvaro del Portillo 12455, Las
Condes, Santiago de Chile 7620001, Chile
d
Centro Regional de Estudios en Alimentos Saludables, CONICYT-REGIONAL GORE, Regio
n de Valparaíso, R12C1001, Chile

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A convective drying process was optimized as strategy to produce dehydrated ingredients with high
Received 4 January 2016 antioxidant capacity; using Hass avocado byproducts (peels and seeds). Studied processing variables
Received in revised form were: temperature (45
Ce75
C), air-flow (0.8 m/s to 1.8 m/s) and loading density (1 kg/m2 to 3 kg/m2).
26 October 2016
The response variables were Total Phenol Content (TPC) and Antioxidant Capacity (DPPH). Drying kinetic
Accepted 23 November 2016
Available online 25 November 2016
analysis revealed that seeds had higher water diffusivity than peels, but the latter showed shorter drying
times. Multiple optimization routines allowed maximizing simultaneously DPPH and TPC. Thus, 62.82%
and 54.81% of the initial TPC was retained in dehydrated peels and seeds, respectively. Sorption iso-
Keywords:
Hass avocado
therms for both dehydrated byproducts showed that avocado seeds were more hygroscopic than peels,
Drying which was attributed to differences on their composition. This research has outlined a useful tool for the
Byproducts transformation of avocado wastes into storable commodities with high antioxidant properties which
Phenolic compounds may have different food uses.
Optimization © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Avocado fruit (Persea americana Mill.) has been increasingly
recognized for its high levels of bioactive compounds, including
vitamin E, ascorbic acid, carotenoids and soluble phenolics
(Afahakan et al., 2013). It is known as one of the most nutrient-rich
fruits because of its abundant bioactive phytochemicals, such as
unsaturated fatty acids, dietary fiber, vitamins, carotenoids and
phenols (Go
mez-Lo
pez, 2002; Pacetti et al., 2007; Villa-Rodríguez
et al., 2011).
Avocados are one of the most important crops in South America
and Chile when including all their varieties, which are: Hass, Fuerte,
Prada, Bacon, Zutano and Edranol (Lemus et al., 2010). The avocado
has a wide variety of uses in industrial products, including (among

lica de
* Corresponding author. Escuela de Alimentos, Pontificia Universidad Cato
Valparaíso. Waddington 716, Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile.

rdova).
E-mail address: andres.cordova@pucv.cl (A. Co
others) the following currently marketed items: pulp as a base for
spreads, fresh whether chilled, halves or frozen cubes and avocado
oil (Jacobo-Vela
zquez and Herna
ndez-Brenes, 2012; Bustos et al.,
2015). Hass, Fuerte and Edranol varieties have higher pulp yields
for obtaining avocado oil, with reported values ranging from 15% to
19% (Olaeta, 2003). This observation implies that the industrial
processing of avocados generates a large amount of peel, seeds and
other wastes, which are usually considered a nuisance from the
processing point of view.
Several natural antioxidants have already been isolated from
different types of plant materials, (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011);
however, it has been known that avocado tissues, especially the
exocarp and seed, provide an excellent natural source of phenolic-
rich extracts with high antioxidant properties, showing to be useful
to prevent inflammatory diseases (Dabas et al., 2013), but also to
prevent lipid oxidation and microbial spoilage in foods (Rodríguez-
Carpena et al., 2011). Therefore, exploiting the phytochemical
content of these wastes may lead to new products with added

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.11.018
0260-8774/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
82 J. Saavedra et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 198 (2017) 81e90
value, which would have a significant impact on both the avocado
and food-processing industries (Caldero
n-Oliver et al., 2016).
However, one of the primary problems associated with phenolic
compounds is their high instability in response to different factors
such as pH, metal ions, exposure to light, temperature, oxygen, and
enzymatic activities (Rawson et al., 2011).
Drying is an appropriate and well-known postharvest one step
technology that could be one option for prolonging the shelf life of
fruits or vegetables, preserving their quality and stability by
reducing water activity and moisture content and thereby avoiding
spoilage and contamination during storage (Akpinar and Bicer,
2005). However, drying is a complex phenomenon in which the
moisture in the material is removed, which involves a simultaneous
heat and mass transfer process. Hence the use of mathematical
equations for kinetic simulations of the water transfer occurring
during this operation as a function of the drying conditions
employed is a useful tool in order to control and consider a proper
design process (Vega-Ga
lvez et al., 2008). In addition, the dried fruit
is also subject to a loss of nutritional compounds and the contin-
uously changing conditions along the period of the drying make it
difficult to determine the time duration of the process, and the
most suitable operating values to accomplish a successful drying
process (Corzo et al., 2008). This involves minimizing the loss of
such healthy compounds which are responsible for providing
added value to these byproducts. Then, modeling and optimization
becomes a necessity (Deniz Bas and Boyacı, 2007).
Another aspect to consider in the drying process is the possible
relation between the structural properties of food matrix and the
adsorption/desorption of moisture. A useful approach to assess the
food matrix e water interactions is by generating sorption moisture
isotherms, which also may provide preliminary information
regarding to the stability of the product (Rahman and Labuza, 2007;
Ubbink et al., 2007).
Considering these facts, this research aims to evaluate the use of
a convective drying process in fresh Hass avocado peels and seeds,
as strategy to produce storable commodities to enable their
upgrading into ingredients with high antioxidant properties. For
such goal, a complete characterization of the drying process by
means of a drying kinetics analysis, moisture sorption isotherms
modeling as well as optimizing the retention of the phenolic
compounds remaining after the operation are presented.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Fruits
Avocados (Persea americana Mill.) were obtained from the Na-
tional Agricultural Research Institute (INIA) in La Platina, Chile. The
Fruit was harvested from the same field (not shown data) and
randomly collected. The ripened fruits were manually separated
into seeds, pulp, and peel and vacuum-packed. The avocado by-
products (seeds and peel) were maintained at 5
C until the dry-
ing process tests were conducted.
2.2. Experimental design
A Box-Behnken design with three factors (air temperature, air
flow and load density) and three center points (Myers et al., 2009)
was used. All these experimental runs were conducted in two
replicates, this is, two different batches for each experimental
condition. In each case, fruit was divided and loaded in three
different trays, taking a sample from each one of them to conduct
the physico-chemical analyses. Considering typically used drying
conditions (Corzo et al., 2008; Di Scala and Crapiste, 2008;
Diamante and Yamaguchi, 2012), three levels for each variable
were tested as follows: 45
C, 60
C and 75
C air-drying temper-
atures, 0.8, 1.2, and 1.8 m/s air flow velocities and loading densities
of 1, 2 and 3 kg/m2, totaling 15 experimental runs for each kind of
by-product (peel and seed). However, according to preliminary
tests and some references, it was shown that the loading density
would not have a significant effect on the antioxidant capacity of
the dehydrated avocado byproducts. Therefore, the use of this latter
variable was justified as auxiliary variable (dummy) in the fitted
regression model and has no effect on the response variables
(Draper and Smith, 1998).
Also, the Box-Behnken design requires at least three indepen-
dent variables. The advantages of using a Box-Behnken design is
much more statistical efficient than other response surface designs
for the quadratic model. Box-Behnken design does not contain
combinations of experiments for which all factors are simulta-
neously at their highest or lowest levels. Thus, this design is useful
in avoiding experiments performed under extreme conditions, for
which unsatisfactory results might occur (Ferreira et al., 2007).
For optimization purposes, response variables were Total Phenol
Content (TPC) and Antioxidant Capacity (DPPH).
2.3. Drying process
The avocado seeds were cut and chopped into slices with an
average thickness of 5 mm, so as to obtain a product homoge-
neously loaded and easy to handle, because their high hardness in
natural state. The avocado peel was cut into sheets of 5  3 cm with
an average thickness of 2 mm. Both byproducts were dried in a
laboratory-type tray drier (Armfield UOP8, Armfield Inc., Denison
Iowa, USA). The drying air flow was regulated by an axial flow fan
and fan speed control unit, and the air temperature was controlled
by a heater power control unit. The drying compartment included 3
trays. Either peels and seeds were dried using their respective bed
thickness stated above, by loading each product unit next to one
another without overlapping them, ensuring a homogeneous dis-
tribution in the trays, in order to minimize air gaps. The loading
density was varied by simply adding more or less mass of product
to each tray.
Air-drying temperature measurements were recorded at inlet
and outlet holes at every 1 min with a scanning thermocouple
thermometer (Digi-Sense, model 92800-15, Barnant Co., Barring-
ton). The air flow was controlled by using an aerometer. The relative
humidity of the drying air was 20 ± 1.7%. A digital balance (Chyo MR
2200, YMC Co., Kyoto, Japan) was used to measure the weight loss
of the sample during drying experiments. Each experimental con-
dition was conducted in duplicate. The dried avocado byproducts
were separately ground into powder (90% passed a standard 40-
mesh sieve), packed in different metalized film bags, and stored
at 20
C until further utilization, for no longer period than 24 h
before performing the analyses.
2.4. Drying kinetic modeling
For high mass Biot number (BiM > 100) as in the current case, a
single diffusive model can be adopted to describe isothermal drying
when internal mass transfer is the controlling mechanisms and
unidimensional transport in a slab with constant effective diffu-
sivity is assumed. Thus, the solution of the Fick’s second law for the
total moisture content, considering the boundary conditions is
given as (Crank, 1975):
" #
Xwt  Xwe X ∞
8 Def p2 ð2n þ 1Þ2 t
Y¼ ¼ exp (1)
X0  Xwe n¼0 p ð2n þ 1Þ
2 2 4L2
 J. Saavedra et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 198 (2017) 81e90
where Xwt is the moisture content at any time (g water/g dry matter
or dry solids (ds)), X0 is the initial moisture content (g water/g ds),
and Xwe is the equilibrium moisture content (g water/g ds), L is the
half-thickness of the slab (m), t is the drying time and (Def) is the
effective moisture diffusivity. For sufficiently long drying times, the
first term (n ¼ 0) in the series expansion of Eq. (1) gives a good
estimate of the solution (Di Scala and Crapiste, 2008). Additionally,
since the Xwe value is quite low, it can be simplified from the
expression (Ceylan et al., 2007).
Finally, since it is well known that drying kinetics behave as a
family of exponential models, avocado seeds and peel were
described according to the Lewis model, which is one the most used
for this purpose (Figiel, 2010) which is described as follows:
kd t
Y ¼ a$exp
where a is a correlation factor which is 1 for convective drying
processes, kd is the drying kinetic constant (min1) and t is the
drying time.
2.5. Chemical analyses
The chemical composition was determined by analyses of the
moisture, fat, ash, crude protein, and nitrogen-free extract, which
were performed in triplicate and following standard methods ac-
cording to the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC,
1990). The analyses were performed on fresh matter. In addition,
the following procedures were conducted (n ¼ 3) in fresh and dried
avocado to determine the phenolic contents, the antioxidant ca-
pacity and the phenolic acids quantification.
2.5.1. Preparing avocado byproduct extracts for determination of
antioxidant capacity and total phenolic content
Before analyzing total phenolic content and antioxidant capac-
ity, an extraction must be conducted. Briefly three grams of peel or
seeds were extracted in 15 mL of each solvent with acetone/water
(70:30 v/v). The samples and solvents were homogenized with a
homogenizer (Green Sseriker, model VS-201D, Vision Scientific, Co.,
Korea) for 1 h. The homogenates were centrifuged at 9000 rpm for
3 min at 4
C (Beckman Coulter, Inc., Palo Alto, USA). The super-
natants were collected and the residue was re-extracted once more
by following the previously described procedure and the two su-
pernatants were combined. These extracts were evaporated by
using a rotary evaporator (Vacuum System HEI-VAP, Heidolph In-
struments GmbH & Co., Germany), dispensed into 50 mL volu-
metric flasks, and brought to volume with distilled water. The water
solutions from each by-product were then kept at 18
C for the
phenolic content and antioxidant capacity analyses.
2.5.2. Measuring the antioxidant capacity by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH·) inhibition assay
The DPPH scavenging activities of avocado by-products were
measured according to a reported method by Liu et al. (2009). DPPH
solution was freshly prepared by dissolving 2.5 mg of DPPH in
100 mL of methanol and kept at 4
C prior to use. Each seed and
peel extract was diluted 1:100. A 0.1 mL aliquot of avocado extracts
was added to 3.9 mL of DPPH solution and incubated in darkness for
30 min. The absorbance at 515 nm was measured on a spectro-
photometer (UV/VIS Spectrophotometer, model 6800 double beam,
Jenway, UK). A standard curve was obtained by using Trolox solu-
tion at various concentrations (20e160 mM). The results were
expressed as mmoles Trolox equivalents per 100 g of dry matter.
2.5.3. Determining the total phenolic content (TPC)
The total phenolic contents of the avocado seed and peel
83
extracts were determined by Folin-Ciocalteu reagent assay ac-
cording to a methodology used by Shetty et al. (1995), with minor
modifications. A 0.5 mL aliquot of diluted extract (1:100 from peel
or seeds) was mixed with 1 mL of ethanol (95% v/v), 5 mL of
distilled water and 0.5 mL of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (1 N), followed
by 0.5 mL of sodium carbonate (5% w/v). The mixture was shaken
and allowed to stand for 1 h at room temperature in a dark place,
after which the absorbance was measured at 725 nm with a spec-
trophotometer. The phenolic contents were calculated from a
standard curve of gallic acid, and the results were expressed as mg
of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g of dry matter.
2.6. Effect of processing variables and optimization
(2)
The effect of the processing variables was evaluated by
measuring antioxidant indicators, such as TPC and DPPH, by the
end of each experimental run, according the Box Benhken design.
Hence, a Response Surface Methodology (RSM) approach was used.
RSM combines mathematics with statistics tools to analyze the
effects of multiple factors and their interactions with minimum
experimental times, and it determines the most relevant factors
and their influence ranges (Myers et al., 2009). Is a tool that is
widely used for optimizing the development of processes (Myers
et al., 2009; Diamante and Yamaguchi, 2012). Thus, response vari-
ables (TPC and DPPH) were fitted to a second-order polynomial
model according to Eq. (3):
X
k1 X
k1 X
k1
R ¼ b0 þ bi Xi þ bij Xi Xj þ bii Xi2 (3)
i¼1 i:j¼2 i¼1
where R is the response variable obtained by the fitted model, b0 is
a constant intercept, bi is linear, and bii and bij are the quadratic and
interaction coefficients, respectively.
Finally, since the objective is to improve both response variables
simultaneously, a multiple optimization routine, using a desir-
ability function was applied.
In general terms, this approach consists in converting each
response yi into a desirability function di that varies from 0 to 1. If
the response yi is at its goal or target, then di ¼ 1, and if the response
is outside an acceptable region, di ¼ 0. Each response is standard-
ized into the desired functions di of the type di ¼ hi(yi) (Corzo et al.,
2008).
The design variables are then chosen to maximize the overall
desirability with m responses as follows:
D ¼ ðd1 d2 …dm Þ1=m (4)
The optimum factor values are determined from the value of
individual desirability functions that maximizes D.
The optimization procedure was performed by using Stat-
graphics Centurion XVII (StatPoint, Inc., USA, 2014). The fit quality
of the polynomial model equation was evaluated by adjusting the
coefficients of determination by degree of freedom or percentage of
variability explained (% R2adj), the standard error of estimation and
the lack of fit.
2.7. Characterization of byproducts dried under optimal conditions
2.7.1. Moisture sorption isotherms: equilibrium moisture content
(Xwe)
Moisture sorption isotherms of both avocado seed and peel
samples were determined by Dynamic Vapor Sorption Analysis
(DVS Intrinsic, Micromeretics, USA), following the protocol pro-
posed by Enrione et al. (2007) with some modifications. The
84 J. Saavedra et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 198 (2017) 81e90
programmed equilibrating relative humidity used was from 0 to
90% with 10 increments (10 points) of 10% relative humidity at
20
C. Dried seed and peel were previously grounded and sieved to
analyze the fraction with diameter between 200 and 315 mm. Then
samples were further dried using P2O5 for one week. ~35 mg of
sample (seed or peel) was used for the experiments and equilib-
rium was considered to be reached when dm/dt (change in mass
over time) was <0.0005%/min. If the sorption equilibrium was not
reached, a time limit of 8 h was set to forcedly change to the next
equilibrating state. If this protocol was sufficient, an exponential
function was used to extrapolate the moisture content at time equal
to infinity following the methodology described by Roman-
Gutierrez et al. (2002).
The moisture sorption isotherms versus relative humidities
were fitted using Guggenheim, Anderson and de Boer (GAB)
equation (Anderson, 1946) which is defined as follows:
m0 $C$k$aw
Xwe ¼
ð1  aw Þð1  k$aw þ C$k$aw Þ
where Xwe is the equilibrium moisture content (%, dry basis) and m0
is the monolayer value (%, dry matter). C is related to the energy
associated with the interaction between water molecules and the
matrix primary interaction sites or monolayer, k is also a
temperature-dependent parameter related to the heat of sorption
at the multilayer and aw is water activity (RH/100).
2.7.2. Identification and quantification of phenolic acids
The identification of phenolic acids in avocado samples was
determined by HPLC method (Teresawa et al., 2006). Several
phenolic acids and flavonols were used as HPLC standards as fol-
lows: 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid and
vanillic acid. An HPLC system series 200 with a UV/Vis detector
(PerkinElmer Inc., Shelton, CT, USA) equipped with a binary pump
and an autosampler controlled by TotalChrom software (Perkin
Elmer Inc., Shelton, CT, USA) was used. The analytical column was a
HibarLiChrospher 100 RP-18 (5 mm) (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany).
The column oven temperature was 25
C, the flow rate was 1 mL/
min, and the eluent, mobile phase was composed of water-acetic
acid 90:10 (v/v, pH 2.31) and phase B (100% acetonitrile). The ab-
sorption spectra of isolated peaks were measured at 280 nm and
320 nm.
2.8. Statistical analyses
All results were expressed as mean ± SD of three replicates for
each determination evaluated. Kinetic models were adjusted using
the experimental data via a least-square fitting procedure. The
quality of the experimental data of all the models was evaluated
using the root mean square error (RMSE) (Eq. (6)), where Ze is the
experimental data and Zc is the predicted or calculated value:
" #12
1 XN
RMSE ¼ ðZe  Zc Þ2
N i¼1
In addition, by plotting the experimental data against calculated
values, ANOVA regression routines were applied (a ¼ 0.05). The
criteria for selecting the best fitting were: the highest values of F-
ratios and the percentage of variability explained (% R2 adj), as well
as the lowest RMSE value.
The computations and adjustments were performed using
Statgraphics Centurion XVII (Statpoint Inc., USA, 2014) and Excel
2003 software (Microsoft, USA, 2009).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Chemical composition of avocado peel and seeds
Table 1 shows the chemical composition of the Hass avocado
peel and seeds. The results indicated the major component was
moisture in both samples, and they both had practically the same
protein content. The peel had a high fat value, whereas the seeds
had considerably lower fat. Besides, nitrogen-free extract of avo-
cado seeds were considerably higher in comparison to the avocado
peel as stated by Rodríguez-Carpena et al. (2011) and Caldero
n-
Oliver et al. (2016).
The reported results showed a very low variability which in-
dicates a uniform quality of the used raw material used. It has been
reported that avocado fruits can exhibit high variability on their
composition which is related to the origin of the cultivars and the
season (Wang et al., 2010).
(5)
3.2. Drying kinetics of avocado seeds and peel
The changes in moisture contents of the avocado seed and peel
throughout the drying time at different air temperatures, air flows
and loading densities are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively, ac-
cording to the selected experimental design stated in Section 2.2
(Table 2).
The drying times in avocado peel samples were found to be
shorter than they were in avocado seed samples as can be observed
by comparison of Figs. 1 and 2. A short constant drying rate took
place during the first 60e75 min in the case of seeds, wherein the
dimensionless water content Y-ratio was ~0.75 (namely critical
moisture content Yc), and then, a long decreasing drying period
took another 500e700 min until the samples reached a constant
weight. For the peels, it was observed that in general, critical
moisture was found when the Y-ratio was ~0.4, which was reached
during the first 45e50 min of drying, and then, a decreasing drying
period took another 250e350 min until the product reached a
constant weigh. This was a baseline criterion, in order to compare
the results and it is an important issue, because moisture content
can accelerate the degradation of phenolic compounds and,
therefore, their antioxidant capacity (Udomkun et al., 2016). In this
sense, the phenolic compound that are retained by the matrix could
maintain or establish new kinds of interactions along the process
with other organic molecules, as polysaccharides, which probably
are more accessible by the changes in the cell wall, and then
enhance their stability and potentially increase their bioavailability,
as has been documented by Hollman (Hollman and Katan, 1999).
Regarding to the drying curves, similar results were obtained by
Garau et al. (2007) when drying orange peel by using an air velocity
of 2 m/s, achieving drying times that ranged from 100 to 150 min
when using temperatures from 70
C to 90
C, while when using
temperatures from 40
C to 60
C, the drying time was above
500 min. In the case of the seeds, by increasing air velocity from
0.8 m/s to 1.6 m/s leads to an increase in the slope of the drying
curve during the first minutes at 45
C (Fig. 1b), while for the peels,
the same behavior was observed by increasing the air velocity from
(6)
Table 1
Chemical composition of avocado byproducts.
Peel Seed
Moisture (%) 72.15 ± 0.41 52.68 ± 1.00
Protein (%) 2.58 ± 0.05 2.51 ± 0.02
Fat (%) 2.89 ± 0.02 1.11 ± 0.06
Ash (%) 1.62 ± 0.01 1.15 ± 0.04
Nitrogen-free extract (%) 20.80 ± 1.15 42.55 ± 0.98
 J. Saavedra et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 198 (2017) 81e90
Fig. 1. Seeds drying kinetics at different load densities according experimental design:
a) 1 kg/m2, b) 2 kg/m2, c) 3 kg/m2.
0.8 m/s to 1.6 m/s at 45
C (Fig. 2b) and at 60
C (Fig. 2c). This sit-
uation let us think in apparent significant effect of the air velocity
on the drying rate. However, it is worth noting that in these later
cases, the loading density was also increased from 1 kg/m2 to 2 kg/
m2 and 3 kg/m2, while such apparent effect of the air velocity was
not observed when loading density was 1 kg/m2, either for seed
and peels (Figs. 1a and 2a, respectively). Therefore, a deeper ex-
amination of the drying curves was necessary.
Table 2 shows the drying kinetic constants (kd) by fitting Eq. (2).
The low values of the RSME and high values of R2-adjust show a
satisfactory fitting degree for modeled equation. By contrasting the
results, a higher kd value is associated to a higher drying rate. In
addition, Table 2 also shows a comparison for the Def values ach-
ieved when drying seeds and peels. Despite the used thickness
material for seeds was higher in comparison to that used in peels, it
can be observed that Def were higher for the former. This behavior
is consistent with the drying curves (Figs. 1 and 2) where an in-
duction stage was virtually non-existent, especially for the drying
of the peels, due to a rapid adaptation of the material to the drying
85
conditions. This allows the water evaporation rate to be propor-
tional to the heat provided by the air (which depend mainly of the
temperature in this case), and that is inverted clearly to vaporize
the liquid. Then, the structural changes as well the less amount of
water inside the material makes the evaporation speed lower (Fito
et al., 2001). Thus, the differences on the kd values reported on
Table 2 are principally due to de amount of moisture that can be
removed during the constant period. This could be explained by the
pioneering work developed by Cumming and Schoreder (1947)
where it was proposed that the exocarp of thick-skinned avocado
varieties had large numbers of lignified cells which are in part
responsible for the brittle texture of the rinds, while the seeds are
made up of several layers of cells which are irregular in shape with
heavy lignified walls reinforcing the structure. Therefore, migration
of water molecules from the center of the seed to the surface of the
product, and from this latter to the air is mostly restricted in
comparison to the peel tissue.
Complementing the above, Fig. 3 shows the estimated effect of
the processing variables and their interactions on the kd and Def
values according to a response surface analysis, by using Pareto
charts. Those variables overlapping the vertical blue lines are sig-
nificant. Thus, by using this multiple factor approach, it can be
observed that only the air temperature had significant effect on the
drying kinetics of the seed (that is a main effect on Fig. 3a), while
this same variable and the loading density do it for the peel
(Fig. 3c). A similar behavior was also observed for the Def of the
seeds (Fig. 3b) and for Def of the peels (Fig. 3d) where loading
density, air temperature and the interaction air velocity-loading
density (that is a double effect) had significant effect. Therefore,
the response surface analysis reveals that the apparent effect of air
velocity previously mentioned, was not significant and is due to a
simultaneous effect of an increased loading density, proving the
robustness and suitability of this method. These results emphasize
an important property of the Box-Behnken design, which is to show
simultaneously main and interaction effects without statistical
confusions (significances) of the three experimental factor (three-
level each one) and their combinations in an efficient second order
model (Myers et al., 2009).
Regarding to the avocado seeds dried at 45
C, similar kd values
(0.0048e0.0052 min1) were reported by Ceylan et al. (2007) when
modeling the drying kinetics of avocado pulp at 40
C. Additionally,
exponential behavior of Def with the temperature (R2  0.93) ac-
cording the Arrhenius theory was only observed in those experi-
mental runs conducted at 1.6 m/s for seeds and peels (not shown
data), but results were not comparable because in each case
different loading densities were used according to the experi-
mental design.
3.3. Effect of the processing conditions on antioxidant profile
Table 3 shows the experimental values for the total phenolic
content (TPC) and antioxidant capacity (DPPH), which were
employed as response variables in the response surface analysis at
the end of each drying process. Hass avocado peel and seed con-
tained higher phenolic content and antioxidant capacity than all
the non-Hass cultivars, and its higher antioxidant level may be
explained by its concentration of phenolic and flavonoid com-
pounds (Wang et al., 2010).
Fig. 4 shows the linear and quadratic effects as well the in-
teractions of each factor in a Pareto chart. In general, the factors
with the largest effects on the TPC were the air flow, temperature
and the quadratic term of A (the air temperature) on seeds and peel
(Fig. 4a and b). In addition, the air flow, the temperature and their
quadratic terms had a significant effect on the antioxidant capacity
of the seed (Fig. 4c), and these same variables exerted the greatest
86 J. Saavedra et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 198 (2017) 81e90

Table 2
Drying kinetic constants for the different experimental run assayed with their respective statistical fitting parameters according to Eq. (2) and moisture effective diffusivity
values (Def) obtained by Eq. (1).

Avocado tissue Experimental run Parameters from Eq. (2) Parameters from Eq. (1)

kd (min1) RMSE R2(adj) % (Def)$1010 (m2/s)

Seed 45
C - 0.8 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0032 0.0296 98.40 1.2677

75
C - 0.8 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0093 0.0058 99.80 3.7990
60
C - 0.8 m/s e 1 kg/m2 0.0066 0.0048 99.80 2.3910
60
C - 0.8 m/s e 3 kg/m2 0.0054 0.0223 99.70 2.9581
45
C - 1.2 m/s e 1 kg/m2 0.0040 0.0270 98.40 1.2931
45
C - 1.2 m/s e 3 kg/m2 0.0051 0.0130 94.30 2.1129
a
60
C - 1.2 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0064 0.0156 98.70 2.9412
75
C - 1.2 m/s e 1 kg/m2 0.0092 0.0089 99.50 3.8030
75
C - 1.2 m/s e 3 kg/m2 0.0080 0.0216 93.40 3.3807
45
C - 1.6 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0052 0.0234 91.30 2.1129
60
C - 1.6 m/s e 1 kg/m2 0.0032 0.0227 98.90 2.5355
60
C - 1.6 m/s e 3 kg/m2 0.0065 0.0079 98.90 2.4250
75
C - 1.6 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0095 0.0178 90.03 3.4125

Peel 45
C - 0.8 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0089 0.0024 99.92 0.5301

75
C - 0.8 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0234 0.0055 99.80 1.5214
60
C - 0.8 m/s e 1 kg/m2 0.0305 0.0290 96.90 2.7046
60
C - 0.8 m/s e 3 kg/m2 0.0093 0.0138 97.00 0.6085
45
C - 1.2 m/s e 1 kg/m2 0.0216 0.0169 98.70 1.7580
45
C - 1.2 m/s e 3 kg/m2 0.0085 0.0046 99.60 0.5409
a
60
C - 1.2 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0184 0.0110 98.60 1.4198
75
C - 1.2 m/s e 1 kg/m2 0.0455 0.0253 98.30 3.2455
75
C - 1.2 m/s e 3 kg/m2 0.0179 0.0212 98.70 1.9910
45
C - 1.6 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0108 0.0037 98.60 0.7437
60
C - 1.6 m/s e 1 kg/m2 0.0280 0.0109 97.80 1.5510
60
C - 1.6 m/s e 3 kg/m2 0.0210 0.0112 98.90 1.6227
75
C - 1.6 m/s e 2 kg/m2 0.0280 0.0256 98.20 2.3665
a
Central point of the experimental design.

effects on the DPPH of the peel (Fig. 4d). In addition, there was no
significant (p > 0.05) contribution of the load density to the anti-
oxidant activity during the drying process, in contrast to the
occurred with the kd and Def values.
According to the ANOVA results, the lack of fit was not signifi-
cant for all response variables (p > 0.05) and coefficient of
explained variability (% R2 adj) for the response surface model (Eq.
(3)) was: 82.30 for DPPH in the seeds and 97.04 for the peel. For
TPC, %R2adj values were 90.81 for seeds, and 89.54 for peel. These
results can be interpreted as satisfactoriness because, even though,
the range of quantification of bioactive compounds in avocado
byproducts may be highly variable, (Rodríguez-Carpena et al.,
2011), the correlation structure obtained by the current regres-
sion model is a good and repeatable pattern (Kroonenberg, 2008).
In other words, the interaction between the process variables and
their effects on the retention of TPC and DPPH remain quite similar,
regardless to the initial concentration of phenolic compounds that
may be present in the avocado byproducts.
On the other hand, it was expected that lower drying times
(which means higher kd values as shown in Table 2) were related to
the higher phenolic content and antioxidant capacity remaining
after the operation (Table 3); however, this relationship was not
always fulfilled because of thermo-sensitive nature of these com-
pounds. In fact, since the increase of kd value was mainly due to the
increase of the temperature (Fig. 3), the exposure of the product
during the first minutes of drying at such high conditions (e.g.;
75
C - 0.8 m/s - 2 kg/m2 or 75
C e 1.2 m/s e 1 kg/m2) may lead to a
faster degradation of phenolic compounds. This situation is because
the moisture content is still high enough to facilitate reactions,
wherein some water-solubles compounds may act as catalysts of
the decomposition process, as previously demonstrated by
Henríquez et al. (2014) during degradation of phenolic compounds
during drum drying of apple peels.
3.4. Process optimization
Desirability functions were developed for the criteria of
maximum variable responses. Desirability values of 0.979 and 1.0
were obtained for peel and seeds, respectively. Fig. 5 indicates that
different behavior and different optimum regions are present in the
drying process of these by-products. In this sense, the maximum
desirability values for the peel are near minimum levels of air flow
but at the highest temperature values, and the maximum desir-
ability values for seeds corresponded to intermediate temperatures
and relatively high air flow levels.
Thus, the multiple optimization values for the peel drying var-
iables for the temperature, air flow and load density were 72.71
C,
0.8 m/s and 1.77 kg/m2, respectively. According to the desirability
function, the predicted response values for this combination of
process variables were 111.20 (mmol Trolox/100 g dry matter) for
DPPH and 5180.81 (mg GAE/100 g dry matter) for TPC in peel tis-
sues. In addition, the optimized drying variables for seeds were
65.52
C, 1.39 m/s and 2.89 kg/m2, predicting a DPPH value of
165.84 (mmol Trolox/100 g dry matter) and a TPC value of 4132.7
(mg GAE/100 g dry matter).
Finally, these optimizations were experimentally assessed
(n ¼ 6) for avocado peel and seeds. By the end of the drying process
a TPC value of 5118.77 ± 427.31 (mg GAE/100 g dry mater) and a
DPPH value of 120.75 ± 10.36 (mmol Trolox/100 g dry matter) were
obtained for the peel fraction, corresponding to retention values of
87.30% and 60.73%, respectively, in comparison with the fresh raw
matter. In the seed fraction, the TPC was 4093.89 ± 244.84 (mg
GAE/100 g dry matter) and DPPH was 165.97 ± 11.31 (mmol Trolox/
100 g dry matter), yielding 64.85% and 89.92% of the retention,
respectively. Despite the natural variability of avocado peel and
seeds, the predicted response variables were in agreement in all
cases with the experimental validation values, demonstrating the
 J. Saavedra et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 198 (2017) 81e90
Fig. 2. Peels drying kinetics at different load densities according experimental design:
a) 1 kg/m2, b) 2 kg/m2, c) 3 kg/m2.
Fig. 3. Effect of the processing variables by Pareto charts on: a) kd values of avocado
seeds, b) moisture effective diffusion (Def) of seeds, c) kd values of peels, d) moisture
effective diffusion (Def) of seeds.
utility and proper of the multiple optimization tools for the design
of this type of drying processes. Although there have been recent
reports of several studies on the use of drying processes for the
87
recovery of agro-industrial byproducts using the RSM approach
(Diamante and Yamaguchi, 2012; Kong et al., 2010; Souza et al.,
2013) it is remarkable the highest values of TPC and DPPH by the
end of the drying process for both the avocado peel and seeds.
Garau et al. (2007) studied the effect of the air temperature on the
antioxidant capacity of oranges (Citrus aurantium v. Canoneta)
byproducts, demonstrating that 60
C is the temperature required
to achieve the best phenolic compound retention, but its antioxi-
dant capacity (0.51 mg GAE/100 g dry matter) seems to be hundred
orders of magnitude lower than that for the dried avocado
byproducts. More recently, Dorta et al. (2012) demonstrated similar
results to ours for TPC in mango peel (4600 ± 200 mg GAE/100 g dry
matter) and mango seeds (3500e6000 mg GAE/100 g dry matter)
in samples dried at 70
C in static oven air or forced air. These
comparative results highlight the great potential of dehydrated
avocado byproducts in terms of their antioxidant properties.
3.5. Moisture sorption isotherms of dried byproducts under optimal
conditions
Moisture sorption isotherms of both samples seeds and peel,
measured at 20
C, are showed in Fig. 6. Both sample isotherms
showed typical sigmoidal shape (isotherm type III) belonging to
multilayer molecular adsorption phenomenon in porous surfaces.
This pattern is characteristic of matrices holding small amount of
water at low relative humidity and large amounts at high relative
humidity levels (García-Perez et al., 2008). However, quite differ-
ences are observed between samples in terms of interaction with
water as a function of relative humidity. The avocado peel sample
showed lower moisture content than seed samples up to ~85% RH,
but above this point the trend changes and peel showed higher
moisture content than seed. This behavior could be related with the
richness of peel in sugars, protein and fiber and modification of
water molecules adherence to these components (Kammoun Bejar
et al., 2012), but also suggests that over 85% RH presumably some
changes can take place on peel structure that would promote a
higher sorption of water. Below 85% RH the lower moisture content
observed in peel sample is consistent with higher fat content that
would impart to peel a less hygroscopic characteristic.
On the other hand, the shape observed in seed isotherm is
consistent with sigmoidal shape commonly found in hygroscopic
products which has been reported previously in tomato seeds,
jatropha seeds and grape seeds (Kartika et al., 2012; Sogi et al.,
2003; Maleki Majd et al., 2013). Furthermore, it needed to be
considered that seeds, due to its high non-nitrogen component (e.g.
starch and fiber), can generate sigmoidal isotherms (Kammoun
Bejar et al., 2012). As far as isotherm of peel samples is con-
cerned, it has been published in products such as lemon peel
(García-Perez et al., 2008), prickly pear peel (Lahsasni et al., 2002)
and orange peel (Kammoun Bejar et al., 2012). In this regard,
sorption isotherms would suggest differences in stability between
avocado seed and peel samples during storage. The higher moisture
content in seed samples could suggest a less stable system due to
the higher moisture content promotes higher molecular mobility
and therefore promoting higher reaction rates (chemical and
microbiological). Although this discussion must be supported by
other complementary tests (e.g. measurement of glass transition
temperature, SEM images, accelerated stability tests, etc), it is
highly likely that dried avocado seeds need of packaging with
higher barrier to protect the stability of their phenolic compounds.
The above can be inferred by the GAB parameters (Eq. (5))
presented in Table 4, which for peels and seeds samples were
satisfactory fitted. The monolayer moisture content (m0, dry mat-
ter) of seed was higher than peel (6.18% and 3.79%, respectively),
which may lead to less availability of polar sites for bridging water
88 J. Saavedra et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 198 (2017) 81e90

Table 3
Experimental values for TPC and DPPH in seed and peel tissues.

Process variables Avocado Seeds Avocado Peels

Air Air flow Loading Antioxidant capacity (mmol Total polyphenol (mg GAE/ Antioxidant capacity (mmol Total polyphenol (mg GAE/
temperature (m/s) density (kg/ Trolox/100 g dry matter) 100 g dry matter) Trolox/100 g dry matter) 100 g dry matter)
(
C) m2)

45 0.80 2 43.77 1252.3 153.30 2613.51

75 0.80 2 74.82 2234.5 108.49 2943.98
45 1.60 2 93.03 2406.67 107.65 2397.30
75 1.60 2 104.75 3141.77 69.04 1591.89
45 1.20 1 75.48 1693.87 115.16 2567.57
75 1.20 1 101.29 3096.34 88.95 2974.77
45 1.20 3 85.14 1801.35 108.47 2414.04
75 1.20 3 100.83 3220.21 103.46 3110.19
60 0.80 1 82.55 2451.41 116.78 2327.03
60 1.60 1 98.78 3112.6 69.12 1241.67
60 0.80 3 85.91 2424.63 122.79 2157.89
60 1.60 3 96.69 3214.36 60.39 1329.82
60 1.20 2 106.11 3323.26 102.93 2673.68
60 1.20 2 108.47 3201.88 115.68 2354.63
60 1.20 2 110.79 3086.49 92.04 2221.30
60 1.20 2 99.88 2897.95 105.67 2510.53

Fig. 4. Effect of processing variables by Pareto charts on: a) Total Phenolic Content
(TPC) of seeds and b) peels and for Antioxidant Capacity (DPPH) of c) seeds and d)
peels, respectively.

Table 4 Fig. 6. Moisture isotherm of avocado byproducts (seed and peel) at 20
C. Experi-
GAB parameters from fitting of seed and peel samples analyzed in this study. mental data were assessed by DVS. Solid lines correspond to GAB modeling.

Sample m0 (%, dry basis) C K RMSE (%)

Seed 6.18 6.27 0.83 2.23 would suggest water molecules less strongly bound to polar sites of
Peel 3.79 4.79 0.95 2.50 peel matrix (Enrione et al., 2007). The behavior showed by these
GAB parameters can also be used to explain the differences
observed in drying kinetics, where shorter drying times in avocado
peel times could be due to less amount of water interacting with
matrix as is reflected by both lower parameters m0 and C.
Regarding to K value, an increase in this GAB constant toward a
value of 1 (0.83 in seed and 0.95 in peel) would suggest a smaller
difference between the energy associated with the heat of sorption
of the multilayer and the heat of condensation of pure water, which
is in agreement with lower m0 and C parameters showed by peel
Fig. 5. Desirability functions for process optimization: a) multiple response in peel and sample.
b) seeds.

3.6. Identifying phenolic acids in avocado seed and peel dried

in peel. Normally, the monolayer moisture content is used as a
stability parameter in foods systems. Therefore, from GAB model, it
can be suggested a higher stability of avocado peel powder when
considering the availability of water for spoilage reactions. On the
other hand, constant C in GAB model is related with adsorption
energies of the monolayer. Therefore a decreasing in this value
extracts
Polyphenols were identified in the seeds and peel by reverse-
phase HPLC and by comparing them with the retention time of
the external standards. Table 5 shows the concentrations of
different phenolic acids detected in fresh raw matter (peel and
 J. Saavedra et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 198 (2017) 81e90
Table 5
Concentrations (mg/100 g dry matter) of phenolic compounds in avocado seeds and peel.
Avocado fraction Concentration (mg/100 dry matter)
Catechin Chlorogenic acid
Fresh seed 102.29 ± 6.21 75.42 ± 4.86
Dried seed 24.26 ± 5.97 16.07 ± 1.82
Fresh peel ND 256.78 ± 3.83
Dried peel ND 137.60 ± 5.16
ND ¼ Not Detected.
seeds) and for the dehydrated by-products according to the mul-
tiple optimization processing conditions.
For the dried by-products, three and four main peaks could be
separated from avocado seeds and peel, respectively. These peaks
corresponded to catechin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric
acid and ferulic acid. Rodríguez-Carpena et al. (2011) analyzed the
phenolic profile of the avocado by-product by UPLC, which resulted
in a large variety of phenolic compounds, including hydroxycin-
namic acids (OHeC) and catechin. Ramirez-Martinez and Luh
(1973) extracted phenolic compounds from frozen avocados that
were tentatively identified by their Rf values (retention value as
applied in chromatography) as chlorogenic acid, catechin, epi-
catechin, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid and others. In a study per-
formed by Teresawa et al. (2006), (þ)-catechin and ()-epicatechin
were detected in avocado seeds. Consistent with the reported
findings, the present study demonstrated a larger variety and
higher amounts of phenolic compounds in either the peel or seed.
Chlorogenic acid was the dominant hydroxycinnamic acid (OHeC)
in the peel and seeds; however, the peel presented a higher con-
centration than the avocado seeds. In terms of catechin quantifi-
cation, this compound was only detected in the seed fraction.
In addition, the retention of phenolic acids and catechins after
optimizing the drying conditions ranged between 53.58% and
81.36% in the peel, and from 7.47% to 23.72% in the seed. The dif-
ference between these percentage retention values in comparison
to the values expressed in terms of TPC, could suggests that more
specific phenolic acids are present in the peel and seed avocado
fractions. In addition, the shorter drying time could explain the
higher TPC content in the peel in comparison with the seed fraction.
4. Conclusions
In the study of a hot-air drying processing of avocado byprod-
ucts, drying kinetics analysis revealed that the moisture diffusivity
of seeds was higher than peels, but the former showed the longer
drying times, even though when the initial moisture content on
peels was higher. In this sense, most of the water was removed from
peels during shorter constant drying rate periods to those obtained
in seeds, where most of the water was removed in the decreasing
period.
Response surface optimization allowed finding a process con-
dition where 62.82% and 54.81% of the initial phenolic content was
obtained in dehydrated peels and seeds, respectively, showing very
high concentrations in comparison to other dehydrated byprod-
ucts. Additionally, sorption isotherms analyses showed that avo-
cado seeds were more hygroscopic than peels, revealing higher
stability for the later.
This study has outlined the design and optimization of a drying
process as tool for the upgrading of industrial avocado wastes,
transforming them into: a) stable storable commodities, with b)
high antioxidant properties and c) availability in any season.
These dehydrated powders byproducts may have different uses
in food formulations or be used as starting material for the
89
Caffeic acid p-Coumaric acid Ferulic acid
22.51 ± 0.99 ND 1.17 ± 0.07
13.69 ± 1.27 ND 0.087 ± 0.10
ND 2.24 ± 0.02 6.21 ± 0.23
ND 1.74 ± 0.05 5.05 ± 0.03
production of concentrates or isolates of phenolic compounds.
However, future works regarding to study their direct or non-direct
use as food ingredients in different formulas, setting the maximum
dose as well other safety data, may be an interesting contribution to
this field.
Acknowledgements
DI regular 037.471/2013 Pontificia Universidad Cato
lica de Val-
paraíso, INIA La Cruz. Grants Fondecyt N
1140132 and PAI-Conicyt
N
79130039 are also acknowledged. Dr Andre
s Co

rdova also
wants to wish to thanks to their postdoctoral fellowship grant from
Pontificia Universidad Cato
lica de Valparaíso.
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