Ch10 Shape and Measurement PDF

10
10A Pythagoras’ theorem in two dimensions

10B Pythagoras’ theorem in three
dimensions
10C Perimeter and area
10D Total surface area (TSA)
10E Volume
10F Capacity
10G Similar figures
10H Similar triangles
Shape and
10I Symmetry
measurement
arEaS oF Study
• Similarity and symmetry in two dimensions and
• Mensuration (angle, length, boundary, area, applications to maps, art, tessellations, and plans
surface area and volume) • Similarity in three dimensions and application
• Pythagoras’ theorem in two dimensions and to scale models
simple examples in three dimensions • Tests for similarity and symmetry
eBook plus
Digital doc
10a Pythagoras’ theorem 10 Quick Questions
in two dimensions
Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher and mathematician who is usually credited with
formulating the following theorem relating the sides of right-angled triangles:
In any right-angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Hypotenuse
(Length of hypotenuse)2 = (length of side 1)2 + (length of side 2)2 a
c
It is conventional to use the letters a and b for labelling the sides and c
for labelling the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle.
b
Pythagoras’ theorem is then written as c2 = a2 + b2.
WorkEd ExaMPlE 1
Find the value of the pronumeral to 1 decimal place. A

y
25 B
think WritE 12
1 Identify the right-angled triangle which contains y (or AB) can be found from D 17 C
the unknown side. ∆ABC.
2 In ∆ABC only BC is known; therefore AC Need to find AC.
should be found first.
456 Maths Quest 11 Standard General Mathematics for the Casio ClassPad
3 Use ∆ADC to find AC using Pythagoras’ ∆ADC:
theorem. (AC)2 = (AD)2 + (DC)2
Note that there is no need to evaluate 914 , as = 252 + 172
we will need to square the value of AC in the = 625 + 289
next step. = 914
AC = 914
4 With the added information, find AB (y). ∆ABC:
(AC)2 = (AB)2 + (CB)2
( 914 )2 = (AB)2 + 122
914 = (AB)2 + 144
(AB)2 = 914 − 144
(AB)2 = 770
AB = 770
= 27.748 873 85
5 Replace AB with the pronumeral in question and y ≈ 27.7
round to the required number of decimal places.
rEMEMBEr
Pythagoras’ theorem: Hypotenuse

a
In any right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to c
the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
c2 = a2 + b2 b
ExErCiSE
10a Pythagoras’ theorem in two dimensions
1 For each of the following triangles, find the length of the unknown side correct to 1 decimal place.
eBook plus
a b 4 c 5
Digital docs
SkillSHEET 10.1 a
Pythagoras’ 12 c
theorem
b
10 19
Spreadsheet 102
Pythagoras’ 9
theorem
d e e f f
4.2 6.3
14.8
d 16.2 6.7
2 What is the length of a diagonal of:

a a square with side lengths of 62 cm (correct to 1 decimal place)
b a rectangle with dimensions of 0.8 m by 37 cm? (Give your answer in metres correct to
2 decimal places.)
3 A rectangle is twice as long as it is wide. If its perimeter is 186 cm, then the length of the
diagonal is closest to:
A 68 cm B 69 cm C 70 cm
D 71 cm E 72 cm
Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 457

4 For a ladder to be stable enough to be climbed, the base needs to be at least 60 cm out from the
base of the wall. If the top of a 2.2-m ladder is to reach up to a window 2 m from the ground,
would the ladder be classified as stable?
5 WE1 Find the value of the pronumeral to 1 decimal place in each of the following shapes.
a b 32.8 c
1.8 m
3x
2.5 m
16 b 18.2
1.2 m a 1.4 m
x
11.2
6 A long-distance runner wants to complete a Home

30-km run. She has completed 18 km and is at y
the marked point. If she took the short cut across Mary Park crossing
St 4.5 km
the park, would she reach her goal or should she 2 km x
go along the streets? Justify your answer with 5 km 5 km
Runner
mathematical evidence. Hampton St
7 In technology class you have been given the following design brief. Frame
Construct a small wooden stool which is to be made in three parts. Part 1
is a frame, part 2 is a platform top, while part 3 comprises supports for Wooden 30 cm
the corners of the frame. The supports are to divide the top section into supports
three even parts, while they are to reach two-thirds of the way down the 42 cm
legs of the frame. A plan of part 1 and part 3 has been drawn for you.
a How long do the supports need to be to meet the stated criteria?
Give your answer to the nearest millimetre.
A platform will sit on top of the frame (as shown at right) so that it has Platform
1
an overhang at each end of 14 of the size of the frame’s top.
b How long is the platform?
c The timber comes in only one specific width, while the length can
be cut. What length of timber (to the nearest centimetre) is needed to
construct this stool? y
8 Once you have finished the stool you are then required to build this
y
shelving unit. It is designed to hold a sound system and CDs.
180 cm
The shelves are to be equally spaced within the unit. y
a Find the distance indicated by the pronumeral ( y) to the nearest
millimetre. y
b Calculate the lengths (to the nearest centimetre) of the other three
shelves in ascending order. 1m
c Overall, what will it cost to construct this unit if the timber required to make the sides and
shelves cost $12.00 per metre and the back board (already cut) will cost $55.00?
9 The three different courses (or legs) for the swim, cycle and run stages of a triathlon are set in a
triangular format.
The swim
The swim leg has the competitors heading out due north to buoy 1, turning due east to the
second buoy and then heading straight back to the starting position.
a Draw a diagram of this situation.
b Calculate the total length of the swim if the first two legs are 300 m and 400 m respectively.
The cycle
The athletes leave the transition area and ride in a southerly direction for 12 km. They then
turn due west and ride for 16 km. The last leg has the cyclists heading straight back to the
transition area.
c Competitor 42’s cycle develops a puncture at the start of the last leg. How far does
competitor 42 have to walk to get back to the transition area?
The run
The course designer told the road crew (who will place the markers out for the three legs of
the run) that the overall run length is to be 7500 m and that the distances of each leg were
those of a Pythagorean triple. [A Pythagorean triple (or triad) is a set of three numbers that
satisfy Pythagoras’ theorem.] He gave them a hint that he had calculated the distances by
increasing a basic triple by a factor of 250.
d What are the distances of the three legs in the run?
e Show by calculation that the values you found in part d are a Pythagorean triple.
f Overall, how far do the triathletes swim, cycle and run?
10B Pythagoras’ theorem in three

dimensions
So far, we have used Pythagoras’ theorem in situations where the right-angled triangle is drawn
in 2 dimensions. Three-dimensional objects can have right-angled triangles within them that
can be re-drawn in 2 dimensions so that Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to find the missing
measurement.
Worked Example 2
Find the height labelled x. Round your answer to 1 decimal place. E
think write
B D F
1 State the length that needs to be found. The unknown
length is x 8 17
AB or x.
2 A 12 C
Identify a right-angled triangle that contains A
AB and redraw it in two dimensions.
x 12
B 8 C
3 Write Pythagoras’ formula. c2 = a2 + b2
4 Identify the values of a, b and c. c = 12, a = 8, b = x
5 Substitute values of a, b and c into the 122 = 82 + x2
formula.
6 On the Main screen, tap:
• Action
• Advanced
• solve
Complete the entry line as:
solve(122 = 82 + x2, x)
Then press E.

7 Given that x is the side length of a triangle Solving 122 = 82 + x2 for x, gives x = −8.94427 or
then its value is positive. x = 8.94427.
Since x > 0, x = 8.94427.
8 Write the answer, correct to 1 decimal place. The height labelled x is 8.9 units.
Sometimes the right-angled triangle containing the unknown length also has other dimensions
missing. In such cases you will first need to find other right-angled triangles within the figure
that will allow you to calculate those missing values using Pythagoras’ theorem.
Worked Example 3
Find the length of the side labelled x. Round your answer to 1 decimal place. E
think write
1 x 45
(a) The unknown length x (EH) can be found
from triangle EHC.
(b) In this triangle, the length of HC is missing D
C
as well so it has to be found first. The length A 20 H B
of HC is half the length of AC.
(c) In turn, AC can be found from triangle ABC. C
Redraw this triangle in 2 dimensions and
include all measurements.
H 20
A B
20
2 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find AC. Leave the c2 = a2 + b2

answer in surd form. c = AC; a = b = 20
(AC)2 = 202 + 202
= 400 + 400
= 800
AC = 800
= 400 × 2
= 20 2
1
3 Find the length of HC by halving the length of HC = 2 AC
AC. (There is no need to evaluate 20 2 , as we 1
= 2 × 20 2
will have to square this value in the steps that
follow.) = 10 2
4 Redraw the triangle that contains the unknown E
length x in 2 dimensions (triangle EHC). Write
the measurements, including the length of HC
found in the previous step. 45
x
H C
10 2
5 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find x. (Round your c2 = a2 + b2
answer to 1 decimal place.) c = 45, a = x, b = 10 2
452 = x2 + (10 2)2
2025 = x2 + 200
x2 = 2025 − 200
= 1825
x = 1825
x ≈ 42.7
Solving 3-dimensional problems (especially worded ones), is made easier by following the
algorithm outlined below.
1. If a diagram of the situation is not supplied, draw one.
2. Label all vertices in the diagram and all known lengths (dimensions).
3. Identify the length that needs to be found.
4. Identify the triangle containing the unknown length.
5. Redraw this triangle in 2 dimensions. If the two other lengths are known, proceed to step 6; if
not, work them out first.
6. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the unknown length.
7. If the question is presented in words, write an answer sentence, rounding the value
appropriately for the situation.
rEMEMBEr
1. Use the seven steps as your guide to solving 3-dimensional problems.

2. Unless stated in the problem, do not round your calculations until the very last value is
calculated and then give an answer with the appropriate number of decimal places.
3. If the triangle containing the unknown length has other measurements missing, find
these missing values first from other triangles within the figure.
ExErCiSE
10B Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions eBook plus
1 WE2 In each of the following, find the length of the line labelled x. Digital doc
Round your answers to 1 decimal place. Spreadsheet 102
a b E F Pythagoras’
E F theorem
A D A B
G 10
x H x 24
B 15
20 C
G
8 H
C 15 D
c A d A
62.6 28.2
16 B x C
x
B C D
12

2 WE3 In each of the following, find the length of the line labelled x. Round your answers to
1 decimal place.
a G H b c
A B
x x 20
8 E x
F 5 22
C 12
16 D 10
12
d e f
30 6 x
x
9
x 15 11
15
6
12
3 The diagram at right shows a rectangular metal pencil case. Find:
a the length of the longest pen that can be placed flat on the 10 cm
bottom of the pencil case
b the length of the longest pen that can be placed in this case. 15 cm
20 cm
4 Rock concerts usually require some form of scaffolding to
support screens, lighting, amplifiers and speakers. The lengths E
8m
and overall amount need to be pre-ordered for each venue.
Before each concert a manager
would be responsible for assessing
A 12 m G F
the arrangement, re-designing
the structure if required and pre- B
ordering the lengths.
The structure at right is designed D 2m
3m I
to hold a large screen. Some of 4m
the lengths have been manually C H
measured and others can be
determined from these measurements. However, there are a select
number that need to be calculated. Your task is to calculate the missing
lengths stated below so that the scaffolding can be ordered for the next big night. Round off all
dimensions to 1 decimal place as the scaffolding only comes in lengths to the nearest centimetre.
a Find the following lengths.
i AB ii CD iii DE
iv EF v GH vi GI
b The price of the scaffolding is $5.00 per metre.
i How many metres of scaffolding are required for this
structure?
ii What will be the total cost of the screen Windows E B
support? F 2m
5 Factories have been designed so that a set of D A C 6m

windows can be placed at certain intervals along
the factory ceiling allowing natural light to enter.
10 m
The trusses (roof supports) used to construct this 1st 2nd 3rd
Sections
system are called saw tooth trusses.
30 m
Rounding values as you go to 1 decimal place, calculate the following dimensions in the
factory structure:
a AB and AC in the third section b DE and DF in the second section.
6 The bottom part of a slide at a water
park is constructed upon a series of
different sized triangular blocks (prisms). A
Using the dimensions given in the
diagram at right, calculate the length AB 5m 1.8 m
7.5 m
of this part of the slide. Round all values 3.8 m
as you go to 1 decimal place. 7.4 m 8.1 m B

The table below shows the formulas for finding the area and perimeter of some common shapes.
Shape Area Perimeter

Square A= L2 P = 4L
L
Rectangle L A=L×W P = 2(L + W)
Parallelogram A=b×h P = sum of all sides

where the height measurement
h must be at a right angle to the base
measurement.
b
Trapezium a 1 P = sum of all sides
A = 2 (a + b)h
h where the height measurement
must be at a right angle to the base
b measurement.
Rhombus 1 P = sum of all sides
A=2 x×y
–
x
–
y –
–
Triangle 1 P = sum of all sides

A = 2 bh

where the height measurement
h must be at a right angle to the base
h
b measurement.
b
(continued)

Triangle P=a+b+c
c b A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
1
where s = 2 (a + b + c)
a (Use when height measurement is
unknown.)
Circle A = π r2 C = π d or
C = 2π r
r
d
Worked Example 4
Calculate a the area and b the perimeter of this shape.

7m 8m
think write
a 1 Identify the shape (in this case it is a triangle a A= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) 10 m
with no height measurement) and write the 1
where s = 2 (a + b + c)
appropriate formula for the area.
2 Identify the values of the pronumerals. a = 7, b = 8, c = 10
1
3 To find s, substitute a, b and c values into the s = 2 (7 + 8 + 10)
formula and simplify. 1
= 2 × 25
= 12.5
4 Substitute the values of a, b, c, and s into the A = 12.5(12.5 − 7)(12.5 − 8)(12.5 − 10)
formula for the area.
5 Simplify.
(a) Evaluate the brackets first. A = 12.5 × 5.5 × 4.5 × 2.5
(b) Multiply the values together. = 773.4375
(c) Take the square root. = 27.810 744 33
(Round the answer to 1 decimal place and A = 27.8 m2
include the units.)
b 1 Find the perimeter by adding all the side b P = 7 + 8 + 10
measurements. = 25
2 Write the answer, including the appropriate P = 25 m
units.
Composite figures
The term composite means ‘made up of distinct parts’. Composite figures in
A1
geometry are figures comprising a number of distinct shapes. Depending upon
the composite figure, to find the overall area or perimeter you may need to add
these individual shapes or subtract one from another. A2
For example, the composite figure in the diagram at the bottom of page 464 has been formed
using a semicircle and a square.
The area of this shape can be found as follows:
Area of total figure = Area of a semicircle (A1) + Area of a square (A2)
When finding the area or perimeter of a composite figure, follow the steps given below.
1. Identify the basic shapes that make up the total figure and number them.
2. Write the expression for the total area/perimeter in terms of the individual shapes.
3. Calculate the area/perimeter of each individual shape.
4. Add or subtract areas or dimensions to find the total area/perimeter of the given shape.
area of an annulus
Circles are said to be concentric if they have the same centre point.
s
The area between the two concentric circles is referred to as an annulus. ulu
n
An
Area of annulus = area of larger circle − area of smaller circle r
= π R2 − π r2
= π (R2 − r2) R
where R = radius of the large circle
r = radius of the small circle.
WorkEd ExaMPlE 5
eBook plus
In one full revolution, the 6-cm-long minute hand of a clock would sweep out a Tutorial
larger circle than the 3-cm-long hour hand. What is the difference in the area they int-0904
cover to the nearest square centimetre? Worked example 5
think WritE
1 The area required is the annulus. Write the A = π (R2 − r2)

appropriate formula. 6 cm
3 cm
2 Identify the value of R (radius of the larger circle) R = 6, r = 3
and the value of r (radius of the smaller circle).
3 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into A = π (62 − 32)
the formula.
4 Evaluate.
On the Main screen, complete the entry line
as:
π (62 − 32)
Then press E.
A = 84.823
5 Write an answer sentence with the value The difference in area covered by the two hands is
rounded to the nearest square centimetre. approximately 85 cm2.

area of a sector and arc length
A sector of a circle can be thought of as a wedge-
shaped slice of pie.
The area of the sector can be determined
by finding the fraction of the whole circle it
represents.
The angle of the sector removed is divided
by the total angle of a circle (360°) and then
multiplied by the total area of the circle.
θ
Area of sector = × π r2 ,
360°
where θ is the angle of the sector and r is the
radius of the circle.
O Angle
Q of sector
A B
Sector of circle
WorkEd ExaMPlE 6
A 10-cm-long minute hand moving from the number 12 to the number 4 position
sweeps out a sector. What is the area of this sector? 12 1
2
think WritE 3
θ 10 cm 4
1 Write the formula for the area of the sector. Area of sector = × πr2
360°
2 Identify the value of the radius. r = 10 cm
3 Calculate the angle of the sector:
The angle between consecutive numbers on a
clock = 360° ÷ 12
= 30°.
From 12 to 4 there are four intervals between θ = 30° × 4
the numbers. So to find the angle of a sector, = 120°
multiply 30° by 4.
120
4 Substitute the values of r and θ into the Area of sector = 360 × π × 102
formula and evaluate. = 104.719 755 1
5 Write an answer sentence with the number The minute hand as it rotates through an angle of
rounded appropriately and units given. 120° sweeps through an area of 104.7 cm2.
The length of the circumference between the two points (A and B) of the y
sector shown is known as the arc. To be specific, a minor arc is formed if
the angle of the sector is less than 180°; a major arc is formed if the angle 280n
of the sector is greater than 180°.
Finding the arc length of a circle is a similar procedure to finding the area 80n
of a sector. We must determine what fraction of the total circumference the A B
x
arc length represents. The angle of the sector is divided by the total angle of
x Minor arc
a circle (360°) and then multiplied by the total circumference of the circle. y Major arc
θ
Arc length = ×πd
360°
or
θ
Arc length = × 2π r
360°
where θ is the angle of a sector,
d is the diameter of a circle
r is the radius of a circle.
Worked Example 7
What distance did the tip end of the 10-cm minute hand travel when it moved
from pointing to the number 12 to pointing to the number 4? 12 1
2
think write 3
θ 4
1 Since the radius is known, write the formula for Arc length = × 2π r 10 cm
arc length involving the radius. 360°
2 State the value of r. r = 10
3 Find the size of the angle of a sector.
(a) The angle between each number on a clock = 30°.
(b) There are 4 intervals between the numbers; θ = 30° × 4
therefore the angle of the sector can be found = 120°
by multiplying 30° by 4.
120°
4 Substitute values of r and θ into the formula and Arc length = × 2 × π × 10
evaluate. 360°
= 20.943 951 02
5 Write an answer sentence rounding the value The tip of the minute hand travelled 20.9 cm.
appropriately and writing in the units.
REMEMBER
1. The perimeter is the distance around a closed 2-dimensional shape.

2. An area is the space enclosed by the boundaries of a 2-dimensional shape.
3. The formula for the area of a parallelogram, triangle and trapezium require the height
to be perpendicular to the base measurement.
4. To find the area/perimeter of composite figures, the area/perimeter of individual shapes
that form the figure must be calculated first.
5. An annulus is the area between two concentric circles.
Area of annulus: A = π (R2 − r2), where R is the radius of the larger circle and r is the
radius of the smaller circle.
6. The area of a sector is given by the area between two radii of the circle.
θ
Area of a sector = × πr2
360°
and the arc length of a sector is given by the length of the circumference between two
radii of the circle:
θ
Arc length = × 2π r
360°
θ
= × πr,
180°
where θ is the angle of a sector and r is the radius of a circle.

ExErCiSE
1 WE4 Find: i the area and i i the perimeter of the following shapes,
eBook plus to 2 decimal places.
Digital doc a 14 mm b 140 cm c
SkillSHEET 10.2
–
Conversion of 122 cm 12 cm
20 mm – –
units — length
5 cm 9 cm
–
2m
d e
16 cm 5.5 m 1.5 m
4 cm 2.5 m
18 cm
2 Calculate i the area and i i the perimeter of the following shapes. Give your answers to
2 decimal places.
a 10 cm b c
15 cm
25 cm 10 m
13 cm
30 cm
6 cm
3 MC Examine the diagram at right. 32 cm
eBook plus a The circles cover an area of approximately:
Digital doc
A 402 cm2 B 201 cm2 C 804 cm2
2
SkillSHEET 10.3 D 805 cm E 603 cm2
Area and
perimeter of b The shaded area is approximately:
composite A 219 cm2 B 421 cm2 C 622 cm2 D 823 cm2 E 220 cm2
shapes
c A metal manufacturer is able to cut only four discs from every sheet of metal. What
percentage of metal is wasted?
A 80% B 21% C 22% D 41% E 61%
4 a A guard dog inside a used car salesyard is tied to a corner post of the fence surrounding the
yard. The fence sides meet at a right angle and the dog is on a rope 1.2 m long.
i Draw a diagram of this situation showing the area accessible to the dog.
ii To 1 decimal place, how much area does the dog have in which to exercise?
b One night the dog is moved to the outside corner of a small rectangular building
measuring 2 m × 6 m. The dog’s rope has been lengthened to 3 m.
i Draw a diagram of this situation showing the area accessible to the dog.
ii Calculate the area available for the dog for exercise. Give your answer to the nearest
square metre.
c If the owner ties the dog back to the fence post and he wants the dog to have as much
room to exercise in as it did when it was tied to the building, what length of rope (to the
nearest centimetre) does he need to purchase?
Geometry is used extensively in design. Questions 5 –10 explore the use of geometrical
shapes in the design of country flags, company logos, and some commonly used signs.
5 The flag of Japan is a red circle on a white background.
Calculate (to 1 decimal place) the radius of the circle, if the area of 2m
the circle must be 20% of the total flag area.
3m
6 The flag of Israel is blue and white (see figure 1). The star is made from two triangular-
formations (figure 2) with the dimensions shown. The triangles that form the star overlap in
6 places. The total area of overlap is equivalent to 10% of their combined (blue) area. Without
rounding off any values until the final answer (to 1 decimal place), find out what percentage of
the flag is blue.
5.5 m
0.6 m
4m 1m
1.5 m
Figure 1 Figure 2
7 The Commonwealth Bank logo is made up of a yellow

square with a black trapezium overlaid at one corner.
Calculate, to the nearest whole number, what percentage of
the overall design is black.
cm
1 cm
3.0 cm
2.5
8 The National Australia Bank logo is a red star with two white strips. The star is made up of
14 equilateral triangles.
a What geometrical shape do the white strips represent?
b Calculate (to 1 decimal place) the area of the white stripes in the diagram given.
c Copy the outline of the star into your workbook. By construction, show how
14 equilateral triangles would make up this shape.
d Calculate (to 1 decimal place) the red area of the star.
0.5 cm
1.5 cm
1.5 cm
9 WE5 The collectable plate shown at right is 22 cm in

diameter and has a golden 0.5-cm-wide ring. 1 cm
Find (to 1 decimal place) the area of the golden ring if its outer
0.5 cm
edge is 1 cm from the edge of the plate.
22 cm
10 The big question is, ‘Should Santa enter this 1018 cm2
house by the circular chimney or by the front
door?’ It is known that: 30 cm
i Santa’s waist measurement is 150 cm.
ii The distance from the centre of the
chimney to the outer edge is 30 cm.
iii The area of the chimney concrete is Chimney
1018 cm2. cross-section
Support your answer with mathematical evidence.

11 WE6 A family-size pizza is cut into 8 equal slices. If the diameter of the pizza is 33 cm, find
(to the nearest square centimetre) the area of the top part of each slice.
12 WE7 The diagram at right shows a surveyor’s compass.
The radius of this compass is 2.5 cm. Find the distance,
when measured in a clockwise direction, along the edge of
the compass from the north marker to the south-western
marker.
13 The bicycle chain on Robert’s bicycle is broken.

The broken chain measures 198 cm in length. With all the shops 42 cm
shut for Christmas Day and Robert desperate to ride down to the 10 cm 6 cm
beach, he spies his sister’s bicycle in the back shed. 150n
Using the measurements of his sister’s bicycle given
in the diagram, is it worth Robert’s effort to take her 160n
bike chain? Support your answer with mathematical
calculations.
14 Early-model vehicles had
a single windscreen-wiper
blade to remove water from
the windscreen. (The bus at
right has two single blades
of this type.)
Using the dimensions
given in the diagram:
a what area (to the nearest
whole number) did the
blade cover?
b what percentage (to
1 decimal place) of the
120 cm
windscreen was cleared?
c what distance (to the nearest whole number) does the tip of the 60 cm
blade travel in one full sweep? 140n
45 cm
15 How does the percentage of windscreen cleared on an early-model 120 cm
car compare with a car of today? The dimensions of a typical
Holden windscreen are shown. Allow a 5% reduction in the overall 65 cm
area covered due to the overlap of the two wipers. Support your 110n 110n
answer with mathematical evidence.
50 cm 56 cm
10d total surface area (tSa)

The sum of the surfaces of a 3-dimensional object is referred to as the object’s total surface area
or TSA.
To shorten the process of finding the TSA of some commonly used objects, mathematicians
have been able to work out a specific formula for each object.
When the nominated surface area of an object does not totally comply with a formula, you
need to first draw the net of the object. This should enable you to work out what parts of the
formula are needed.
Calculation of the total surface area of these buildings is a complex task.
Object Net TSA

Cube TSA = 6L2
2
1 3 4 5
L 6 L
Rectangular prism l TSA = 2(wh + lw + lh)

h
h l
h w w
w
l
h
Cylinder TSA = area of 2 circles

r + curved surface
= 2π r2 + 2π rh
h = 2π r(r + h)
h
r
2 Pr
r
Sphere Not shown TSA = 4π r2
(continued)

Object Net TSA
Cone S TSA = area of base (circle)
+ area of curved
2P r surface
S Slant r 2π r
height = π r2 + × π S2
h 2π S
= π r2 + π rS
r = π r(r + S)
Note: The slant height of the cone is formed from the radius of the circle, so their values are
the same.
The arc length of the sector used to form the cone becomes the circumference of the base of
the cone, so their values are the same.
Curved surface of a cone is formed by removing a sector out of a circle.
Arc length Slant height
radius of
sector
Major
sector
rS
Minor
sector
Circumference of
base arc length
of sector
Square-based TSA = area of square
pyramid + area of 4 triangles
h 1 
= b2 + 4 ×  bh
2
= b2 + 2bh
b
h
Worked Example 8
Find the total surface area of the object shown at right.

17 cm
think write
9 cm
1 Identify the shape. Shape: rectangular prism 19 cm
2 Write the formula for the TSA of a rectangular prism. TSA = 2(wh + lw + lh)
3 Allocate a value to the pronumerals. w = 9, h = 17, l = 19
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into the formula. TSA = 2(9 × 17 + 19 × 9 + 19 × 17)
5 Evaluate (brackets first, then multiply by 2). = 2(153 + 171 + 323)
= 2 × 647
= 1294
6 Write the answer, including units. TSA = 1294 cm2
In some situations you may know the total surface area of an object but be missing a
dimension. In this case, you can use the total surface formula rearranged to make the unknown
dimension the subject of the equation.
WorkEd ExaMPlE 9
A tennis ball has a surface area of 154 cm2. Will it fit through a circular hole with a diameter of 6 cm?
think WritE
1 Write the formula for the TSA of a sphere. TSA = 4π r2

2 Allocate the pronumerals a value. TSA = 154 r = ?
3 Substitute known values into the formula. 154 = 4π r2
4 On the Main screen, tap:
• Action
• Advanced
• solve
Complete the entry line as:
solve(154 = 4πr2, r)
Then press E.
5 Given that r is the radius of a tennis ball, its Solving 154 = 4 × π × r2 for r gives r = −3.5007 or
value is positive. r = 3.5007. Since r > 0, r = 3.5007.
6 The question requires the diameter of the d=2×r
tennis ball so multiply the radius by 2. = 2 × 3.5007
≈ 7.0
7 Compare the diameter of the hole with the The tennis ball will not fit through the circular hole
diameter of the ball and write an answer because its diameter is approximately 7.0 cm, while
sentence. the hole’s diameter is 6 cm.
As discussed in the previous section on area, a composite

ﬁgure is a figure comprising a number of distinct shapes.
To find the TSA of a 3-dimensional composite figure, we
first need to decide what individual shapes make up the
total object and then work out the TSA of each of these
shapes separately. Remember that the surfaces where the
distinct shapes come into contact are not included in the
TSA. This is demonstrated in worked example 10.
Many buildings are composite figures

made up of prisms and pyramids.

WorkEd ExaMPlE 10
eBook plus
The diagram shows the proposed shape for a new container
Tutorial
for takeaway Chinese food. The shape will be used if the TSA of 10 int-0905
the container is less than 750 cm2. If the TSA is greater than or cm Worked example 10
equal to 750 cm2 then production and manufacturing costs are
too high and the takeaway shop will have to stay with the old
cylindrical container. Next time I order my Chinese takeaway,
could it come in the new design? 10 cm
think WritE
1 Identify the distinct shapes that make up the total TSA = square pyramid (no base)
object: these are a square-based pyramid and a + 5 faces of a cube
cube. The base of the pyramid and one face of
the cube are not on the surface and therefore
their area should not be included.
2 Calculate the TSA of a square-based pyramid TSA of square-based pyramid:
with no base.
(a) Alter the general square-based pyramid 1
A=4×2 ×b×h
formula so as not to include the
square base. = 2bh
(b) Allocate a value to the pronumerals. b = 10, h = 10
(c) Substitute the values into the formula and A = 2 × 10 × 10
evaluate. = 200
3 Calculate the TSA of a cube (5 faces only). TSA of a cube (5 faces only):
(a) Alter the general cube formula to include A = 5L2
5 faces instead of 6.
(b) Allocate a value to the length. L = 10
(c) Substitute the value of the length into the A = 5 × 102
formula and evaluate. = 500
4 Add the individual TSA together to find the TSA TSA = 200 + 500
of the whole object. = 700 cm2
5 Write an answer sentence. Next time I order Chinese takeaway there could
be a newly designed container with a surface area
of only 700 cm2.
rEMEMBEr
1. The TSA is the sum of the areas of the outside surfaces of a 3-dimensional object.
2. Formulas for all types of objects are not possible. For those objects without a formula
you will need to follow these steps.
(i) Draw the net of the object.
(ii) Work out the different shapes that make up the net.
(iii) Calculate their individual areas.
(iv) Add all the individual parts together.
3. Do not include in the TSA the surfaces of contact of the distinct shapes that make up a
composite figure.
Exercise
1 WE8 Find the total surface area of the following objects. Round your answer to 1 decimal
place.
a b 20 cm c
12.2 6.2 m
cm 32.5 cm
7.5
10 cm cm
d e 3 cm f 14 mm
10.5 m
16 cm
9.0 cm 42 mm
8.4 m
2 Match the formulas below with the object.

a b c S
h r
h w
l
r (Base not included)
Open-ended cone
d h e f
r h
b
Sphere
g h i
S r
r h l
b
Base included Half sphere
i TSA = 2π r2 + 2π rh ii TSA = π rS

= 2π r(r + h)
iii TSA = 4 ( bh)
1
2
iv TSA = π r(r + S)
v TSA = 4π r2 vi TSA = 2(wh + lw + lh)
2 (
vii TSA = 2 × 1 bh + (3 × bl) ) 1
viii TSA = 2 [2π r(r + h)] + 2rh
= π r(r + h) + 2rh
4π r 2
ix TSA =
2
= 2π r2

3 For the following diagrams, find the value of S for the formula:
TSA (cone) = π r2 + π rS
= π r(r + S)
a b 10.5 mm c d 60 cm
12 cm 10
mm
10.4 9m
cm
6 cm
7m
4 The diagram at right represents a waffle ice-cream cone (no top). Using
the dimensions given, calculate the TSA (to the nearest square centimetre) of
waffle used.
5 For each of the following objects find the value of the pronumeral, rounding
your answer to 1 decimal place when required.
a b
4m 3m
w=?
6m h=?
TSA = 148 m2 TSA = 188.5 m2
c d
d = 6 cm
b=?
z=? TSA of 1 sphere
= 55.4 cm2
TSA = 100 cm2
6 WE9 A cylindrical cork is 6 cm high and has a TSA of 33.38 cm2. Could it be used to close a
bottle whose neck is 3 cm in diameter? Justify your answer.
60 cm
7 MC A 60-cm-high cone has a base radius of 32 cm.
The TSA could be calculated by using the formula:
A π 32(32 + 60) B π 60(32 + 60) C π 32(32 + 68)
D π 68(32 + 68) E π 60(32 + 68) 32 cm
A spherical candle of TSA = 201 cm2 is to be gift-boxed. The dimensions

8 MC
in centimetres of several differently shaped boxes are given below (length × height × width).
The box which will best fit the candle with the least amount of wasted space is:
A 6 × 6 × 6 B 4 × 4 × 6 C 8 × 4 × 4
D 2 × 8 × 4 E 8 × 8 × 8
9 MC The area covered by the rolling pin shown in one complete turn is:
A 2π 5(5 + 30) B 2π 2.5(2.5 + 30) 5 cm
C π 2.5(2.5 + 30) D 2π 2.5 × 30 30 cm
E 2π 5 × 30
10 What area of cardboard needs to be purchased to construct a box 1 m × 1 m × 1 m to contain a
television set? Allow an extra 5% of the total surface area to cater for overlaps.
40 cm
11 The latest footstool design is in the shape of a cylinder.
a Your client would like to know how much fabric to purchase, so you
as the upholsterer can cover the footstool. (When calculating the area 35 cm
of fabric you always allow an extra 20% of the total surface area to
cater for seams and for placing pattern pieces on the fabric.)
b The fabric your client has chosen comes on a roll 150 cm wide. The length of fabric can
be cut to the nearest centimetre. How many metres should be purchased?
12 A church steeple is a square-based pyramid in design. The steeple cap
needs new tiles. The vicar has asked the plumber for a costing on its renovation.
The plumber stated that the tiles cost $60 per square metre, his labour is $20 per
square metre and when he calculates the TSA he always adds 25% of the TSA to 25 m
allow for tile overlap.
Prepare an estimate for the vicar which breaks down the plumber’s costs
and shows how he came to the amount. 5m
Suggested subheadings could be:
a TSA of roof only b TSA (including 25% allowance)
c Cost of tiles d Cost of labour
e Final overall cost.
13 Tennis balls sold as a group of three are normally encased in a vacuum-sealed cylindrical
container. A department store manager has complained to the manufacturer that the container
is difficult to stack and display. She asks, ‘Would it be possible to investigate a different shaped
container?’ The manufacturer agrees to look into the situation. However, the TSA of any new
container can be the same as the cylindrical one, or less, but not more.
a Calculate to the nearest square centimetre the TSA of the three containers shown below.
Based on their TSA, rank them in order of best container to worst container.
7 cm 7 cm
12 cm
Cylindrical container Rectangular prism Triangular prism
b The manufacturer changes his mind and says he will consider a different container
provided its surface area is no more than 30% above the TSA of the cylindrical container.
Do either of the other containers meet this criteria?
14 a What is the name of the shape (a type of prism)
of this chocolate package?
b In your mind, unfold the 3-dimensional shape to
its 2-dimensional net. Draw this net, making no 19.5 cm 3.5 cm
allowance for overlap.
c Using the dimensions given, calculate the
approximate TSA of a medium sized chocolate package. (Round all values to 1 decimal
place.)
d What is the size of the smallest rectangle of cardboard from which one packet could be
cut?
15 a What is the area of the label on the curved surface of the
can? Allow an extra 5% of the TSA for an overlap.
b Theoretically, how many labels can be printed and cut
from a sheet of paper 1 m × 1 m?
c What are the dimensions of one label? (Remember the
5% overlap will affect the length, not the height, of the
label.)
d By modelling the situation, how many labels can really
be printed and cut out of a sheet 1 m × 1 m?
e What area of the 1 m × 1 m sheet is actually used?
f What percentage of the area (to the nearest whole
number) is wasted?

16 Juice Fresh frozen flavoured ice blocks are made and wrapped in a
pyramidal container. The triangles that make up the pyramid are equilaterals,
with side lengths of 10 cm.
a ‘Unfold’ this 3-dimensional diagram to form its 2-dimensional net.
b Calculate the TSA of the container. (Round the answer up to the nearest 10 cm
whole number.)
c Theoretically, how many containers can be cut out from a 1-m × 1-m sheet of specially
lined cardboard?
d By modelling the situation, how many containers can actually be cut out from this sheet
of cardboard?
17 The following questions relate to the hemispherical sugar bowl at right. 4 cm
a If its radius is 4 cm, what is the TSA of the sugar bowl to the nearest
square centimetre?
b The dish is made from a disc cut out of a sheet of metal. It is heated and
modelled to form its finished shape. What is the radius of this disc to one
decimal place?
c The discs are cut out of a metal sheet as shown at right. What are
the dimensions of this sheet?
d What percentage of metal is wasted in making 8 bowls?
18 WE10 Certain medicines come in capsules, as
shown at right. Find the area of plastic (in square
millimetres) needed to produce one such capsule.
10 mm
5 mm
19 A commercial bread bin has dimensions as shown in the diagram at right.

Find the TSA of the bin. 90
cm
60 cm
20 A garbage bin in a designer shop is constructed out of plastic. The
dimensions are shown in the diagram. The rubbish opening is equal to 10%
of the TSA of the hemispherical top. However, the bin comes only in white
and you would like a black one for your bedroom. You decide to paint the
container and feel it will need two coats. You have enough black paint at 33 cm
home to cover one square metre. Will you have enough to cover the
container or do you have to purchase another tin? Support your final
decision with mathematical calculations. 28 cm
21 Lampshades for a particular range are made by cutting a

eBook plus cone of fabric in the ratio of 1:2. The top (one-third of the
Digital docs
cone’s height) is discarded and the remaining section
WorkSHEET 10.1 (two-thirds of the cone’s height), called a frustum, is wired
Investigation and used as the shade. Five per cent of the final TSA is
Cone heads allowed for an overlap. The original cones are 30 cm high
and have a base radius of 12 cm. Find the TSA of the
frustum so that fabric can be ordered to cover the
lampshade for a particular client. State your answer to the
nearest centimetre or square centimetre.
10E Volume
The volume of an object is the amount of space that the object occupies.
Volume of a prism = cross-sectional area × height of the prism
V = CSA × H
The height is the dimension perpendicular to the cross-sectional area.
Shape Cross-sectional shape Volume

Cylinder V = area of a circle × height
= π r2 × H
r
H
r Area = π r2
Triangular prism V = area of a triangle × height

1
h = 2 bh × H
b Note: Lowercase h represents
h
the height of the triangle.
H 1
Area = 2 bh
b
Rectangular prism V = area of a rectangle × height

W
=L×W×H
L
H
L W Area = L × W
Cube V = area of a square × height

= L2 × H
= L2 × L
H = L3
L (since in a cube, H = L)
L Area = L2
Worked Example 11
Find the volume of the shape shown correct to 1 decimal place. 2.6 m
2.3 m
think write 3.2 m

1 Identify the shape. Triangular prism
1
2 Write the appropriate formula for the volume. V = 2 bh × H
3 Allocate values to the pronumerals keeping in b = 2.6, h = 2.3, H = 3.2
mind that b and h are the base and height of a
triangular cross-section or base of the prism,
while H is the height of the prism.
1
4 Substitute and evaluate, rounding the answer to V = 2 × 2.6 × 2.3 × 3.2
1 decimal place. Include the units. = 9.568
≈ 9.6 m3

Odd-shaped prisms
The object at right would be classified as a prism,
because horizontal cuts would show a uniform cross-
section, the same shape as the ends. We could also say
that this shape is a prism because the ends are the same Height
and the sides of the object are parallel. To calculate the
volume of an odd-shaped prism you would need to be
given the value for the area of the cross-sectional shape Cross-section
and the height of the prism.
Worked Example 12
Find the volume of the shape shown at right.
think write
1 Write the general formula for the volume of a V = CSA × height

prism.
8.2 m
2 Allocate the pronumerals a value. CSA = 32 m2, H = 8.2 m Area 32 m2
3 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into the V = 32 × 8.2

formula and evaluate. = 262.4
4 Write the answer including units. V = 262.4 m3
Tapered objects
A tapered object is one that has a flat base at one end and tapers to a point at the other. A cone
and the family of pyramids (square-based, rectangular-based and triangular-based) are examples
of tapered objects.
Cone Square pyramid Rectangular pyramid Triangular pyramid
A tapered object does not have a uniform cross-section. The cross-sectional area becomes
smaller as it nears the apex (point). The internal capacity or volume of a tapered object is
1
a fraction of the volume of a prism. Mathematicians found this fraction to be one-third (3).
They defined the base of a tapered object to be the flat end opposite the apex. To calculate the
volume of a tapered solid we find the area of the flat end, multiply this by the height of the
1
pyramid (which must be perpendicular to the base) and then multiply by 3 (or divide by 3).
1
Volume of a tapered object = 3 × area of base × height of object
1
=3×A×H
The following table shows the formulas for the volume of some common tapered objects.
Shape Flat end (base) shape Volume

Cone 1
V = 3 × area of a circle × height
r 1
V = 3π r2 × H
H
Square pyramid 1
V = 3 × area of a square × height
1
V = 3L2 × H
H
L
Rectangular pyramid 1
W V = 3 × area of a rectangle × height
L 1
= 3L × W × H
H
W
L
Triangular pyramid 1
V = 3 × area of a triangle × height
h 1 1 
V = 3  2 bh × H
H Note: Lowercase h represents the
h b height of the triangle.
b
Spheres
The volume of a sphere is given by the following formula:
4
Volume of a sphere = 3 π r3 r
where r is the radius of the sphere.
A hemisphere is half of a sphere. Its volume, therefore, is half of the volume of a sphere.
1
Volume of hemisphere = 2 (volume of sphere) r
1 4
= 2 × 3 π r3
2
= 3 π r3
Composite figures
The principles used to calculate the TSA of 3-dimensional composite figures
can also be applied when calculating the volume of 3-dimensional composite
objects. The volumes of the individual objects need to be found before they are
added or subtracted to find the total volume.

WorkEd ExaMPlE 13
eBook plus
Find the volume (in m3) of the toy shown, correct to 1 decimal place.
Tutorial
think WritE int-0906
Worked example 13
1 Identify the components of the shape. Total volume = volume of a
cone
+ volume of
a hemisphere
1.4 m
2 Determine the volume of the hemisphere. Volume of hemisphere:
80 cm
2
(a) Write the formula. V = 3πr 3
(b) Allocate values to the pronumerals. r=d÷2
Note that some units are in cm, others in m. = 80 ÷ 2
As the answer requires cubic metres, change = 40 cm
centimetres to metres. = 0.4 m
2
(c) Substitute the value of r into the formula and V = 3 π (0.4)3
evaluate.
= 0.134 041 3 m3
3 Find the volume of the cone. Volume of cone:
1
(a) Write the formula. V = 3π r2 × H
(b) Allocate values to the pronumerals. r = 0.4 m, H = 1.4 − r
(Height = 1.4 − radius of circle) = 1.4 − 0.4
=1m
1
4 Substitute the values of H and r into the formula V = 3π (0.4) × 1
2
and evaluate.
= 0.167 551 6 m3
5 Add the individual volumes together to find the Total volume = 0.134 041 3 + 0.167 551 6
total volume of the given shape. = 0.301 592 9
6 Round your answer to 1 decimal place and V = 0.3 m3
include units.
rEMEMBEr
1. Volume of a prism = CSA × perpendicular height.

1
2. The volume of a tapered object = 3 × area of base × perpendicular height.
3. Volume formulas:
Triangular prism Triangular pyramid Trapezoidal prism
( ) V =  2 (a + b) × h  × H
1 1
V = 2 bh × H 1 1
V = 3 2 bbhh × H  
a
h
H
h H b H
b h
h = height of triangle h = height of triangle h = height of trapezium

4
4. Volume of a sphere: V = 3
πr3
ExErCiSE
10E Volume
1 Match the volume formula with the appropriate 3-dimensional object.
a b H c L
H
r H H
A cm2
d a e f
h
b
h H H
H r
b
1 1
i V = 2 bh × H ii V = 3π r2 × H iii V =  1 (a + b)h  × H
2 
1 2
iv V = π r2 ×H v V= 3
L ×H vi V = A × H
2 WE11 Find the volume of each of the following shapes correct to 1 decimal place.
eBook plus
a 6 cm b c 10 cm d
8 cm
Digital doc
7.4 22.4 cm
SkillSHEET 10.4 4 cm
cm
Volume 10.2
cm
12 cm
e 12.6 f g h 30 cm
cm
16 cm
6.5 m
18.5 10.2 m
cm
32
cm
40 cm
12.4 cm
3 WE12 Find the volume of each of the following shapes.
a b Shaded c CSA 116 mm2 d
area 23 cm2
3.5 cm
8 cm 10.5 mm 0.5 m
Shaded
area = 42 cm2 55 cm2
eBook plus 4 Alexander is ordering a concrete base (in the shape of the trapezoidal 60 cm
prism shown) for his favourite garden sculpture. How much will he 50 cm
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 10.5 have to pay if concrete costs $50 per cubic metre and the cost of 50 cm
Conversion of labour is $45?
units — volume 1.2 m

5 A cosmetic eye-mask is 8 mm thick and has a cross-sectional area of 120 cm2. Find the volume
of the special liquid that fills the mask.
6 WE13 Find the volume of each of the following shapes correct to 1 decimal place.
ExaM tiP Rounding off should only be done at the final answer stage
in a question, not part way through the calculation. The continued use of
a rounded answer will often compound the rounding error.
[Assessment report 2007]
60 cm
a b
113 cm
1.4 m
1.8 m 22 cm
2m 64 cm
c 10 cm
25 cm 15
cm
7 The diagram at right shows 3 tennis balls packed in a cylindrical container. Find: 7 cm
a the volume of each ball
b the volume of the cylinder
c the volume of space that remains free.
8 A chocolate company wants to make chocolate Christmas ball decorations containing

eBook plus 50 small, candy-coated chocolates to hang on Christmas trees. If each candy-coated
Digital doc
chocolate has a volume of approximately 0.8 cm3, what is the diameter of the Christmas ball
SkillSHEET 10.6 required to contain them?
Finding
unknown 9 The teapot shown at right is made up of a number of geometrical
lengths shapes. The hemispherical bowl can be filled to the brim with tea.
a How many cylindrical cups (with radius of 3 cm and height
of 9 cm) could be filled to a mark 2 cm from the top from one r = 7 cm
full pot of tea?
b If you wanted to design a teapot that when filled would enable
six of the above cylindrical cups to be filled to a mark 1 cm
from the top, what would be the radius of the hemispherical
bowl?
10 A large apple takes up approximately 512 cm3 of space. I have 160 apples to pack into one of
the following containers. With the aim of having the minimal amount of wasted space, which
container would be best for this purpose and why?
a b 38 cm c 38
40
40 cm
cm cm 40 cm
70 cm 42 cm
38 cm
60 cm
34.2 cm
11 You have just whipped up the most delicious chocolate mud cake mixture 16.4 cm
ready for baking. It fills a hemispherical mixing bowl to the brim.
In the cupboard you have 4 different types of cake tins used for baking.
The decision is which one to use. You know
that the cake will rise 3 cm as it cooks and
if it rises more than 1 cm over the brim
of the container it will sink in the middle,
ooze down the sides of the container and be
ruined.
a For each of the containers shown below,
calculate how far up the sides of the
container the unbaked mixture could go.
Round all values to 1 decimal place as
you go.
b Using these results, justify which
container(s) can and can not be used.
i 7 cm
ii iii 7 cm iv 10.5 cm
7 cm 9 cm
23 cm 7 cm
15 cm Rectangular tin
18 cm
Square-based tin
Round tin 20 cm
Ring tin
12 The flower vases shown below are from a designer shop. They are all examples of frustums. A
frustum is the part of a solid shape cut by two parallel planes.
a 12 cm b 18 cm c 21 cm
24
cm
Vase 1 Vase 2 Vase 3

They are all made from a different geometrical shape; however, their overall construction
was based on the following constraints.
i The frustum of the tapered objects was used to make the vases. The frustum height is
2
3
of the height of the original tapered object.
1
ii The remaining 3 was discarded.
iii All vases are 24 cm high. r=6
Note: If one dimension of a cone is reduced/enlarged by a scale factor h = 36

then the other dimensions of the cone are also affected by this factor.
For example, if the height of a 36-cm cone is reduced by a scale r=1
factor of 6, then the radius value would also be reduced by this scale h=6
factor.
a Calculate the total volume of each vase, rounding all calculations
eBook plus
to 1 decimal place as you go.
b What volume of water would be held in the vase with the overall Digital docs
greatest volume, if the water is poured into the vase to a vertical Investigation
height of 21 cm? Cone volume
c What percentage of the base’s total capacity is this volume? Spreadsheet 010
Cone volume

10F Capacity
The capacity of a container refers to the amount that it can hold. The capacity or volume of a
container is usually measured in cubic units; however, when the volume of a liquid is being
discussed it can be referred to in terms of millilitres, litres and kilolitres.
Recall the following facts:
1000 millilitres (mL) = 1 litre (L)
1000 litres = 1 kilolitre (kL)
Cubic units are connected to the fluid capacity units as follows:
1 cm3 = 1 mL
1000 cm3 = 1 L
1 m3 = 1000 L = 1 kL
Worked Example 14
Convert:
a 400 cm3 to mL
b 1200 cm3 to mL and to L
c 2 kL to m3.
think write
a Since 1 cm3 is equivalent to 1 mL, then 400 cm3 a 400 cm3 = 400 mL

is equivalent to 400 mL.
b 1 Each 1 cm3 will hold 1 mL of liquid. b 1200 cm3 = 1200 mL

Therefore, 1200 cm3 will hold 1200 mL of
liquid.
2 To change mL to L, divide by 1000 (since = 1.2 L

there are 1000 mL in 1 L).
c One kL is equivalent to 1 m3. Therefore, 2 kL is c 2 kL = 2 m3

equivalent to 2 m3.
To find the capacity of a container in litres, find its volume in cubic units first and then
convert.
Worked Example 15
Find the capacity in mL of a rectangular container measuring 10 cm × 12 cm × 14 cm.
think write
1 Find the volume of the container in cm3. (Since V=l×w×h

the container is rectangular, use the formula for = 10 × 12 × 14
the volume of a rectangular prism.) = 1680 cm3
2 Change cubic centimetres to millilitres. 1680 cm3 = 1680 mL
3 Write the answer in words. The capacity of the given container is 1680 mL.
rEMEMBEr
To find the capacity of a container in litres, find its volume in cubic units first and then
convert, using the following conversions:
1 cm3 = 1 mL
1000 cm3 = 1 L
1 m3 = 1000 L = 1 kL
ExErCiSE
10F Capacity
1 WE14 Convert the following units as indicated. eBook plus
a 750 cm3 = _____ mL b 800 cm3 = _____ L Digital doc
c 2500 cm3 = _____ mL d 40 000 cm3 = _____ L Spreadsheet 006
Capacity
e 6 m3 = _____ cm3 = _____ mL = _____ L f 12 m3 = _____ L
g 4.2 m3 = _____ kL h 7.5 m3 = _____ kL = _____ L
i 5.2 mL = _____ cm3 j 6 L = _____ cm3
k 20 L = _____ mL = _____ cm3 l 5.3 KL = _____ m3
2 WE15 How many millilitres will a rectangular drink container hold if its dimensions are
11 cm × 4 cm × 15 cm?
3 A hemispherical bowl with a diameter of 30 cm will be used to hold 30 cm
a pre-mixed fruit drink for a party. If you want to fill it to the brim, how
many litres of pre-mixed drink can you pour in?
4 One litre of orange and mango juice is packed in a rectangular container
of height 172 mm and width 93 mm.
Find the length of the container to the nearest mm. 172
5 A plastic bottle contains 1.25 L of soft drink. mm
a How many cylindrical cups 10 cm high and 7 cm in diameter can be
filled to capacity from this bottle? l 93 mm
b What is the volume (to the nearest mL) of the drink that remains in
the bottle?
6 A rectangular swimming pool measures 4 m by 3.5 m by
2.5 m.
a What is the capacity of the pool in kL?
b If the pool is being filled at a rate of 14 L per second, how
long will it take for it to be:
i 70% full?
ii filled to capacity?
7 A tub in the shape of a trapezoidal prism has dimensions as shown. 2.2 m

If the capacity of the tub is 943.5 L, how deep is it? 0.85 m
1.5 m

10G Similar figures
Imagine! You have just seen the best photograph in a magazine. It was . . . [insert fantasy of your
choice!]:
1. the car you will buy when you get your licence
2. the dress you have dreamed about for the end-of-year formal dance
3. the place you are going to go to when all your studies are over.
You place the photograph on the photocopier screen, set the enlargement to 145% and press
start. Out comes a copy of the photograph exactly the same shape as the original but larger.
This copy can go on the wall near your desk for inspiration. Now you need a copy for the
inside of your school locker door. You re-set the size to 66% and out comes another copy of the
photograph, exactly the same shape but smaller.
Enlarged 145% Original Reduced 66%
You have produced two similar photographs or similar figures by dilating (enlarging) or
reducing about a fixed point.
To achieve a similar enlargement or reduction of an image by hand you would need to:
1. fix a point on the page
2. draw lines to specific places on the image
3. measure the length of these lines
4. multiply or divide these measurements by a given amount
5. follow along the lines already drawn and either extend or reduce these lines to the length of
the new measurement
6. redraw the object by connecting the ends of new length lines.
The photocopier accomplishes all these tasks at the press of a button!
By drawing from a fixed point, the angles in the original photograph and the enlarged/
reduced copy stay the same. So the figures produced are the same shape, but not the same
size. Using a photocopier on its normal setting produces a copy that is identical in size
and shape.
Figures that are the same in shape but not in size are called similar figures.
Figures that are identical in both size and shape are called congruent figures.
The trapezium labelled ABCD at the top of page 489 has been enlarged by a scale factor of
2 from a fixed point to produce a new trapezium labelled A′B′C′D′. As both trapeziums are the
same shape but a different size they are said to be similar figures. Mathematicians label a similar
figure with the same vertex labels, but with a ‘prime’ (the symbol ′) to indicate it is an image of
the original. Mathematicians would write ‘A′B′C′D′ is similar to ABCD’ as:
A′B′C′D′ ∼ ABCD (∼ means ‘is similar to’)
A' 2.8 cm B'
123n 120n
A B
1.4 cm 3.4 cm 2.7 cm
A B O
1.7 cm 123n 120n 1.35 cm D C

57n 60n 60n C'
D C D' 57n
3.25 cm 6.5 cm
A′B′C′D′ ∼ ABCD, because if you measure:
1. the angles in each trapezium, the corresponding angles will be equal (for example,
∠DAB = 123° so ∠D′A′B′ = 123°)
2. the sides in each trapezium, the length of each pair of corresponding sides will be in the same
ratio, equal to the scale factor.
Image length C' D' 6.5
: = =2
Original length CD 3.25
C' B' 2.7
= =2
CB 1.35
A' B' 2.8
= =2
AB 1.4
A' D' 3.4
= =2
AD 1.7
The following example shows how a figure can be enlarged from a fixed point.
Worked Example 16
Enlarge this shape by a scale factor of 2. A B
think write/Draw
1 Select a point inside the shape, say, point O A B D C

and draw lines from this fixed point to the
O
shape’s vertices (that is points A, B, C and D).
D C
2 Measure the lengths of OA, OB, OC and OA = 0.95, OB = 1.05, OC = 1.75,
OD. Note: The measurements are in cm. OD = 1.75
3 Multiply each of the measurements by a O′A′ = 0.95 × 2 O′C′ = 1.75 × 2
scale factor of 2. = 1.9 = 3.50
O′B′ = 1.05 × 2 O′D′ = 1.75 × 2
= 2.1 = 3.50
4 Extend the lines to the new measurements; A' B'
that is, continue line OB until it measures
2.1 cm, line OC until it measures 3.5 cm A B
and so on. O
5 Join the ends of the extended lines to \
form the similar figure. Label the vertices D C
appropriately. D' C'
The following example shows how to reduce a figure from a fixed point.

WorkEd ExaMPlE 17
eBook plus
Reduce the pentagon labelled ABCDE by a scale factor of 2. A
Tutorial
int-0907
B Worked example 17
E
D C
think WritE/draW
1 Select a point outside the shape and A

label it O. Draw lines from this fixed
point O to the shape’s vertices and
E B
measure their lengths.
Note: The measurements are in cm.
O
D C
OA = 6.8, OB = 7.6, OC = 7.1, OD = 5.8, OE = 5.6
6.8 7.1 5.6

2 Divide these measurements by the OA′ = 2 OC′ = 2 OE′ = 2
scale factor of 2. = 3.4 = 3.55 = 2.8
7.6 5.8
OB′ = 2 OD′ = 2
= 3.8 = 2.9
3 Locate the vertices of a reduced A
pentagon by measuring new
distances (that is OA′, OB′ and so
A' E B
on) from point O along the existing
lines. E' B'
4 Join the vertices A′, B′, C′, D′ and O
E′ to form a reduced figure. D' C' D C
Scale drawing
Obviously, the principles of enlarging and reducing lengths in similar figures can be applied to
scale drawing problems. In scale drawing, there are three basic situations:
1. Given the distance between two points on a scale drawing, and the scale factor, you have been
asked to find the distance between the points in real life.
2. You have measured the distance between two points in real life and now need to draw this
measurement for a plan using a specific scale factor.
3. You know the distance in real life and the distance you would like to achieve on the plan.
What scale factor should you use?
Reduced scale drawing Real-life measurement Enlarged scale drawing
Scale factor Scale factor
Scale factor
The scale factor for scale drawings is usually represented as a ratio (1:200, 6:113). The ratio
symbol (:) means ‘to’, so 1:100 is read as ‘one to one hundred’. This means that one unit on the
drawing represents 100 units in real life.
In the scale factor ratio, the first number represents the measurement on the scale
drawing, while the second number represents the real-life measurement.
When expressing scale factors as a ratio, the order of the figures in a ratio is important, as 2:5
is not the same as 5:2.
The ratio 2:5 is read as, ‘2 units on the scale drawing is equivalent to 5 units in real life’. The
scale drawing (for example, a house plan) is a reduction of the real-life object.
The ratio 5:2 is read as, ‘5 units on the scale drawing is equivalent to only 2 units in real life’.
The scale drawing (for example, an enlarged drawing of an ant) is actually an enlargement of the
real-life object.
Sometimes the relationship between the scale plans and the real-life object can be written as
‘1 cm to 1 m’, or ‘5 cm to 2 mm’. These are not ratio values. To change scale values into ratio
values, the units for the scale drawing and the real-life object must be the same.
Worked Example 18
A plan uses the scale 2 cm to 1 m. Write this scale as a ratio in simplest form.
think write
1 2 cm to 1 m on a plan means that 2 cm on the 2 cm to 1 m

scale drawing represents 1 m in real life. To
write this as a ratio, the units must be the same.
2 As 1 m = 100 cm, replace 1 m with 100 cm. 2 cm to 100 cm
3 Simplify by dividing both numbers by 2. 1 cm to 50 cm
4 Omit the units and write in ratio form. 1:50
A ratio equation that will allow you to find other values in the scale drawing or similar figure
can be formed from a ratio. For example, to determine a rule for the scale drawing situation
where the ratio is 1:50, the ratio will need to be first changed into a fraction. Usually, this would
1 50
be 50 , but 1 is also correct.
1 scale measurement , 50 real-life measurement

= or =
50 real-life measurement 1 scale measurement
By rearranging either of these equations we end up with the following rule/equation:

Real-life measurement = scale measurement × 50
Therefore, a scale measurement of 10 cm would represent a length of the object in real life of
10 × 50 = 500 cm.
If the object in real life is 10 m high, then the object’s height on the scale plan can be
calculated as follows:
10 = scale measurement × 50
10
Scale measurement = 50
= 0.2 m
= 20 cm
The rule formed is based on a ratio and because of this we can enter values for the scale
length or real-life length in any unit. However, if the value for scale length is entered in

millimetres then the real-life length will be calculated in millimetres. Likewise, if metres are
entered for the real-life length then the scale length will be calculated in metres.
Worked Example 19
A pool company produces a brochure containing diagrams of their differently shaped pools. The
dimensions are given for the maximum length, width and depth. The brochure states that the
diagrams were drawn to the scale of 2 cm to 2 m. The small plunge pool you are interested in is
missing the length and depth measurements. Determine these values.
Overhead view Ground
Width 2.4 m Depth ? m
Scale depth 2 cm
Length ? m
Scale length 4.4 cm
think write
1 We need to determine a rule joining scale and 2 cm to 2 m

object measurements with the scale factor. Write
the given scale.
2 To change the scale into a ratio we need to have 2 cm to 200 cm
both numbers in the same units, so convert
metres to centimetres (2 m = 200 cm).
3 Write the scale as a ratio and simplify it. 2:200
1:100
4 To form a rule, change the ratio into a fraction 1 scale measurement
=
and cross-multiply to simplify the expression. 100 real-life measurement
Real-life measurement
= 100 × scale measurement
5 To calculate the length of the real-life pool: Length of pool:
(a) determine the scale measurement of the
Scale measurement = 4.4 cm
length
(b) substitute it into the rule and simplify. Real-life measurement = 100 × 4.4
(c) Since the measurement we substituted was = 440 cm
in centimetres, the resultant measurement = 4.4 m
is also in centimetres. Change the answer
to more appropriate units (in this case to
metres).
6 To find the depth of the pool: Depth of pool:
(a) determine the scale measurement of the Scale measurement = 2 cm
depth
(b) substitute it into the rule and simplify Real-life measurement = 100 × 2
(c) change the answer to metres. = 200 cm
= 2.0 m
7 Write an answer sentence. The pool is 4.4 m long and 2.0 m deep.
WorkEd ExaMPlE 20
eBook plus
A hobbyist has built a scale model of a 25-m-long aeroplane. If the model is 25 cm
Tutorial
in length, calculate: int-0908
a the scale factor he used to reduce the aeroplane’s dimensions Worked example 20
b what lengths he will need to make the scale model’s wings if the aeroplane’s
wingspan is 30 metres.
think WritE
model length
a 1 Write the formula for scale factor. a Scale factor =
aeroplane length
2 State the values of the aeroplane length Aeroplane length = 25 m
and the length of the model. Since the units Model length = 25 cm
are different, change one of them, say, = 0.25 m
centimetres to metres.
3 Substitute the values into the equation and 0 . 25
Scale factor =
simplify. 25
1
=
100
4 Write a brief comment interpreting what the That is, one unit on the model represents
fraction represents. 100 units on the aeroplane.
b 1 Substitute the value of the scale factor into b 1 model length
the formula and cross-multiply to form a =
100 aeroplane length
rule.
100 × model length = aeroplane length
2 Substitute 30 metres instead of the aeroplane If an aeroplane’s wingspan is 30 m,
length into the rule and hence find the 100 × model length = 30
corresponding length of the model. 30
model length =
Note: Since the aeroplane’s wingspan was 100
entered in metres then the model’s wingspan = 0.3
will be also calculated in metres.
3 Write an answer sentence. The wingspan of the model aeroplane is
0.3 m or 30 cm.
rEMEMBEr
1. Similar figures are the same shape but not the same size. The corresponding angles in
each figure are the same; however, the corresponding side lengths differ by a scale factor.
2. The scale factor can be written in several ways, for example:
1
2 cm to 10 m = 2 cm to 1000 cm = 2:1000 = 1:500 = 500
3. When the scale factor is written as a ratio, the first number represents the measurement
on a scale drawing, while the second number represents the real-life measurement.
4. When forming a rule, the following format is usually used.
scale measurement
Scale factor =
real-life measurement
5. When finding measurements with the rule, the measurement that we substitute and the
resulting measurement (that is, the answer) are in the same units.

Exercise
10G Similar figures
1 Write the following sentences into your workbook, deleting the inappropriate words.
a Multiplying an object’s measurements by a scale factor < 1 will produce (an enlarged/
a reduced) image.
b Multiplying an object’s measurements by a scale factor > 1 will produce (an enlarged/
a reduced) image.
2 WE16 Enlarge each of the following shapes by the given scale factor.
a Scale factor = 3 b Scale factor = 1.6 c Scale factor = 2.2
A B A B
O
O O
C D F C A
E D
3 WE17 Reduce each of the following shapes by the given scale factor.
a Scale factor = 1.3 b Scale factor = 2

Hint: Select points along the

circumference to use as reference points
(like vertices).
c Scale factor = 1.25
Questions 4 to 8 refer to the following scales given on a series of maps.

a 1 mm to 1 m b 2 cm to 10 m c 3 cm to 25 m
d 40 cm to 1 m e 20 cm to 10 cm f 175 mm to 1 m
4 WE 18 Write each of these scales as a ratio in simplest form.
scale length
5 Change each ratio from question 4 into a fraction of the form: .
real-life length
6 Determine the rule for each map situation. Have the real-life length as the subject of the
rule, that is:
Real-life length =
7 WE 19 Find the real-life length in millimetres, centimetres and metres for each map
situation if the length on the map is 3 cm.
8 Find the length on the map in millimetres, centimetres and metres for each situation if the real-
life length is 12.5 m.
9 MC The construction plan of a television cupboard is drawn to the scale of 3 cm to 20 cm. If
the height on the scale plan is 14 cm, the real-life height to the nearest centimetre would be:
A 102 B 93 C 89 D 98 E 94
10 In a furniture catalogue, the real-life dimensions of a bookcase you want were given as
74 cm × 22 cm × 174 cm. The catalogue did not state the height, width or depth. It did say
to look at the scale drawings (which follow). However, there were three different scale
drawings. Determine which diagram is the scale drawing of the bookcase you are interested in
purchasing.
a b c
1.85 cm 2.2 cm
4.35 cm 0.55 cm
5.4 cm 3.87 cm 0.93 cm
2 cm 0.7 cm
11 WE20 On a photograph, a 30-m-high tree measures 5 cm. Calculate:

a the scale factor
b the diameter of the tree at its base, as shown on the photograph, if the real diameter
is 1.2 m.
12 When designing kitchens, the
250 cm
draftsperson can use 1-cm-square
graph paper to scale the drawings.
a What is the scale factor of this Cupboard Fridge
kitchen design? space
b In scale length, how long is x?
c In real-life, how long is x?
x cm
d What are the dimensions of the cook
top? Cook top
e What area (to 1 decimal place) on
the cook top is taken up by the hot
plates?
13 You are visiting the wonderful Funland, in the country of Amazina. The distance from
Fun Hotel to the main entrance is 700 yards on foot. In Amazina, the imperial system of
measurement is used. To change this to metric-system measurements we need to use the
conversion factors of 36 inches to 1 yard and 39.37 inches to 1 metre.

a 700 yards converts to _________ inches.
b From part a, _________ inches converts to _________ metres (to the nearest whole
number).
c If the scale-plan distance from the hotel to the main entrance is 6.4 cm, write the scale
length and the real-life distance from the hotel to the entrance as:
i a scale _________ cm to _________ m
ii a simplified ratio _________:_________.
d Write a general rule to calculate the real-life distance if you know the scale factor and
scale length; that is, real-life distance = _________.
Questions 14 to 19 will help you to investigate the area and volume ratios of similar figures.
14 Which of the following figures are similar?
a All rectangles b All squares
c All pentagons d All circles
e All equilateral triangles f All isosceles triangles
g All right-angled triangles h All isosceles right-angled triangles
Mathematically it can be shown that if the side lengths of two similar figures are in the ratio
a:b then the corresponding areas of the similar figures are in the ratio a2:b2.
Squares are always similar figures because of they always have
four equal angles (90°). For the two squares shown:
if the side length ratio = 2:6
then the area ratio = 22:62
= 4:36 2 6
= 1:9.
Therefore, if the area of the smaller square is 4 cm2, then the area of the larger square is:
large square area
= scale factor (ratio)
small square area
large square area 9
=
4 1
large square area = 36 cm2
15 Copy the following similar rectangles into
your workbook. 2 5
1 2
a Copy and complete the following statements and
calculations. 4 10
Smaller:Larger Smaller:Larger
Side length ratio 2: ? or ? :10
Area ratio 22: ? 2 or ? 2:102
4: ? or ? :100
(Cancel if possible.) ? :25
It does not matter which pair of dimensions you choose; the area ratio will finally work out
to be the same.
b If the area of the larger rectangle is 50 cm2, use the area ratio to calculate the area of the
smaller rectangle:
area of small rectangle
= scale factor
area of large rectangle
area of small rectangle 4
=
50 25
area of small rectangle = ? cm2
Check: Area of rectangle = L × W
L = 4, W = 2 = 4 × 2
= ? cm2
16 a Show that ∆ABC ∼ ∆DEF. D
b What is the ratio of the two triangles’ lengths in simplest A
form? 7.5
5 6
c What is the ratio of their areas? 4
d If the area of ∆ABC is 6 cm2, use the area ratio to show that
the area of ∆DEF is 13.5 cm2. B 3 C E 4.5 F
17 MC An estate has an area of 25000 m2. If the area of the scale drawing of this estate is
10 cm2, then 1 cm on the scale drawing represents an actual length of:
A 20 m B 25 m C 50 m D 250 m E 500 m
Exam tip In this question, students are given the actual area of the
estate. They are also given its area on a scale drawing. From this
information a scale factor for area (k2 = 2500) can be determined. The
majority of students apparently obtained this area scale factor but then
incorrectly applied it directly to scaling the given length rather than first
converting it into the corresponding linear scale factor, k.
18 A map’s scale is 1:4000.

a If an area on the map is 5 cm2, what does this represent in real-life terms? Convert your
answer to square metres.
b If this area is a square and is to be used as a fun-park with rides and games, what are the
dimensions of the park, rounded to 1 decimal place?
It follows that if the area (a 2-dimensional property) ratio of similar figures is the side length
ratio squared, then the volume (a 3-dimensional property) ratio of similar figures is the side
length ratio cubed.
In summary:
side length ratio a:b
area ratio a2:b2
volume ratio a3:b3
a b
19 Draw the following cylinders into your workbook.
10 cm
6 cm
r = 5 cm
r = 3 cm
a Copy and complete the following statements and calculations.

Using the height dimensions: Using the radius dimensions:
Side length ratio ? :10 or 3: ?
Volume ratio ? :103 or 33: ?
(Evaluate) ? :1000 or 27: ?
(Cancel) ? :125

b If the volume of the larger cylinder is approximately 785.4 cm3, use the volume ratio to
calculate the volume of the smaller cylinder to 1 decimal place:
Volume of small cylinder
= scale factor
Volume of large cylinder
? 27
=
Volume of large cylinder 125
Volume of small cylinder = ? cm3
eBook plus c Check this value by using the formula: volume = area of cross-section × height.
20 a What is the volume ratio (in simplest form) between the cones 3 cm
Digital docs
shown at right?
WorkSHEET 10.2 2 cm
Investigation b If the volume of the larger cone (to 1 decimal place) is
Making an 56.5 cm3, use the volume ratio to calculate the volume of 6 cm
aeroplane the smaller cone to 1 decimal place. 4 cm
c Check your answer using the formula for the volume of a
tapered object.
10h Similar triangles

We have seen the principles of similarity applied to scale drawings and 3-dimensional objects. In
eBook plus this section we shall concentrate on similarity between triangles and how this can be used to find
Interactivity dimensions in situations in which a direct measurement is impossible or inconvenient.
int-0811 There are three formal test rules that can be applied to triangles to see if they are similar.
Similar
triangles A D G
80n 4.5 80n 3 80n
9 6 40n 60n 9 6
E 4 F
40n 60n 40n 60n

B 8 C H 8 I
Test 1
Triangles are said to be similar if all the corresponding angles are equal (abbreviated to AAA).
That is, the three angles in one of the triangles are equal to the three angles in the other triangle.
∆ABC ∼ ∆DEF, because ∠A = ∠D ∆DEF ∼ ∆GHI, because ∠D = ∠G
∠B = ∠E ∠E = ∠H
∠C = ∠F ∠F = ∠I
Test 2
Triangles are said to be similar if the ratios between the corresponding side lengths are equal
(abbreviated to SSS).
∆ABC ∼ ∆DEF, because the ratio of corresponding side lengths is 2:
AB 9 AC 6 BC 8
= = 2, = = 2, and = =2
DE 4.5 DF 3 EF 4
1
∆DEF ∼ ∆GHI, because the ratio of corresponding side lenghs is :
2
DE 4.5 1 DF 3 1 EF 4 1
= = , = = , and = =
GH 9 2 GI 6 2 HI 8 2
The exception
∆ABC and ∆GHI are not classified as being similar, but belong to a sub-group of similar
triangles called congruent triangles.
Congruent triangles are identical in shape and size. Their corresponding angles are equal and
the corresponding sides are in the same ratio, equal to 1; that is, the corresponding side lengths
are exactly the same.
The sign used to denote congruency is ≅, so ∆ABC ≅ ∆GHI.
Test 3
Triangles are said to be similar if two of their D
corresponding sides are in the same ratio
(ratio value does not equate to 1) and the angle
between these two sides (the included angle) is 18
A
the same in both triangles (abbreviated to SAS).
∆ABC ∼ ∆DEF, because the corresponding 6
60n 60n
sides have the same ratio value that does not B 8 C E 24 F
equate to one and the included angle for both Included angle
triangles is the same:
EF 24 ED 18
= = 3 and = = 3; ∠B = ∠E
BC 8 AB 6
Sometimes it is hard to decide whether the two triangles are similar or not, because they are
not orientated the same way. In such cases it is helpful to re-draw the triangles so that the sides
and angles that we think might be corresponding are in the same order.
Worked Example 21
Compare each of the following N

triangles with ∆ABC and E A
state whether they are 6.6 6
110n C
similar, congruent or there is
40n
not enough information 30n B 10
30n
given for a decision to be J M
made. Justify your answers. 20 G 20 110n
a ∆ DEF 6.6
7.5
b ∆GHI 10
c ∆ JKL 40n 110n K
110n 110n
d ∆ MNO 40n H 4.5 I 40n
F D
L O
think write/draw
a 1 Re-draw ∆DEF so that its angles a D

correspond to those of ∆ABC. 110n
A 110n
6.6 6
B C E 30n 40n F
30n 10 40n 20
2 Compare the corresponding angles and ∠A = ∠D

write what you observe. ∠B = ∠E
∠C = ∠F
All corresponding angles are equal.
3 Compare the side measurements given to FE 20
= =2
test for congruency. CB 10
2 ≠ 1, so the triangles are not congruent.
4 State whether the triangles are similar ∆ABC ∼ ∆DEF because all corresponding
and specify the test upon which your angles are equal (AAA).
conclusion is based.

b 1 Re-draw ∆ABC and ∆GHI so that angles/ b A
sides correspond. H
6.6 110n 6
110n 4.5
B C G I
30n 10 40n 7.5 40n
2 Compare the side measurements. AC 6

=
HI 4.5
= 1.333 and
BC 10
=
GI 7.5
= 1.333
3 Compare the angles formed by the sides ∠C = ∠I = 40°
which have measurements in the same
ratio (that is the included angles).
4 State and justify your conclusion. ∆ABC and ∆GHI are similar because two pairs
of corresponding sides are in the same ratio
that doesn’t equate to 1 and the included angles
are equal (SAS).
c 1 Re-draw ∆ABC and ∆ JKL so the angles/ c A K
sides correspond. 6.6 110n 6 6.6 110n
B C J L
30n 10 40n 10 40n
2 Check if the corresponding angles are ∠J° = 180° − 150° = 30°

equal. ∠J = ∠B, ∠A = ∠K, ∠C = ∠L
3 As side measurements are given, check BC 10 AB 6.6
= = 1 and = =1
for congruency. JL 10 KJ 6.6
4 State your conclusion and justify. Initially, the two triangles appeared to be
similar because of AAA; however, as the
side ratio equates to 1, these triangles are
congruent.
d 1 Re-draw ∆ABC and ∆MNO so the angles/ d M
sides correspond. 110n
A
6.6
110n 6
B CN O
30n 10 40n 20
2 None of the three tests (AAA, SSS or Unable to determine whether the triangles are
SAS) can be performed since we know similar, as ∆MNO does not provide enough
the measurements of only one side and information to test AAA, SSS or SAS.
one angle in the ∆MNO. State this in
writing.
Being able to determine the corresponding angles in a triangle is vital to all three tests on
similarity. In some cases the actual value of one of the angles is unknown, but by mathematical
deduction its size can be found. This requires that you remember your angle properties. Some of
these properties are shown in the following table.
Angle description Diagram
1. When two lines intersect, they form vertically an
opposite angles, which are equal. bn bn
an
2. When a transversal line cuts parallel lines, a Transversal line

number of angles are formed.
Parallel lines
3. Alternate angles are on opposite (alternate)

sides of the transversal and are always equal. an bn
bn an
4. Corresponding angles lie on the same side

of the transversal and both are either below cn dn
or above the parallel lines. They are always an bn
equal. cn dn
an bn
5. Co-interior angles lie on the same side of the

transversal and within the parallel lines. They cn an an bn 180n
dn bn cn dn 180n
always add up to 180°.
WorkEd ExaMPlE 22
eBook plus
Show that ∆ABC ∼ ∆ADE, because: 3.75 D Tutorial
a the corresponding angles are equal B 7.2 int-0909
b the corresponding side ratios are equal (to a 7.5 4.8 Worked example 22
value other than 1). A E
10 C 5
think WritE
a 1 Draw the triangles separately with angles a B

marked and side measurements shown. 7.5 4.8 D
an
A bn cn C 11.25 an 7.2
10
A bn cn E
15
2 State the corresponding pairs of angles ∠A = ∠A (shared)
which are equal in size. Specify the reason. ∠B = ∠D (corresponding)
∠C = ∠E (corresponding)
3 Write your conclusion. ∴ ∆ABC ∼ ∆ADE using AAA test.
b 1 Evaluate the ratio between the corresponding b AD = 11.25
sides. AB 7.5
= 1.5
AE 15
=
AC 10
= 1.5
DE 7.2
=
BC 4.8
= 1.5

2 Write your conclusion. The corresponding side lengths of the
triangles are in the same ratio. (The ratio is
not equal to 1.)
∴ ∆ABC ∼ ∆ADE (SSS test).
If, in a pair of similar triangles, the lengths of at least one pair of corresponding sides are given,
the ratio (scale factor) can be established. It can then be used to find missing lengths in one of
the triangles, provided that the corresponding lengths in the other triangle are known.
Worked Example 23
Find the value of the pronumeral in the figure at right. D

x
B
think write 7.5
10 C
1 Establish whether the triangles ABC and ADE ∠A = ∠A (shared) A 15
E
are similar by applying the AAA test. ∠B = ∠D (corresponding)
∠C = ∠E (corresponding)
∴ ∆ABC ∼ ∆ADE (AAA test)
2 Since the triangles are similar, their AE 15
=
corresponding sides are in the same ratio. Find AC 10
this ratio using the corresponding pair of sides = 1.5
whose lengths are known.
3 The missing length AD in ∆ADE corresponds to AD
= 1.5
the side AB in ∆ABC. Use this information to AB
form the ratio equation.
4 Identify the values of AD and AB. AD = x, AB = 7.5
5 Substitute the values of AD and AB into the x
equation and solve for x. = 1.5
7.5
x = 1.5 × 7.5
= 11.25
Note: When forming an equation, place the unknown value in the numerator to make calculation
steps easier or use a CAS calculator to solve the equation.
REMEMBER
1. There are three formal tests to identify similar triangles.

Test 1: Test that all corresponding angles are equal (abbreviated to AAA).
Test 2: Test the ratio between corresponding sides. This ratio needs to be equal for all
pairs and cannot equate to 1. It is abbreviated to SSS.
Test 3: This test involves two pairs of corresponding sides and the angle formed by these
sides (the included angle). For the condition SAS to hold true the ratios of the sides
must be equal (though not 1) and the included angle should also be equal.
2. Congruent triangles are a sub-group of similar triangles. They have all angles equal
and the side values are exactly the same.
3. When comparing triangles it is best to have them drawn with the same orientation.
4. When forming an equation to solve for a missing dimension, place the unknown value
in the numerator to make the calculation steps easier or use a CAS calculator to solve
the equations.
Exercise
1 WE21 For each of the following, compare ∆ABC and ∆EFD and state whether they are
similar, congruent, or there is not enough information given for a decision to be made. Justify
your answers.
a A b D
20n 5.5
D 120n 115n 40n
E
6 4 E 20n F B 6 cm C
40n 8.25 25n 40n
C 3 cm 3 cm 6 cm
B 120n A
F
c B d 40n 6
3.375 D E
A 7.875 D 110n
1.5 12 C
2.5 A
5.625 F
E 6 8 30n F
3.5
B
C
2 Calculate the size of the missing angles. Justify your answer.

a cn
b cn c
an
an 32n cn dn
24n 68n bn en
bn bn
dn an
d cn e xn f bn
78n bn 99n cn en
yn
an dn en an dn
63n • 32n
58n
3 MC The magnitude of angle a° is:

A 30° B 180° − 30° C 60°
D 180° − 60° E 70° 30n
an
4 MC The magnitude of angle a° is:

A 64° B 128° C 52° 64n
D 154° E 104°
an
5 WE22 Show that ∆ABC is similar to ∆DBE because:
a the corresponding angles are equal
b the corresponding side ratios are equal (to a value other B
than 1).
6 cm 5 cm
D E
4 cm
4.2 cm 3.5 cm
A 6.8 cm C

6 In each of the following diagrams, find and re-draw two triangles that are similar. Give reasons
for your answer.
a A b A c C
B A
B
B E
E D C E
C D D
d E e A
D
D
A
C B
B
C
7 WE23 Find the values of the pronumerals (to 1 decimal place).
a 37 cm b 2.4 c A
9.6 12.4 y
31 cm C
x y x
y *
5
9.6 cm B E
x 18 12
D
*
6.2 cm
d A e A f A
15
6 C 5 D B 30n
3.4 m
x 4 2 cm
B y yn
1.7 m
E C E B 3 cm C
x 4m
D xn z
D 9 cm E
g 22n37' A h i
15
x r=8
y 9 9
y
z 24 x
36
r=4
Cx
yn
D 15 B
8 MC The side lengths of triangle ABC are 18 mm, 24 mm and 30 mm. Triangle DEF is similar
to triangle ABC and its shortest side is 12 mm. The perimeter of the triangle DEF is:
A 48 mm B 52 mm C 64 mm D 72 mm E 108 mm
9 It just happens that you always carry a wooden rod 1.5 m in length and a tape measure.
For each of the following situations, draw a diagram showing the two similar triangles and
calculate the height of the vertical object.
a The clearance sign is missing from a low bridge over a road. The sun has created an
image of the bridge and its opening on the ground. The image of the opening is 1.44 m
in length. The semi-trailer you are driving is 2.5 m high. You step out of the truck and
place your trusty rod on the ground, producing a 90-cm shadow. Will you need to find an
alternative route or can you proceed?
b The measuring tape for the pole vault height is missing. How high did Emma George pole
vault if the pole vault creates a shadow of 2.4 m on the ground, while your wooden rod
creates a shadow of 80 cm?
c Does the fire brigade need to bring an extension ladder longer than 15 m to rescue people
from the top of a high-rise building, if the shadow created by the building is 24 m and the
shadow created by your pole is 2 m?
d Slam-dunking a basketball ring can be
dangerous; people have been injured
by the ring and back-board collapsing.
You have always wanted to know
how high the basketball players had
to jump to touch the top of the ring.
Your wooden rod held next to the
basketball pole created a shadow half
the length of the basketball pole’s 1-m
shadow.
If the ring is 45 cm from the top of
the board, how far up from the ground
do the players have to reach to touch
the ring?
10 A triangle with sides 12 cm, 24 cm and 32 cm is similar to a smaller triangle that has a longest
side measurement of 8 cm. Draw a diagram to represent this situation and then calculate the
perimeter of the smaller triangle.
11 A curved section of a fun-ride is to be supported by

similar triangles.
a If the dimensions of the first and last triangle are 13.75
as shown, calculate the dimensions of the triangle
in between. 1.5 x y 9.375
b The construction people decide to make the track 2.2
even steeper by extending the track with one more z 6.25
similar triangle. What are the dimensions of the 1
next triangle?
12 At your 18th birthday party you want to show slides of you and
your friends growing up. The diagram at right shows the set-up
of the projector lens, slide and projector screen. A
B
If: (a) a slide is 5 cm × 5 cm
(b) the distance from A to B is 10 cm Lens
Slide
(c) the projector screen is 1.5 m × 1.5 m
how far horizontally from the screen do you need to place the
projector’s lens so the image just covers the entire screen? Projector
screen

10i Symmetry
A 2-dimensional shape may be described as having either line symmetry and/or rotational
symmetry.
line symmetry
If it is possible to cut a 2-dimensional shape in such a way that it is divided into two mirror
images, then it possesses line symmetry. The line that allows this to occur is called the axis of
symmetry.
Shapes can have more than one line of symmetry:
Two lines of Infinite number

symmetry Three lines of of lines of
One line of symmetry symmetry
symmetry
An easy way to check whether the line is an axis of symmetry of a certain shape is to fold the
shape along that line. If the two parts coincide (that is, the shape folds onto itself), the line is the
axis of symmetry.
WorkEd ExaMPlE 24
eBook plus
Which of the dotted lines in this figure is an axis of symmetry? E A Tutorial
int-0910
think WritE Worked example 24
C D
1 Visualise the triangle as being A
folded along each dotted line. If F
the triangle folds onto itself the
line is an axis of symmetry. B
2 AB is an axis of symmetry. E
CD and EF are not.
C D
AB is an axis of symmetry.
rotational symmetry
If a shape can be rotated about a point so that it appears as it did in its original position at least
once in less than one complete revolution of 360°, then it is said to have rotational symmetry.
The number of times a shape appears as the original in one rotation is called its order of
symmetry.
For example, a square possesses rotational symmetry. By marking one corner and rotating
the square in a clockwise direction around point × (its centre of rotation), it can be seen that in a
turn of 90°, the square appears as it did originally.
r =
Original Rotated on Rotated on Rotated on Rotated on

itself 90n itself 180n itself 270n itself 360n
With each subsequent turn of 90° the square appears as it originally did. Within the 360°
revolution there were four times the square appeared as its original, so a square’s order of
rotational symmetry is said to be 4.
An equilateral triangle has an order of rotational symmetry of 3.
120n 120n

120n
The principles of line and rotational symmetry can also be applied to 3-dimensional objects.
Planes of symmetry
Planes of symmetry for 3-dimensional figures are like lines of symmetry for 2-dimensional
figures. Planes of symmetry slice through a 3-dimensional object so that each half is a mirror
image of the other.
Some 3-dimensional objects may have one plane of symmetry, while other objects can have
more than one.
This scalene triangular prism has only one plane of symmetry.
This equilateral triangular prism has four planes of symmetry.
Axes of symmetry
An axis of symmetry is a line about which an object can rotate so that it assumes positions
identical with those of the original. Like rotational symmetry in 2-dimensional shapes, a
3-dimensional shape can be described by its order of rotational symmetry. This is the number
of times the shape assumes an appearance identical with that in the original position, within one
revolution of 360° about its axis of symmetry.
A square-based pyramid has an order of rotational symmetry of 4.
In a square-based pyramid there is only one axis of symmetry; however,
other 3-dimensional objects can have none or many.

An object’s order of Order of rotational symmetry 4
rotational symmetry can be
affected by the axis chosen. For
example, if a cube is rotated
around the vertical line, passing
through the centre of the top face,
its order of rotational symmetry is
equal to 4. Order of rotational symmetry 2
If, however, the same cube is

rotated around its diagonal, the
order of rotational symmetry is then 2.
tessellations
There are many examples in design, art and architecture where shapes are used to
cover a surface with patterns which leave no gaps. These patterns are referred to as
tessellations.
Tessellations can be divided into three main categories: regular, homogeneous (or semi-
eBook plus regular) and non-homogeneous (irregular).
1. In regular tessellations, the pattern is made by only one type of regular polygon.
Digital doc
Extension —
2. In homogeneous tessellations, the pattern is made up of different types of regular polygon.
Tessellations 3. In non-homogeneous tessellations, any type of shape can be used.
The subject of ‘tessellations’ is also presented in chapter 6 ‘Geometry in two and three
dimensions’ (pages 287–89).
non-homogeneous (irregular)
tessellations
This category is not restricted to using regular polygons, so any
shapes that will fit together to cover a plane surface can be used.
The shapes still need to form a definite pattern that is repeated
to cover the surface.
rEMEMBEr
1. The line that divides a 2-dimensional shape into two parts that are mirror images of
each other is called the axis of symmetry.
2. The plane that divides a 3-dimensional shape into two halves that are mirror images of
each other is called a plane of symmetry.
3. The number of lines/planes of symmetry can be 0, 1, more than 1 (for example,
2, 3, …) or infinite.
4. If a 2-dimensional shape can be rotated about a fixed point, or a 3-dimensional shape
can be rotated about a line (the axis of symmetry) so that it assumes positions identical
with those of the original at least once in less than one complete turn, the shape is said
to have a rotational symmetry.
5. The number of times the shape assumes an appearance identical with that in the
original position within one revolution is called an order of rotational symmetry.
6. In 3-dimensional shapes, an order of rotational symmetry can be affected by the axis
chosen.
Exercise
10I Symmetry
1 WE24 Which of the dotted lines in each of the figures shown is an axis of symmetry?
a A b A
E G
E D
C D G H
C F
H F B
B
c A d A H
E D C
E F
G H
D
G B
C B F
2 Copy the following figures into your workbook and draw in all the possible axes of
symmetry.
a b
c d
e f
3 a Draw a regular pentagon with sides 1.5 cm in length and internal angles all accurately
measuring 108°.
b Draw in all axes of symmetry.
The point where these lines intersect in a regular polygon is known as the centre of rotation.
Use this point to rotate the pentagon.
c Through what angle must the pentagon be rotated before it superimposes itself
for the first time? (It is important to measure the angle very carefully to the nearest
degree.)
d How many times does the pentagon superimpose itself when turned 360°?
e What is its order of rotation?
4 Copy and complete the following table by answering questions 3a to e for each of the regular
polygons listed. (A regular polygon has all sides of equal length and all angles of equal size.)
Add two extra rows at the foot of the table for the answer to question 5b .

Angle of
Polygon Number of Number of lines first super- Order of
(regular) sides of symmetry imposition rotation
Triangle
(angle size 60°)
Square
Pentagon
(angle size 108°)
Hexagon
(angle size 120°)
Octagon
(angle size 135°)
5 a Write a brief paragraph describing in general how you can determine the number of lines of
symmetry, the angle of first superimposition and the order of rotation of a regular polygon
with any (n) number of sides.
b Using the concepts you wrote about in part a , add to the table in question 4 a regular
nonagon and a regular decagon and fill in their details.
6 For each of the following shapes, state its order of rotational symmetry.
a b c
d e f
7 Which of the following cuts are planes of symmetry?

a b c
d e f
8 The diagram at right shows a regular octahedron. E

a How many planes of symmetry does it have?
B D C
b How many axes of symmetry does it have and what is its order of
A
rotational symmetry?
F
9 Make a square pyramid by copying onto paper or thin cardboard, the net for the square
pyramid shown.
Cut around the edge of the net, fold along the dotted lines and then stick the sides together
with adhesive tape.
a How many planes of symmetry and axes of symmetry does a square pyramid have?
b What is its order of rotational symmetry?
10 Create a table with the following headings.
Vertical Horizontal Rotational
symmetry symmetry symmetry None
Determine to which column or columns each of the capital letters of the alphabet (shown
below) belongs.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Use the table of information from question 10 to answer the following questions.
11 Some words possess rotational symmetry, in that if they are rotated 180° they still match the
original word appearance.
180n
Other words can possess a line of symmetry.

a Copy the following words into your workbook and determine if they have a line of
symmetry.
If so, draw in the line or lines of symmetry.

b Use your table of alphabet symmetry information to try to find other example words of
three letters, four letters and five letters for each kind of symmetry (horizontal, vertical
and rotational).
c When placed in front of a mirror, letters with a vertical line of symmetry appear
__________, while letters with a horizontal line of symmetry look __________.
d Try to write a sentence that would look the same in a mirror.

Summary
Pythagoras’ theorem in two dimensions
• In any right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides: Hypotenuse
a
(length of hypotenuse)2 = (length of side 1)2 + (length of side 2)2 c
Side 1
or c2 = a2 + b2
b
Side 2
Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions

• Use the following steps when solving 3-dimensional problems.
Step 1. If not supplied, draw a diagram of the situation.
Step 2. Label all vertices in the diagram.
Step 3. Identify the length that needs to be found.
Step 4. Identify the triangle that contains the unknown length.
Step 5. Re-draw this triangle in two dimensions.
Step 6. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the unknown length.
Step 7. If the question is presented in words, write an answer sentence, rounding the value appropriately for
the situation.
• If the triangle containing the unknown length has other measurements missing, find these missing values first
from other triangles within the figure.
Perimeter and area

• Generally:
1. Unless specified, do not round units until the end of the solution.
2. When solving worded questions:
(a) draw a diagram
(b) write a comment line on your plan of action
(c) write the formula
(d) allocate a value to the pronumeral(s)
(e) substitute the value(s) into the formula and evaluate
(f) write an answer sentence.
3. If the measurements in question include units, include them in your final answer.
• The perimeter is the distance around a closed 2-dimensional shape.
• Area refers to the space enclosed by the boundaries of a 2-dimensional shape.

Square A = L2 P = 4L
L
Rectangle L A=L×W P = 2(L + W)
Parallelogram A=b×h P = sum of all sides
where the height measurement must be at a
h right angle to the base measurement.
Trapezium a 1 P = sum of all sides

A = 2 (a + b)h
h where the height measurement must be at a
right angle to the base measurement.
b
Rhombus 1 P = sum of all sides

A=2 x×y
–
x
–
y –
–
Triangle 1 P = sum of all sides

A = 2 bh

where the height measurement must be at a
h right angle to the base measurement.
h
b
b
Triangle P=a+b+c
c b A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
1
where s = 2 (a + b + c)
a (Use when height measurement is unknown.)
Circle A = π r2 C = π d or
C = 2π r
r
d
• The formula for the area of a parallelogram, triangle and trapezium require the height to be perpendicular to
the base measurement.
• An annulus is the area between two concentric circles.
Area of annulus: A = π (R2 − r2), where R is the radius of the larger circle and r is the radius of the smaller
circle.
• A sector is formed between two radii of the circle and a length on the circumference.
θ
Area of a sector A = πr2
360°
θ
Arc length of a sector = × 2π r
360°
θ
= πr ,
180°
where θ is the angle of a sector and r is the radius of the circle.

• To find the area/perimeter of composite shapes, calculate the area/perimeter of the individual shapes first.

Total surface area (TSA)
• Total surface area is the sum of the surfaces of a 3-dimensional object.
Object Net TSA

Cube TSA = 6L2
2
1 3 4 5
L 6 L
Rectangular prism l TSA = 2(wh + lw + lh)

h
h l
h w w
w
l
h
Cylinder TSA = area of 2 circles

r + curved surface
= 2π r2 + 2π rh
h = 2π r(r + h)
h
r
2 Pr
r
Sphere Not shown TSA = 4π r2
Cone S TSA = area of base (circle)

+ area of curved
2P r surface
S Slant r 2π r
height = π r2 + × π S2
h 2π S
= π r2 + π rS
r = π r(r + S)
Object Net TSA
Note: The slant height of the cone is formed from the radius of the circle, so their values are the same.
The arc length of the sector used to form the cone becomes the circumference of the base of the cone, so
their values are the same.
Curved surface of a cone is formed by removing a sector out of a circle.
Arc length Slant height
radius of
sector
Major
sector
rS
Minor
sector
Circumference of
base arc length
of sector
Square-based pyramid TSA = area of square
+ area of 4 triangles
h 1 
= b2 + 4 ×  bh
2
= b2 + 2bh
h
b
b
• Formulas for all types of objects are not possible. For those objects without a formula:
1. draw the net of the object
2. work out the different shapes that make up the net
3. calculate their individual areas
4. add all the individual parts together.
• When finding the TSA of a composite figure, do not include the areas of the inside surfaces (that is, the
surfaces of contact of the individual shapes that make up the figure).
Volume
• The volume of an object is the amount of space that the object occupies. It is measured in cubic units.
• Prisms are 3-dimensional objects with uniform cross-sections and parallel sides. The cross-section is represented
by the ends of the prism. The height is the dimension perpendicular (at right angles) to the cross-sectional area.
Volume of a prism = cross-sectional area × height of the prism
Cylinder V = area of a circle × height
= π r2 × H
r
H
r Area = π r2
Triangular prism V = area of a triangle × height

1
h = 2 bh × H
b Note: Lowercase h represents
h H the height of the triangle.
1
b Area = 2 bh
(continued)

Rectangular prism V = area of a rectangle × height
W
=L×W×H
L
H
L W Area = L × W
Cube V = area of a square × height

= L2 × H
= L2 × L
H = L3
L (since in a square, H = L)
L Area = L2
• Tapered objects have one flat end (known as the base) and one pointed end (called the apex). The height
dimension in the formula for a tapered object must be at right angles to the base (flat end).
1
Volume of a tapered object = 3 × area of base × perpendicular height
Shape Flat end (base) shape Volume

Cone 1
V = 3 × area of a circle × height
r 1
V = 3π r2 × H
H
Square pyramid 1
V = 3 × area of a square × height
1
V = 3L2 × H
H
L
Rectangular pyramid 1
W V = 3 × area of a rectangle × height
L 1
= 3L × W × H
H
W
L
Triangular pyramid 1
V = 3 × area of a triangle × height
h 1 1 
V = 3  2 bh × H
H Note: Lowercase h represents the
h b height of the triangle.
b
• Do not confuse the lowercase h in the formula for a triangular prism/pyramid or trapezoidal prism with the
uppercase H.
Uppercase H = total height of the prism or pyramid, while lowercase h is the height of the triangle,
parallelogram of a trapezium.
4
• For a sphere: Volume = 3 π r3
Capacity
• The capacity of a container is the amount that it can hold.
• To find the fluid capacity of a container, find its volume in cubic units first and then convert, using the
following rules:
1 cm3 = 1 mL, 1 m3 = 1 kL = 1000 L
Similar figures
• Similar figures have the same shape but different sizes. The corresponding angles in each similar figure are
the same; however, the corresponding side lengths differ by a scale factor.
• The scale factor can be written as:
1. 2 cm to 10 m
2. a ratio, provided the units are the same
2 cm to 10 m
2 cm to 1000 cm
2:1000
1:500
(The first number in a ratio represents the measurement on a scale drawing; the second represents the real-
life measurement.)
3. a fraction
1 500
500
or 1
• When forming a rule the following format is usually used:
scale measurement
Scale factor =
real-life measurement
where both scale and real-life measurements are in the same units.
Similar triangles
• Triangles are similar if:
1. all corresponding angles are equal (AAA), or
2. all corresponding sides are in the same ratio (SSS), or
3. two sides are in the same ratio and the included angles are equal (SAS).
• Congruent triangles are a sub-group of similar triangles. They have all angles equal and the side values are
exactly the same.
• When comparing triangles it is best to have them drawn with the same orientation.
• When forming an equation to solve for a missing dimension, place the unknown value in the numerator to
make the calculation steps easier.
Symmetry
• The line that divides a 2-dimensional shape into two parts that are mirror images of each other is called the
axis of symmetry.
• A 2-dimensional shape can be classified by the number of lines of symmetry it possesses and the number
of times the shape superimposes itself when rotated around a fixed point, called the order of rotational
symmetry.
• The plane that divides a 3-dimensional shape into two parts that are mirror images of each other is called the
plane of symmetry.
• A 3-dimensional shape can be classified by the number of planes of symmetry it possesses and the number of
times the shape superimposes itself when rotated around the chosen axis of symmetry (its order of rotational
symmetry).
• The axes chosen can affect the order of rotational symmetry in a 3-dimensional shape.

chapter review
Multiple choice 5 The area of a one-metre wide gravel path around a
12 lawn 25 m × 15 m is:
1 Examine the diagram.
The value of the A 84 cm2 B 80 cm2
x 5 C 78 cm2 D 76 cm2
pronumeral to 1 decimal
2
place is: E 82 cm
9 8 cm
A 6.2 B 6.0 6 Examine the diagram.
C 5.8 D 5.6 The height of the shape shown is:
E 5.4 A 23.5 cm
2 B 19.5 cm
C 25.5 cm 16 cm
r 50 cm D 20.5 cm
E 15.5 cm
w 80 cm d cm depth of water in the pipe 7 The area of the shaded section in 7 mm
this diagram is:
The cross-section of a water pipe is circular with A 12.2 cm2
a radius, r, of 50 cm, as shown above. The surface B 141.4 cm2
of the water has a width, w, of 80 cm. The depth C 1110 mm2
of water in the pipe, d, could be: D 11.0 cm2
A 20 cm B 25 cm E 1414 mm2 2 cm
C 30 cm D 40 cm 2
8 The TSA of a rectangular prism is 126 cm . If the
E 50 cm
base of the prism is 6 cm × 5 cm, what is its height?
Exam tip The question required students to A 2.5 cm B 3 cm
determine the depth of water in a circular pipe, given C 3.4 cm D 3.5 cm
its surface width. Only 22% of students were
successful in choosing option A. Option C, which
E 4 cm
corresponded to the distance of the surface from the 9 Examine the diagram
centre of the pipe, was given by 39% of students. A at right. The TSA of the solid
further 22% of students wrongly assumed that the
cross-section of the surface was semicircular and
shown is given by:
m
chose option D. 3π m 2
[Assessment report 2006] A 3π m2 B
2
2
[©VCAA 2006]  m 3
C 5π   D 4 π m2
3 The longest stick that can be placed inside a cube  2
with side length of 2 m has the length (to 2 decimal  m
2
places) of: E 2π  2 
A 3.46 m
B 3.44 m 10 A solid cylinder has a height
C 3.50 m of 30 cm and a diameter of
D 3.48 m 40 cm. A hemisphere is cut
out of the top of the cylinder 30 cm
E 3.52 m
4 The perimeter of a rectangle with an area of 56 cm2 as shown at right.
and one side of 8 cm is: In square centimetres, the
total surface area of the 40 cm
A 30 cm B 7 cm
remaining solid (including
C 15 cm D 28 cm
its base) is closest to:
E 26 cm
A 1260 B 2510 15 If the volume of a container is 1000 mm3, what is
C 6280 D 7540 its capacity in mL?
E 10050 A 0.1 mL
B 1 mL
Exam tip To ensure that they include all of the C 10 mL
surfaces involved, students might find it helpful to D 100 mL
begin solution to questions such as this by writing
down a statement like: total surface area = surface E 1000 mL
area of the hemispherical bowl + surface area of the 16 The volumes of two similar-shaped cylinders are
side of the cylinder + surface area of the base of the 1000 cm3 and 3375 cm3. In simplest form, what is
cylinder. [Assessment report 2007]
the ratio of their surface areas?
[©VCAA 2007] A 10:15
B 4:9
11 Examine the diagram at right.
m C 4:6
The volume of the shape shown is
given by: D 2:3
1 4
E 9:4
A 3π m2n + 3 π m2 n 17 On the architect’s plan, a house block is 7.5 cm
2
B 3 π m2 + π m2n wide, while the actual (real-life) width of the block
is 60 m. What is the ratio scale of the plan?
C π m2n A 1:80 B 8:1
1
D 3 π n(m2 + 2) C 1:8 D 1:800
1
E 80:1
E 3 π m2(n + 2m)
18 The length of x is:
12 A cylindrical container of radius r and height h is A 4 cm B 16 cm 8
6
being filled with sand using a conical container, C 10 cm D 8 cm
also of radius r and height h. How many cones of E 6 cm x cm 12
sand are needed to fill the cylinder to capacity? 19 The lengths of x and y,
12
A π B 3π respectively, are: 24 10
1 x
C 3 D A 12 m and 14 m 15
3 y
π B 13 m and 16 m
E 3 C 18 m and 16 m
13 The rectangular box shown D 16 m and 18 m
in the diagram is closed at E 18 m and 14 m
the top and at the bottom. It 20 A tree casts a shadow of 10 m, while your 0.45-m
has a volume of 6 m3. The wooden stick casts a shadow of 100 cm. What is
base dimensions are the height of the tree?
1.5 m × 2 m. The total 2m A 45 m B 4 m
surface area of this box is: 1.5 m
C 4.5 m D 5 m
A 10 m2 E 5.5 m
B 13 m2
21 The number of planes of
C 13.5 m2
symmetry of the figure shown is:
D 20 m2
E 27 m2 [©VCAA 2006]
A 1 B 2
14 A rectangular swimming pool has a capacity of C 3 D 4
1000 kL. If the pool is 50 m long and 2 m deep, E 5
how wide is it? 22 The number of axes of
A 10 m symmetry of the figure
B 20 m shown is:
C 25 m A 2 B 5
D 50 m C 7 D 3
E 100 m E 9

short answer
1 To allow people All walls,

access to the gym, Ramp 2.4 cm floor and
the manager has top are
decided to place a r 0.25 m thick
16.5 cm
ramp over a set of 27 cm
stairs. 3.5 m
What length of timber (to the nearest centimetre) a What is the internal radius, r, of the tank?
does he need to purchase?
2 A 2-m surfboard is to be A C
Exam tip An incorrect value of 1.75 was a
placed in a locker. Will it fit common response.
down the side shown by the
line AB or will it have to go
b Determine the maximum amount of water this
diagonally across as shown by 1.8 m
tank can hold. Write your answer correct to the
the line CB?
nearest cubic metre.
3 Find (to 1 decimal place):
i the perimeter D
Exam tip Many students did not find the correct
B 0.62 m
ii the area 0.62 m internal height (1.9 m) of the tank, which was
of the following shapes. necessary for a method mark.
a b
220n35'
[©VCAA 2006]
2m
8.2 cm 7 If the volume of a cone of height 10 cm is
261.8 cm3, show that this volume is increased
c 6 cm by a factor of 8 if the dimensions of the cone are
doubled.
15.67 cm 8 A cylindrical can of drink holds 375 mL of liquid.
If the area of the base is 31.25 cm2, find the height
of the can.
4 To secure the 2.4-m-high poles of a beach 9 The shapes below have either been enlarged or
volleyball net you need to attach a guy rope to a reduced by a scale factor from a fixed point.
ring seven-eighths of the way up each pole. The In both cases, calculate by what scale factor the
guy ropes are 2.5 m in length. original will need to be multiplied to produce the
a Draw a diagram of the situation and include all image.
dimensions given. a b
1.5 cm 10 cm
b How far out (to 1 decimal place) from the base 6 cm
of the poles will the guy ropes go? 1 cm 5 cm
5 A designer vase has the

shape of a truncated, 0.4 cm 8 cm
square-based pyramid.
The base of the vase is a
square with a side Note: The image is the shaded area.
length of 15 cm. The 10 Two rectangles are similar. The larger rectangle’s
area of the square opening is 70.56 cm2. Each of dimensions are 24 cm × 12 cm. If the longest side
the 4 sides is a trapezium with slant sides 9 cm on the smaller rectangle is 16 cm, calculate the
long. Find (to the nearest square centimetre) the other dimension.
total surface area of the vase. 11 A circle with a radius of 21 cm has an area
6 A closed cylindrical water tank has external of 1385.4 cm2 and another circle has an area
diameter 3.5 metres. The external height of the tank of 153.9 cm2. Using the principles of ratios,
is 2.4 metres. The walls, floor and top of the tank what is the radius of this circle to the nearest
are made of concrete 0.25 m thick. centimetre?
12 Find the length of x in A 13 a Copy the chessboard at right into
the diagram shown. your workbook and draw in the
B
lines of symmetry.
12 cm x b Rotate the board around its
C centre of rotation (the point
D 16 cm where the lines of symmetry cross). What is its
order of rotation?
Extended response
1 Lena and Alex are renovating their bathroom. Inspired by a creative exhibit from the recent Home Show, they
decided to use various geometric shapes in their design. The ‘window wall’ is the first section to be renovated.
The old window is to be replaced with two new windows as shown below and then the wall is to be tiled.
1.2 m
2.5 m
The window on the right is in the shape of an equilateral triangle, while the one on the left is in the shape
of a trapezium. The shorter parallel side of the trapezium is the same length as the sides of the triangular
window and the longer parallel side is equal to 2.5 m. Both windows are to be 1.2 m high.
Calculate:
a the perimeter of each window to the nearest centimetre
b the cost of wood (to the nearest dollar) needed to frame the windows, if the wood is sold at $13.50 per
metre
c the area of each window
d the total cost of the glass (to the nearest dollar), priced at $45 per m2.
The ‘window wall’ is to be tiled with glass tiles in the shape of a
rhombus as shown at right. 20 cm
e Will the tiles tessellate? Give reasons for your answer and draw a
small segment of the pattern to illustrate it.
f Small spaces between the tiles are to be filled with a special grout. 30 cm
Find the length (to the nearest centimetre) around each tile that needs
to be filled with grout.
g Find the area of each tile.
h If the ‘window wall’ is 4.6 m × 2.7 m, find the total area that needs to be tiled.
i The tiles are sold in boxes of 12. Use the results from parts g and h to find the number of boxes that
Lena and Alex need to purchase. Add an extra 10% for breakages to the number of tiles needed.
2 After successfully coping with the ‘window wall’ (see question 1), Alex and Lena decide to improve other
parts of their bathroom. First they want to decorate other walls with mosaic features as shown below.
60º
40 cm
25 cm
40 cm 40 cm
a Find the area of each feature to the nearest cm2.

b If Lena wants 6 of each type of feature, find the total area of the mosaic needed; then add 10% extra for
breakages and cutting.

c Mosaic can be purchased in square sheets 30 cm × 30 cm at
$22 each. (Each sheet can then be cut as needed, but only
whole sheets can be purchased.) Find the total cost of the Mirror cm
50
mosaic features. Shelves
50 cm
Next Alex wants to replace the old mirror with a new one as
shown at right.
The mirror is in the shape of a major segment, that is, a circle
with a section of it cut off straight. (The ‘cut-off’ section will be
complemented by small glass shelves.)
d If both the radius and the length of the ‘cut-off’ edge are 50 cm each, find the total area of the mirror (to
the nearest cm2).
e Alex wants to have the edges of the mirror bevelled. This can be easily done at the local glass store at a
cost of $20 per metre. Find the cost of the bevelling job.
The most daring feature of the new bathroom is the extremely modern looking
shower screen. It can be thought of as a section of
the curved surface of a cylinder 1.4 m long.
The curved edge is in the shape of an arc, Curved
subtended by a 120° angle from the centre of Curved r = —23 edge
2 edge
a circle with a radius of m. 120º
3
f Find the length of the curved edge. 1.4 m
g Find the total area of the glass in the shower
screen.
Bela the builder advises Lena and Alex that since they want a frameless screen, it has to be made from a
special toughened 10-mm-thick glass.
h What fraction of a cubic metre is the volume of glass in this unusual shower screen?
3 A chocolate manufacturer has brought out a new selection of chocolate shapes. They are filled with a delicious
honey/chocolate liquid.
1.5
60n
3 1.5 1.5
Sphere
Two triangular
2 prisms joined
Cone together
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5 1.5
1.5 2.5 3
Cube Rectangular Trapeziodal
prism square-based
prism
a For each chocolate shape, calculate:

i the TSA of chocolate required
ii the volume of honey/chocolate liquid required (to 1 decimal place).
b If a box contains four of each type of chocolate shape, what is the total area of chocolate needed to make
one box?
c Chocolate comes in square sheets of 50 cm × 50 cm. How many boxes can be produced per sheet of
chocolate?
d How many millilitres of honey/chocolate liquid are required per box?
e If the liquid comes in one-litre containers, how many boxes of chocolate can be produced per litre?
4 Tessa is a student in a woodwork class. The class will construct geometrical T
solids from a block of wood. Tessa has a piece of wood in the shape of a S
rectangular prism. This prism, ABCDQRST, shown in Figure 1, has base Q
R 32 cm
length 24 cm, base width 28 cm and height 32 cm.
D C
A B 28 cm
24 cm
Figure 1
On the front face of Figure 1, ABRQ, Tessa marks point W halfway between W
Q and R as shown in Figure 2. She then draws line segments AW and BW as Q R
shown.
32 cm
A B
24 cm
Figure 2
a Determine the length, in cm, of QW.

Exam tip A number of students inappropriately tried to apply
trigonometric ratios or Pythagoras’ theorem to this length, which is half
of AB, since W is a midpoint.
b What fraction of the area of the rectangle ABRQ does the area of the triangle AWB represent?
Tessa carves a triangular prism from her block of wood. Using point V
V, halfway between T and S on the back face DCST of Figure 1, she W
constructs the triangular prism shown in Figure 3. 32 cm
D C
A B
28 cm
24 cm
Figure 3
c Show that, correct to the nearest centimetre, length AW is 34 cm.
d Using length AW as 34 cm, find the
Exam tip The solid in this question is a triangular prism where the
total surface area, in cm2, of
triangle does not have a right angle. A significant number of students
the triangular prism ABCDWV in
used an incorrect formula that had obviously been copied from a text and
Figure 3.
failed to score any marks. The formula TSA = bh + bl + hl + l b + h
2 2
applies only to a right triangular prism. Further, the question directed

that a length AW = 34 cm had to be used. If this length was not used at
all, then no marks were available.

Tessa’s next task is to carve the right rectangular pyramid ABCDY Y
shown in Figure 4 at right. She marks a new point Y halfway between
points W and V in Figure 3. She uses point Y to construct this
pyramid. 32 cm
D C
28 cm
A B
24 cm
Figure 4
e Calculate the volume, in cm3, of the pyramid ABCDY in Figure 4.

f Show that, correct to the nearest cm, length AY is 37 cm.
g Using AY as 37 cm, demonstrate the
Exam tip This question required the correct use of Heron’s formula.
use of Heron’s formula to calculate
One mark was allowed for the correct and identified value of s.
the area, in cm2, of the triangular
Ineffective calculator usage again seems to have led to incorrect values
face YAB. for s, often due to not bracketing the numerator of the fraction before
dividing by 2. Another quite common error involved using 32 cm for one
of the sides of triangle YAB rather than recognising that it was an
isosceles triangle.
Tessa’s final task involves removing the top 24 cm of the height M L

of her pyramid (Figure 4). The shape remaining is shown in 8 cm
D
Figure 5. The top surface JKLM is parallel to the base ABCD. C
J K
28 cm
A B
24 cm
Figure 5
h What fraction of the height of the pyramid in Figure 4 has Tessa removed to produce Figure 5?
i What fraction of the volume of the pyramid in Figure 4 remains in Figure 5?
Exam tip Many students made a mistake by assuming incorrectly

that removing the top 3 of the height of a pyramid leaves 1 of the volume
4 4
remaining.
[©VCAA 2007]
5 The scale drawing at right is of a garden shed. C

a If the real-life width of the shed is 2 m, what is the scale factor
i in ______ cm to ______ m? 3 cm
(e)
ii as a ratio ______:______?
iii as a fraction?
b Use this scale factor to calculate all the real dimensions indicated (f)
by the pronumerals. 3.75 cm
2.4 cm 3 cm
c If the shed is to be painted, and this includes every side except the (c) (d)
roof (shown at right): A
i calculate the TSA to be painted 3 cm
Width (a) 3.75 cm
ii how many litres of paint are required if one litre covers 4 m2? (b)
d Find the total amount of space available inside the shed. Give the answer in
cubic metres to 1 decimal place.
e The longest stick that can fit inside the shed will go from the corner on the
floor, labelled A, to the opposite corner on top of the roof, labelled C. Find the
length of such a stick.
Roof section
6 The diagram below shows a triangular coffee table. (not painted)
a Enlarge the object by a scale factor of 2.

The original design of the tabletop is drawn as shown. 10 cm
b If the longest side of the actual table is 1.6 m, what is the scale ratio?
c Find the actual lengths of the other two sides of the tabletop. 8 cm
The tabletop is made from marble with a glass insert in the middle. The
glass insert is also in the shape of the triangle with side lengths 60 cm ×
48 cm × 32 cm.
d Are the two triangles (that is, the marble top and the glass insert) similar? Justify your answer.
e Does the tabletop have:
i line symmetry?
ii rotational symmetry?
f Design a triangular tabletop with three lines of symmetry and an order of rotational symmetry of 3.
Specify the lengths of the sides of your tabletop.
g Draw the plan of your design from part f using a scale ratio of 1:20.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 10

eBook plus aCtiVitiES
Chapter opener
Digital doc
• 10 Quick Questions: Warm up with ten quick
questions on shape and measurement. (page 456)
10A Pythagoras’ theorem in two dimensions
Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 10.1: Practise Pythagoras’ theorem.
(page 457)
• Spreadsheet 102: Investigate Pythagoras’ theorem.
(page 457)
10B Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions
Digital doc
• Spreadsheet 102: Investigate Pythagoras’ theorem. 10G Similar figures
(page 461) Tutorials
10 C Perimeter and area

• WE17 int-0907: Watch how to reduce the size of a
pentagon by a factor of two. (page 490)
Tutorial • WE20 int-0908: Watch how to determine the scale
• WE5 int-0904: Watch how to find the difference in factor to be used to build a model aeroplane and use
the area covered by two hands of a clock in one full it to calculate dimensions of the model. (page 493)
rotation. (page 465) Digital docs
Digital docs • WorkSHEET 10.2: Calculate surface area and
• SkillSHEET 10.2: Practise the conversion of volume of objects. (page 498)
units — length. (page 468) • Investigation: Investigate making an aeroplane.
• SkillSHEET 10.3: Practise calculating the area and (page 498)
perimeter of composite shapes. (page 468)
Interactivity int-0811:
Tutorial • Similar triangle: Consolidate your understanding of
• WE10 int-0905: Watch how to find the total surface similar triangles. (page 498)
area of a composite object. (page 474) Tutorial
Digital docs • WE22 int-0909: Watch how to show that two triangles
• Investigation: Investigate cone heads. (page 478) are similar. (page 501)
• WorkSHEET 10.1: Calculate measurements of two
and three dimensional objects. (page 478) 10I Symmetry
Tutorial
10E Volume
• WE24 int-0910: Watch how to determine the axis of
Tutorial symmetry. (page 506)
• WE13 int-0906: Watch how to calculate volume Digital doc
correct to one decimal place. (page 482) • Extension: Investigate tessellations. (page 508)
Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 10.4: Practise calculating volume. Chapter review
(page 483) Digital doc
• SkillSHEET 10.5: Practise the conversion of • Test Yourself: Take the end-of-chapter test to test
units — volume. (page 483) your progress. (page 525)
• SkillSHEET 10.6: Practise finding unknown lengths.
(page 484) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
• Investigation: Cone volume. (page 485) www.jacplus.com.au
• Spreadsheet 010: Investigate cone volume. (page 485)
10 F Capacity
Digital doc
• Spreadsheet 006: Investigate capacity. (page 487)

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10

10A Pythagoras’ theorem in two dimensions

10a Pythagoras’ theorem 10 Quick Questions

Find the value of the pronumeral to 1 decimal place. A

Pythagoras’ theorem: Hypotenuse

2 What is the length of a diagonal of:

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 457

6 A long-distance runner wants to complete a Home

10B Pythagoras’ theorem in three

Find the height labelled x. Round your answer to 1 decimal place. E

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 459

2 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find AC. Leave the c2 = a2 + b2

1. Use the seven steps as your guide to solving 3-dimensional problems.

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 461

5 Factories have been designed so that a set of D A C 6m

10C Perimeter and area

Shape Area Perimeter

Rectangle L A=L×W P = 2(L + W)

Parallelogram A=b×h P = sum of all sides

Triangle 1 P = sum of all sides

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 463

Calculate a the area and b the perimeter of this shape.

1 The area required is the annulus. Write the A = π (R2 − r2)

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 465

1. The perimeter is the distance around a closed 2-dimensional shape.

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 467

7 The Commonwealth Bank logo is made up of a yellow

9 WE5 The collectable plate shown at right is 22 cm in

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 469

13 The bicycle chain on Robert’s bicycle is broken.

10d total surface area (tSa)

Object Net TSA

Rectangular prism l TSA = 2(wh + lw + lh)

Cylinder TSA = area of 2 circles

Sphere Not shown TSA = 4π r2

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 471

Find the total surface area of the object shown at right.

1 Write the formula for the TSA of a sphere. TSA = 4π r2

As discussed in the previous section on area, a composite

Many buildings are composite figures

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 473

2 Match the formulas below with the object.

i TSA = 2π r2 + 2π rh ii TSA = π rS

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 475

A spherical candle of TSA = 201 cm2 is to be gift-boxed. The dimensions

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 477

19 A commercial bread bin has dimensions as shown in the diagram at right.

21 Lampshades for a particular range are made by cutting a

Shape Cross-sectional shape Volume

Triangular prism V = area of a triangle × height

Rectangular prism V = area of a rectangle × height

Cube V = area of a square × height

think write 3.2 m

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 479

Find the volume of the shape shown at right.

1 Write the general formula for the volume of a V = CSA × height

3 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into the V = 32 × 8.2

4 Write the answer including units. V = 262.4 m3

Cone Square pyramid Rectangular pyramid Triangular pyramid

Shape Flat end (base) shape Volume

where r is the radius of the sphere.

Chapter 10 Shape and measurement 481

1. Volume of a prism = CSA × perpendicular height.

Rectangle L A=L×W P = 2(L + W)

Width 2.4 m Depth ? m

If, however, the same cube is