Essentials of Teaching and Integrating

Visual and Media Literacy

Danilo M. Baylen↜璀屴•â†œç’€å±Ádriana D’Alba
Editors

Essentials of Teaching and

Integrating Visual and
Media Literacy

Visualizing Learning

1↜璀屴3
Editors
Danilo M. Baylen Adriana D’Alba
Educational Technology and Foundations Educational Technology and Foundations
University of West Georgia University of West Georgia
Carrollton, Georgia Carrollton, Georgia
USA USA

ISBN 978-3-319-05836-8╅╅╅╅╅╅╅╅╇ISBN 978-3-319-05837-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015930552

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or
information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is a brand of Springer International Publishing

Springer International Publishing is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Foreword

“The question is not what you look at, but what you see.”
—Henry David Thoreau, Journals, Vol. 1, November 16, 1830

Visual and media literacy have been a part of my life and my educational interests
for, well, forever it seems. I am honored to have been asked to introduce this book,
and am hopeful that the many interesting chapters shared here will make a differ-
ence to educators at all levels of teaching, administration, and design of curricula
or professional development. The topics are multidisciplinary and involve multiple
aspects of media and visual literacy.
One of the editors, Danilo M. Baylen, has grown from a young doctoral student
at Northern Illinois University, sharing his home country culture through a display
of native textiles in my visual literacy course years ago, to an experienced, respect-
ed member of academia with a strong interest in visual and media literacy as part of
his work in literacy and technology, as well as having an enviable career in higher
education both as a professor and an administrator. As his former professor, I am
proud of his having co-proposed and completed the editing of this text.

Becoming an Advocate for Media and Visual Literacy

With all the attention focused on media and visual literacy in the twenty-first cen-
tury, it might be helpful to look at the interest as it developed over time. My own
history mirrors the growth of visual and media literacy in education, and the experi-
ences of many of the experts in these areas who have been active in promoting and
researching these topics over the past 40 or more years. How do educators become
advocates for visual and media literacy?
As a baby boomer, I grew up loving the movies. Early TV was nothing like it is
today, but it was still a cultural influence not to be ignored. After all, the Beatles first
appeared on TV when we boomers were in high school! And since my father was
a photographer, I spent hours in our home darkroom learning from those emerging
images, like many others did in the “Kodak” era of the 1950s.

v
vi Foreword

In the 1970s, with media and visual literacy concepts emerging from commu-
nication scholars like McLuhan and visual communications experts such as Donis
Dondis, Jack Debes, and others, we had a great deal of freedom to explore cur-
rent events and media as part of our language arts curriculum. In 1972, along with
many of those still working to promote and improve these literacies, I was teaching
language arts to middle school students (in Illinois, USA). We showed educational
films as part of our instruction, and used literature to film translations such as The
Diary of Anne Frank to help motivate students. We taught media literacy, using
public media such as billboards, newspapers and magazines, and television news,
and had students create their own publications. We developed a unit on television
and studied narrative structures, character development, genre, stereotyping, adver-
tising, humor, and suspense. Students wrote, recorded, and edited news and comedy
programs with original commercials as a culminating activity. After school hours,
I started a film club to both study and create movies with students, and sponsored
the school newspaper.
We knew that our activities were motivating and that they helped develop litera-
cy and language skills and critical thinking abilities. But I do not recall ever having
heard the terms visual literacy or media literacy until, after 5 years of teaching, I
started to study educational technology and communications in graduate school. At
the University of Wisconsin–Madison, I focused my attention on visual communi-
cations media and critical analysis skills for students of all ages.
Many of us in our doctoral studies were interested in critical analysis and images.
Our student cohort included David Considine, now considered one of the pioneers
in media literacy, and his colleague Robert Muffoletto, and so discussions about
film, photography, affective learning, and the impact of images were a regular part
of my education. My first published article presented ideas for teachers wanting to
add critical viewing of video to their curriculum activities, based upon my earlier
experiences. And my doctoral dissertation investigated 8th graders’ understanding
of narrative elements of short fiction from film and video. This represented a change
in education, since previous research in technology-related topics was quasi-exper-
imental and rarely involved real classrooms of students.
During and after graduate school, my early articles included “You’ve Ruined TV
for Me,” an article titled after a comment from an 8th grader after our long televi-
sion unit was over. He was complaining that he now saw all the misplaced micro-
phones and bad shadows in TV programs; he had developed critical viewing skills
along with our language arts activities. It was through other members of that Madi-
son cohort that I learned of the International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA),
in which I have been very active since 1982. This organization was one of the first
to offer a definition of visual literacy and a place for scholars, educators, artists,
videographers, and so on to debate ideas and share strategies, projects, educational
research, and materials. IVLA has annual conferences where research and projects
from around the world in multiple disciplines have been presented and shared since
1969, with published Selected Readings from the conferences each year. It is one
of the groups helping to promote the importance of media and visual literacy today.
Foreword vii

Through IVLA, I met the international scholar Rune Pettersson, who has con-
tinually added to the scholarship in information design and message design along
with other aspects of visual literacy. Recently, he wrote about early visual literacy
(Pettersson 2013):
A historical view shows that discussions about the use of images have a long history. Sev-
eral definitions reveal that visual literacy is an ability, a competency, or a skill. Visual
literacy is an interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and multidimensional area of knowledge.
Different kinds of visuals may be applied in almost all subject matter areas and in different
media. From a theoretical view, visual literacy includes visual language, visual thinking,
visual perception, visual communication, and visual learning. Seen from a communications
view, presentation of an intended message involves a wide range of professional interest
groups concerned with its design, production, distribution, and use. (n.p.)

To me, this brief discussion captures the essence of both visual and media literacy.
The many foundational theory areas, the multidisciplinary nature of the issues, and
the importance of helping to develop the skills for improved communication have
always been the foundation of these literacies in my opinion. The two terms have
often seemed competitive, overlapping, and not necessarily disparate in their mean-
ing and approach. One difference often noted has been that visual literacy is less
connected to any particular medium, and therefore, more universal. I often told
students in my visual literacy graduate class that visual literacy was the overarching
term, and media literacy fit within it. Media literacy may seem more fluid because it
must respond to and change with the media and technology available, such as newer
digital tools and global access to Web-based social media imagery. But that could
make visual literacy the more static term.
So with this shared background, it should not be surprising that visual and media
literacies have been woven into my teaching and scholarship throughout my career
at Northern Illinois University. I have been active in promoting these literacies to
teachers, administrators, library media specialists, and researchers for over 30 years.
Like many other academic programs around the country and the globe, we routinely
have offered our graduate level visual literacy course for education and museum
studies students, and I have been very pleased to see the increased attention to these
concepts in the standards and professional expectations of K-20 educators. Profes-
sors across the USA shared syllabi and curricular ideas for courses like this at our
conferences, so we learned from one another. We all saw the positive impact of our
efforts to add media and visual literacy activities in educational settings.

Learning from Each Other Through Publications

This is not the first collected and edited text on visual or media literacies. Since the
1970s, media studies have been promoted for public education K-20. Teachers like
me were involved in helping their students become critical viewers, analyze histori-
cal events through archived images, and share learning through student productions.
Books published from a variety of perspectives helped inform educators of this
viii Foreword

fairly new area of study. For example, members of the IVLA contributed to an in-
troduction to visual literacy text edited by Moore and Dwyer in 1994. These editors
sought to introduce a “spectrum of visual learning” including the definitions, the
terms within the definitions, and a wide array of basic explanations and discussions
around the terms. Historical and theoretical foundations, visual language, nonver-
bal communication, visual design, use of visuals, and social, political, and cultural
aspects of visual literacy in teaching and learning were all included. Other texts
preceded that one and others have followed, from a variety of perspectives. Authors
such as Arnheim, Eisner, Baker, Monoco, Considine and Haley, Curtiss, Fleming
and Levie, Tufte, Potter, and Hobbs all provided key texts in their areas of special-
ization that were popular and well received by educators. They provided strong
arguments from backgrounds in the arts and art education, communication media
(film and television), media and culture, visual communication and manipulation,
perception, psychology, and teacher education (see reference list for sample titles).
More recent texts have looked at the “visual” in particular fields of education, such
as one edited which focuses on the impact of visual literacy on art history.
Along with texts providing a wide spectrum of information, organizations and
entities such as Edutopia and EDUCAUSE, the Center for Media Literacy (CML),
the National Association of Media Literacy Education (NAMLE), the Association
of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), the National Council of Teachers of
English (NCTE), the International Reading Association (IRA), along with the ven-
erable IVLA have all devoted themselves to understanding and promoting the vital
aspects of these literacies. In the past 15–20 years, most have developed definitions,
set standards, made recommendations to professionals, and shared strategies and
materials for the promotion of these concepts and skills in educational settings.
Filmmakers like Lucas and Scorsese have gotten involved (edutopia.org), promot-
ing the importance of media literacy in education. National standards for teaching
and learning, such as the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), adopted in all but
a few states, have recognized the importance of improving all students’ understand-
ing and abilities in a wide range of concepts related to media and visual literacy, of-
ten linking to critical thinking and creative expression. The CCSS, while controver-
sial at this point, have included many standards for language arts and mathematics
that require visual and media literacy activities and assessments. The vision state-
ment for the language arts standards states: “Students Who are College and Career
Ready in Reading, Writing, Speaking, Listening, & Language… use technology and
digital media strategically and capably” (CCSS, 2010). Those standards in language
arts involve reading multimedia, getting information from Web sites, understanding
from video, and using primary documents, including images, to understand science
and history.
For example, the Center for Media Literacy (http://www.medialit.org) promotes
media literacy as a way of encouraging global awareness, critical thinking, and self-
expression. Media, they report, has an “unquestionable” impact on the “way we
understand, interpret and act on our world.” They consider media literacy to be vital
in this twenty-first century, where many mediated messages need to be “navigated”
Foreword ix

through developing these skills. They include five core concepts of media literacy
(Media Literacy Kit 2003).
To restate the obvious, there have been, for decades, a plethora of resources
created by multiple disciplines and experts to help define, justify, and promote the
importance and value of media and visual literacy. But during these 50 years or
more, while popular media such as film, television, magazines, record or CD cov-
ers, digital games, and the Web all grew in global influence and audience, media
education and visual literacy education have not been universally adopted. Texts,
curriculum materials, YouTube videos, Web sites, easily available and free tools for
productions, all have been produced and marketed. Our question should be: What
is the reluctance of education to embrace the importance of visual/media literacy as
vital concepts for the twenty-first century?

Introduction to This Book

While historically (as Pettersson reviewed) visual literacy has been defined by
skills, we realize now that both literacies involve theory, cultural knowledge, per-
ception, and of course the newer tools which abound in society and in education.
Many suggestions for organizing the aspects of visual and media literacy have been
posited. This text uses three areas: framing, integrating, and teaching. Others have
approached the topics by considering more specific media: arts literacy, film litera-
cy, digital literacy. Information literacy, knowledge mapping, and graphical design
have been included. The professional organizations most linked to this text include
similar but distinct definitions of visual and/or media literacy: ACRL, NAMLE, and
IVLA. All have been promoting similar foundational issues and providing support
for those trying to teach the related skills.
Whether or not these concepts and skills have been achieved by learners is an-
other issue, however. Scharrer (2002) suggested that there has been little, if any,
research reporting on the outcomes of visual or media literacy education. She adds
that the positive impact of such programs has certainly been students’ cognitive
growth in understanding terms and issues, and the development of the ability to
carefully decode and analyze media messages and thus practice critical thinking
and viewing. But it is possible, in this era of accountability, that this perceived lack
of “proof” that visual or media literacy educational efforts have been successful has
had a negative impact on the growth of all such educational programs.
This text, with its collection of excellent chapters, details foundational issues,
describes tools and strategies that have been implemented to evoke learning, and
includes case study reports of different ways that have been designed, developed,
implemented, and assessed to encourage learning in aspects of visual and media
literacy. These efforts should assist readers in adopting new or revised practices
and guide their consideration of increased efforts for learners to engage with these
important topics and skills.
x Foreword

In the Preface, the editors of this text have introduced the topic and definitions
important to understanding teaching and integrating visual and media literacy. They
provide a review of the definitions and the debates surrounding the terms visual and
media literacy, and highlight the history of the development of the concepts. Their
chapter also presents the concerns surrounding these important concepts, and traces
the involvement of some of the professional organizations which have sought to en-
courage growth in research, teaching, and the development of more literate learners.
Visual Literacy and Media Literacy. These terms have been used synonymously,
in contrast to one another, and individually in literature and research throughout
the last 60 years. Without suggesting a solution to this dispute the editors, in the
Preface, help frame the need for visual and media education. They created this col-
lection to provide a wide-ranging selection of distinctive essays selected to guide
readers in understanding these literacies, help them develop strategies to expand
their teaching and learning, and suggest ways to support these critically important
and often underrepresented ideas in educational settings.
This text is designed for educators: teachers, teacher educators, administrators,
professional developers, and researchers. We all need to utilize the ideas shared
here to involve ourselves in the field of visual/media literacy to continue its growth,
explore the research questions raised by our digital culture, and improve learning
in K-20 classrooms (real or virtual). Experts in my generation, as I have tried to
describe, have done their best to define, explain, promote, and guide others in the
many aspects of visual and media literacy. The authors of these chapters represent
the next generation of teachers and designers who will help direct us to improved
literacy and a more visually educated and critically aware society.*****

Rhonda S. Robinson, PhD

Distinguished Teaching Professor Emeritus
Northern Illinois University, USA

References

Arnheim, R. (1954/1974). Art and visual perception: A psychology of the creative

eye. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Barry, A. S. (1997). Visual intelligence. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Center for Media Literacy. (2001). Media kit. http://www.medialit.org/sites/default/
files/mlk/01_MLKorientation.pdf.
Common Core State Standards. (2014). About the standards. http://www.corestan-
dards.org/.
Considine, D., & Haley, G. (1992). Visual messages: Integrating imagery into in-
struction. A teacher resource for media and visual literacy. Englewood: Teacher
Ideas.
Dwyer, F. (1978). Strategies for improving visual learning. State College: Learning
Services.
Foreword xi

Eisner, E. (1972). Educating artistic vision. New York: Macmillan.

Messaris, P. (1994). Visual “literacy”: Image, mind and reality. Boulder: Westview.
Moore, D. M., & Dwyer, F. (1994). Visual literacy a spectrum of learning. Engle-
wood Cliffs: Educational Technology.
Pettersson, R. (2013). Views on visual literacy. VASA Project. Journal on Images
and Culture (1). http://vjic.org/vjic2/?page_id=214.
Robinson, R. (1980). Video elements: Factors of critical analysis of commercial
television. Media Message, 10(2).
Robinson, R. (1984). Using television to teach visual literacy: “You’ve ruined TV
for me.” In A. D. Walker, R. A. Braden, & L. H. Dunker (Eds.), Visual literacy-
Enhancing human potential (pp.€330–336). Bloomington: International Visual
Literacy Association.
Scharrer, E. (2002/2003, December/January). Making a case for media literacy
in the curriculum: Outcomes and assessment. Journal of Adolescent & Adult
Literacy, 46(4), 354. http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index.
asp?HREF=/newliteracies/jaal/12–02_column/index.html.
Preface

Since the earliest period of our civilization, images have been an essential part of
our history and culture, and have become a fundamental aspect of our relation-
ship with others and the world. From the earliest prehistoric paintings in Altamira
and Lascaux to the Aztec codices in ancient America, and from the 3000–year-old
Egyptian hieroglyphs to the magnificent Renaissance paintings, humans have at-
tempted to capture and depict scenes of our daily lives, our traditions, celebrations,
rituals, and other meaningful individual and global events.
After the invention of photography in the 1830s, our society has had increased
access to thousands, if not millions of images that have had a lasting impact. Pho-
tographs such as the Tiananmen Square protest by Jeff Widener, the disturbing and
shocking pictures of torture at Abu Ghraib prison, the high-resolution images of
Mars, or the Checkpoint Girl by Chris Hondros have influenced the course of his-
tory and educated people while helping us to shape opinions, and informing us of
what is occurring in the world.
Life in the twenty-first century is inundated by still and moving images, pro-
duced for personal and professional gains, and motivated by social, economic, or
political needs. Definitely, these images are, in one way or another, defining a gen-
eration’s identity, popularity, and power. The influence on human behavior may not
be as overt initially, though its appeal lingers in the subconscious. However, the
impact can be observed in cash registers, election results, and anonymous postings
in media online, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, to name a few.
The rapid ascension of visual technologies as tools for delivering content, fa-
cilitating communication, developing critical thinking, and expressing creativity
has become a game changer in encoding and decoding images. Young and old are
bombarded daily with images without knowing what hit them. So it is important
to teach them skills that will facilitate better understanding of what these images
mean. Becoming visual- and media-literate must be part of one’s education.

xiii
xiv Preface

What is Visual Literacy?

In 1968, John Debes coined the term “visual literacy.” The International Visual
Literacy Association (IVLA) adopted a more inclusive definition of visual literacy
as “a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at
the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. The development
of these competencies is fundamental to normal human learning. When developed,
they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible ac-
tions, objects, symbols, natural or manmade, that he encounters in his environment.
Through the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with
others. Through the appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to compre-
hend and enjoy the masterworks of visual communication.” (Fransecky and Debes
1972). However, with the introduction of technology in our society and the de-
velopment of media and computer literacy, other scholars have offered their own
definitions (Avgerinou and Ericson 1997; Horton 1983; Kress 2003; Rezabek 1999;
Robinson 1984). The Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) states
that “Visual literacy is a set of abilities that enables an individual to effectively find,
interpret, evaluate, use, and create images and visual media. Visual literacy skills
equip a learner to understand and analyze the contextual, cultural, ethical, aesthetic,
intellectual, and technical components involved in the production and use of visual
materials. A visually literate individual is both a critical consumer of visual media
and a competent contributor to a body of shared knowledge and culture” (Visual
Literacy Standards Task Force, 2011). According to the ACRL, the abilities of a
visually literate individual include the evaluation of images and their sources, the
design and creation of meaningful images and visual media, the effective use of
images of visual media, the understanding of ethical, legal, social, and economic
issues surrounding the creation and use of images, and the effective localization of
needed images and visual media, among others.
We live immersed in a visual culture and images surround us, not only when we
walk to school or drive our cars to work, but also when we navigate the internet
or attend the latest movie premiere. We also contribute to that culture with our
smartphones or cameras. According to a Pew Internet & American life reports, the
percentage of adults who own a cell phone has reached 91↜%, with 56↜% of them
owning a smartphone (Smith 2013). In 2010, it was reported that 83↜% of teenag-
ers take pictures with their cell phones (Lenhart et€al. 2010). Sites such as Flickr,
Instagram, Imgur, Panoramio, Photobucket, Picasa, and Pinterest offer the ability to
share photos and to comment on them, creating an enormous repository of images.
However, there is still a lack of understanding on how to read, use, and interpret
these images. As Felten (2008) states, people can develop the ability to recognize,
interpret, and use different visual forms. This learning process is a dynamic exercise
that continues throughout our lives by acquiring more advanced ways to produce,
analyze, and employ images.
Preface xv

What is Media Literacy?

The way we receive and assimilate information has been a transformative process,
accelerated in the past few decades by the inclusion of the personal computer and
the Internet. From the invention of the printed press to the ubiquitous presence of
the smartphone in our daily lives, technology has made information more acces-
sible; however, it also has caused an overflow of information which has sometimes
proven challenging to interpret, classify, and understand. Our ability to create, pro-
cess, dissect, and distribute information has been forever changed. There is a need
to rationalize and understand the impact of media in our lives; thus, the need for co-
hesive strategies and regulations is imperative, especially in the educational setting.
As Considine, Jorton, and Moorman argue (2009), students live in an environment
in which reading and writing through digital media is pervasive. Students bring to
school a different set of literacy practices and tools that are often unrecognized or
underused by educators. Thus it becomes the teacher’s responsibility to connect the
dots between what students already know, and what they need to learn. Same as
with visual literacy, there is a need for evidence-based research strategies to help
people to analyze and evaluate this continuous stream of information.
The National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) defines me-
dia literacy as “the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate informa-
tion in a variety of forms—is interdisciplinary by nature. Media literacy represents
a necessary, inevitable, and realistic response to the complex, ever-changing elec-
tronic environment and communication cornucopia that surround us.” The asso-
ciation argues that in order to become prosperous citizens, “individuals need to
develop expertise with the increasingly sophisticated information and entertainment
media that address us on a multisensory level, affecting the way we think, feel, and
behave” (National Association for Media Literacy Education 2007).
The core principles of media literacy education, according to NAMLE, include
active inquiry and critical thinking, must include all forms of media, build and re-
inforce skills for learners of all ages, and develop informed, reflective, and engaged
participants, among others.
The Center for Media Literacy argues that there is a need for a more robust
definition of media literacy. Their definition reads as follows: Media literacy is a
twenty-first century approach to education which provides a framework to “access,
analyze, evaluate, and create messages in a variety of forms—from print to video to
the internet. Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society,
as well as essential skills to inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a
democracy” (Center for Media Literacy 2011).
xvi Preface

From Dream to Reality

This edited book was an idea that became a dream, and finally a reality. It was an
idea nurtured by the first editor, Danilo M. Baylen, as a graduate student enrolled
in a visual literacy course more than 20 years ago. It became a dream when the first
editor and his colleague, Cristine Goldberg, co-presented a session at the Interna-
tional Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) 2009 conference in Chicago. Two years
ago, it became a reality when Adriana D’Alba, the second editor, joined the faculty
at the University of West Georgia, and both editors found common and complemen-
tary interests in areas of instructional technology, instructional design, technology
integration practices, and multimedia development.
What makes this edited book different? As editors, we believe that the 14 chap-
ters provide an opportunity to showcase practice and evidence that supports cur-
ricular integration efforts of visual and media literacy in K-12 and higher education
contexts. The chapters describe and discuss various models of integrating visual
and media-based tools and resources, as well as provide ideas and advice from a
wide range of experts and practitioners. Using the definitions from national and
international groups of educators, researchers, and practitioners—NAMLE, ACRL,
and IVLA—this book not only provides theoretical background but also step-by-
step guidelines, expert advice, and practitioner experience to those interested, with
a wide range of perspectives and possibilities on how to use and integrate visual
and media-based tools and resources to promote literacy at all levels with various
levels of guidance.

Finding Common Ground

The book was developed over a period of 9 months, during which potential au-
thors went through a rigorous and extensive peer review process. After submit-
ting the chapter proposals, potential authors received suggestions for manuscript
development by an editorial team including the book editors. Authors were asked
to identify their targeted audience and format (e.g., literature review/theoretical, ev-
idence-based/data-driven, or case study), to align their topics to the adapted defini-
tion of visual and media literacy and outline potential implications. The subsequent
blind peer review process included the participation of over 78 scholars, including
potential authors. It also included practitioners from different professional back-
grounds, such as higher education faculty (e.g., arts, sciences, education, library
and information science), K-12 educators, and library media specialists. Reviewers
were asked to provide extensive comments on the adequacy of literature, analysis
of issues, and legitimacy of conclusions, while examining weaknesses and strengths
of the submissions. Reviewers were also encouraged to include recommendations
and constructive comments to improve the manuscripts. This exercise resulted in
authors receiving feedback from four, or even five, different perspectives. Feedback
Preface xvii

received from the majority of authors indicated that they were pleased with the re-
view process and suggestions. Comments made mention that the review process had
contributed to stronger manuscripts. After the second review, authors resubmitted
their final work. The editors made the final selection from those chapters that were
better aligned with the scope of the book.

Framing, Learning, and Teaching

The 14 book chapters are categorized into three sections: Framing, Learning, and
Teaching. The first section on framing laid the groundwork for the conversation on
visual and media literacy with connections to graphic design, multiliteracies, visual
thinking, and culture (i.e., Chaps.€ 1–4). The second section focuses on learning
specific content and illustrated how the use, application, or integration of visual
or media literacy into the curriculum can be helpful (i.e., Chaps.€5–10). The last
section focuses on teaching visual and media literacy. The chapters illustrate how
visual or media literacy can be taught across disciplines.
Each chapter in this edited book includes a unique perspective and a critical
analysis about the usefulness of visual and media literacy within different settings
in the educational arena. It offers different strategies to include these inquiry-based,
process-oriented concepts to improve the way we learn and teach.
Chapter€1, “Graphic Design as a Learning Process,” written by Kristina Lamour
Sansone, contends that graphic design’s combined language of pictures and text
is an essential literacy for teaching and learning. The author analyzes the value of
using images and written words to construct meaning by using picture–text inte-
grated projects in the classroom and presents a review of literature focused on the
definition and history of graphic design, while discussing the relationship between
this discipline and visual and media literacy. She provides definitions for the terms
pictures and texts and how they integrate with each other, and delivers examples of
these integrations. The chapter includes an analysis of picture-text integration in
early childhood, and describes research associated with picture–text integrated lit-
eracies, based on Mayer’s multimedia learning and Paivio’s dual-channel theories.
Sansone presents the learning phases of graphic design, and offers diverse strate-
gies to construct meaning. She also describes several useful examples on how her
K-12 students use pictures and words in classroom activities, and enlists tools and
resources for teachers and practitioners.
Chapter€2, “Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities” presents an
array of instructional strategies to develop the skills necessary to engage and pro-
cess the extensive variety of information that students encounter in their daily lives.
The author, Tonia Dousay, argues that educators must address curriculum that pre-
pares visual literate citizens, and contends that this process can start with preservice
teachers, but must include teacher educators and professional development person-
nel currently in service. Within the chapter, the reader encounters the definitions of
visual and media literacy from different scholars and institutions.
xviii Preface

The chapter provides a careful selection of design activities based on digital

stories and comic books, and offers an analysis of their essential components, steps,
processes, and digital applications used in their creation. The author presents suf-
ficient literature background that supports the design of these activities, and delivers
successful examples used in the classroom, along with standards and assessment
procedures.
Dousay contends that, while design activities present outstanding benefits, there
are challenges and considerations that must be addressed. Ethical dilemmas related
to image manipulation, race, religion, and socioeconomic classes can influence the
outcomes of these activities. In addition, the author presents an exploration of the
availability of activities that promote multiliteracy for learners with disabilities.
Dabney Hailey, Alexa Miller, and Philip Yenawine, authors of Chapter€3, “Un-
derstanding and Teaching Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Ap-
proach,” present a comprehensive review of literature on the definition of visual lit-
eracy, and discuss in detail the Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) method, developed
by Abigail Housen and Philip Yenawine. The authors analyze Housen’s work and
research process that ultimately resulted in the development of VTS, and provide an
elaborated account of her first two of five proposed aesthetic stages: accountive and
constructive viewers. The authors argue that previsually literate individuals reach
basic visual literacy at the end of stage two. Readers of this chapter can examine
the VTS protocol and its implications for teaching, while reviewing research-based
evidence on the impact of VTS in elementary and healthcare education.
Hailey, Miller, and Yenawine indicate that visually literate people “have the dis-
position to sustain the act of observation, recognizing that taking time to look is an
essential part of the inquiry process and remaining confident that such looking will
reveal new information and possibilities,” and contend that visual literacy can be
cultivated through VTS. The authors discuss the need for further research on the
impact of visual thinking strategies in the development of visual literacy, and iden-
tify possible future research on the impact of VTS in areas such as critical thinking,
attention and metacognition, standardized test performance in K-12 education, and
diagnosis accuracy and patient satisfaction.
Brooke Scherer, author of Chapter€4, “Visual Communication and Culture: De-
sign Education for a Globalized World,” offers a unique perspective on cultural
awareness and visual communication among audiences of varying backgrounds.
The author’s job experience working for a global advertising agency provides a
valuable and candid account of successes and failures when trying to communicate
an idea by thinking locally, but acting globally. She contends that current design
pedagogy teaches students how to visually communicate with their peers, but does
not account for culturally diverse audiences who do not share the same backgrounds
and beliefs.
Scherer argues that there is still a lack of educational awareness regarding audi-
ence backgrounds, and hints at the need for the incorporation of these cultural issues
into higher education curriculum using graphic design as a “discipline that both
adapts, and advances through modern-day visually communicative needs.” In this
chapter, readers can encounter foundational components that help to create effec-
Preface)>> xix

tive designed visual communications. Those elements—dimensions, environmental

context, symbolism, and consumer behavior—are included in a component matrix
designed by Scherer, along with an example of how to use this tool.
In addition, this chapter describes and analyzes the stages of a practical project
developed by Scherer’s students, where they were required to create global cam-
paigns for American companies. Students were expected to conduct background re-
search in the audience assigned by the instructor, formulated their findings in a for-
mal presentation, and created the campaign utilizing Scherer’s component matrix.
Chapter€ 5, “Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential,”
written by Jeff Share, introduces cameras as an ideal tool to be used in classrooms
to support the teaching of different content through photography. The author dis-
cusses the power and limitations of photography and its ability to convey messages
that no other medium can do in the same way. Photographic images, Share argues,
can start or end wars, send people to jail, inspire political dissent, and have caused
people to fall in love. The author presents documented examples and citations from
multiple authors and scholars regarding this medium, and contends that “everyone
today is a photographer.” He describes advances in technology as the perfect way
to engage our society in picture taking. This engagement can benefit teachers and
students alike, as the prohibitive expenses related to the purchase of photographic
equipment and film development have been diminished by the introduction of digi-
tal cameras and smartphones.
The author presents a critical media literacy pedagogy used in the teacher ed-
ucation program at the University of California, Los Angeles, and analyzes five
conceptual understandings of media education derived from this pedagogy. Share
discusses a detailed account of his experiences using photography in both the el-
ementary school and higher education settings, and concludes that photography and
media are youth’s tools of choice for engaging with others and expressing them-
selves; thus, it is imperative for educators to prepare students to critically analyze
visual images and printed texts.
Mary Christel examines image creation as a medium of communication in
Â�Chapter€ 6, “Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World: Visual Composition for
Â�Better Representation.” She argues that, although students have become instant cre-
ators of images aided by technological tools, they still lack advanced levels of digi-
tal, media, and visual literacies in order to access, analyze, interpret, evaluate, use,
and create visual messages. The author contends that understanding the principles
of visual composition allows novice and experienced image curators and creators to
expand their insight and ability of image analysis for their emotional and narrative
potential. The chapter presents a series of specific activities designed to prepare
image producers to use these principles, resulting in producers using available tech-
nology in a manner that demonstrates their ability to interpret and select the essen-
tial tools to communicate their views, while examining and understanding existing
media messages. Each of these activities, tied to the NAMLE standards, promote
the use of a variety of social media channels to share visual and verbal messages.
Christel contends that students need to construct a set of digital citizenship com-
petencies to support their emerging digital competencies, provides suggestions
xx Preface

for their development, and concludes with the idea that Common Core presents a
unique opportunity for teachers and students to construct learning relationships to
perfect their visual and media literacy awareness and image production skills.
Chapter€7, “Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education: From Consumers
to Producers,” written by Jill E. Flynn and William Lewis, presents student project
examples and multimodal assignments used in their undergraduate methods courses
offered for English language arts teachers at the University of Delaware. The au-
thors utilize digital tools such as iMovie, Windows MovieMaker, and VoiceThread
to help students produce digital content directed to English language arts, while
engaging in creative and reflective tasks.
In this chapter, Flynn and Lewis discuss the concept of “metaphorical construct,”
introduced in the early 1990s as a method for group problem solving and innova-
tion. They present several student examples and explain the process of using this
approach: students select an element of the text they consider of high importance;
then, identify a physical or cultural object related to the text and deconstruct it to
its constituent parts; and finally, present their creative metaphor to their peers. The
authors also create a connection between the “metaphorical construct” and digital
tools, as they “provide an opportunity for students to not only read, but also practice
composing multimedia texts, and to efficiently share their work with their peers.”
The authors examine digital stories and their relationship with identity and teach-
ing within the course “Literacy and Technology.” Students brainstorm ideas about
the story they want to tell, use mind mapping digital tools, create storyboards using
online resources, develop a script, and produce an artifact that describes their own
stories.
Chapter€8, “Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects,”
written by Chareen Snelson, presents the social media platform YouTube as one of
the largest depositories of online video, and defines its potential for the develop-
ment of visual and media literacy competencies. The author describes the creation
of a graduate-level course named “YouTube for Educators,” and accounts how vi-
sual and media literacies were infused in the curriculum. The chapter explains in
detail the curricular, technological, and societal factors involved in the decision-
making process to produce the course. It also identifies challenges encountered in
the development and implementation phases, and provides advisement and solu-
tions to those issues.
Snelson introduces an overview of visual and media literacy competencies and
their embedment in the YouTube course. She describes in detail a series of projects
divided in two broad categories: video curation and video creation. These projects
include a video blog, a PowerPoint movie, a remix video, and interactive YouTube
videos. The author concludes that although the course will most likely evolve as
continuous evolution of social media and student experiences occurs, “visual and
media literacy and educational technology competencies will remain central to fu-
ture iterations of the ‘YouTube for Educators’ course.”
Taralynn Hartsell argues that graphic organizers help students and instructors
organize information visually, and permits learners to examine patterns and rela-
tionships in Chaper€9, “Mapping Concepts for Learning.” She provides literature
Preface)>> xxi

background on visual learning theories such as dual coding, schema, and cognitive
load, and discusses how these theories explain the basis which graphic organizers
are built upon. Hartsell contends that concept maps serve as the foundation of les-
son plan and module content, as they are graphical representations of ideas, rela-
tionships, and connections.
The chapter documents a case study where the author created concept maps to
organize the content of a graduate-level course. Hartsell had previously used this
strategy in her undergraduate courses; however, in those, students were the ones re-
quired to create concept maps regarding a subject area of their choice. She explains
the content creation process and procedures implemented, paying special attention
to the description of instructional materials and tools used during this exercise. The
author also points out challenges and outcomes encountered during and after the
course ended, and provides directions and recommendations for future research.
Chapter€10, “Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learn-
ing of Core Concepts,” introduces the readers to the concept of scientific visualiza-
tion as a new type of literacy, which requires appropriate scaffolding for learners,
while using static and dynamic visual and graphical media. The team of S. Raj
Chaudhury, Lynn Mandeltort, Amy B. Mulnix, Eleanor V. H. Vandergrift, and Jen-
nifer R. Yates, as authors, discuss the importance of incorporating graphical ele-
ments and activities that foster visual literacy, specifically in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses, which are often viewed as abstract,
uninspiring, and rigid. The chapter also illustrates how college-level faculty in
STEM effectively uses media literacy skills to enhance their courses.
The authors argue that introducing scaffolding and opportunities for students to
interpret, analyze, predict, and construct representations of phenomena with static
and dynamic visual and graphical media in their courses, provided their pupils with
a deeper understanding of the course content through visual interpretation. The au-
thors present several vignettes and discuss their application in physics, chemistry,
biology, and neuroscience courses, while introducing teaching takeaways for prac-
titioners interested in each of these subject areas.
In Chapter€ 11, “Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy to
Promote Visual Literacy,” Darryl C. Draper presents a detailed account of an ex-
ploratory case study focused on the effectiveness of concept mapping and graphic
organizers to promote visual literacy. The case study was conducted in an 8-week
online graduate-level course named “Special Topics: Digital Knowledge Mapping/
Management,” in which digital knowledge maps and graphic organizers were used
both for course design and course activities. The research attempted to explain how
these tools promote visual literacy and learning outcomes.
Draper provides literature-based definitions of Bloom’s taxonomy (revised),
CmapTools, knowledge visualization, graphic organizers, knowledge vee diagrams,
communities of practice, and ties the concepts and tools to visual and media literacy
practices. The author also provides an explanation on how those tools supported
the instructional activities, along with the design and development of the course.
After the conclusion of the course, Draper analyzed students’ knowledge maps and
their correspondent written justification and encountered four emergent themes:
xxii Preface

�
research, construction process, organization, and behavior. The author concludes
that digital knowledge maps are a viable tool in promoting visual literacy and learn-
ing effectiveness, and can also be relevant evaluation instruments for instructors
and students alike.
Lindsay K. Mattock documents a case study developed in a higher education
setting in Chapter€12, “Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills in Media Produc-
tion Technology.” This chapter is mainly directed to archivists, librarians, and those
charged with training informational professionals at the graduate level; however, as
the author indicates, the approach presented within the chapter can be used in other
academic disciplines where students are not required to create, but rather analyze
and interpret specific media products and images.
Mattock discusses the need for visual and media literacy in the library and infor-
mation science graduate curriculum, while providing a detailed literature review of
visual and media literacy definitions. She includes well-documented research-based
practices used by archivists and librarians, and offers a rationale for a visual and
media literacy approach in an elective course named “Moving Image Archives” that
addresses visual materials in the archival context. The author exhibits strategies and
procedures followed in the design and revisions of the 12-week graduate course and
discusses in detail the activities, outcomes, and feedback provided by students at
the end of the term.
Chapter€13, “Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images and Objects in
Digital Environments,” presents a unique perspective on the use of visual and media
literacy strategies for teaching art history at the undergraduate level. The author,
Julia Finch, states that with the introduction of the Internet to the educational are-
na, professors and students can access digital image collections and virtual spaces
without the financial burden or time restrictions that real spaces often present. The
author cites that “students born into a digitally literate culture have a set of skills
that is not only conductive to the study of art and architecture, but that can be honed
through art history as a life skill that will serve them well beyond the classroom in
our image -and media- saturated world.”
The chapter provides an art historical perspective on visual literacy and offers a
particular view on digital imagery and applications for the classroom. It also ana-
lyzes how visual media literacy can be used to recreate material objects and digital
environments where instructor and students can meet and have meaningful inter-
actions while working on assignments and exercises that are easily accessible on
their own media devices, such as smartphones, computers, and tablets. Finch also
discusses the usefulness of visual thinking strategies (explained in deep detail in
Chapter€3 of this book) as successful and necessary foundations for visual analysis
assignments.
The author provides the reader a detailed explanation of four activities and as-
sessments for visual literacy in digital environments, which include social media
image sharing, understanding the digitized object, understanding digital spaces, and
digital curating. These activities exhibit the opportunity for students and teachers to
meet and interact, using digital environments and tools.
Finally, Chapter€14, “Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design and Implemen-
tation, Tools and Techniques,” written by Elizabeth K. Anderson, Rhonda S. Robinson,
Preface)>> xxiii

and Kristin Brynteson, presents a case study which includes a detailed account of
strategies applied to a newly redesigned graduate-level, interdisciplinary course in
visual literacy offered through The Department of Educational Technology, Re-
search, and Assessment at Northern Illinois University. In this chapter, the authors
explain the reasoning for the redesign, present detailed steps of the process, and
offer an elaborated account of materials, tools, and strategies used for the redesign.
These include a themed blended approach, reflective writing, online portfolios, and
collaborative projects in Weebly, interactive online discussions in Blackboard, and
several low-stakes production assignments using diverse technological tools such
as Animoto, Pixton, and GoAnimate. The authors provide several screen captures
related to the course, which allow the reader to visualize its content and structure
and introduce strategies for instruction and assessment.
The chapter enlists several student quotes taken from the end-of-course survey,
which illustrate the successfulness of the modified class, and provide a detailed
insight about student opinions and deep reflections regarding this blended course.
The authors also offer implications across educational settings and provide recom-
mendations for the delivery, design, instruction, and assessment of courses focused
on, and beyond, visual literacy.

A Million Thanks

We, the editors, appreciate the chapter authors for their quality work. Though we
divided the edited book into three sections, we believe that some of the book chap-
ters can be placed in more than one section. The topics that each chapter addresses
can apply to multiple sections. Furthermore, we believe that these chapters can
serve as excellent materials for those interested in visual and media literacy—as a
new teacher, faculty member, researcher, or practitioner. It may not give an imme-
diate answer to one’s question, but it will at least provide an idea that may inspire
an act of courage and a sense of adventure given the rapidly changing educational
contexts.
This edited book has become a reality due to numerous individuals, from those
who initially proposed, authored manuscripts, and acted as peer reviewers, and their
multiple contributions. The editors would like to thank them all for what has been
accomplished. At a personal level, the editors acknowledge a good friend, Cristine
Goldberg, who cheered and provided sage advice “when things got tough,” while
making this dream a reality, and three research assistants; Kristen Grabowski, Ken-
dal Lucas, and Michelle Michael, who did more than their share of proofreading.
Adriana expresses her appreciation to her husband, Lee Brown, for his support and
understanding. Finally, we hope that you will enjoy reading the book chapters as we
did, and will be inspired to do more teaching, learning, and research related to visual
and media literacy in the near future.

Danilo M. Baylen and Adriana D’Alba

University of West Georgia, USA
xxiv Preface

References

Visual Literacy Standards Task Force. (2011). ACRL Visual Literacy Competency
Standards for Higher Education. Association of College & Research Libraries.
http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/visual literacy.
Avgerinou, M., & Ericson, J. (1997). A review of the concept of visual literacy. Brit-
ish Journal of Educational Technology, 28(4), 280–291.
Considine, D., Horton, J., & Moorman, G. (2009). Teaching and reading the millen-
nial generation through media literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,
52(6), 471–481. doi:10.1598/JAAL.52.6.2.
Fransecky, R. B., & Debes, J. L. (1972). Visual literacy: A way to learn, a way to
teach. Washington, DC: AECT Publications.
Felten, P. (2008). Visual literacy. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 40(4),
60–64.
Harris, B. R. (2005). ‘Big Picture’ pedagogy: The convergence of word and im-
age information literacy instruction. Currents and convergence: Navigating the
rivers of change: Proceedings of the ACRL 12th National Conference. ALA,
Chicago.
Horton, J. (1983). Visual literacy and visual thinking. In L. Burbank & D. Pett
(Eds.), Contributions to the study of visual literacy (pp.€92–106). Bloomington:
International Visual Literacy Association.
Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. New York: Routledge.
Lenhart, A., Ling, R., Campbell S., & Purcell K. (2010). Teens and mobile phones.
Pew Internet & American Life Project. http://www.pewinternet.org.
National Association for Media Literacy Education. (November 2007). Core prin-
ciples of media literacy education in the United States. http://namle.net/wp-con-
tent/uploads/2013/01/CorePrinciples.pdf.
Rezabek, L. (1999). Importance of visual literacy. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology.
Houston, Texas.
Robinson, R. S. (1984). Learning to see: Developing visual literacy through film.
Top of the News, 40(3), 267–275.
Smith, A. (2013). Smartphone ownership. Pew Internet & American Life Project.
http://www.pewinternet.org.
Contents

Part Iâ•… Framing

Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching
and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ╅╇3
Kristina Lamour Sansone
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•… 27
Tonia A. Dousay
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking
Strategies Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•… 49
Dabney Hailey, Alexa Miller and Philip Yenawine
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education
for a Globalized World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•…75
Brooke N. Scherer
Part IIâ•… Integrating
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential . . . . . . . . . â•…97
Jeff Share
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World: Visual Composition
for Better Representation
Mary T. Christel
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education: From
Consumers to Producers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ╇ 147
Jill Ewing Flynn and William Lewis
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects . . . . . . ╇165
Chareen Snelson
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching
and Learning of Core Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ╇185
S. Raj Chaudhury, Lynn Mandeltort, Amy B. Mulnix,
Eleanor V.H. Vandegrift and Jennifer R. Yates

xxv
xxvi Contents

Mapping Concepts for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•… 203

Taralynn Hartsell
Part IIIâ•… Teaching
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy
to Promote Visual Literacy: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•… 219
Darryl C. Draper
Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills Through
Media Production Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•… 237
Lindsay Kistler Mattock
Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images
and Objects in Digital Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•… 251
Julia A. Finch
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design
and Implementation, Tools, and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•… 265
Elizabeth K. Anderson, Rhonda S. Robinson and Kristin Brynteson
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . â•… 291
About the Editors

Danilo M. Baylenâ•… is a professor of media and instructional technology at the

University of West Georgia. Prior to his faculty role, he worked as an instructional
designer at Florida Gulf Coast University, director of instructional technology ser-
vices at the University of Akron, and coordinator of the Center for Instructional
Design and Development at the Ohio State University at Mansfield. He also worked
as a teacher of English as a second language, and social worker in Southeast Asian
refugee camps. His academic credentials include graduate degrees in instructional
technology, library and information studies, elementary education, and counseling,
and an undergraduate degree in economics. Currently, Dr. Baylen is the president
of the International Division of the Association for Educational Communications
and Technology (AECT). He has published articles, book chapters, and conference
proceeding papers and presentations on technology integration practices, online
teaching and learning, and faculty development. He has been involved in several
advisory boards including the International Visual Literacy Association; Southern
Regional Faculty and Instructional Development Consortium; and the Technology,
Colleges and Community Online Conference. He serves on the editorial boards
of the Journal of International Students, Quarterly Review of Distance Education,
Social Studies Research and Practice, TechTrends, and To Improve the Academy.

Adriana D’Albaâ•… is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Tech-

nology and Foundations at the University of West Georgia. She holds a PhD in
educational computing and an MPhil in 2D/3D motion graphics. After finishing her
bachelor’s degree in graphic design, she spent several years developing Web sites
and managing Web services for diverse clients. She switched to academia in 2001
where she focused her research on digital multimedia, and taught classes in two
universities in Mexico. Her research interests include multimedia applications and
technology integration in the classroom, instructional design and assessment of 3D
online environments for learning, virtual museums, online games for learning, and
integration of emerging technologies in the STEM curriculum.

xxvii
Contributors

Elizabeth K. Anderson╇ College of DuPage, Glen Ellyn, IL, USA

Kristin Brynteson╇ Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA

S. Raj Chaudhury╇ Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA

Mary T. Christel╇ Adlai E. Stevenson H.S. (emeritus), Wheeling, IL, USA

Tonia A. Dousay╇ Department of Professional Studies, University of Wyoming,

Laramie, WY, USA

Darryl C. Draper╇ Department of STEM Education and Professional Studies, Old

Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA

Julia A. Finch╇ Department of Art and Design, Morehead State University, More-
head, KY, USA

Jill Ewing Flynn╇ Department of English, University of Delaware, Newark, USA

Dabney Hailey╇ Hailey Group, LLC, Cambridge, MA, USA

Taralynn Hartsell╇ Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Education,

The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA

Kristina Lamour Sansone╇ Lesley University, College of Art and Design, Cam-
bridge, MA, USA

William Lewis╇ School of Education, University of Delaware, Newark, USA

Lynn Mandeltort╇ Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA

xxix
xxx Contributors

Lindsay Kistler Mattock╇ School of Library and Information Science, The Univer-
sity of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA

Alexa Miller╇ Arts Practica, LLC, Guilford, CT, USA

Amy B. Mulnix╇ Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, PA, USA

Rhonda S. Robinson╇ Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA

Brooke N. Scherer╇ Department of Art, The University of Tampa, Tampa, FL, USA

Jeff Share╇ Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of

California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Chareen Snelson╇ Department of Educational Technology, Boise State University,

Boise, ID, USA

Eleanor V.H. Vandegrift╇ University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Jennifer R. Yates╇ Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, OH, USA

Philip Yenawine╇ Visual Understanding in Education, Wellfleet, MA, USA

Acknowledgment

We, as editors, cannot express enough our gratitude to the reviewers for the detailed
feedback they provided on assigned manuscripts. We appreciate the time they spent
reading the submissions and crafting their reviews. The comments and suggestions
received during this rigorous peer-review process contributed to the quality and
success of this edited book.

Elizabeth Anderson, College of DuPage, IL

Maria D. Avgerinou, American Community Schools of Athens, Greece
Deborah Banker, Angelo State University, TX
Anne Barnhart, University of West Georgia, GA
Joan Beaudoin, Wayne State University, MI
Joy Blackwell, University of North Texas, TX
Kristin Brynteson, Northern Illinois University, IL
S. Raj Chaudhury, Auburn University, AL
Sonal Chawla, Panjab University, India
Geri Chesner, National Louis University, IL
Mary Christel, Adlai Stevenson High School, IL
Lauren Cifuentes, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, TX
O.P. Cooper, University of West Georgia, GA
Ana Donaldson, Association for Educational Communications & Technology
Tonia Dousay, University of Wyoming, WY
Daryl Draper, Old Dominion University, VA
Joan Dunlap, University of Colorado Denver, CO
Charles Elfer, Clayton State University, GA
Brian Fahey, South Forsyth High School, GA
Julia Finch, Morehead State University, KY
Jill Ewing Flynn, University of Delaware, DE
Diane Fulkerson, University of South Florida, Sarasota-Manatee, FL
xxxi
xxxii Acknowledgment

Cristine Goldberg, University of Cumberlands, KY

Jonathan Gratch, University of North Texas, TX
Dabney Hailey, Hailey Consulting Group, LLC
Taralynn Hartsell, University of Southern Mississippi, MS
Linda Haynes, University of West Georgia, GA
John Hedberg, Macquarie University, Australia
Kate Highfield, Macquarie University, Australia
Shannon Howrey, Kennesaw State University, GA
Rebecca Hunt, Northern Illinois University, IL
Mariko Izumi, Columbus State University, GA
Erin Johnson, University of West Georgia, GA
Jackie Kim, Armstrong State University, GA
Jung Lee, Roger Stockton College of New Jersey, NJ
Susan Levine, DeKalb Country School District, GA
William Lewis, University of Delaware, DE
Lijia Lin, East China Normal University, China
Patrick Lowenthal, Boise State University, ID
Christine Malinowski, Lewis & Clark College, OR
Lynn Mandeltort, Auburn University, AL
Caydee Manning, California State University Long Beach, CA
Lindsay Kistler Mattock, The University of Iowa, IA
Marilyn May, Georgia Gwinett College, GA
Alexa Miller, ArtsPractica, LLC
Bruce L. Mims, Excell Education Innovations, CA
Amy B. Mulnix, Franklin and Marshall College, PA
Stacey Nickson, Auburn University, AL
Jerry Mobley, Fort Valley State University, GA
Jen Mooney, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, VA
Laura Ng, University of North Georgia, GA
Titilola Obilade, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, VA
Janice Odom, Georgia Gwinnett College, GA
Annie Olson, Le Tourneau University, TX
Angela Pashia, University of West Georgia, GA
Caroline Perjessy, University of West Georgia, GA
Dawn Putney, University of West Georgia, GA
Karen Redding, University of North Georgia, GA
Scott Roberts, Central Michigan University, MI
Rhonda S. Robinson, Northern Illinois University, IL
Kristina Lamour Sansone, Lesley University, MA
Wilhelmina Savenye, Arizona State University, AZ
Brooke Scherer, The University of Tampa, FL
Molly Schoen, University of Michigan, MI
Jeff Share, University of California Los Angeles, CA
Carmen Skaggs, Columbus State University, GA
Chareen Snelson, Boise State University, ID
Acknowledgment xxxiii

Phyllis Snipes, University of West Georgia, GA

Christine Sorensen, University of Hawaii at Manoa, HI
Glovis South, Heard County Middle School, GA
Michael Stevenson, Macquarie University, Australia
Frank Stonier, University of West Georgia, GA
Eleanor V.H. Vandegrift, University of Oregon, OR
Don Walling, Association for Educational Communications & Technology
Jennifer R. Yates, Ohio Wesleyan University, OH
Philip Yenawine, Visual Understanding in Education, MA
 Part I
Framing
Using Strategies from Graphic Design
to Improve Teaching and Learning

Kristina Lamour Sansone

Abstract╇ This chapter calls attention to the value of graphic design education in
K–12 settings by explaining the history and practice of graphic design, identifying
the uses and value of graphic design in education, and sharing a case study of how
it can be applied in the classroom. The chapter focuses particularly on the value of
constructing meaning with pictures and text, both for teacher use in the classroom
and in student picture–text integrated projects. It argues that the visual draft pro-
cess, which uses pictures and words together, can operate just as powerfully as the
writing process to facilitate and demonstrate student learning. This graphic design
process gives learners control of their content and liberates them to see different
relationships between elements and ideas. At the same time, it frames picture and
word relationships as malleable and builds flexible, critical thinking in multiple
dimensions.

Introduction

As a struggling learner in traditional text-heavy subjects such as English and Math,

I found refuge in graphic design. Working simultaneously with words and pictures
felt natural, yet it was not legitimized in my public high school. I was not introduced
to graphic design concepts until I enrolled in a professional school of design. By
and large, graphic design is considered to be a subject and skill accessible only in
professional school settings that teach commercial expertise. But since college, I
have used the teachings from my graphic design mentors to train teachers in early
childhood settings, elementary and high schools, and higher education.
In general, the American education culture sees visual communication as a mat-
ter of display, in what we might call a bulletin board mindset. Go to any teacher
supply store, and you will find rainbow colors, crazy typefaces, and clip art ban-
ners. Teachers decorate their rooms and students decorate their science posters and
book reports. But treating the visual language of typestyle, color, and picture choice
simply as decoration is like focusing on the neatness of the handwriting in a student

K.€Lamour€Sansone€()
Lesley University, College of Art and Design, Cambridge, MA, USA
e-mail: klamour@lesley.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 3
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_1
4 K. L. Sansone

essay: It negates the value of visual language as a means of understanding content.

Graphic design is not about decoration; it is about meaning.
Teachers have fully accepted the importance of the writing process as a means
of generating effective, articulate, and content-rich student writing. I argue here that
the visual draft process, which uses pictures and words together, can operate just
as powerfully to demonstrate student learning. This graphic design process gives
learners control of their content and liberates them to see different relationships
between elements and ideas. At the same time, it frames picture and word relation-
ships as malleable, not fixed, and builds flexibility of thinking in multiple dimen-
sions. Indeed, the central contention of this chapter is that recognizing graphic
design’s picture–text integrated language as an essential literacy for teaching and
learning can significantly improve K–12 education.
I focus particularly on the value of constructing meaning with pictures and text,
both by teachers in the classroom and in student picture–text integrated projects. I
do so by explaining the history and practice of graphic design, identifying the uses
and value of graphic design in education, and sharing case studies of classroom
applications.

Part 1: The What Is

What is graphic design? Graphic design is a field based on the construction and
communication of ideas using pictures and words together as one simultaneous
language. It creates relationships between pictures and words through practices,
such as information design and page layout. Graphic design does not discriminate
between pictures and words, seeing them as two equal elements of language and
identifying all language as visual. One way of describing graphic design, which
I believe to be the most relevant aspect for teaching and learning, is picture–text
integration, a term used consistently in this chapter.
Picture–text integration includes various languages, which are used to construct
a variety of forms:
Pictorial languages: symbols, logos, data visualization, maps
Typographic languages: logotypes (logos made from type), fonts, book text
Sequencing languages/page layout: books, digital presentations
Environmental/spatial languages: exhibits, signage
Interactive screen based languages: websites, apps, kiosks

All of these languages and forms have implication for teaching and learning, as
we think about graphic design’s potential to reinvent the way teachers think about
designing classroom tools and projects.
The history of graphic design and the origins of picture–text language. To un-
derstand the value of graphic design and picture–text integration in the educational
setting, we need to understand the origins and evolution of the field. In Graphic De-
sign, A Concise History, British scholar Richard Hollis (2011) suggests that graphic
design emerged in the late nineteenth century out of what he calls the “art poster,”
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 5

Fig. 1 ╇ This is an image of

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec’s
poster Moulin Rouge,
1891. (© The Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art. Image
source: Art Resource, NY)

which combined images with text for the purposes of presentation and promotion
(p.€11). According to Hollis, this created a form “where image and word need to be
economical, connected in a single meaning, and memorable” (p.€11). Reproduced
in multiple copies and visually and thematically combining picture and words pur-
posefully to support a message, the art poster led industry to recognize the value
of using visual art skills to create an intentional user-centered relationship between
pictures and text.
The posters of Henri de Toulouse Lautrec are an early example of the form (see
Fig.€1). Although their letterforms are awkward (uneven forms, long stems), they
work visually with the picture, in this case, as Hollis explains, because “the fact that
the lettering of such posters, though crudely amateurish, is hand-painted by the art-
ist and integrates it into the design” (p.€12).
6 K. L. Sansone

Fig. 2 ╇ German advertisement

for “Opel” brand cars, printed
by Hollerbaum & Schmidt,
Berlin, 1911 (color litho),
Erdt, Hans Rudi (1883–
1925)/Deutsches Historisches
Museum, Berlin, Germany/©
DHM/Bridgeman Images

Early packaging and magazine work shows the progress of picture–text integra-
tion, as the visual aspects of letterforms began to align more closely with pictures.
Visual representations of corporate identity (aka: logos) began to emerge, in which
symbols and text fuse as one language, as seen in Hans-Rudi Erdt’s 1911 advertise-
ment for Opel Automobile Company, where the white shape of the goggle and the
enlarged O in Opel connect the driver to the Opel he desires (see Fig.€2).
As commercial use of graphic design grew, so did the need for education in this
new field of expertise. The Bauhaus School of Design opened in Germany in 1919
and developed the core values of what became known as design education. Unlike
the academies that produced painters and sculptors, who envisioned their work as
expressive, design schools saw visual language production as communication. Text
and pictures were meant to be used, and therefore the new field of graphic design,
first named as such by Boston-based book designer William Addison Dwiggins
in the early 1920s, had to consider the user of an image. The field of typography
emerged, as did new kinds of picture making, while new schools of design in Eu-
rope and the USA developed teaching strategies for design forms such as posters,
books, and packaging. This model of design education, which teaches students a
process for generating, exploring, and evaluating visual ideas, persists today and
is the basis for this chapter’s discussion of the possibilities for graphic design in
education (Fig.€3).
Graphic design vis-a-vis visual and media literacy. Just as graphic design has
a particular position in art history, it is also can be understood as a visual field
particularly situated within the broader umbrella of visual and media literacy. Its
expertise specifically attends to the visual aspects of words combined with images
and to the discipline of typography, making it unique within the visual arts. Fine
artists, photographers, and illustrators sometimes include text in their work, but this
skill is not taught explicitly in their educational programs. The fields of document
design and instructional design are connected to graphic design and have a similar
relationship to visual and media literacy, but their educational programs have differ-
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 7

Fig. 3 ╇ A study in picture and

letter relativity from my first
year in a graphic design pro-
gram, 1989

ent origins and purposes. Document design tends to be taught in technical schools,
while instructional design emerges out of schools of education; both are profes-
sional programs. Graphic design education lives mainly in art and design programs
and schools, and while it can be used in many professions, I believe its focus to be
communication.
In the Association of College and Research Library (ACRL) and International
Visual Literacy Association’s (IVLA) definitions of visual literacy,
Visual literacy is a set of abilities that enables an individual to effectively find, interpret,
evaluate, use, and create images and visual media. (ACRL)
Visual Literacy refers to a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by see-
ing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. (IVLA)

terms such as image, visual media, and visual communication cast a broad net.
This is because visual and media literacy needs to distinguish itself from verbal and
textual literacy. However, every field of study, from chemistry to auto mechanics,
uses some kind of visual language, and collectively, these specific visual languages
expand the field of visual literacy’s abilities and competencies.
It is important to note, however, that overly broad understandings of visual and
media literacy can be a problem for teaching, because they negate the specific abili-
ties and competencies of individual fields, whether we are talking about traditional
art and design fields or academic fields. The term visual and media literacy has
often been used to describe the work I do in schools, where it seems to be perva-
sive as a catchall phrase that can encompass anything having to do with art, digital
technology, and media. Yet its very pervasiveness lets teachers miss opportunities
to go deep with knowledge embedded in specific visual media disciplines such as
graphic design—or auto mechanics. For example, the particular knowledge base of
graphic design helps teachers to identify the most legible typefaces (typography),
to spatially organize pictures and words on the page or screen so their importance
is clear to students (hierarchy), and to use the most effective delivery format (small,
big) and/or medium (paper, screen) for their teaching purposes.
8 K. L. Sansone

Pictures and text in the language of graphic design. The effective use of graphic
design’s picture–text integrated language in the classroom requires an understand-
ing of the unique attributes of pictures and text within a given form, such as a poster
or handout. This is a language that is foreign to many teachers and students, given
the emphasis on text in most K–12 environments. Given the interconnected nature
of picture and text in both the design process and graphic design products, it is
somewhat ironic to separate the two, but in teaching and learning graphic design,
it is essential to address each one and then talk about the integration of the two as
a fused language. Graphic design students must be able to mentally process picto-
rial and textual elements separately while considering how each choice they make
supports the concept they are communicating. It is about connecting design choice
with intention. Just as writers explore individual word choices within a sentence or
paragraph, image making in graphic design comprises a visual sentence that spa-
tially integrates pictures and words.
Picture-text integration: the picture. Pictures or pictorial elements play a specific
role in the creation of forms in graphic design, such as posters, symbols, digital pre-
sentations, or blogs. Essentially, a picture is anything that is not text.
A picture within a graphic design image can be a:
•)>> Symbol
•)>> Photograph
•)>> Texture
•)>> Color
•)>> Illustration
•)>> Painting
•)>> Diagrammatic (arrows, dotted lines, etc.)
Mentally, a graphic designer enters the construction of a graphic design with numer-
ous pictorial choices in mind. Like playing several tapes in one’s head, the graphic
designer runs through alternatives. Could my concept use a photograph? Or, should
it be illustrated? Or, communicated purely through text? In the design process, pic-
tures are flexible entities. If, for example, the background of an image is distracting,
a designer will take it out and make it a solid color, altering the picture to enhance
the meaning.
Picture–text integration: the text. In The Education of the Graphic Designer, for-
mer WGBH design director and well-regarded graphic design educator Christopher
Pullman (2006) states:
Graphic Design is unique among all design disciplines because of its deep roots in lan-
guage. Graphic communications rely on the interaction of words and images to convey
a message that is almost always dependent on language and its cultural con-text. As a
consequence, the heart of our practice is typography, a set of conventions that allow us to
represent, however crudely, the rich inflections and rhythms of spoken language. (Heller
2006, p.€171)

One of the unique aspects of graphic design is its sensitivity to the visual aspects
of textual language. This specific discipline is called typography. Typography is
considered a field unto itself, but it is also part of the glue for graphic design’s pic-
ture–text integration.
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 9

Text within graphic design can be a:

•)>> Letterform
•)>> Word
•)>> Paragraph
•)>> Long text
Learning typography involves such topics and practices as:
•)>> Different kinds of typestyles and their use
•)>> The anatomy of a single letter that names each part
•)>> Appropriate and readable lengths of text
•)>> Legibility of both headlines and body text
In graphic design, text is often referred to as an image, because a graphic designer
cannot use text without seeing its visual aspects. At the microlevel, a graphic de-
signer might examine the inside curve of an S when designing a typeface. At the
macro level, a designer will pay attention to the shape of a long text such as novel
or newspaper or to the arrangement of text blocks on a website.
A fused language. The practice of graphic design strives to understand the dual
nature of words and pictures by recognizing that each contains a property that func-
tions both optically and communicatively. Philip Meggs (1989), a highly regarded
graphic design educator and author of the classic book, Type & Image: The Lan-
guage of Graphic Design, said: “Almost every graphic form—from a small period
at the end of a sentence to the most complex color photograph—has a dual exis-
tence: It is an optical phenomenon with visual properties, and it is a communicative
signal that functions with other signals to form a message” (p.€2).
Initially, this is a tough concept to grasp because the student has to learn to see
things beyond their surface. With practice, graphic design awakens the eye to the
dual nature of language in all content, helping us to see text in books, on the web,
and in daily life in a whole new way (Fig.€4 and 5).

Fig. 4 ╇ The dual nature of a letter

10 K. L. Sansone

Fig. 5 ╇ The dual nature of a picture. (© Can Stock Photo Inc./[Freezingpicture])

In graphic design, every letter lives as both a form with visual properties and a
form with a communicative function. In this way, every letter stands in relationship
to itself in both its form and function. For example, the letter O has a communica-
tive function: it signals a difference between c-o-t and c-a-t. In graphic design, the
circle also has a visual property: it has an inside and outside (described in the field
as its form and counter form); it can be bold, small or large, or colored. These visual
aspects can be viewed as the pictorial aspects of a letter: the letter’s color, style,
weight, size, etc. are inherently not text based; they can pertain just as easily to an
A or an X, a single letter or a paragraph.
Graphic design also sees words and pictures as essential, rather than supple-
mental, in their relationship with one another. In place of the simple dynamic of
pictures illustrating words, as in traditional textbooks and picture books, fusing the
two together allows a viewer to consider the value the word holds that the picture
lacks, and the value the picture holds that the word lacks. When the picture–word
relationship is used effectively, the pictures reveal aspects of the concept that the
text is incapable of explaining, and vice versa, as in a scientific diagram that en-
hances the text of an article.
To see all of these concepts at work, we can look at an iconic example from
graphic design history. Milton Glaser, the graphic designer credited with I (heart)
New York (see Fig.€ 6) recognized how the image of the heart adds value to the
phrase. If we write out the word heart, it loses this value. Glaser similarly recog-
nized the value of typeface choice. If we change to a blocky square typeface, we
can see why Glaser chose the rounded typestyle to visually connect to the style of
the heart shape. The choice of rounded type shows evidence of Glaser’s powerful
capacity for picture–text integration: He finds alignment in form to strengthen his
content and activates the unity that the letters and pictures provide as one common
visual language. In this design, Glaser is constructing language and image so that
we feel the content more powerfully than we would if it were simply expressed in
text. In other words, we learn the message more effectively, as Glaser processes his
content simultaneously through text and picture, both personally constructing his
meaning and communicating it to his audience.
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 11

Fig. 6 ╇ I LOVE NEW YORK

by Milton Glaser, 1973.
( is a trademark
of the NYS Dept. of Eco-
nomic Development, used
with permission)

Establishing the criteria for successful design and then integrating it with the
dual nature of words and pictures is crucial to teaching and learning. It brings at-
tention to the ubiquitous, often-unnoticed visible aspects of language that can have
a huge impact on learners as a vehicle for communicating ideas. For instance, suc-
cessful logos, such as I (heart) New York, call for design that is simple, memorable,
timeless, versatile, and appropriate.
While graphic design in the classroom follows similar principles, it has its own
criteria. Where illegibility might be a valuable part of an artistic or commercial
message, using an illegible typestyle in a class handout can make it challenging for
students to understand the material. A teacher may like a cute child-like typeface,
but if he is teaching a serious subject and uses this type in a handout, a student’s
entry into the subject may reflect the nonseriousness of the visual choice, rather
than the seriousness of the content. An overly literal picture with a student’s digital
presentation can limit the student’s capacity to express complex ideas. Even banal
text in a textbook contains visual content. It is a particular size, set in a typestyle,
with a line length. Graphic design thinking encourages the habit of breaking down
each of these decisions as its own choice, so the maker can connect this single deci-
sion to an overall logical and usable whole.

Part 2: Graphic Design’s Connection to Learning

The value of graphic design in K–12 education. Consider the use of picture–text
integrated language in K–12 settings:
Writing with pictures in early writing
Flash cards
Books
Poster presentations
Blogs
Graphic organizers
Mind maps
Online teaching tools
Bulletin boards
Diagrams and visualizations
Tests that use pictures to illustrate a concept
Digital presentations (aka PowerPoints)
Documentation of student learning using pictures and words
12 K. L. Sansone

Now imagine this list without pictures. What is missing? Almost everything. Pic-
ture–text integrated forms have been essential to teaching and learning since the
dawn of education. The question of “Why” reveals the value of graphic design in
education. Pictures and texts together are fundamental to communication; both in
early childhood and for older students, they enable students and their teachers to
explain, persuade, and engage.
Though schools may seem, on the surface, to be highly visual environments, it is
rare to find visual language strategically directed toward improving learning. Aside
from the occasional instructional technology or media course, teacher training pro-
grams pay little attention to visual communication skills, and teachers often lack
the expertise to produce and understand effective visual communication using the
invaluable tools of graphic design. Giving teachers a graphic design education can
provide them with the tools, methods, and criteria to enhance learning outcomes for
existing school assignments such as timelines, posters, maps, and digital presenta-
tions.
Graphic design can also connect learning directly to the highly visual-lived re-
ality of students and teachers, as manifested everywhere from the peace sign on a
teacher’s door, to the graphic symbol on a student’s cell phone, and to the many
hours that both spend working and playing on computers with personalized screen-
savers and social media. Graphic design helps us understand how these languages
work—through unique images, typestyles, patterns, and symbols—and helps us
make these languages work for us, in both education and daily life, in the process
better connecting the two.
Picture–text integration in early childhood. Picture–text integrated language
plays a significant role in early childhood literacy, where children draw to accom-
pany their initial attempts at writing. These forms are the first parts of a child’s
language. But as children grow older, the letter separates from its ability to be ac-
companied by a picture or seen in play as a visual element. The integration of pic-
tures with words is left behind like training wheels, seen as unnecessary to cognitive
processing, to understanding concepts and content, and to seeing the world (Fig.€7).
Letterforms evolve as a part of a child’s written language, emerging as one ele-
ment of a complex grammar alongside other pictorial forms. In other words, de-

Fig. 7 ╇ A drawing called both

an O and a tire, Enzo, age 2
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 13

Fig. 8 ╇ First-grade writing

assignment using pictures to
support writing, Enzo, age 6

velopmentally, for children, letters emerge out of shapes, rather than entering their
vocabulary as a separate and other form. This seamless connection between pictures
and words gives rise to the first true manifestation of graphic design in the learning
process. For a child, O is both a shape and a letter. The child sees and writes like a
graphic designer, fusing pictures and words as one.
Although young children spontaneously use these different parts in deliberate
relationships to form their own written languages, when they arrive at elementary
school, their innate, flexible, visually oriented, broad concept of language narrows
immediately to the rigidly textual A, B, C, and 1, 2, 3. In school language, even
inherently graphic symbols like +, −, and % are treated as lingual. The visual parts
of abstract shape, color, texture, and picture, which have been so integral to the
child’s preschool explorations of visual language, become categorized as art and
disappear from the vocabulary a student is expected to use for school—aside from a
few posters and science projects. As a result, the language available for learning is
dramatically constricted (Fig.€8).
Research associated with picture–text integrated literacies. While visual literacy
is currently a popular research topic, there is little research to date that focuses spe-
cifically on the role of graphic design in education. Research in graphic design or
visual communication typically relates to why a design works, rather than the learn-
ing process it takes to create or comprehend a design. Researchers and practitioners
interested in the practice of graphic design in education thus must draw on insights
from adjacent fields to support our work, especially cognitive psychology and cog-
nitive neuroscience related to visual communication at large and more specifically
to the value of learning using pictures and text simultaneously.
Gunther Kress, a professor of semiotics and education, has written extensively
about a wide net of visual image language such as advertisements, paintings, and
photography. In Reading Images (p.€185), he (1996) describes images that include
pictures and text as multimodal, that is, as texts whose meanings are realized through
more than one semiotic code. His work points broadly to the value of diverse textual
and visual languages for classroom practices.
14 K. L. Sansone

Psychologist Richard Mayer (2010), the core researcher to substantiate picture–

text integrated literacies, defines learning as a change in knowledge attributable
to experience (p.€ 60). His definition has three parts: learning is a change in the
learner; what is changed is the learner’s knowledge; and the cause of the change is
the learner’s experience in a learning environment. Mayer’s theory of multimedia
learning demonstrates that people learn more deeply from words and pictures than
from words alone.
Mayer’s (2010) work is based on the work of Allan Paivio. Paivio posited a
dual-channel theory showing how humans possess separate information channels
for visually and auditorily represented material. (p.€9) Mayer states:
A cognitive theory of multi-media learning assumes that that the human information-pro-
cessing system includes dual channels for visual/pictorial and auditory/verbal processing,
each channel has limited capacity for processing, and active learning entails carrying out
appropriate cognitive processing during learning. (p.€57)

The visual/pictorial includes both pictures and text as printed or screen content. The
eye sees this visual/pictorial information as one image, and our brain recognizes
pictures and words within one channel. As a result, we see the two as one unified
language. Furthering the alignment of words and images as one, Mayer distinguish-
es printed (or typographic) text from auditory (or heard) text, indicating that the
distinctive element is not words, but medium.
Dynamically using pictures and words as one language to understand materials
and content, but also to communicate that understanding to others, is at the core of
using graphic design to construct classroom (and other) communication. During
what I call the image construction phase, teachers and students test alternatives,
weed distractors, and figure out a clear hierarchy. As Mayer says, “Selecting rele-
vant material occurs when a learner pays attention to appropriate words and images
in the presented materials” (p.€ 70), Later he adds, “Integrating selected material
with existing knowledge involved building connections between incoming material
and relevant portions of prior knowledge.”
As noted above, this theory can also work in reverse. If visual information is too
chaotic, it can hinder learning, as in the case of a speaker whose PowerPoint has
too many bullet points and decorative borders that actively detract from his process.
This is why a graphic design education is so important. It strengthens critical think-
ing within picture and word processing, providing scaffolding for how students can
think about and steer picture–word integrated language for their own learning and
for the learning of those who interpret their constructed images.
Like Mayer, Stephen Kosslyn (2007) is a psychologist who studies the nature of
visual mental imagery and visual communication by identifying choices that can
hinder a learner’s capacity in areas such as memory and processing. His recent,
more publicly accessible books focus specifically on PowerPoint presentations, but
his research substantiates sound strategies for constructing and reflecting on pic-
ture–text forms in a graphic context, even though Kosslyn tests his concepts in labs,
rather than working in a design studio.
In his book Clear and to the Point, 8 Psychological Principles for Compelling
PowerPoint Presentations (2007), he uses PowerPoint, which is a picture–text inte-
grated literacy, to examine and connect:
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 15

Relevance
Appropriate knowledge
Salience
Discriminability
Perceptual organization
Compatibility
Informative changes
Capacity Limitations

For example, he explains how research in cognition shows that we can only re-
member in four groups at a time. Therefore, if a teacher adds numerous bullets,
text blocks, and pictures to a presentation, her students are less likely to remember
the content. However, if she clusters that content into no more than four digestible
chunks, it is more likely that her students will retain the material. Kosslyn’s work
scientifically confirms many principles of good design practice that have long been
at work in the graphic design classroom.
Historically, graphic designers have looked to the principles of gestalt psychol-
ogy to understand the logic of successful unified visual forms—such as the Olym-
pic rings or the Nike swoosh—through concepts such as continuity (the flow of
separate elements within a design), closure (separate elements in space that con-
nect), and proximity (elements close together inevitably relate in meaning). Kosslyn
helps us to see how these concepts work in our minds to build clarity, memory, and
comprehension pointing out that “Those principles of perception and cognition are
at work no matter what we humans are doing, be it interpreting graphs, playing golf,
reading tea leaves, or anything else” (Preface).
Combining research from the fields of psychology, cognitive psychology, and cog-
nitive neuropsychology with strong graphic design teaching has great implications for
teaching and learning. Professional schools of art and design are not learning research
environments, but do provide examples of countless students who struggled with text-
heavy writing environments in high school enjoying constructing and communicating
with picture–text-based language in design school. Having been a professor of graphic
design in professional design programs for over 15 years, I have seen this case by case
and yet evidence of these student transformations remains in the shadows. Professional
art and design schools tend to stigmatize and separate learning in traditional subjects
from learning that is meant to support the trade, when in fact these schools have the
potential to truly transform learning, in a way that will also significantly advance their
impact on communication as a whole.

Graphic Design’s Learning Phases

Designers working in K–12 education commonly codify the design process into a
definitive cycle of stages often referred to as a “design thinking” method or proto-
col. Design thinking takes strategies at the core of all design disciplines and makes
them one process. While this streamlining of the design process is simple for teach-
ers to access, it misses the unique abilities, competencies, and knowledge base that
16 K. L. Sansone

lives within each of the design disciplines. From my years as a professor of graphic
design in professional schools, I have adapted the specific phases of graphic de-
sign learning in a format that will allow teachers to access graphic design’s unique
picture–text learning via three mental models or checklists. These allow teachers
to reflect on the design process as they examine their existing teaching tools and
projects and consider new ones.
The following three phases (observation, construction of meaning, and effective
communication) can deepen all learning because they widen our senses and ability
to both understand and communicate through picture–text integration.
Observation (to visually research). What if teachers approached the visual pre-
sentation of content as if they were learning it for the first time? Like scholars such
as archaeologists, who rely on visual language to understand their findings, teachers
and students can use observation to simultaneously obtain pictures and words as
part of their research language and understanding of content. Tools such as phone
cameras and image search engines have increased the ease of gathering pictures as
references, to use themselves or models for drawings during the construction phase.
Bauhaus teacher, Paul Klee (Klee and Klee 1964) said, “One eye sees, the other
feels” (p.€310). As one senses the visual as well as traditional textual aspects of con-
tent, one is researching. Through observational research, students learn about con-
tent but also identify options for pictures and text elements to support their graphic
designs. Pictures can be drawings, photos, symbols, or a combination. Text can be
digital or drawn. This process helps students remember—and at first they often
need to be reminded—that all visual choices hold meaning.
Construction of meaning (to make). The processing part of content understand-
ing and communication through picture–text integration is at the heart of owning
and communicating understanding. Teachers and their students work intensively,
connecting intellect with intuition and using paper, pencil, or computer tools to
explore meaning through their word and picture choices. In this process, language
is flexible and malleable within appropriately selected confines (poster size, digital
slide proportion). One goal is to understand the meaning of content by exploring the
relationship between the form and function. Another is to connect design choices
with intentions. All the while, the process strengthens communication and under-
standing. This kind of processing allows a student to become intimate with lan-
guage in a way that text alone cannot enable, helping students to think more deeply
about the processing of language in their picture–text integrated communications.
Constructing meaning uses the following strategies:
Testing visual ideas through iteration. A process of visual drafts, alternatives, or iterations
to see different possibilities is a crucial step in the graphic design methodology. The process
of drafts helps both the teacher and the learner figure out which visual strategy best repre-
sents the idea. It also builds in a flexible mindset, which helps both teachers and students
appreciate multiple ways of doing things.
Constructing a visual hierarchy. We often think about and are educated to think about hier-
archy linearly, in terms of a branch chart. Hierarchy in graphic design is spatial. It means
exploring picture and words within space and using scale to determine what needs to be
read first, second, and third. The viewer must measure with his eyes, and the measurements
must be conducive to the meaning. The process provides a control of picture and text ele-
ments, supporting perceptual organization, a term used by cognitive psychologists.
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 17

Fig. 9 ╇ A science teacher’s

digital slide. (Image credits:
eye diagram © Can Stock
Photo Inc./shumpc, eye chart
© Can Stock Photo Inc./b79,
light bulb © Can Stock Photo
Inc./In8Finity and optical
illusion © Can Stock Photo
Inc./casejustin)

Weeding distractors. Along the way, a student must determine if all of the elements within
his or her design are necessary. Does this choice (color, paper, and typestyle) effectively
participate in the concept or not? Distractors can include unnecessary borders, back-
grounds, and inappropriate typefaces. When deciding whether a design is finished, it is
important to consider each element separately to evaluate its necessity to the concept being
communicated.

Effective communication (to analyze). Once an image feels right on the page or
behind the screen, how do we know it is doing its job to communicate? Communi-
cation provides a mental checklist for understanding the relationship between the
graphic designer and the user or reader of his image. A designer asks: Can the reader
see my design from their viewing distance? Is the hierarchy I chose clear? Is each
element in my design supporting my understanding and communicating what I want
to say? Have I selected the right media to deliver my message?
The three phases described above provide a framework for teachers and their
students to think more critically about picture and word forms in K–12 settings.
How that works in practice is the focus of the next section.
Case studies. Here is a scenario inspired by one of my coaching contexts. Bill, a
science teacher, is presenting a lesson on perception tomorrow and needs to create
a digital presentation. It is his second nature to go into an image search engine, find
what he needs, and quickly create a slide (see Fig.€9).
This time, I help Bill look at his design from my lens. I see a provoking text
element, an interesting question, and a set of pictures that will appeal to Bill’s tenth-
grade audience, but note that students might have difficulty navigating the elements
within the slide, since they are all basically the same size and do not have a self-
evident order.
As a critical friend, I help Bill by asking, “What is the most important element on
your slide?” and “What do you want to say?” Working dynamically on “construct-
ing,” I show him several alternatives (see Fig.€ 10) by recomposing the elements
using different hierarchies in PowerPoint to show how the same elements can proj-
ect a different message and experience. My efforts show the power of the flexible
graphic design mind at work.
18 K. L. Sansone

Fig. 10 ╇ a & b. Additional

versions of Fig.€9. (Image
credits: eye diagram © can
stock photo inc./shumpc, eye
chart © can stock photo inc./
b79, light bulb © can stock
photo inc./in8finity and opti-
cal illusion © can stock photo
inc./casejustin)

Bill picks a slide (see Fig.€11) that articulates the message he intended to commu-
nicate but did not have the skills or practice to construct: That visual perception—
what we take in through our eyes—has diverse ramifications across the cognitive
and visual planes.
I have seen Bill’s story happen in schools again and again. Many teachers con-
sider these forms to be a matter of display, rather than essential to learning. When
I observe classrooms, I take many pictures of graphic design forms living in the
classroom and then ask teachers to reflect on their practice. This mirroring of prac-
tice has proved to be very effective as a way to help teachers see what their students
see. With just a little awareness, I have seen teachers make significant changes in a
short amount of time.
Bill was never trained in design. He was trained as a scientist. By its nature, sci-
ence is a field that uses observation, but science teachers are not taught the construc-
tion and communication parts of a visual process. Bill told me that he would never
look at his slides the same way again, once we turned on the visual fuse boxes that
he felt had been dormant since he was a kid.
Carol is another teacher I worked with to illuminate picture–text integration op-
portunities in her classroom and curriculum. When I walked into her classroom, I
saw typical store-bought posters and classroom learning tools filling the walls and a
few computers lined up on the back wall. The white board struck me immediately. I
noticed the density of text, filled with information but difficult to access. Otherwise,
the room was relatively well organized. Carol had a set of textbooks in egg crates
and binders with the students’ names on them on her desk (Fig.€12).
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 19

Fig. 11 ╇ The version that

meets Bill’s intended mes-
sage. (Image credits: eye
diagram © can stock photo
inc./shumpc, eye chart © can
stock photo inc./b79, light
bulb © can stock photo inc./
in8finity and optical illusion
© can stock photo inc./
casejustin)

Carol knew her content inside and out. She was a former music teacher who had
been a humanities teacher in the Boston Public Schools for many years. She also
was working with a paraprofessional, or teaching assistant, on a regular basis. In
her curriculum, she was in the process of laying a historical foundation to introduce
the life of Martin Luther King, Jr., in four phases, using the white board as a vessel
of information.

Fig. 12 ╇ White board in Carol’s high school classroom

20 K. L. Sansone

Fig. 13 ╇ Carol and her assistant working on a timeline

The day after my observation, I walked in and saw Carol and her assistant creat-
ing a timeline that distinguished the four sections of King’s life. They used a long
roll of white paper 12in. high by 8€ft. long. Like the white board, Carol had filled
up the page with text on an angle; she noted each section with pencil, and then her
assistant copied each pencil line with a marker. The text was small, about 14€points
in typographic measurement, which made the lowercase letter about one quarter of
an inch high (Fig.€13).
When the form was put up above the blackboard, like an alphabet banner chart in
a kindergarten classroom, it was too dense and small to be read high up on the wall.
Interestingly, Carol’s background as a music teacher draws her into timelines. She
thinks in scores, so I supported her to reflect on the visual form being read by her
students. I worked with her to create an inner dialogue between the visual forms she
is drawn to, the forms she is creating, and her students’ use of the form.
When I suggested to Carol that she consider adding images and more breathing
room to loosen up the text in her white board and timeline, she said she wanted to do
that but did not know how to start. As her critical friend, I worked side by side with
her and her teaching assistant for several months. We revisited the timeline as if for
the first time, letting go of our natural impulses to jump into a solution without first
thinking about all aspects of the communication: viewing distance, accessibility,
use, engagement, color, etc.
I suggested Carol back away and allow her students to rethink the timeline with
her, to observe the world of King’s life through her teaching, books, and primary
sources in the classroom and library, videos, and websites, in conjunction with their
own background knowledge.
Along with her assistant and students, she organized key texts, moments, ideas,
and images such as photos, primary sources, and symbols on their desks and in the
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 21

Fig. 14 ╇ Students’ arrangement of images from their observation phase

lab. You could sense an intensity in the students during this process. What felt like
chaos funneled into a deep, contemplative space. Carol was amazed to find her stu-
dents had the innate ability to identify and collect a huge pile of images and to order
Martin Luther King, Jr.’s life using just picture elements (Fig.€14).
After this stage, I worked with her assistant to construct the timeline to show
Carol the possibilities. Her assistant used the students’ images to reconstruct the
timeline and considered adding some of Carol’s text back in, albeit with a careful
editing of extraneous information. I suggested that Carol and her assistant identify
a size (format) and a structure by exploring different combinations of text and pic-
tures and by doing some of their own writing and then editing it to be digestible
while making sense of the pictures alongside the text.
At this stage, they decided to make the timeline digital rather than paper. The
digital form would allow Carol to zoom in on critical features of the picture–text
integrated content. It would also allow her to edit, and it was less expensive than a
large color print. Her assistant continued to explore iteration, hierarchy, and editing
to assure that all of the elements could be read easily and there were are no distrac-
tors. This posed a challenge for Carol because her impulse is to add, not edit, but
once she was able to reflect and see the timeline as a tool for her students, to see or
mirror what they were seeing, she was able to make the changes (Fig.€15).
Carol tested her communication by turning off the lights and sharing the timeline
design with her students. Immediately, a different level of engagement in the learn-
ing environment was palpable. It was the same content but constructed differently.
Since the students owned part of the process, she was able to hook them into the
process of learning and engagement with the form.
22 K. L. Sansone

Fig. 15 ╇ The revised timeline ( left)

Once Carol had confidence and recognized the engagement and comprehension
of her students, she brought more text–picture integrated projects into the classroom
by introducing an assignment in which her students compared the lives of Martin
Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. First, her assistant worked with students collab-
oratively at a big table to mind map different ideas, combining key phrases and text.
Carol said, “It would be so nice to make a Venn diagram.” Immediately, I thought to
make a graphic organizer to which students (piggybacking off the timeline process)
could add collage elements (Fig.€16).
Carol worked with me to construct a large, tabloid-sized (11↜×↜17) Xerox paper
Venn diagram graphic organizer for her students to construct comparisons between
the two leaders’ lives in symbols. It is important to use common office supply mate-
rials for graphic design work, so teachers see the materials as accessible to everyday
practice (Fig.€17).
The work was expanded still by a writing prompt. Students put tracing paper on
top of their Venn diagram collages, so they could use the picture–text integrated
language they had created as provocation for key words and concepts to write an
essay (Fig.€18).
The comparative essay was measurably richer in vocabulary than if it had been
done with text alone. Students felt ownership of their work because they had the
opportunity to construct knowledge, both collaboratively and individually, through
the construction of their picture–text integrated form, opening up their own defini-
tions of language, in a significant expansion and deepening of the learning process.
This case study suggests that:
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 23

Fig. 16 ╇ Students mapping symbolic representations for Martin Luther King and Malcolm X in
preparation for the Venn diagram collage

Fig. 17 ╇ High school student constructing a Venn diagram comparing Martin Luther King and
Malcolm X in a prewriting exercise
24 K. L. Sansone

Fig. 18 ╇ Tracing paper was laid on top of the Venn diagram collages to expand vocabulary for a
comparative essay

•)>> Graphic design is not based in talent, but is an acquired skill set.
•)>> Teachers can change their practice when others help them to reflect on materials
visible to their students in the classroom.
•)>> Exposure to the graphic design process inspires and builds confidence in teach-
ers to include more picture–text integrated projects in their curriculum.
My hope is that if we merge existing graphic design forms with related instruction
in teacher training programs and ongoing professional development, graphic design
education can systematically penetrate the K–12 classroom so that teachers and stu-
dents everywhere can access these powerful learning experiences. For more on this
case study, see Connecting the Dots: The Unexplored Promise of Visual Literacy in
American Classrooms by Larry Myatt (2008).
Tools and resources for teachers who want to learn more or try it out. Many
teachers I work with say they would like to integrate pictures into their text docu-
ments, classroom tools and assignments, but do not know where to start. Giving
them even a bit of entry into this process opens up the possibilities for the con-
struction of picture–text integrated forms. I have found that my design phases can
act as a bridge, giving access to the many graphic design resources that exist in
design schools and for design professionals. In addition to the strategies outlined
in this chapter, I recommend two teacher-friendly texts:The Elements of Graphic
Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning 25

Design:Space, Unity, Page Architecture, and Type by Alex White (2002) is invalu-
able for basic graphic design process information, while A Type Primer by John
Kane (2003) is the most accessible entry point for typography basics.

Conclusion

We have before us a great opportunity to bridge the picture–text integrated literacies

of a graphic design education that live primarily in art departments in high schools
(if they are found at all in K–12 schools), and the insights and learning of profes-
sional schools of art and design to advance K–12 education.
In an article titled “Education in the New Millennium: The Case for Design-
Based Learning,” Lee et€al. (Lee & Breitenberg 2010) describe the work of Gunther
Kress:
Kress appropriates “design” in the broadest sense to describe the emergent multimodal
model: here, meaning is communicated through “assemblage,” through the relationships
among different media and discourses. Very few secondary schools have fully understood
the consequences of this shift: it means that visual learning, spatial and holistic thinking,
the need to work simultaneously in different media, and (most critically) the importance of
active learning over passive learning, are fundamental to the learning and cognitive pro-
cesses of students today. (p.€55)

I believe we are in the middle of a significant shift in learning. Rather than re-
inventing the system completely, I believe we can transform existing strategies,
languages, and forms in the classroom to produce dramatic effects. Moving from a
textual to a picture–text integrated language in schools could dramatically increase
teachers’ flexibility, ability, and competencies in the classroom, and will generate a
significant increase in student understanding and achievement.

References

Association of Research & College Libraries. (1996–2015). ACRL Visual literacy competency
standards for higher education. http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/visualliteracy.
Heller, S. (2006). The education of a graphic designer. New York: Allworth.
Hollis, R. (2011). Graphic design: A concise history. New York: Thames & Hudson.
International Visual Literacy Association. (2012). What is “Visual Literacy?”. http://www.ivla.
org/drupal2/content/what-visual-literacy-0.
Klee, P., & In Klee, F. (1964). The diaries of Paul Klee, 1898–1918. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Kress, G. R., & Van, L. T. (1996). Reading images: The grammar of visual design. London: Rout-
ledge.
Kosslyn, S. M. (2007). Clear and to the point: 8 psychological principles for compelling power-
point presentations. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Lee, H.-K., & Breitenberg, M. (2010). Education in the new millennium: The case for design-
based learning. International Journal of Art & Design Education, 29, 54–60.
26 K. L. Sansone

Mayer, R. E. (2010). Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Meggs, P. B. (1989). Type & image: The language of graphic design. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
Meggs, P. B., Purvis, A. W., & Meggs, P. B. (2006). Meggs’ history of graphic design. Hoboken:
Wiley.
Myatt, L. (2008). Connecting the dots: The unexplored promise of visual literacy in American
classrooms. Phi Delta Kappan, 90, 186–189.

Resources

Kane, J. (2003). A type primer. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.

White, A. (2002). The elements of graphic design: Space, unity, page architecture, and type. New
York: Allworth Press.

Kristina Lamour Sansone╇ is Associate Professor and Chair of Design at Lesley University’s
College of Art and Design. She holds a B.F.A. in Graphic Design from The University of the Arts,
an M.F.A. in Graphic Design from Yale University College of Art, and a C.A.G.S. in Curriculum
and Instruction from Lesley University’s School of Education. Kristina found refuge from her own
learning challenges in graphic design, a communication and learning process that connects pic-
tures and words into one simultaneous language. Over more than twenty years of practice, teach-
ing, consulting, and research, her primary goal has been to connect the graphic design process with
teaching and learning, including assessment, STEM, English Language Learners and Universal
Design for Learning.
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through
Design Activities

Tonia A. Dousay

Abstract╇ Now, more than ever, the need to incorporate literacies into instructional
strategies is important. As an instructional strategy, design activities bring together
available resources to encourage students through the process of constructing new
meanings and motivate students to take ownership of the media and content they
transform into new creations. Two examples of design activities include digital sto-
ries and comic book creation. Digital stories provide a unique outlet for students to
find a voice and share their stories with one another. Creating comic books, spe-
cifically, draws upon the visual nature of the medium and blends writing activities
with design activities. This chapter explores the ideas of design activities and pro-
vides general guidance for educators seeking to incorporate design activities as an
instructional strategy.

Introduction

The support for literacy and literate students is not new. Cazden et€al. (1996) noted
that literacy education plays an invaluable part of preparing students for their fu-
ture. The challenge is that evolving technology and the media created with it have
changed the landscape of literacy and what we consider to be a literate individual
(Bleed 2005). This literacy evolution has occurred through both social and cultural
shifts (Kellner 2000), and, with this shift, a renewed focus on visual and media
literacies has arisen.
Now, more than ever, the need to incorporate literacies into instructional strate-
gies is important. Students are constantly bombarded with media-saturated mes-
sages that influence the way they process information and construct meaning of the
world around them (Chung and Kirby 2009; Metros 2008; Morrison et€al. 2002).
This construction is part of the social revolution that is permeating classrooms of
all levels. As learners become increasingly multimodal, they must therefore develop
the skills necessary to process and engage with the vast amounts of information
so readily available (Black 2009). No longer are literacy and technology separate

T.€A.€Dousay€()
Department of Professional Studies, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
e-mail: tdousay@uwyo.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 27
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_2
28 T. A. Dousay

entities but rather intertwined elements of life and learning. This is only the begin-
ning, though. Today’s students are likely to encounter multimodal communication
tasks in their future careers, and educators must address curriculum that prepares a
visually literate citizen (Brumberger 2005; Mills 2010). This process can start with
preservice teachers, but must include teacher educators, and, eventually, in-service
teacher professional development. Shoffner et€ al. (2010) conducted a case study
examining the meaning of literacy to secondary English language arts teachers and
found that although in-service teachers are able to expand and adapt broadening
concepts of literacy, teacher educators must also recognize this importance. Indeed,
in a survey of preservice teachers’ views regarding literacies, Al-Hazza and Lucking
(2012) noted that future teachers are often assumed to be media literate and make
the connection to increasing technology use among their future students, but fail to
make the connection between literacies. This disconnection and lack of definition
provide insight into a growing issue with teacher preparation and eventually in-
service teacher adoption.

Defining Literacies

Before examining methods to address visual or media literacy in the classroom, it

is important to review the background and definitions of these terms. Brill et€al.
(2007) noted that the many dimensions of visual literacy make it difficult to accept
a common definition. However, from a historical perspective, Debes’ (1969) defini-
tion provides a comprehensive overview:
Visual literacy refers to a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by
seeing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. The develop-
ment of these competencies is fundamental to normal human learning. When developed,
they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions,
objects, symbols, natural or man-made, that he encounters in his environment. Through
the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with others. Through
the appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to comprehend and enjoy the master-
works of visual communication. (p.€27)

In short, the visually literate person can discriminate, create, and comprehend visual
objects as well as conceptualize and mentally visualize images (Bleed 2005; Brill
et€al. 2007; Metros 2008). The multimodal nature of current trends, therefore, high-
lights why visual literacy is such an important consideration in education and learning.
Until fairly recently, defining and applying only traditional and visual literacies
have been sufficient to fulfill the needs of society. Literacies, collectively, are social-
ly recognized and encompass all of the ways in which an individual generates, com-
municates, and negotiates meaning through a medium (Lankshear and Knobel 2011).
The current techno-centric shift calls for multiliteracies, consisting of tradi-
tional reading literacy, digital literacy, media literacy, and more (Bazalgette and
�Buckingham 2013; Black 2009; Garcia 2013; Kellner 2000). Even if the trend is
to adopt the term multiliteracies, scholars and educators must explore and agree
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 29

upon individual components, and how each is defined in order to proceed with best
practices for collective integration. Reading literacy focuses on the ability to read
and write. The term literacy usually implies reading literacy in most contexts. As
previously stated, visual literacy focuses on interpreting and using visual elements.
The National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE; 2014) views me-
dia literacy as multiple competencies focused on accessing, analyzing, evaluating,
and communicating information in a variety of mediums. Broadening the scope of
literacy to an integrated approach reveals that these concepts are deictic, meaning
that literacy no longer focuses on the sole concept of reading, but is influenced by
the context in which it is referenced (Leu et€al. 2004). Thus, the different contexts
in which materials are presented requires not only multiple literacies but also multi-
modal literacy (Gee 2003), which calls to mind the current trend and renewed focus
in education. The result is that interconnected multiliteracies heavily influence the
way information is processed and used, and modern technologies have had a signifi-
cant impact on study and application.
Educators who seek to address multiliteracies may find that there are practi-
cal benefits to introducing and applying these skills in the classroom. From news
outlets to social media, sharing videos, images, photographs, and user-generated
memes are common practice. However, Baker (2013) found that students often
lack the ability to recognize digitally altered images. This phenomenon can hin-
der classroom instruction if students fail to adequately assess resources referenced
for homework and projects. Noting that media literacy, specifically, is reflective
and encourages critical evaluation of design constructs, deconstructing artifacts to
derive personal meaning and distinguishing between overt and covert messages be-
comes an invaluable skill (Chung and Kirby 2009; Rogow 2011). Learners who
master multiliteracy skills, therefore, are able to meet, and exceed, expectations as
their proficiency increases with each applied practice. Less time is spent remediat-
ing concepts and more time is available to devote to more complex assignments. By
incorporating multiliteracies into the curriculum, students develop the knowledge
and skills necessary to identify incorrect or outright false content or carefully con-
sider how to use content for their assignments.

Design Activities

Simply recommending that educators consider multiliteracies is not enough. Guid-

ance must be provided on how to introduce and reinforce multiliteracies through-
out the curriculum. It is most common to find visual literacy in the art education
classroom (Baker 2013) and indeed preservice art education teachers are more
often exposed to these concepts, but there is clearly a need to distribute it into
other �disciplines. Considering the interconnected nature of multiliteracies when us-
ing media literacy, the result is individuals developing critical thinking skills, thus,
�enabling the transition from media consumers to media producers (NAMLE 2014).
It is reasonable to think that approaches which provide hands-on opportunities to
30 T. A. Dousay

practice and apply concepts may find the most success. As Kamerer (2013) noted,
(media) literacy education must include a production component. In fact, instruc-
tional strategies that include design activities, mixing and remixing the works of
others, have the potential to motivate even the most reluctant of learners, increasing
students’ attitudes towards reading, and empowering students’ ability to visualize
reading materials (Kenny 2011; Mills 2010). This means that educators must con-
sider the importance of incorporating created multimodal media, or the combination
visuals, text, and audio (Bazalgette and Buckingham 2013), into literacy education.
One possible strategy is to implement design activities for students to learn and
practice the competencies of multiliteracies.

What Is a Design Activity?

Design-based learning activities, or design activities, are a constructivist instruc-

tional strategy with applications of problem solving. Specifically, design activities
situate learners in an experience that requires specific tasks. It was Jonassen and
Reeves (1996) who suggested that design be put into the hands of learners to al-
low the opportunity to use technologies as cognitive tools, analyzing, accessing,
interpreting, and creating new meaning and products. Rather than just read about or
listen to an explanation of a concept, learners use the very tools their teachers often
implement to engage with the concepts and construct their own meaning. From a
more in-depth perspective, Black (2009) stated:
Designing is the process of drawing from available designs to construct new meanings and
representations of the world. Listening, speaking, reading, and writing are all examples of
designing, as an individual takes in or utilizes available semiotics resources and then uses
his/her own resources (linguistic, cognitive, semiotic) and life experiences to translate the
available designs into the redesigned. (p.€76)

As an instructional strategy, design activities bring together available resources to

encourage students through this process (Black 2009) and motivate students to take
ownership of the media and content they transform into new creations (Chung and
Kirby 2009; Lawanto et€ al. 2013). Interestingly, students who participate in de-
sign activities exhibit higher levels of intrinsic motivation and knowledge retention
(Lawanto and Stewardson 2011). When a learner is given ownership of his or her
learning, this motivation phenomenon takes over. The design activity, therefore, is
a powerful and interdisciplinary strategy with the potential to engage learners in an
autonomous journey to explore and apply multiliteracies.

Multiliteracies and the Design Activity

Finding appropriate strategies and methods with which to incorporate multilitera-

cies may be difficult for some educators. From the myriad of resources available to
the shifting landscape of instructional methods and emerging technologies, many
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 31

classroom teachers struggle with how to effectively incorporate or use current tech-
nologies (Robin 2008). Part of the issue is that of teacher attitudes and abilities
in addition to access to technologies. Addressing this issue with targeted applica-
tions in preservice teacher education is only the beginning. In-service teacher pro-
fessional development must follow suit. What many teachers and administrators
overlook is that today’s young children show evidence of using, producing, and
sharing media as part of their regular, daily activities (Buckingham et€al. 2014). It
follows, then, that leveraging this trend and providing sound guidance to in-service
and preservice teachers may be the key to introducing and practicing multiliteracies
in classrooms and formal education. Strategies that promote engaging in multilit-
eracies begin with informal experiences that incorporate media (Jenkins 2006) and
encouraging media-centered projects, regardless of discipline (Bleed 2005). While
design activities can begin in a specific, singular subject area, they must extend into
other areas of the learning environment.
The flexibility of the design activity allows for implementation and adaption at
every grade level and within every discipline. From language arts and history to
mathematics and science, students can engage in design activities within a specific
subject or blend subjects together as they rely on textual knowledge, contextual
content, and multimodal components required to produce an artifact (Mills 2010).
Design activities can also be incorporated into the curriculum at any level. Preser-
vice teachers could benefit substantially from design activities in their technology
integration coursework, which is common among teacher education programs. As
these preservice teachers transition into in-service teachers, they should be called
upon as teacher leaders, providing guidance and training to their peers. Given the
benefits of addressing multiliteracies and increasing learner motivation, incorporat-
ing design activities into preservice teacher curriculum creates a potential multiplier
effect as these educators consider implementing design activities into their future
classrooms. Thus, regardless of context, design activities address the needs of a
wide variety of learners.

Practical Applications of Design Activities in the Classroom

The broad, inclusive nature of design activities also means that there are a number
of ways in which to apply the strategy in classrooms. Engaging in design activities
encourages students to use available resources to conduct research online, iden-
tify appropriate visuals, plan narration, and address ethical considerations, such as
copyright (Baker 2013). This level of engagement in a singular activity illustrates
an integrated approach to teaching and reinforcing multiliteracies. Specifically,
when engaging in design activities, five questions adapted from applied media lit-
eracy instruction (Hobbs 2007) can guide students through the process of selecting
appropriate media for use in design activities. These questions are:
1.)>> Who sent the message and why?
2.)>> How does the message attract and hold attention?
32 T. A. Dousay

3.)>> What emotional and sociological factors are expressed in the message?
4.)>> How might others interpret the message differently?
5.)>> What is missing from the message?
Answering Hobbs’ questions engages learners in decision-making tasks, which
Jonassen (2012) identified as a primary skill necessary to develop for complex
problem solving. Problem solving is also identified as an essential twenty-first-cen-
tury skill for learners (Partnership for 21st Century Skills 2011), which is discussed
in more detail under Standards and Assessment.
With the design questions in mind, practical activities that fit the description
of design activities include digital storytelling and comic books. Both activities
require students to critically evaluate existing artifacts, deconstruct individual com-
ponents, plan their own project, and engage in design to produce an artifact of their
own. The following sections provide guidance based on literature and best practices
for introducing digital storytelling and comic book creation as design activities.

Digital Stories

Like the concept of visual literacy, digital stories are not a new idea. The digital sto-
rytelling movement began in the late 1980s with the Center for Digital Storytelling
(CDS) in Berkeley, California (Robin 2008). From an operational viewpoint, digital
stories combine traditional storytelling techniques with media production tools, and
often consist of photographs, video, music, and narration (Kearney 2011). For near-
ly 30 years, and through various advancements in technologies, the basic essence of
digital storytelling has remained unchanged; instead, the advancements have been
in terms of the tools used to create and disseminate stories. Indeed, the CDS contin-
ues to provide assistance and resources to individuals seeking to create digital, per-
sonal narratives (CDS 2014). Similarly, the University of Houston provides support
specifically for educators and students seeking to integrate digital storytelling into
educational activities (Robin 2013a). Educators considering the usefulness of digi-
tal storytelling as an instructional strategy with preservice teachers should note Li’s
(2007) findings that all participants in a preservice teacher survey using National
Educational Technology Standards for Teachers as a benchmark for evaluating the
effectiveness of digital storytelling as an instructional strategy “gained knowledge
and improved skills in all areas” (p.€4). If the education community expects teachers
to effectively integrate technology, it stands to reason, based on Li’s research, that
implementing digital storytelling provides a compelling case for introducing and
applying multiliteracy skills.
As a design activity to support multiliteracies, digital stories take advantage
of user-contributed content and provide an outlet for teachers to productively use
common technologies found in the classroom (Robin 2008). Generally speaking,
designing and creating digital stories depend upon low-cost digital cameras, edit-
ing software, and computer applications (Meadows 2003). If a teacher finds him or
herself without access to necessary equipment provided by the school, there are a
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 33

few options, including taking advantage of other tools and services, such as mobile
devices owned by students/parents, writing grants to obtain the necessary resourc-
es, or appealing to crowdsourcing websites such as http://www.donorschoose.org/,
where anyone may browse projects created by public school teachers and opt to
donate towards the project expense.
Although the purpose of this explanation is to describe how digital stories sup-
port multiliteracies, it should be noted that digital stories have extended benefits.
For example, van Gils (2005) identified five specific advantages of digital storytell-
ing: (1) variation in instructional methods, (2) personalized learning experience, (3)
provide a more interesting means of presenting or practicing concepts, (4) easily
and affordably simulate situations, and (5) more actively involve learners in the
process. These advantages connect directly to the general benefits of a design activ-
ity. Digital stories also offer engagement in deeper learning, representing a conver-
gence of student engagement, reflection, technology integration, and project-based
learning (Barrett 2006). Through deeper learning, further connections can be made
between teacher and learner as well as among learners. Indeed, Davis (2005) found
that the personal narratives developed through digital storytelling provide a cogni-
tive tool for emotional development of learners. The result is that implementing
digital stories has widespread benefits to students, and many resources exist to sup-
port educators implementing the strategy. Decades of creating and sharing digital
stories have provided many opportunities in which to study the activity and a wealth
of tips and guidance related to creating stories, as detailed below.
Regardless of subject or context, students must first identify what kind of story
they want to tell in order to select appropriate components. Multiple scholars have
introduced taxonomies to describe types of digital stories generated by students.
Lambert (2010) and the CDS focused on personal stories and classified them as
character, memorial, adventure, accomplishment, recovery, love, or discovery.
Robin (2006) categorized digital stories as personal narratives, historical documen-
taries, or instructional/informational stories. From a different perspective, Nilsson’s
(2008) taxonomy distinguished digital stories as being descriptive, argumentative,
dramatic, or poetic. Regardless of which taxonomy is adopted for classroom use,
once the type of story has been selected, students can then begin the process of plan-
ning, creating, and publishing his or her story.
The essential components of a digital story have remained relatively unchanged
over the years. Robin (2013b) referred to the seven elements of digital storytelling
with attribution to the CDS. However, the current Digital Storytelling Cookbook,
published by the CDS and written by Lambert (2010), explained these seven steps
in a slightly different way. A comparison of Robin’s components and Lambert’s
process appears in Table€1.
Carefully reviewing the table, parallels can be drawn that point to specific el-
ements in Robin’s list of elements appearing as components of Lambert’s steps.
Specifically, framing a point of view relates directly to identifying the story and its
meaning, identifying a dramatic question helps the author find the moment to illus-
trate, and emotional content is essential to the story line. Narration and sound track
both comprise how the audience will hear the story. Similarly, balancing content
34 T. A. Dousay

Table 1 ╇ Comparison of digital story elements and process

Elements
1. Point of view—frames the main point and
perspective
2. Dramatic question—central theme to cap-
ture attention
3. Emotional content—issues or characteris-
tics that create personal connections
4. Gift of voice—narration to personalize the
story
5.Power of the soundtrack—music and/or
sound effects to embellish
6. Economy—balance of content between
visuals and audio to prevent overloading
7. Pacing—rhythm of progression
Steps
1. Owning your insights—identify the story
and its meaning
2. Finding the moment—identify the single
moment to illustrate
3. Owning your emotions—identify the emo-
tional resonance
4. Hearing your story—use of narration,
music, and/or sound effects to bring the story
to life
5. Seeing your story—use of visuals to bring
the story to life
6. Assembling your story—structure the story,
visuals, and audio
7. Sharing your story—screen and distribute
the story

and setting the pace are parts of assembling the story. Lambert’s inclusion of dis-
tributing the story once it has been created is a crucial step in bringing the activity
to a close. Sharing the completed story triggers the multiliteracy cycle as the audi-
ence viewing the story begins to ask the five media literacy questions mentioned
previously and embark on their own digital story journey. Sharing also provides a
modeling example for future authors to follow in creating stories.
Consider the following example of an instructional/discovery digital story cre-
ated collaboratively in a preservice teacher technology integration course:
1.)>> Point of view—story told from the perspective of college undergraduates to
incoming freshmen.
2.)>> Dramatic question—two themes frame the story: facts about the university and
advice about college.
3.)>> Emotional content—series of images relative to each theme, focusing on iconic
landmarks and popular culture set to music.
4.)>> Gift of voice—given the collaborative design, no voice narration is included.
5.)>> Power of the soundtrack—the song College Kids by popular rock band Relient
K comprises the entire soundtrack.
6.)>> Economy—an equal number of images appear for each theme and align with
lyrics in the soundtrack when possible.
7.)>> Pacing—images with text are displayed for more time than those without, but all
timing is set to align with the length of the soundtrack.
This digital story follows Meadows’ (2003) observation that although digital sto-
ries are created as if a movie, the story is told through photographs. All students
in the course contributed two photos, which were incorporated into the story by
the instructor. In terms of multiliteracies, the student collaborators had to make a
number of critical design decisions. All students first had to research facts about the
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 35

Fig. 1 ╇ Four screens from a digital story created collaboratively by preservice teachers

university. Some students chose to look up demographic information as related to a

personal interest or characteristics, such as number of enrolled students from Ger-
many or oldest sorority on campus. The advice images almost always included the
student presenting the information, and the students sought creative ways to depict
the message. For example, one student wanted to encourage incoming freshmen to
seek adventure. He depicted his advice by hanging upside down from a tree, holding
a sign, and had a friend take the picture. Another student’s advice recommended that
the freshmen read ahead for class. She illustrated the tip by sitting on the floor with
various texts and materials stacked or spread out around her and used multiple mo-
bile devices to spell out r-e-a-d—a-h-e-a-d. Four screen captures from this digital
story are provided in Fig.€1. The students provided suggestions for the sound track,
design theme, and sequence of images in the story. At the conclusion of the activ-
ity, students reflected on how their individual images fit within the larger story and
how each component was intricate to the overall process. The collaborative effort
was intended as a way to help the students learn the process before working on their
own stories.
The very brief overview provided here is not intended to be comprehensive,
but rather introduce the idea of digital stories as a design activity. Successfully
implementing digital stories in the classroom requires modeling appropriate story
categories and practices, supporting projects that avoid copyright issues, mediating
discussion about the published stories, and providing opportunities to evaluate and
modify stories (Kearney 2011). Further, the tasks required to produce and distribute
a digital story are open-ended and ill-structured (Kearney 2011). The answers to
Hobbs’ questions guide students through the process and engage them in problem
36 T. A. Dousay

solving as each step of design is completed. This poses a challenge to students as

they work through the steps required and exercise the multiliteracy skills neces-
sary to accomplish the tasks. A later section of this chapter addresses resources and
challenges to assist teachers with implementing digital stories as an instructional
strategy.

Comic Books

Another design activity to consider is creating comic books. Comic books have a
unique way of bringing visual culture into the classroom (Wilson 2005), and creat-
ing one requires writing detailed, descriptive instructions, and exciting dialogue,
while also exploring visual components of illustrations and colors (Carter 2014).
Unlike digital stories, which may or may not have narration or written components,
comic books blend together the visual and the textual. Comics have their own rules
and patterns, and the process of creating a comic book involves writing a script,
revising the script, selecting an illustration style, selecting characters, building the
story, and revising the story (Yolen 2010). Here, the multiliteracies concept is re-
ally emphasized as traditional literacy forms the foundation upon which visual and
media literacies are built.
However, some educators may be reluctant to use comic books as a design ac-
tivity due to a lack of knowledge about the genre and process or fear of using the
wrong terms to instruct or engage students in discussion (Connors 2012). To that
end, teachers should recognize that there are many resources available, as discussed
later in this chapter, to support creating or integrating comic books into the class-
room. Individuals concerned about how learners react to the use or design of com-
ics should refer to Cirigliano’s (2012) study that found even the “strictly business”
(p.€ 35) type of learner saw value in the technical aspects of comics, while other
students enjoyed being edutained, or learning through materials typically used for
entertainment purposes (Edutainment n.d.). The edutainment described by Cirigli-
ano offers a different view of engagement and motivation not seen in other design
activities.
Deconstructing a comic book before implementing the design activity provides a
basis for which teachers and students can both analyze and evaluate design elements
that influence their story. Basic comic book construction includes page layout, story
development, drawing, and narration (Morrison et€al. 2002). These phases represent
the general process involved in planning and creating a comic book. Within these
phases, students use the following common components to tell their story (National
Council of Teachers of English; NCTE 2005):
1.)>> Script—written story with all dialogue
2.)>> Pages—specifies page layout
3.)>> Panels—rectangle or square blocks that contain illustrations and the script
4.)>> Word balloons—bubbles that contain verbal dialogue from the script
5.)>> Thought balloons—bubbles that contain characters’ thoughts
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 37

6.)>> Narratory blocks—smaller blocks that contain special information from the
narrator
7.)>> Open panels—panels with one or more sides open for dramatic effect
8.)>> Splash page—a full-page panel to introduce a story or draw attention
Continuing the granular breakdown, Connors (2012) described the panels within a
comic book as follows:
1.)>> Basic Shapes
a.)>> Horizontal—calm, stability
b.)>> Vertical—strength
c.)>> Circles—unity, whole
d.)>> Diagonals—action, movement
e.)>> Triangle—stability, unity
2.)>> Perspective
a.)>> Size of frame
i.)>> Close up—establishes emotional relationship between viewer and subjects
ii.ç’•Medium shot—establishes objective relationship between viewer and
subjects
iii.)>>Long shot—establishes relationship between subjects and environment
b.)>> Vertical angle
i.)>> High angle—situates reader in position of power, omniscient viewpoint
ii.)>> Low angle—situates represented subjects in position of power
3.)>> Left–Right structure
a.)>> Given—information that is known to the reader, taken for granted
b.)>> New—information that is previously unknown to the reader
Figure€2 illustrates some of the elements and concepts described by Connors (see
also Piekos 2013).
Comic book illustrations are situated within the concepts described by Connors
and the NCTE and play an important and integrated role to consider when design-
ing a comic. For example, a close-up perspective paired with a whisper balloon in a
panel intimates a close emotional relationship as the subject shares his or her private
thoughts with the viewer, as illustrated in panel 2 of Fig.€3. Similarly, a high-angle,
long shot paired with thought balloons indicates that the viewer has an omniscient
point of view and is entitled to see and hear everything in the scene, as illustrated
in panel 4 of Fig.€3.
Once a student is ready to create his or her own comic book, planning involves
determining what to use for a story and how to illustrate the story. From super
heroes and villains to historical characters, comic books provide an open medium
for telling different types of stories. It does not matter if students want to start with
the illustration or the story (Slate 2010). The instructor can decide to impose a set
process or allow students to freely engage in the activity. It is important, however,
38 T. A. Dousay

Fig. 2 ╇ Common comic book design elements

for the student to select a story line with which they are familiar, have personal
experience, or are researching (Slate 2010). As such, teachers seeking to provide
an engaging way to encourage students to study a specific subject area might con-
sider introducing a design activity that requires reading about and researching an
assigned topic; e.g., writing a comic book about the Battle of the Little Bighorn or
folklore surrounding Butch Cassidy.
In terms of illustrating a comic book, teachers and students alike may be re-
luctant to attempt drawing. Regardless of skill level, illustrations can be simple or
complex. One of the most popular graphic novels on the market, Diary of a Wimpy
Kid, is drawn entirely with stick figures (Slate 2010). Additionally, Douglas Fisher
(as cited in Yolen 2010, p.€16) noted that software, such as Comic Life from Plastiq,
and websites like MakeBeliefsComix.com, are excellent digital resources that sup-
port comic book creation by incorporating preexisting illustrated components and
providing drawing tools.
An example of a comic book created by preservice teachers in a technology in-
tegration course is depicted in Fig.€3. The students who created this comic book re-
viewed various materials from Japanese prisoners of war interred during World War
II at the Heart Mountain internment camp located in Wyoming. Materials included
camp newsletters, prisoners’ journals, and illustrations hand-drawn by one particular
prisoner. The group of students decided to photograph the illustrations and established
an order for the images, adding dialogue and thought bubbles following common
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 39

Fig. 3 ╇ Sample student-designed comic book page

comic book elements to craft a story. Although the students used existing illustrations
from another individual, the general comic elements remain unchanged. For example,
in panel two, the closeness of the shot establishes an emotional relationship with the
subject, and the high-angle, long shot in panel 4 presents an omniscient view and es-
tablishes an overall relationship and tone. Additionally, the types of bubbles selected
represent thoughts, speech, and exclamations. The resulting product is a compelling
example of bringing history to life for a new generation through a unique medium.
40 T. A. Dousay

Design Activity Resources

Resources used by students engaging in design activities include examples of exist-

ing artifacts. Additionally, common resources include mind mapping or storyboard-
ing software; media repositories for images, video, and audio; recording equipment;
image or video-editing software; and a dissemination platform (Kearney 2011).
�Examples of digital stories can be found by searching media-hosting websites such
as YouTube, TeacherTube, or Vimeo in addition to browsing repositories like the
University of Houston Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling website (Robin
2013a). Examples of comic books, illustrating varying degrees of age levels and
artistic talent, can be found by searching the Cartoons & Comics section of De-
viantArt.com. When designing a story for either medium, students can make use
of mind-mapping tools, such as Popplet.com or Bubbl.us, or storyboard templates
created with common applications such a Microsoft Word or PowerPoint, which
are both available as either desktop or mobile apps. Story content can be either
incorporated from existing media or user created. Existing media may be personal
photographs or video personally owned by the student. User-created content in-
cludes photographs and video that may be captured using mobile devices com-
monly owned by many students (Pew Research Center 2010, 2013). Schools should
consider providing tablets or digital cameras when students do not have access to
similar devices. However, if a student wishes to use media that does not belong to
him or her, resources such as Creative Commons (n.d.) should be introduced. Cre-
ative Commons encourages the sharing and use of materials from images and music
to written works and other art forms, and provides a number of resources, includ-
ing a guide to licensing copyright to allow use and reuse as well as informational
and instructional media related to copyright. Software and applications to produce,
edit, and share digital stories and other artifacts of design activities are abundantly
available (Baker 2013). Digital stories are commonly created using software such
as Apple’s iMovie, Windows Movie Maker, or Adobe Premier. Web-based and
mobile applications that foster digital story creation include Storybird, Tellagami,
Toontastic, and ZooBurst. As previously mentioned, comic books can be created
using Comic Life or MakeBeliefsComix.com. Additionally, Common Sense Media
(2014) maintains a list of vetted digital tools that educators can consult to identify
potential apps to use for creating comics. With constant advancements in technol-
ogy, and the prevalence of updated or newly created tools, teachers should leverage
personal learning networks to continuously evaluate available resources.

Challenges and Considerations

Implementing design activities in the classroom not only has outstanding ben-
efits but also entails a number of challenges and considerations. The explanation
herein should be viewed as potential, but not conclusive, guidance, and these chal-
lenges are by no means a reason to eschew implementing design activities. The
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 41

�
collaborative and social nature of many design activities carries a responsibility to
recognize the need for tolerant artifacts. That is, designers need to be cognizant of or
culturally sensitive to differences and similarities in cultures that influence the val-
ues, learning, and behavior of others. Race, religion, and even socioeconomic class
can influence how the end result of a design activity is received (Buck-Coleman
2010). While it may not be feasible to consider all possible interpretations of an ar-
tifact, a well-planned design activity can encourage students to recognize personal
limitations and knowledge related to beliefs and assumptions about other cultures
(Buck-Coleman 2010). Teachers may find that including a reflective component
with group or public screenings or displays of artifacts may help stimulate discus-
sion and further development of multiliteracies.

Ethical Dilemmas

Once students learn the tools useful in design, it is important to address ethical
implications of using and manipulating images. Being able to detect altered images
is one part of the conversation. Educators must also engage students in a discus-
sion about the need to alter images; just because users can manipulate an image
does not imply that they should (Baker 2013). Teachers should question students
throughout the process to determine how best to support the activity and include
a rationale component that encourages critically evaluating the need for a specific
media element.
�
Lastly, some teachers may encounter problems when looking at methods to pub-
lish and share the artifacts created by design activities. Some schools restrict access
to popular hosting sites like YouTube, which limits the publicly available options to
host media, but may mitigate privacy issues. If teachers have access to and wish to
have students create YouTube accounts, it is important to read the terms of service
and verify whether or not the students are of age or if creating an account would
be a violation of the terms. Teachers who have access to a school- or district-wide
learning management system should investigate if it is a viable way to collect and
share stories. Regardless of what avenue is considered for publishing and sharing,
always consult with administrators and technology staff to make sure that school
and district policies are followed.

Learners with Disabilities

An exploration of multiliteracies and learners with disabilities is worth mentioning,

especially considering that approximately 19€million children worldwide are visu-
ally impaired (World Health Organization 2014). Historically, children with dis-
abilities have had fewer opportunities to read or interact with classmates in terms
of traditional literacy development (Beck 2002). However, education has seen a
rapid increase in the availability and use of assistive technologies to help emerging
42 T. A. Dousay

literacy skills among children with disabilities (Burne et€al. 2011). Additionally, the
pedagogy underlying multiliteracies establishes a multimodal approach that extends
traditional practice and encourages variety in technology (Cazden et€al. 1996). The
design activities described by this chapter align with the multiliteracy pedagogy and
may easily be combined with assistive technologies or adapted to use in classrooms
with visually impaired learners. For example, by making a design activity collab-
orative, visually impaired students are encouraged to interact with other students,
providing socialization opportunities in addition to a team-based approach. Further,
regular incorporation of assistive technologies, such as screen readers or video mag-
nifiers, is essential for enabling and developing multiliterate learners with disabili-
ties (Cohen 2011). Unfortunately, there is an existing participation gap in terms of
assistive technologies (Alper 2012). Therefore, this consideration does require fur-
ther exploration and should be encouraged among in-service and preservice teach-
ers who seek to incorporate design activities in inclusive learning environments.

Subject-Specific Issues and Other Design Activities

An assumption exists that subjects such as language arts cannot benefit from design
activities, but research has shown that incorporating media projects are an effec-
tive method for engaging students and meeting traditional literacy goals (Falk-Ross
et€al. 2008). Further, Kearney (2011) noted that digital stories are relevant to most
disciplines. When considering how to implement design activities into a specific
subject, educators may need to target different kinds of design activities. For exam-
ple, writing fan fiction and engaging in the transformative design of literature cre-
ates a unique opportunity for students to develop expertise and become producers of
media (Black 2009). However, Black cautions that administrators and stakeholders
often view fan fiction writing activities as foolish or impractical for classroom set-
tings. It should be noted, though, that fan fiction encourages collaborative writing,
reinforces literacy practices, and provides a platform for students to give voice to
their thoughts and ideas (Black 2009). This description of fan fictions associates
well with the concepts of both design activities and multiliteracies. Similarly, teach-
ers might instruct students to deconstruct popular advertisements and create new
advertisements as a way to introduce and reinforce vocabulary (Alvermann and Ha-
good 2000) or construct visual representations of passages from novels, short sto-
ries, or poems (Falk-Ross et€al. 2008). Students in mathematics and science courses
may benefit from implementing robotic and architectural design activities (Lawanto
et€al. 2013). More technical subjects, such as industrial arts might consider engag-
ing students in practical projects that impact the school itself or the immediate com-
munity (Berkeihiser 2006). Examples of this later idea include engaging students in
redesigning a common area of a school or building a playground for another school.
In doing so, students take ownership of the activity and become excited about the
visible impact. The point is to focus on experience design, allowing students to
draw upon their own expertise and engage multiple disciplines (Search 2009).
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 43

Standards and Assessment

As more teachers look towards implementing design activities, they may find docu-
mentation to support the idea as an instructional strategy helpful. At a very mini-
mum, instruction on best practices for creating digital stories addresses Common
Core State Standards (CCSS), Reading Literature (RL) 7.7, “Compare and contrast
a written story, drama, or poem to its audio, filmed, staged, or multimedia ver-
sion, analyzing the effects of techniques unique to each medium (e.g., lighting,
sound, color, or camera focus and angles in a film)” (National Governors Asso-
ciation Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010,
p.€37). Additionally, reflective practice in design activities addresses RL 8.7, which
states “Analyze the extent to which a filmed or live production of a story or drama
stays faithful to or departs from the text or script, evaluating the choices made by
the director or actors” (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices
and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010, p.€37). The reflective practice en-
courages students to compare the final artifact to planning documents and evaluate
the differences and similarities. In terms of assessment, design activities represent
a nontraditional means by which student performance can be measured. Curating
design activity artifacts in e-Portfolios also provides an environment for both reflec-
tive practice and formative assessment for teachers to follow through a student’s
career (Sadik 2008). If these e-Portfolios are made across grade levels and subjects,
a more complete assessment of student progress can be accomplished.
Lastly, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2011), which consists of the busi-
ness community, educational leaders, and policy makers, has drafted a framework
for twenty-first-century learning that focuses on preparing students for success in a
global society. While not a curriculum standard required of teachers, the Partnership
for 21st Century Skills framework is currently embraced by 19 states. Essentially,
the framework blends the traditional reading, writing, and arithmetic (3 R’s) with
innovation skills, to include critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and
creativity (4 C’s; Partnership for 21st Century Skills 2011). The framework also
addresses life and career skills as well as information, media, and technology skills,
which include problem solving. Educators in a state that has adopted the 21st Cen-
tury Skills framework should be prepared to align instructional strategies with these
skills.

Conclusion

Although there are some challenges to manage and considerations to make when
implementing design activities in the classroom, there are many benefits. Students
who might otherwise be disengaged in learning or reluctant to participate enjoy
the creativity and applied nature of designing and creating media. Creating comic
books, specifically, draws upon the visual nature of the medium and blends writing
44 T. A. Dousay

activities with design activities. Digital stories provide a unique outlet for students
to find a voice and share their stories with one another. Both design activities are
an opportunity to introduce and reinforce multiliteracies in the classroom, including
traditional reading literacy, media literacy, and visual literacy. Given the prevalence
of media throughout all facets of life and society, in-service teachers and teacher
educators would be well advised to consider instructional strategies that capitalize
on this phenomenon and engage learners in design activities.

References

Al-Hazza, T., & Lucking, R. (2012). An examination of preservice teachers’ view of multilit-
eracies: Habits, perceptions, demographics and slippery slopes. Reading Improvement, 49(2),
59–72.
Alper, M. (2012). Promoting emerging new media literacies among young children with blindness
and visual impairments. Digital Culture & Education, 4(3), 243–256.
Alvermann, D. E., & Hagood, M. C. (2000). Critical media literacy: Research, theory,
and practice in “New Times”. The Journal of Educational Research, 93(3), 193–205.
doi:10.1080/00220670009598707.
Baker, F. W. (2013). Teaching media literacy with technology. Learning & Leading with Technology,
40(7), 32–33.
Barrett, H. (2006). Researching and evaluating digital storytelling as a deep learning tool. In C.
Crawford, et€al. (Eds.), Proceedings of society for information technology and teacher educa-
tion international conference 2006 (pp.€647–654). Chesapeake: AACE.
Bazalgette, C., & Buckingham, D. (2013). Literacy, media and multimodality: A critical response.
Literacy, 47(2), 95–102. doi:10.1111/j.1741–4369.2012.00666.x.
Beck, J. (2002). Emerging literacy through assistive technology. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35
(2), 44–48.
Berkeihiser, M. (2006). Practical design activities for your technology education classes. Technology
Teacher, 65(5), 22–25.
Black, R. W. (2009). Online fan fiction and critical media literacy. Journal of Computing in Teacher
Education, 26(2), 75–80.
Bleed, R. (2005). Visual literacy in higher education. Educause Learning Initiative, (August).
Brill, J. M., Kim, D., & Branch, R. M. (2007). Visual literacy defined-the results of a delphi study:
Can IVLA (operationally) define visual literacy? Journal of Visual Literacy, 27(1), 47–60.
Brumberger, E. R. (2005). Visual rhetoric in the curriculum pedagogy for a multimodal workplace.
Business Communication Quarterly, 68(3), 318–333. doi:10.1177/1080569905278863.
Buck-Coleman, A. (2010). Navigating cross-cultures, curriculum and confrontation. Visible Lan-
guage, 44(2), 187–206.
Buckingham, D., Burn, A., Parry, B., & Powell, M. (2014). Developing media literacy in young
adults: Culture, creativity, and critique. New York: Routledge.
Burne, B., Knafelc, V., Melonis, M., & Heyn, P. C. (2011). The use and application of assistive
technology to promote literacy in early childhood: A systematic review. Disability and Reha-
bilitation. Assistive Technology, 6(3), 207–213. doi:10.3109/17483107.2010.522684.
Carter, J. B. (2014). Lesson plan: The comic book show and tell. National Council of Teachers of
English. http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/comic-book-show-
tell-921.html#resources. Accessed 08 May 2014
Cazden, C., Cope, B., Fairclough, N., Gee, J. P., Kalantzis, M., Kress, G., & Michaels, S. (1996).
A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1),
60–92.
Center for Digital Storytelling. (2014). Our story. http://storycenter.org/history/. Accessed 06 May
2014
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 45

Chung, S. K., & Kirby, M. S. (2009). Media literacy art education: Logos, culture jamming, and
activism. Art Education, 62(1), 34–39.
Cirigliano, M. (2012). Exploring the attitudes of students using an edutainment graphic novel as a
supplement to learning in the classroom. Science Educator, 21(1), 29–36.
Cohen, L. (2011). School, family and other influences on assistive technology use: Access and
challenges for students with visual impairment in Singapore. British Journal of Visual Impair-
ment, 29(2), 130–144. doi:10.1177/0264619611402759.
Common Sense Media. (2014). Comic-creation apps and websites. Best apps & games. https://
www.commonsensemedia.org/lists/comic-creation-apps-and-websites. Accessed 10 May 2014
Connors, S. P. (2012). Toward a shared vocabulary for visual analysis: An analytic toolkit for
deconstructing the visual design of graphic novels. Journal of Visual Literacy, 31(1), 71–92.
Creative Commons. (n.d.). About—creative commons. http://creativecommons.org/about. Accessed 10
May 2014
Davis, A. (2005). Co-authoring identity: Digital storytelling in an urban middle school. Technol-
ogy, Humanities, Education, & Narrative, 1(1), 1–21.
Debes, J. (1969). The loom of visual literacy: An overview. Audiovisual Instruction, 14(8), 25–27.
Edutainment. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary (11th€ ed.). http://www.m-w.com/dic-
tionary/edutainment. Accessed 08 August 2014
Falk-Ross, F., Rajski-Dzuryak, F., Rogers, C., Waste, S., Rizzato, K., & Alarcon, L. (2008). Ac-
tivating teachers’ inquiry: Media projects for literacy lessons (K-8). Literacy Research and
Instruction, 47(4), 273–284. doi:10.1080/19388070802332838.
Garcia, A. (2013). The many forms of literacy. National writing project: Digital is. http://digitalis.
nwp.org/resource/5066. Accessed 06 May 2014
Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Hobbs, R. (2007). Reading the media: Media literacy in high school English. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence culture: Where old and new media. New York: New York Uni-
versity Press.
Jonassen, D. H. (2012). Designing for decision making. Educational Technology Research and
Development, 60(2), 341–359. doi:10.1007/s11423-011-9230-5.
Jonassen, D. H., & Reeves, T. C. (1996). Learning with technology: Using computers as cognitive
tools. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and
technology (1st€ed., pp.€693–719). New York: Macmillan.
Kamerer, D. (2013). Media literacy. Communication Research Trends, 32(1), 4–26.
Kearney, M. (2011). A learning design for student-generated digital storytelling. Learning, Media
and Technology, 36(2), 169–188. doi:10.1080/17439884.2011.553623.
Kellner, D. (2000). New technologies/new literacies: Reconstructing education for the new millen-
nium. Teaching Education, 11(3), 245–265. doi:10.1080/713698975.
Kenny, R. F. (2011). Beyond the Gutenberg parenthesis: Exploring new paradigms in media and
learning. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 3(1), 32–46.
Lambert, J. (2010). Digital storytelling cookbook. Berkeley: Digital Diner Press.
Lankshear, C., & Knobel, M. (2011). New literacies: Everyday practices and social learning. New
York: Open University Press.
Lawanto, O., & Stewardson, G. (2011). Students’ interest and expectancy for success while en-
gaged in analysis- and creative design activities. International Journal of Technology and De-
sign Education, 23(2), 213–227. doi:10.1007/s10798-011-9175-3.
Lawanto, O., Butler, D., Cartier, S., Santoso, H., Lawanto, K., & Clark, D. (2013). An exploratory
study of self-regulated learning strategies in a design projct by students in grades 9–12. Design
and Technology Education, 18(1), 44–57.
Leu, D. J., Kinzer, C. K., Coiro, J. L., & Cammack, D. W. (2004). Toward a theory of new litera-
cies emerging from the internet and other information and communication technologies. In
N. J. Unrau & R. B. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (5th€ ed.,
pp.€1570–1613). Newark: International Reading Association.
46 T. A. Dousay

Li, L. (2007). Digital storytelling: Bridging traditional and digital literacies. In T. Bastiaens &
S. Carliner (Eds.), Proceedings of world conference on e-learning in corporate, government,
healthcare, and higher education 2007 (pp.€6201–6206). Chesapeake: AACE.
Meadows, D. (2003). Digital storytelling: Research-based practice in new media. Visual Commu-
nication, 2(2), 189–193. doi:10.1177/1470357203002002004.
Metros, S. E. (2008). The educator’s role in preparing visually literate learners. Theory Into Prac-
tice, 47(2), 102–109. doi:10.1080/00405840801992264.
Mills, K. A. (2010). What learners “know” through digital media production: Learning by design.
E-Learning and Digital Media, 7(3), 223. doi:10.2304/elea.2010.7.3.223.
Morrison, T. G., Bryan, G., & Chilcoat, G. W. (2002). Using student-generated comic books in the
classroom. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 45(8), 758–767.
National Association for Media Literacy Education. (2014). Media literacy defined. http://namle.
net/publications/media-literacy-definitions/. Accessed 02 May 2014
National Council of Teachers of English. (2005). Comic book primer. Lesson plan: The comic
book show and tell. Urbana, IL. http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/
lesson921/ComicBookPrimer.pdf. Accessed 08 May 2014
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, & Council of Chief State School Of-
ficers. (2010). Common core state standards for English language arts and literacy in history/
social studies, science, and technical subjects. Washington, D.C. Accessed 06 May 2014
Nilsson, M. E. (2008). Digital storytelling as a tool in education. In T. Hansson (Ed.), Hand-
book of research on digital information technologies: Innovations, methods, and ethical issues
(pp.€131–145). Hershey: IGI Global.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2011). Framework for 21st century learning (pp.€1–2). Wash-
ington, D.C. http://www.p21.org. Accessed 08 August 2014
Pew Research Center. (2010). Teens and mobile phones. Washington, D.C.
Pew Research Center. (2013). Teens and technology 2013. Washington, D.C.
Piekos, N. (2013). Comic book grammar and tradition. http://www.blambot.com/grammar.shtml.
Accessed 13 August 2014
Robin, B. R. (2006). The educational uses of digital storytelling. In C. M. Crawford, R. Carlsen,
K. McFerrin, J. Price, R. Weber, & D. A. Willis (Eds.), Proceedings of society for information
technology and teacher education international conference 2006 (pp.€709–716). Chesapeake:
AACE.
Robin, B. R. (2008). Digital storytelling: A powerful technology tool for the 21st century class-
room. Theory Into Practice, 47(3), 220–228. doi:10.1080/00405840802153916.
Robin, B. R. (2013a). Educational uses of digital storytelling. http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/
index.cfm. Accessed 07 May 2014
Robin, B. R. (2013b). The 7 elements of digital storytelling. http://digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/
page.cfm?id=27cid=27sublinkid=31. Accessed 07 May 2014
Rogow, F. (2011). Ask, don’t tell: Pedagogy for media literacy education in the next decade. Jour-
nal of Media Literacy Education, 3(1), 16–22.
Sadik, A. (2008). Digital storytelling: A meaningful technology-integrated approach for en-
gaged student learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(4), 487–506.
doi:10.1007/s11423-008-9091-8.
Search, P. (2009). The dynamic discourse of visual literacy in experience design. TechTrends,
53(2), 50–55.
Shoffner, M., de Oliveira, L. C., & Angus, R. (2010). Multiliteracies in the secondary English
classroom: Becoming literate in the 21st century. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 9
(3), 75–89.
Slate, B. (2010). You can do a graphic novel: Teacher’s guide. http://www.penguin.com/static/pdf/
teachersguides/you_can_do_a_graphic_novel_TG.pdf. Accessed 08 May 2014
Van Gils, F. (2005). Potential applications of digital storytelling in education. Paper presented at
the 3rd Twente Student Conference on IT, University of Twente, Faculty of Electrical Engi-
neering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Enschede.
Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities 47

Wilson, B. (2005). More lessons from the superheroes of J.C. Holz: The visual culture of child-
hood and the third pedagogical site. Art Education, 58(6), 18–24, 33–34.
World Health Organization. (2014). Visual impairment and blindness. http://www.who.int/media-
centre/factsheets/fs282/en/. Accessed 12 August 2014
Yolen, J. (2010). How hard can it be? Voices from the Middle, 17(4), 15–18.

Tonia A. Dousay╇ Tonia is an assistant professor of instructional technology at the University of

Wyoming. Her teaching and research focus on design-based learning activities and the knowledge
and skills acquired and reinforced through design activities. She was awarded the 2014 Mary
Garland Early Career Fellowship Award by the University of Wyoming, College of Education, to
support her efforts in establishing a makerspace to explore the application of design activities. She
was a recipient of the 2013 Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT)
National Science Foundation Early Career Award, 2013 AECT Multimedia Production Immersive
Learning Award, and 2013 AECT Information Age Publishers Distance Education Best Practices
Award.
Tonia has 15 years of instructional design and eLearning project management experience in
continuing education and online environments, but began her career in the secondary agricultural
science classroom. Her diverse background contributes to an emphasis on authentic learning expe-
riences, and she specializes in preservice teacher education, multimedia design and development,
and designing learning activities to stimulate the situational interest of learners. She is an avid user
of social media, encouraging the shift from consumers of media to producers. Her teaching and
research philosophies center around the phrase, “let’s make something!
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual
Thinking Strategies Approach

Dabney Hailey, Alexa Miller and Philip Yenawine

Abstract╇ This chapter makes the case for two aspects of visual literacy that the
authors believe to be generally overlooked: (1) that visual literacy occurs by way of
a developmental trajectory and requires instruction as well as practice, and (2) that
it involves as much thought as it does visual awareness and is an integral compo-
nent of the skills and beliefs related to inquiry. This chapter roots these ideas in the
theory and research of cognitive psychologist Abigail Housen, coauthor of Visual
Thinking Strategies (VTS) with museum educator Philip Yenawine. Housen identi-
fied aesthetic stages that mark the development of skills helping to define visual lit-
eracy. Her research is also the basis of VTS, a method of engaging learners in deep
experiences looking at art and discussing meanings with peers, a process that, this
chapter posits, furthers visual literacy. This chapter presents that body of research
and details the resulting VTS protocol. It reviews academic studies to date, subse-
quent to Housen, that document the impact of VTS interventions in various settings,
and suggests beneficial areas for future research. In order to probe what develop-
ment in visual literacy looks and sounds like on a granular level, two case studies
of student writing from existing studies are presented and analyzed. Visual literacy
skills enabled by VTS are briefly connected to broader educational concerns.

Introduction

In order to produce children who know how to read well enough to perform prac-
tical tasks, at the very least, parents and caregivers talk to children as babies, in-
troduce books early on, and prepare them for school, where various step-by-step

D.€Hailey€()
Hailey Group, LLC, Cambridge, MA, USA
e-mail: dabney@haileygroup.com
A.€Miller
Arts Practica, LLC, Guilford, CT, USA
e-mail: alexa@artspractica.com
P.€Yenawine
Visual Understanding in Education, Wellfleet, MA, USA
e-mail: pyenawine@vue.org
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 49
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_3
50 D. Hailey et al.

processes are employed to help children achieve functional verbal literacy before
the end of elementary education. Not so with visual literacy.
The culture at large seems to assume that somehow, perhaps because of our con-
stant bombardment with images, visual literacy will simply happen without specific
instruction. This attitude carries over to formal education, where achievement in
reading, writing, and arithmetic sets the agenda, and where leaders are often mysti-
fied as to what visual literacy even means, much less how it may contribute to the
teaching of skills prioritized by convention and mandate.
Even among the few who bemoan the consequences of a visually illiterate pub-
lic, a gap exists between concern for the problem and offering solutions based in rel-
evant theory and presented in terms of values common to those who set cultural and
educational policy. In fact, as this chapter explores and tries to remedy, in the field
of visual literacy there is no fleshed out, generally agreed-upon definition or shared
understanding of the skills involved. The wider world therefore has no sense of the
relevance of these skills to educational practices that result in success throughout
schooling and eventually in adulthood, work, and civic engagement; there is even
less understanding of the potency of integrating visual literacy with teaching the “3
R’s.” Fostering greater understanding in this area is the essential prerequisite for
visual literacy to be regarded as the broad-ranging, pertinent, and teachable matter
that it is.
This chapter aims to deepen comprehension of visual literacy and how it can
be developed through teaching a specific methodology, Visual Thinking Strategies
(VTS). The authors’ perspective is shaped by long-standing practice as educators
using VTS and regularly engaging in close study of VTS interventions. VTS is
intended to nurture growth in aesthetic thought (the cognition that takes place as
people look at art) as described by cognitive psychologist Abigail Housen, who
coauthored the methodology. Beginning with a consideration of the definition of
visual literacy, this chapter provides an overview of Housen’s theory and research,
explains what is meant by aesthetic thought, and how it develops, and connects
Housen’s insights to the wider field of visual literacy. It further describes in detail
the mechanics of the VTS teaching methodology and reviews academic studies on
its impact, which in turn are discussed to illuminate how visual literacy develops.

A Developmental Approach to Understanding

Visual Literacy

John Debes’s (1968) definition of visual literacy—he is credited with coining the
term—establishes a clear starting point for understanding visual literacy at its core.
He writes:
Visual Literacy refers to a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by
seeing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. The develop-
ment of these competencies is fundamental to normal human learning. When developed,
they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions,
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 51

objects, symbols, natural or man-made, that he encounters in his environment. Through

the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with others. Through
the appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to comprehend and enjoy the master-
works of visual communication. (p.€27)

This definition is one of the broadest in the literature. One of its strengths is the
fact that it refers to visual literacy as competencies that “develop.” Even though
Debes states that they are “fundamental to human learning,” these competencies are
acquired and enhanced by dint of effort, exposure, and, ideally, guided experience.
The intended outcome, for Debes, is fluency: The ability to differentiate among and
interpret the things one sees and to appreciate “masterworks of visual communica-
tion.” He also includes the ability to communicate creatively applying these skills,
a topic explored at length below. (The development of visual communication abili-
ties—from drawing to design to creating diagrams, graphs, and maps—requires
teaching interventions beyond what is addressed here.)
As with any literacy, visual literacy begins with the development of the brain’s
capacities over time, through both structured experience (i.e., teaching) and ongo-
ing, informal interactions with the visual environment. Just as parents and teachers
take pains to develop reading literacy, we can and should employ a similar process
to ensure visual literacy, ideally by building on existing skills, challenging them
appropriately, and structuring the experience to allow children to construct their
understandings of what they encounter visually (Bruner 1960). By stepping up at-
tention to nurturing visual literacy through teaching methods rooted in research on
its developmental and cognitive aspects, all levels of education will benefit (Arn-
heim 1969).
But what are the cognitive aspects of vision? While the eye perceives, the mind
processes observations, draws meaning from them, and organizes that meaning in
connection with an array of current and prior experiences, memories, and ideas as
well as such details as the immediate physical context. Though responses to what is
observed can materialize in many forms, a primary one is language. The visual cor-
tex connects directly to language centers in the brain. The content of the eye–mind
connection commonly appears in what people say and may be further facilitated by
the act of speaking, an iterative process. Influencing this concurrence of observa-
tion, thought, and language (which necessarily includes other senses as well) is
crucial to achieving Debes’s version of visual literacy and has serious implications
for teaching.
In addition to Debes’s account, however, there is another powerful way to de-
scribe a visually literate person: someone who looks with a questioning state of
mind. Importantly, visual literacy involves as much inquiry as it does visual acuity.
“Inquiry,” write the authors from the National Committee on Science Education
Standards and Assessment (Olson and Loucks-Horsley 2000), “is a multifaceted
activity that involves making observations; posing questions; examining books and
other sources of information to see what is already known in light of experimen-
tal evidence; using tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data; proposing answers,
explanations, and predictions; and communicating the results.” This definition of
inquiry, applied broadly in science education, is a useful framework for considering
52 D. Hailey et al.

how developing visual literacy is integral to the cultivation of inquiring minds. As

students engage with works of art and with each other in a structured group inquiry
process, such as VTS, their visual literacy develops in tandem with a critical path-
way into inquiry generally.
Perhaps because of the apparent effortlessness of a child beginning to recognize,
categorize, and classify what she sees—Rudolf Arnheim parses this brilliantly in
his seminal book, Visual Thinking (1969)—society collectively fails to appreciate
both the complicated cognition involved in visual literacy and the steps required to
ensure it develops. One way to study its presence is through asking people to talk
about what they see: by capturing in language the lightning-fast transition of per-
ception to thought to language. Asking people to think out loud, talking about what
they see as they look, and recording their comments result in concrete data about
the process of visual meaning making. These insights came into focus in the work
of Abigail Housen.
Housen is a cognitive psychologist who, along with Yenawine, cocreated the
VTS protocol. Her research casts light on both the skills involved in and the devel-
opmental arc of visual literacy. She completed her doctorate in 1983 at Harvard’s
Graduate School of Education alongside a number of scholars interested in how the
mind develops. Her specific interest was in how viewers process what they see in
art, which she knew from her reading of James Mark Baldwin (1975) and Rudolf
Arnheim (1966, 1969), among others, to be a particularly rich and complicated way
of thinking. While visual literacy involves visual encounters with both the natural
and the human-made world, viewing art, as a particularly complex form of visual
stimulus, is, it turns out, an appropriate place to study the range of looking and
thinking skills involved in visual literacy. Art usually includes a certain amount of
readily recognizable information, but it is intentionally ambiguous and layered with
meaning, creating the impetus for searching beyond the obvious over the course of
extended, thoughtful examination.

Housen: Research Questions, Methods, and Findings

Housen’s work began with a number of key questions:

Housen’s research process and resulting theory is ultimately indebted to the
�developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (1926, 1951), but is even more directly
influenced by the methodologies and findings of Housen’s Harvard colleagues, in-
cluding Lawrence Kohlberg (Kohlberg and Hirsch 1977; Duska and Whelan 1975)
and Jane Loevinger (1976, 1993). Michael Parsons (1987), another scholar working
at roughly the same time, was also inspired by Kohlberg and posited a stage theory
related to aesthetic development. Though their methods were quite different, Hou-
sen’s and Parson’s findings correspond in many ways. One significant difference
concerns the detail with which Housen came to understand the novice viewer, who,
as will be discussed below, is the subject of teaching strategies aimed at developing
visual literacy.
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 53

Beginning in the 1970s, and continuing for almost a decade, Housen interviewed
hundreds of individual subjects while they looked at art. She developed a rigorous
protocol called the Aesthetic Development Interview (ADI), in which the viewer
speaks in an undirected way about what he sees while viewing an artwork. Housen
recorded individuals at all levels of viewing experience; she simultaneously col-
lected detailed biographical information on each participant. After transcribing the
interviews, she broke the comments into distinct units of thought and studied them,
eventually developing a method of categorizing and coding the immense range of
thoughts she found (1983).
Housen’s analysis of her data is detailed, nuanced, and extensive. Analyzing the
interviews thought by thought, she found a total of 13 domains—including observa-
tions, preferences, associations, evaluations, negative or positive comprehension,
and questioning—which were further broken down into as many as 13 discernible
issues or subcategories. All the interviews were coded by way of these domains
and categories. She was able to determine that people with different experience in
viewing art actually think in different patterns. Like her colleagues, she concluded
that these patterns represent distinct sets of behaviors, with little overlap, that occur
roughly sequentially. She found five such patterns and refers to them as aesthetic
stages. (See Appendix for summaries of all five stages.)
While Piaget noted that developmental changes seemed to occur naturally over
time, Housen determined that a specific form of experience—deep looking at art
specifically, or what Housen calls “eyes on canvas”—is required to produce aes-
thetic growth. Movement from one stage to the next comes as a result of extended,
thoughtful examination of visually complex material over time. In other words, in
the absence of observing and thinking about meaning in complex imagery, growth
through the stages does not occur. Notably, it is not until the later stages that growth
is usually combined with acquisition of information. Importantly, beginner viewers
can be any age. The key factor is experience in looking at art, rather than life experi-
ence in general or simple maturation.

Housen’s Early Stages: The Pre-Visually Literate

Housen’s account of the first two stages (called accountive and constructive view-
ers) clarifies what it means to be pre-visually literate and sheds the most light on the
processes involved in reaching basic visual literacy, which, this chapter argues, oc-
curs at the end of stage 2. She determined, for example, that people in stage 1, who
have had little or no contact with art and therefore have no references for it, only
apply what they know from their own lives to make sense of what they see. Experts
also apply lived experience but add other ways of thinking that result from their
interactions with art over extended periods of time, relying on a variety of strategies
as well as specific concepts and information acquired through lengthy effort.
Usefully, Housen found that a particular kind of observation—very simple
ones—dominates stage 1. These viewers make random, basic, perhaps one-word
54 D. Hailey et al.

observations of things seen piecemeal rather than holistically or systematically. At

first, some observations are what Housen describes as “idiosyncratic”: clear to the
viewer but not necessarily seen by others or intended by the artist. With time spent
and experience looking, viewers begin to ground these observations in the logic
of the image itself. They see things as connected to other things, in context, and in
space. While at first, their observations are concrete—it is a tree, not a picture of a
tree—gradually, the notion of images as representations created by someone with
specific intentions comes into focus. Similarly, what is recognized early on in an
image is based on the personal experience of the viewer making associations: that
looks like my house.
When people in stage 1 begin to make meaning from a set of observations, Hou-
sen found, that meaning usually takes the form of short pieces of narrative. For
example, a beginner viewer will animate a still image by inferring that a depicted
figure is walking or thinking. It is common to assign emotional meanings to what is
seen, such as, he’s angry or sad. An early version of comparing shows up in phrases
such as, this looks like. As viewers move into stage 2, they begin wondering why
something looks as it does, comparing the image to others in their experience. At
that point, the standard of reference is usually what the viewer expects based on
reality. These viewers often note that discrepancies between what they see and what
they expect make something weird. With additional experience viewing and think-
ing about art, other frames of reference are invoked during stage 2, such as craft ( the
way he painted is kind of blotchy), medium ( this is a black and white photograph),
or time/culture ( I think this is Egyptian).

Implications for Teaching

The great majority of the thousands of individuals across age groups studied by Hou-
sen—her research continued for two decades following the completion of her dis-
sertation—is in the most basic stages of aesthetic development, stages 1 and 2, with
most in the former. Despite the plethora of images people encounter daily, they show
little advancement in either range or scope of observations habitually made, and lit-
tle development in terms of thinking. Virtually modifies all of the individuals found
in later stages (3 through 5) are directly involved in extensive and self-motivated
studying, making, or collecting of art—and they have been doing it for years (Housen
1983, 1999, 2007).
Housen’s work prompted some major museums (notably, the Institute for Con-
temporary Art and the Museum of Fine Arts, both in Boston, and the Museum of
Modern Art, New York) to request studies (Housen 1984–1991; Duke and Housen
1998). Sensing that there are gaps in their knowledge or experience, many museum
visitors seek help finding meaning in what they see, and museum education depart-
ments are charged with providing the desired assists. Could something be learned
from knowing visitors’ aesthetic stage? Could the impact of educational offerings
be determined—did people learn what was taught in the programs provided?
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 55

Three findings from these museum studies are significant to this chapter: (1)
the majority of museum visitors were at an early viewing stage and not yet visu-
ally literate, in the sense of the skills laid out by Debes (1968), (2) very little of the
intended impact of educational offerings could in fact be documented, and (3) to the
extent that the effects could be noted, they corresponded to the person’s aesthetic
stage (Housen 1987, Duke and Housen 1998). Consistently, the information offered
and the teaching strategies adopted by museums were operating above the level of
most of those who sought help. Their educational efforts failed to stick.
Fortunately, Housen’s data analyses provided some major insights into how to
redirect teaching, including what to avoid when creating interventions designed
to help people see more, think in more complex ways, and find greater meaning
and pleasure as result (De Santis and Housen 2007; Yenawine 2013). She and
Yenawine—who was the Museum of Modern Art’s (MOMA) director of education
from 1983 to 1993—set about using these analyses to create teaching methods that
actually spurred aesthetic growth among MOMA’s visitors. Over the course of a
dozen years and several research studies, they created Visual Thinking Strategies
(VTS). The process involved many refinements and clarifications; the resulting
teaching methodology and an associated elementary-school curriculum were pub-
lished in 2000 and 2001 (Housen & Yenawine, 2000-2001).
Housen’s original research, built upon by subsequent studies designed to docu-
ment the impact of VTS, shows that the range of processes involved in aesthetic
development are not distinct from, but instead are a part of, thinking processes
more generally. This finding is now corroborated broadly in neuroscience, where
vision itself is understood to be “information processing, not image transmission”
(Livingstone 2002). Recent neuroscientific research continues to deepen our un-
derstanding of the art experience as particularly rich cognition. For example, Jean-
Pierre Changeux (2012) describes the aesthetic experience, a multisensory activity
rooted in the visual, as one that can make conscious short- and long-term memories
and elicit empathy. He also notes that aesthetic experiences are highly synthetic
in terms of brain activity, in that they stimulate the prefrontal cortex (the locus of
complex cognition, decision making, personality, and self-moderation) in concert
with the limbic system (which involves emotions, memories, and fundamentally,
self-preservation). Art historian Barbara Stafford (2007, 2008), who explores the
impact of recent neurobiological research on our understandings of art, vision, and
cognition, describes viewing art as a somatosensory experience, one of heightened
attentiveness. She notes that it activates, and crucially has the potential to enable
awareness of, high-level cognitive functions like intention, organization, and selec-
tion. These neurobiological findings cast light on why “eyes-on-canvas” time is
particularly influential to the development of aesthetic thought.
The cultivation of aesthetic thought—and, as this chapter argues, visual lit-
eracy—is fundamentally intertwined with active engagement with art because of
art’s mix of observable information, emotional valence, ambiguity, and inferred
meanings, some symbolic or metaphorical. Interactions with art involve a constant
exchange between stimulus and response and between the viewer’s memory and
56 D. Hailey et al.

current experience, building new frameworks through which to view the world.
VTS is designed to fully exploit the richness of the art experience and its impact on
cognition.

The VTS Protocol

VTS is constructivist in nature, aligning with precepts articulated by John Dewey

(1934/1980, 1938/1997), Jerome Bruner (1966), and Lev Vygotsky (1962, 1978).
It focuses on teacher-facilitated but viewer-directed discussions of art. The art is
carefully chosen to provide subjects of relevance to the particular audience, always
including accessible imagery to give participants a chance to begin by using their
existing knowledge, interests, and abilities. Images also contain enough ambiguity
to pique curiosity so that what is recognized is used as the basis for exploring what
is puzzling (Yenawine 2003, 2013). The looking is activated by questions asking
viewers to start with a task that is simple for them—making observations—and
helps them improve upon existing skills by presenting challenges within their reach
and by fostering discussion. These actions spur intensive, ongoing engagement with
and authentic experience of complex visual material.
VTS was developed over an iterative process of testing and using data to make
revisions that lasted 10 years, beginning in 1991. The resulting protocol instructs
facilitators as follows:
Present a carefully selected image. Appropriate images account for the levels
of experience with art, ages, and backgrounds of the specific group, and contain:
•)>> Subjects of interest
•)>> Imagery that represents both familiarity and newness
•)>> Strong narratives, accessible but layered, i.e., deep
•)>> Accessible intrigue: challenge but do not completely stump them
•)>> Ambiguity: enough complexity to puzzle and inspire debate
Allow a few moments of silently looking before beginning the discussion.
Pose three specific research-tested questions to motivate and maintain the inquiry:
•)>> What’s going on/happening in this picture? (Asked once to initiate the discussion)
•)>> What do you see that makes you say that? (Asked whenever an interpretive com-
ment is made)
•)>> What more can you/we find? (Asked frequently throughout the discussion to
broaden and deepen the search for meaning)
Facilitate the discussion by:
•)>> Listening carefully to catch everything that students say
•)>> Pointing to observations as students make comments, providing a “visual para-
phrase”
•)>> Paraphrasing each comment, taking a moment to reflect on it while formulating
the response to make sure all content and meanings are grasped and helpfully
rephrased
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 57

•)>> Linking related comments whether students agree or disagree, or build on one
another’s ideas
•)>> Remaining neutral by treating everyone and each comment in the same way
Conclude by thanking students for their participation and by citing behaviors that
are particularly appreciated.
The method was constructed from Housen’s data about beginning viewers (those
in stages 1 and 2) and studied by way of her original research protocols. It was
tested and tweaked to ensure that it nurtured the capacity of students to construct
more and more complex meanings from works of art.
Rigorous facilitation using the specific techniques is critical to a successful VTS
conversation. For example, opening with silence is necessary, for it provides each
student the opportunity to form independent thought. Wording matters: phrasing the
evidence-seeking question as, What do you see that makes you say that? instead of,
for instance, Why do you think that? establishes a psychologically safe environment
in which focus is placed on the work of art rather than the student personally; pro-
visional ideas are welcome but visual evidence is consistently sought. The teacher’s
neutrality matters because it leaves students free to find and think what they will,
and it nurtures mutual respect among students, necessary for wide participation
and risk taking. Repeatedly asking What more can we find? extends the process,
allowing the group to find many possible answers. Linking allows the discussion to
cohere while honoring disparate ideas.
By adhering to the method, which is intentionally precise, ideas can be openly
discussed and tested; multiple perspectives can be reasonably, simultaneously con-
sidered based on evidence found in the image. VTS provides a means to hold the
group in a process of inquiry, one in which divergent and convergent thinking, evi-
dence seeking, and wondering intermingle.
A modest intervention in terms of time, the VTS school curriculum (Housen and
Yenawine, 2000-2001) involves ten 1-h lessons a year using the above method to
look at two to three images per lesson throughout the elementary grades. The basic
curriculum covers grades Pre-K to 6 and includes recommendations for building on
experience with art in other lessons, including using images as prompts for writing;
it also includes additional prompts and basic research projects when students show
signs of entering stage 3. Currently, VTS is being implemented in over 300 schools
in the USA (Yenawine 2013; Shifrin 2008). Versions for middle school and high
school are being tested. Variations have been devised for use in museum teaching,
university classes (Miller and Yenawine 2014; Hailey 2014), medical education (see
next page), and the professional world.
Data from studies designed to determine if VTS achieved the desired effect in
elementary schools documented that it did indeed cultivate aesthetic development
through stage 1 and well into stage 2; in concert, the techniques create a vigorous
learning environment applicable with other imagery, subjects, and materials. Teach-
ers currently use the strategy to allow students to construct meaning from a wide
range of images as well as texts, and many teachers have implemented VTS in his-
tory, literature, math, and science lessons (Yenawine 2013).
58 D. Hailey et al.

Literature Review and Findings

What is known in research about the impact of VTS? What do these findings mean
for our understandings of visual literacy? This chapter’s summary of existing re-
search is limited to peer-reviewed literature, two federally funded studies, and one
recently published dissertation, though substantial knowledge from the realm of
practice shapes the analysis of this research. It is important to note that Housen,
Yenawine, Karin DeSantis, and others studied additional examples of VTS teach-
ing and learning throughout the development of the VTS curriculum (DeSantis and
Housen 1984–2003). Findings from many of these unpublished studies (undertaken
in various school systems and in museums in different parts of the country) have
been shared collegially across sites and at conferences. They were used to evaluate
and inform the content of VTS curricula yet do not exist in peer-reviewed journals.
Data discussed here came from two distinct realms in education: first, K-6 part-
nerships with art museums and second, training programs within the healthcare
professions (often in collaboration with art museums). It is important to acknowl-
edge a key difference between VTS in K-6 and in medical education; research from
K-6 interventions reflects the impact of the sequential VTS curriculum (discussions
of a consistent body of carefully chosen images facilitated at regular intervals, ap-
proximately 10€hours a year over 3 or more years, using the method of teaching
across sites), while the VTS-based interventions in healthcare vary widely in scope
(the longest intervention capped at about 12 hours of total time of VTS, allocated
over 3 months), in the works of art used, and in the integration of VTS with other
methods (such as structured reflections, clinical didactics, and drawing).

Impact Shown in Elementary Education

The VTS school curriculum was tested in studies beginning in 1991 at MOMA in
New York City as well as in St. Petersburg, Russia; Vilnius, Lithuania; Byron, Min-
nesota; and San Antonio, Texas (Housen 2002, 2007; DeSantis and Housen 2007).
Formal academic longitudinal research was conducted in one semirural school in
Byron. The study tracked two cohorts, one advancing from second to sixth grade and
the other from fourth to eighth, and was published in 2002. Another formal study—
still unpublished—was conducted in one urban school in San Antonio; it tracked
mostly English language learners from grades 3–5 (DeSantis and Housen 2007).
Both studies included matched control groups, the differences being that only the
experimental students received VTS. Housen’s protocols for determining aesthetic
stage were applied before and after the sequential-curricular intervention during
each of the study years and were enlarged to include additional methods.
The published data from Byron from 1993 to 1998 (as well as the unpublished
San Antonio research) indicate that roughly 30 hours of focused experience with
art—Housen’s “eyes on canvas”—nurtured a transition from the first stage of aes-
thetic development to solid ground in the second. In Byron, all the students grew
by an entire aesthetic stage over the course of 3 years (Housen 2002). The study
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 59

further documented the impact of aesthetic growth and VTS itself on a broader
range of skills, including thinking behaviors considered aspects of critical thinking:
habitually providing evidence to back up inferences and speculating among various
possible interpretations, for example. The predictable expansion of these habits in
the vast majority of students was correlated to their aesthetic growth; critical think-
ing capacities began to emerge predictably when students advanced into stage 2.
The Byron study also showed that these thinking skills transferred from art im-
ages to objects from other realms such as science. These findings were derived
from thoughts expressed in an additional protocol, the “material object interview,”
in which students were given an unfamiliar object—fossils, foreign coins, unusual
tools—and asked to look and talk about what they saw. Unexpectedly, Byron inter-
vention students also improved in performance on standardized tests after 3 years of
VTS, gaining 2.5 times the state average increase on Minnesota achievement tests,
suggesting possible transfer of skills from aesthetic development to other domains.
Two separate, federally funded studies (Curva et€al. 2005; Adams et€al. 2007)
were conducted in schools participating in VTS projects at the Isabella Stewart
Gardner Museum in Boston (Burchenal and Grohe 2007) and at the Wolfsonian-
FIU Museum in Miami (Rawlinson et€al. 2007). These longitudinal interventions,
which included roughly 30 hours of VTS lessons over 3 years, were shown to im-
pact student thinking patterns in a manner that correlated with the increases in criti-
cal thinking skills observed in Byron. VTS students consistently talked or wrote
significantly longer than control students about artwork in posttest interviews and
writing samples (examples of which are detailed below), indicating increases in stu-
dents’ capacities to observe, infer meaning, and back up inferences with evidence.
In the Gardner Museum study, for example, VTS students averaged 28 lines per
interview compared to 14 lines for control students. Across the three K–6 studies
(Byron, Boston, and Miami), all treatment students looked longer, had more to say,
and demonstrated a wider range of thought categories in their responses following
VTS interventions. Consistently, 30 hours of VTS discussions over 3 years facili-
tated changes from stage 1 into late stage 2 within the groups.

Impact Shown in Healthcare Education

The literature on VTS interventions with students in medical training programs

echoes the K–6 findings in the development of thinking and language skills, and
also indicates attitudinal impact. A 2008 study at Harvard Medical School analyzed
a 10-week intervention with first- and second-year medical students that mixed VTS
with clinical didactics and drawing (Naghshineh et€ al. 2008). Results in posttest
writing samples included significant increases in frequencies of observations—stu-
dents made 38↜% more observations on both medical and art imagery than control
group students—and in frequencies of use of evidence to back up interpretations.
Importantly, students who attended eight or more sessions increased observation
and language skills significantly more than students who attended seven or less.
This “dose effect” speaks to the developmental nature of acquiring visual literacy
skills. This finding is underscored by a researched pilot experiment at Robert Wood
60 D. Hailey et al.

Johnson Medical School (RWJMS; Jasani and Saks 2013), in which students who
participated in one intensive VTS-based workshop (they discussed eight images
over 3€hours) did not show any differences in frequencies of observations made in
writing posttests.
The Harvard and RWJMS studies, along with others from the healthcare sector,
also illuminate the impact of VTS on language development. The Harvard study
included qualitative analysis of student writing samples documenting “increased
sophistication” in the words students chose to describe both clinical and art imagery
(i.e., the increased or new use of words such as “shading” or “contour”). These lan-
guage changes reflect that students’ abilities to observe, infer, and express meaning
from visual material (either clinical or artistic) became more robust and precise. In
addition, students’ descriptions of visual material became more comprehensive, as
demonstrated in the RWJMS intervention, where analysis of writing samples docu-
mented increases in use of speculative language, visual analogies, and in the scope
of interpretations.
A third study conducted at the University of Texas Health Science Center in San
Antonio (Klugman et€al. 2011) looked at the results of three 90-min VTS-based ses-
sions with medical and nursing students; researchers examined student responses to
both art and clinical imagery with both qualitative and quantitative tools in order
to assess learning. Across the three studies—Harvard, RWJF, and Texas—students
looked longer and had more to say following VTS interventions, indicating their
enhanced performance of three crucial aspects of clinical observation: the ability
to describe concretely what is perceived, the ability to separate fact from inference,
and the understanding that observation takes time (Boudreau et€al. 2008).
Finally, one radically different program in the Netherlands using VTS with
brain-injured patients further probed the impact of VTS on language abilities (Ter
Horst and Kruiper-Doesborgh 2012). This pilot study with 13 patients documented
increases in the tendencies to take time to reflect before speaking and to give rea-
soned opinions. Subjects also reported increased awareness of their own abilities
with regard to critical thinking, and their difficulties in this respect. This study un-
derscores the way in which changes in visual literacy connect with metacognition
and are reflected in language use.
In addition to looking at skill development, studies on VTS from the healthcare
professions have also focused on the methodology’s effect on attitudes and beliefs
about learning. Klugman et€al. (2011) documented increases in positive views to-
wards the essential role of communication within health care, and the importance of
discussions about what is seen and found as being necessary for effective diagnosis;
they also showed an increase in participants’ tolerance of ambiguity—a cognitive
variable significant to aspects of medicine including worldview, test ordering, de-
fensive practice, and discomfort in scenarios of death and grief (Geller 2013). A
separate qualitative study on nursing students’ experiences with VTS at Indiana
University revealed two standout themes: “feeling safe in learning” and “thinking
and seeing differently” (Moorman 2013). Students particularly valued that during
VTS discussions, they were able to express differences of opinions without feelings
of criticism or judgment. They also positively emphasized the experience of having
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 61

their own judgments change based on observations made by others. “Ok, I can see
how you got to this” is how one student describes this experience, which connects
with “mutual respect,” a subtheme of the Indiana study.
A qualitative study from the social work field, conducted at the University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill, examined an intervention in which VTS was used in
diversity training for teachers (Chapman et€al. 2013). The researchers looked at both
“schema change” and how images function in catalyzing dialogue. Their findings
noted changes in participants’ descriptions of “shifts in awareness, perspective-tak-
ing, attitude change, and more complex thinking about Latino/Latina immigrants”
(the subject of most of the images used in this case). Many of these attitudinal
findings reflect participants’ reconciliation of their own visual experiences with the
experiences of others, suggesting the persuasive influence of social interactions as
part of the visual literacy learning process, and its potential to alter schemas about
the construction of knowledge.

What Do Shifts into Visual Literacy Look Like?

While the research findings synthesized above speak to the impact of VTS on el-
ementary school and medical students, this section offers descriptions of the be-
haviors that mark shifts into visual literacy and provides specific examples. Un-
derstanding of these behaviors has evolved over time, through tracking both VTS
discussions and writing samples. Here is what these authors have come to look for:
•)>> Participants make more observations than when they started, and their observa-
tions become more complex and include more detail. Things seen singly come to
be seen in a context.
•)>> As participants begin to make meaning from their observations, they draw more
and more complex inferences. They develop the habit of providing visual evi-
dence to back up their inferences, interpretations, and opinions.
•)>> They increase their use of conditional language to indicate awareness that what
they suggest might be open to other interpretations.
•)>> While at first they might be content with a single interpretation of what they
see, they come to speculate among possible meanings, often holding several as
equally plausible, including those offered by peers.
•)>> After some time, they counter their own first thoughts and knowingly revise
earlier impressions, often stimulated by the ideas put forth by others.
•)>> They begin to cycle back to earlier ideas to elaborate by adding detail or clarifying.
•)>> They develop a desire to know more about the makers of images and their inten-
tions; the motivation for seeking additional information from other sources to
fold into their analysis.
•)>> They apply all of these thinking and language skills to a range of visual vo-
cabularies across many media and images from diverse times and cultures. This
capacity eventually transfers from art to material objects, historical documents,
62 D. Hailey et al.

Fig. 1 ╇ Winslow Homer, Snap the Whip, 1872, oil on canvas. (Butler Institute of American Art,
Youngstown, OH, USA/Museum Purchase 1918/Bridgeman)

medical imagery, and scientific imagery including scientific imaging systems

(maps, charts, diagrams). It can even extend to their understanding of other peo-
ple, such as fellow students, medical patients, or colleagues.
Two examples of changes in student writing illustrate some of these points on a
granular level: one from a third grader, the other from a third-year medical student.
The third grader’s samples show the developmental nature of visual literacy as it
is facilitated by VTS experiences. They make visible how language reflects think-
ing about what is seen, and how thinking patterns change in response to effectively
stewarded, open-ended discussions about art—in other words, how visual literacy
grows (Fig.€1).
On November 14, 2003, a third grader in a Miami, FL, school (Adams et€ al.
2007; Curva et€al. 2005) wrote for a pretest, which sampled his thinking as it ap-
peared in writing before beginning the VTS curriculum. He and his classmates were
asked to look at Winslow Homer’s painting, Snap the Whip, and to write an answer
to the question, “What do you think is going on in this picture?” They were also
asked to include as much detail as possible and to provide evidence of their ideas.
He wrote:
I think that the boys are playing in a field outside a school and that there are no girls in the
picture.

The student summarizes what he sees in the picture, noting “boys playing”
Â�(observation and inference) as well as other observations—“a field” and “outside a
school”—providing no evidence. He also observes the absence of girls. He begins
with “I think” perhaps responding to the phrasing of the assignment but possibly
indicating awareness that this might be a subjective opinion. Overall, he puts forth a
reasonable description of the scene depicted, albeit minimal and lacking in details.
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 63

In a follow-up posttest given the same instructions and image in early May 2004
after the first year of ten VTS lessons, he wrote:
I think that the boys just got out of school because I see that there is a building that looks
like an old fashion school house. I also think that the boys are having recess. I think that
they are playing ring around the rosies. I also think that they are at the country side because
I see mountains.

Again introducing each comment by “I think,” the boy’s opening compound sen-
tence contains a description of the central figures (“the boys”) as “out of school”
argued with a detailed observation as evidence: “an old fashion school house.” He
infers that the boys might be at recess, a conclusion likely based in the same logic,
and he further infers that they are playing a specific game (“ring around the rosies”)
though he provides no evidence to back this up. He concludes with a comment that
takes in the context (“the country side”) providing evidence (“I see mountains”).
This child’s dramatic shift from two basic, unsupported, observations to several
inferences (three out of four backed up with evidence) documents his growing abil-
ity to infer meaning from observation and the provision of visual evidence, as well
as his persistence in looking and finding more. To convey his deeper looking, he
wrote a good deal more and included descriptive detail (Fig.€2).

Fig. 2 ╇ Paul Mathey, Woman

and Child in a Room,
1890s, oil on canvas. Musée
d’Orsay, Paris. (By permis-
sion of Art Resource, NY/
Photo Eric Lessing Images)
64 D. Hailey et al.

Another sample of his writing, written shortly before this posttest but after a
discussion of the image included here with his classmates, also reveals burgeoning
visual literacy, especially behaviors borne in group meaning-making experiences.
I think the boy is punished because his face looks sad. I also think he got into a fight
because his knees look dirty. I also think that the man at the top left of the picture is a
( maid?) and the lady is the boy’s mom because it looks like she is using a sewing machine.
I also think that the boy just came in from outside because in the old days people used to
play with those types of hula hoops. I think that the time of the day is afternoon because the
light is very bright. I also think the wallpaper design is a tree because I see leaves.

This writing sample reflects a dramatic difference in terms of inferences made

(nine), all but one argued in evidence (the “maid.”) He provides significant de-
tails including reference to the boy’s expression, time (both historical time “the
old days” and time of day “afternoon”), and several aspects showing his attention
to space (“at the top left,” “in from outside,” and “wallpaper design”). While the
posttest shows what sticks with the student when working on his own, the post-
discussion sample shows the rich impact of peer interaction on the growth of indi-
viduals (Yenawine 2013).
Can we see similar shifts in visual literacy as a result of discussions among
adults? A second example, below, shows a shift in observation skills and language
from pre- and post-VTS writing samples from a medical-school student highlighted
in the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School study. Written in response to clinical
imagery, this sample is cited by the study authors as an example of shifting away
from “subjective terminology”:
Pretest: “His right arm and leg are positioned normally…”
Posttest: “Her right arm and leg are straight and lay flat. Her left arm is flexed at the shoul-
der and elbow with the hand clenched in a fist with the thumbs extended away from the
fingers. The left leg is flexed at the hip and knee.

This pairing shows the students’ initial impulse to use an assumptive word (“nor-
mal”), which she then changed in favor of describing the observations that triggered
associations with the word normal. These changes rendered the description length-
ier (from 8 words to 45) and based specifically upon what was actually observed
rather than inferred.
These changes in vocabulary suggest the student gained the insight to sepa-
rate observation from inference at a metacognitive level. This pattern, reflected
broadly among VTS students, involves the conscientious mental work of sus-
pending judgment. “Overcoming the inertia that inclines one to accept sugges-
tions at their face value,” writes Dewey in How We Think (1910/1997, p.€13), “in-
volves willingness to endure a condition of mental unrest and disturbance.” Such
work is not easy (Dewey later calls it “painful,” p.€13), yet such careful manage-
ment of our impulses to arrive at conclusions is not only the basis of thoughtful
decision making but also essential to avoiding errors in judgment. In medicine,
for example, “search satisfaction error” and “premature closure” are two types of
error undergirding a significant proportion of medical misdiagnosis (Croskerry
2003); at the root of both lies the cognitive tendency to close searches too early.
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 65

What Does Research on VTS Indicate About

Visual Literacy?

The same careful looking, thinking, and precise description demonstrated by expert
diagnosticians are at the heart of visual literacy—and cultivated by VTS. Visually
literate people have the disposition to sustain the act of observation, recognizing
that taking time to look is an essential part of the inquiry process and remaining con-
fident that such looking will reveal new information and possibilities. The studies
cited above begin to describe how group experiences discussing art through VTS,
in which participants engage with one another as well as the work of art, nurture
the linked skills of observation, inference, speculation, elaboration, and seeking and
providing specific evidence, while concomitantly developing language.
The findings underscore the longitudinal nature of developing visual literacy and
indicate how it is entwined with attitudes and beliefs about knowledge. As students
develop visual literacy, they learn how knowledge is created, their role in creating
it, the time it takes to acquire it, the role of biases in shaping it, and the sense that
it is rarely fixed but instead constantly evolving. Related, they may also become
comfortable with ambiguity, a capacity essential to discovery in any discipline from
the arts to history and science—indeed, to grappling with the real world in general.
While most schooling prepares students to expect problems to be resolved fully and
speedily, the process of becoming visually literate fosters the disposition to accept
ambiguity as fundamental and the capacity to address it as a basic element of inqui-
ry—one that requires time, a commitment to questioning any material confronted,
and the awareness that understanding is enriched by the perspectives of others.
These capacities are markers of visual literacy as described by Debes (1968), the
pioneering thinker in the visual literacy field whose definition grounds this chap-
ter’s considerations. They fall into place as students move into Housen’s stage 2, a
long stage that involves the development of multiple frameworks for figuring out
why an image looks as it does, as well as probing its possible meanings. Over the
course of VTS interventions, spread over time to allow for gestation, the pattern of
thinking that emerges by the end of stage 2 aligns neatly with the basic capacities
included in Debes’s definition of visual literacy to “discriminate and interpret” as
well as “comprehend and enjoy” what one encounters in the visual environment.
In addition, the process of VTS—a teaching strategy of carefully facilitated group
discussions—nurtures the ability to “communicate with others.”
The findings reviewed above suggest that key aspects of the VTS protocol
were essential to the results: open-ended, rigorous facilitation, provocative works
of art, ample gestation time, and a context of peers. Moreover, an environment in
which students feel safe to cross boundaries into the experiences and perspectives
of others is particularly important to attitudinal shifts. Visual literacy requires the
propensity to integrate new information from different and perhaps unexpected or
atypical sources, suggesting change across the thinking and sensory spectrum. As
Moorman’s dissertation indicates, effective experiences in visual meaning making
depend on a learning context of psychological safety and mutual respect—one that
must be cultivated with deliberate pedagogical actions.
66 D. Hailey et al.

Need for Further Study

More research is needed on the impact of longitudinal VTS interventions in the

development of visual literacy, on the relationships between aesthetic thinking and
visual literacy, and how Housen’s research and theory on aesthetic development
might be expanded and built upon, in particular, in concert with flourishing discov-
eries in neuroscience.
One significant potential area of research concerns how VTS impacts teachers.
Because facilitating VTS discussions about works of art is quite different from most
pedagogical methods, and because the process of learning the facilitation meth-
od takes time, practice, and both personal and analytical reflection, its effect on
transforming teacher practice may be significant. While changes in teachers as they
come to understand VTS have been observed and discussed anecdotally for years by
Housen, Yenawine (2013), and colleagues at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum
(Grohe and Egan 2014), as well as some practitioners in the medical field (Hersh-
man et€al. 2016; Fleischer et€al. 2014), this potential impact deserves far more sys-
tematic study. Informal reports indicate that VTS facilitation strengthens abilities to
teach using authentic, open-ended problems across subject areas, enhances teach-
ers’ abilities to listen to and understand students, provides teachers with awareness
of their own communication habits, and offers them an opportunity to examine
the alignment between their philosophies and practices as educators. In addition
to testing these anecdotal findings, research questions might include: How does
the aesthetic stage of the teacher impact the ability to teach visual literacy? How
does implementing the VTS curriculum shift the attitudes and practices of teachers
across subjects, and, by extension, their performance and job satisfaction?
Beyond the question of teaching, proposed future research topics comprise, but
are not limited to, the following:
•)>> How does the development of visual literacy affect attention and metacognition?
What parts of the brain are activated during VTS discussions, and what does this
tell us about cognition and the impact of discussions of art on the development
of visual literacy?
•)>> What is the impact of VTS on critical thinking, communication, and language at
various ages, and with challenged students (from English language learners to
those with impairments and on the autism spectrum)?
•)>> How does aesthetic stage influence the ability to construct visual communica-
tion, from drawings to graphs to films to digital media?
•)>> What is the impact of increased visual literacy on standardized test performance
in K–12 education?
•)>> What gaps might be filled by using VTS to advance visual literacy within under-
graduate studies? How might the methodology be implemented within intra- as
well as cross-disciplinary studies with a variety of visual materials? What might
be the outcomes for both faculty and students?
•)>> What impact does increased visual literacy have on diagnostic accuracy and pa-
tient satisfaction?
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 67

•)>> How does VTS and enhanced visual literacy impact collaboration, leadership
and team roles, and problem solving within a range of settings, from schools to
hospitals to professional organizations and business environments?
To pursue these and other avenues of research, scholars and scientists will need to
apply many additional verified measures of achievement in education, quality in
health care, collaboration between individuals, and job satisfaction in the work-
place. Advances in neuroscience and brain imaging open a world of opportunity to
understand the mechanics of aesthetic development and visual literacy that could
be used to create additional pedagogical models that nurture both. Researchers may
also interrogate aesthetic development and cognition according to protocols other
than those of developmental psychology or Housen. All of this research should lead
to deeper understanding of VTS, as well as additional approaches to the teaching
of visual literacy.

Conclusion

In all of the contexts in which it is regularly practiced, VTS discussions of art play
several important roles essential to understanding, developing, and valuing visual
literacy. First, by enhancing participants’ aesthetic thought, and thereby deepening
the range and complexity of frameworks through which they analyze what they see,
VTS enables students and teachers to experience artworks as generators of ideas,
not mere illustrations of concepts normally confronted through texts or other non-
visual means. Effective integration of discussions about art into traditional teaching
contexts supplements, and can potentially transform, traditional knowledge bases
and problem-solving techniques.
Second, the VTS discussion is a rare space in which students’ personal knowl-
edge and experience (including their memories and beliefs) are authentically acti-
vated and applied to useful advantage. They may experience, safely, some cognitive
dissonance as they come into friction with other ways of knowing and being—ways
posited by the work of art itself as well as the opinions and ideas of their peers.
Over time, students become empowered to discover themselves and interrogate
their and others’ constructions of identity and society—and propose new alterna-
tives—through the practice of active looking.
Third, VTS models what might be called participatory visual literacy, or visual
experiences that are essentially social exchanges. It is important to understand �visual
literacy as interactive and in flux—as an ongoing, developing way of functioning
critically within and responding to the full sensory environment with a questioning,
curious mind (Crouch 2008; Dallow 2008). Humanities and digital media scholar
Peter Dallow (2008) describes the visual “as being like an interface or cultural zone
of social exchange…a social sphere or arena where contemporary views of reality
are displayed;” he adds that “a notion of visual literacy could be the capacity to
negotiate or ‘navigate’ this visual cultural zone” (p.€98). The simple yet rigorous
68 D. Hailey et al.

structure of VTS can become a powerful compass for this zone, as students together
traverse spaces of wonder, inquiry, and uncertainty—art.
Fourth, VTS cultivates an inquiring, attentive mind. In How We Think, John
Dewey (1910/1997) wrote, “the most important factor in the training of good men-
tal habits consists in acquiring the attitude of suspended conclusions, and in master-
ing the various methods of searching for new materials to corroborate or to refute
the first suggestions that occur” (p.€13). During VTS discussions, students listen and
talk with equal attention, reflect on their own and others’ thinking, shift perspec-
tives based on what others notice, gain comfort with ambiguity, learn the impact of
providing visual evidence, hold multiple perspectives simultaneously, fail and re-
cover through persistence, and realize there can be more than one plausible answer.
To put it another way, the work of art changes before their very eyes and in their
minds as they discuss it. The attentiveness fostered by VTS deepens and extends the
meaning-making experience, as they find more and more, constructing and decon-
structing an array of viewpoints as the visual is persistently mined.
Barbara Stafford (2007, 2008), whose work focuses in part on “conscious vision
in the construction of experience” (2007, p.€98), calls for pedagogy that can enliven
the brain’s attentive functions. She argues that the 10↜% of the brain’s neuroprocess-
ing that is not automatic (or autopoietic) has the potential for what she calls “willed
perception” (2007, p.€202) and should be nurtured. She describes the creation of art
as an example of this kind of conscious visual activity. Of developing a similar, full
sensory attentiveness through education, she writes,
Seeing, not seeing as, enables knowledge to grow. Educating the remaining ten percent,
then, is about showing students the deep effects of volition and effort…. By changing the
way they think about their thoughts, they can change their brains as well as the world.
(2008, p.€46)

VTS structures experience to cultivate tolerance of such “volition and effort,” or in

Dewey’s words again, the “willingness to endure a condition of mental unrest and
disturbance.” Students eventually come alive to their own thinking and become
aware of their role in understanding what they encounter—indeed, potentially, of
how they construct their knowledge of the world and, by extension, their construc-
tion of the world itself. By experiencing how meaning can be plumbed through
extended looking, students gain comfort with, and more willingly explore, ambigu-
ity; better understand and empathize with each other; and exist in a more attentive,
present state of awareness. They learn that interactions with the world and our fel-
low beings require multisensory engagement and thinking across domains.
Just as medical professionals who slow their process become better care pro-
viders, most of us across the working spectrum could benefit from the heightened
awareness of and empathy toward other people that visual literacy affords. These
qualities could become part of the values of those who govern and create social
policy. Intentional teaching of visual literacy is, in these authors’ view, core to ad-
dressing the issues we face globally. Who knows how many problems such skills
might help us solve?
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 69

Appendix

Abigail Housen’s stages of aesthetic development with details about stages I and II
added. All quotes appearing here are taken from Aesthetic Development Interviews
Housen and associates conducted over 18 years. Aesthetic Development Interviews
are nondirective, stream-of-consciousness-type interviews (Housen 1983).

Stage I Accountive viewers are list makers and storytellers. Using their senses, memo-
ries, and personal associations, they make concrete observations about the work
of art and weave them into a narrative. Here, judgments are based on what is
known and what is liked. Emotions color their comments, as viewers seem to
enter the work of art and become part of the unfolding narrative.
Sampling of thoughts At stage I, accountive viewers viewers make simple,
concrete observations: lines, ovals, squares…. At times, the stage I viewer
makes observations and associations that appear idiosyncratic and imaginative:
A giraffe’s back…a dog’s face. Likewise, the stage I viewer may incorporate
people and objects into an idiosyncratic narrative: I see two ladies, holding
each other. It seems to me he is going home now, and he cannot find his clothes.
Judgments are based on what the viewer knows and likes: The wallpaper is
beautiful. Emotions color the comments, as the stage I viewer animates the
image with words and becomes part of an unfolding drama: Like he is hurt [his
arms] when he was swimming or like he was mad or something the way he
was holding his arms. The stage I viewer (the “storyteller”) and the image (the
“story”) are one. The viewer engages in an imaginatively resourceful, autono-
mous aesthetic response.
Stage II Constructive viewers set about building a framework for looking at works of
art, using the most logical and accessible tools: their own perceptions, their
knowledge of the natural world, and the values of their social, moral, and
conventional world. If the work does not look the way it is “supposed to”—if
craft, skill, technique, hard work, utility, and function are not evident, or if the
subjects seem inappropriate—then this viewer judges the work to be “weird,”
lacking, and of no value. The viewer’s sense of what is realistic is a standard
often applied to determine value. As emotions begin to go underground, this
viewer begins to distance him or herself from the work of art.
Sampling of thoughts
At stage II, constructive, viewers’ observations have a concrete, known refer-
ence point: And they have five fingers, just like us. Aspects of images that
do not conform to expectations can be seen as “weird”: The hair on the first
person is blond, and it is true, but there is no such thing as a purple face. As
this viewer strives to map what she sees onto what she knows from her own
conventions, values, and beliefs, her observations and associations become
more linked and detailed. The viewer looks carefully and puzzles. An interest in
the artist’s intentions develops: The person has chosen; instead of using circles
for the background, he used lots of diamonds.
Stage III Classifying viewers adopt the analytical and critical stance of the art historian.
They want to identify the work as to place, school, style, time, and provenance.
They decode the work using their library of facts and figures that they are ready
and eager to expand. This viewer believes that properly categorized, the work
of art’s meaning and message can be explained and rationalized.
70 D. Hailey et al.

Stage IV Interpretive viewers seek a personal encounter with a work of art. Exploring
the canvas, letting the meaning of the work slowly unfold, they appreciate
the subtleties of line and shape and color. Now, critical skills are put in the
service of feelings and intuitions as these viewers let underlying meanings of
the work—what it symbolizes—emerge. Each new encounter with a work of
art presents a chance for new comparisons, insights, and experiences. Knowing
that the work of art’s identity and value are subject to reinterpretation, these
viewers see their own processes subject to chance and change.
Stage V Re-creative viewers, having established a long history of viewing and reflecting
about works of art, now “willingly suspend disbelief.” A familiar painting is
like an old friend who is known intimately, yet full of surprise, deserving atten-
tion on a daily level but also existing on an elevated plane. As in all important
friendships, time is a key ingredient, allowing stage V viewers to know the
ecology of a work—its time, its history, its questions, its travels, and its intrica-
cies. Drawing on their own history with one work in particular, and with view-
ing in general, this viewer combines personal contemplation with views that
broadly encompass universal concerns. Here, memory infuses the landscape of
the painting, intricately combining the personal and the universal

References

Adams, M., Foutz, S., & Luke, J. (2007) Thinking through art: Isabella Stewart Gardner mu-
seum school partnership program year 3 research results. Annapolis: Institute for Learning
Innovation. http://www.gardnermuseum.org/microsites/tta/links/Year_3_Report.pdf. Accessed
March 1, 2014
Arnheim, R. (1966). Toward a psychology of art. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Baldwin, J. M. (1975). Thought and things: A study of the development and meaning of thought or
generic logic (Vols.€III and IV). New York: Arno.
Boudreau, J. D., Cassell, E. J., & Fuks, A. (2008). Preparing medical students to become skilled at
clinical observation. Medical Teacher, 30, 857–862.
Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Burchenal, M., & Grohe, M. (2007). Thinking through art: Transforming museum curriculum. Jour-
nal of Museum Education, 32(2), 111–122. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/jme.2007.32.2.111.
Changeux, J.-P. (2012). The good, the true, and the beautiful: A neuronal approach (trans: L.
Garey). New Haven: Yale University Press.
Chapman, M., Hall, W., Colby, R., & Sisler L. A. G. (2013). How images work: An analysis of a
visual intervention used to facilitate a difficult conversation and promote understanding. Quali-
tative Social Work, 13(4), 456–476. doi:10.1177/1473325013496597.
Croskerry, P. (2003). The importance of cognitive errors in diagnosis and strategies to minimize
them. Academic Medicine, 78(8), 775–780.
Crouch, C. (2008). Afterword. In J. Elkins (Ed.), Visual literacy (pp.€195–204). New York: Rout-
ledge.
Curva, F., Milton, S., Wood, S., Palmer, D., & Nahmias, C. (2005). Artful citizenship report: Three-
year project report. Tallahassee: The Wolfsonian-Florida International University. http://www.
artfulcitizenship.org/pdf/full_report.pdf. Accessed March 1, 2014
Dallow, P. (2008). The visual complex: Mapping some interdisciplinary dimensions of visual lit-
eracy. In J. Elkins (Ed.) Visual literacy (pp. 91–104). New York: Routledge.
Debes, J. (1968). Some foundations for visual literacy. Audiovisual Instruction, 13, 961–964.
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 71

DeSantis, K., & Housen, A. (1984–2003). Selected directory of studies. New York: Visual Under-
standing in Education. http://vtshome.org/research/articles-other-readings. Accessed March 1,
2014
DeSantis, K., & Housen, A. (2007). Highlights of findings—San Antonio: Aesthetic development
and creative and critical thinking skills study. New York: Visual Understanding in Education.
http://vtshome.org/system/resources/0000/0004/SanAntonio-TX-VTS-Study.pdf. Accessed
March 1, 2014
Dewey, J. (1910/1997). How we think. Boston: DC Heath & Company.
Dewey, J. (1934/1980). Art as experience. New York: Perigee Books.
Dewey, J. (1938/1997). Experience and education. New York: Touchstone Press.
Duke, L., & Housen, A. (1998). Responding to Alper: Re-presenting the MoMA studies on visual
literacy and aesthetic development. Visual Arts Research, 24(1), 92–102.
Duska, R., & Whelan, M. (1975). Moral development: A guide to Piaget and Kohlberg. New
Jersey: Paulist.
Fleischer, N., Zea, A., McManama, J., & Miller, A. (March 2014). The science behind art: Teach-
ing critical thinking through art observation. Presentation at Academic Dental Education As-
sociation conference, San Antonio, TX.
Geller, G. (2013). Tolerance for ambiguity: An ethics-based criterion for medical school selection.
Academic Medicine, 88(5), 1–4.
Grohe, M., & Egan, S. (July 2016). VTS growth over time. Presentation at the conference, VTS
Summer Institute, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, MO.
Hailey, D. (2014). Visual thinking, art, and university teaching across disciplines. About Campus
Magazine, 19(4), 9–16.
Hershman, W., Miller, A., & Yadavalli, G. (2016). Fresh eyes: An arts-based workshop series for
clinical faculty. In P. Brett-McLean & A. Peterkin (Eds.), Keeping reflection fresh: Top educa-
tors share their innovations in health professional education. Kent: Kent State (forthcoming).
Housen, A. (1983). The eye of the beholder: Measuring aesthetic development. Dissertation, Har-
vard University.
Housen, A. (1984–1991). Institute of Contemporary Art Boston Audience Pilot Study (1984). Mu-
seum of Fine Arts Boston Asian Galleries Brochure Study (1990). Museum of Modern Art New
York Gallery Talks Study (1991). Summary of unpublished studies. http://vtshome.org/pages/
highlights-of-findings#7. Accessed March 1, 2014
Housen, A. (1987). Three methods for understanding museum audiences. Museum Studies Journal, 2
(4), 41–49.
Housen, A. (September 1999). Eye of the beholder: Research, theory and practice. Paper pre-
sented the conference, Aesthetic and art education: A transdisciplinary approach. Calouste
Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal.
Housen, A. (2002). Aesthetic thought, critical thinking and transfer. Arts and Learning Journal, 18
(1), 99–132.
Housen, A. (2007). Art viewing and aesthetic development: Designing for the viewer. In P. Vil-
leneuve (Ed.), Periphery to center: Art museum education in the 21st century (pp.€172–189).
Reston: National Art Education Association.
Housen, A., & Yenawine, P. (2000–2001). VTS curriculum. New York: Visual Understanding in
Education.
Jasani, S., & Saks, N. (2013). Utilizing visual art to enhance the clinical observation skills of
medical students. Medical Teacher, 35, e1327–e1331. doi:http://informahealthcare.com/doi/
pdf/10.3109/0142159X.2013. 770131.
Klugman, C., Peel, J., & Beckmann-Mendez, D. (2011). Art rounds: Teaching interprofessional
students visual thinking strategies at one school. Academic Medicine, 86(10), 1266–1271.
Kohlberg, L., & Hirsch, R. H. (1977). Moral development: A review of the theory. Theory into
Practice, 16(2), 53–59.
Livingstone, M. (2002). Vision and art: The biology of seeing. New York: Abrams.
Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development: Conceptions and theories. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
72 D. Hailey et al.

Loevinger, J. (1993). Measurement of personality: True or false. Psychological Inquiry: An Inter-

national Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory, 4(1), 1–16.
Miller, A., & Yenawine, P. (2014). Visual thinking, images, and learning in college. About Campus
Magazine, 19(4), 2–8.
Moorman, M. (2013). The meaning of visual thinking strategies for nursing students. Dissertation,
University of Nevada Las Vegas.
Naghshineh, S., Hafler, J., Miller, A., Blanco, M. A., Lipsitz, S., Dubroff, R. P., Khoshbin, S., &
Katz J. T. (2008). Formal art observation training improves medical students’ visual diagnostic
skills. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 23(7), 991–997.
Olson, S., & Loucks-Horsley, S. (2000). Inquiry and the National Science Education standards:
A guide for teaching and learning. Committee on the Development of an Addendum to the
National Science Education Standards on Scientific Inquiry; National Research Council. http://
www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=9596. Accessed March 1, 2014
Parsons, M. (1987). How we understand art: A cognitive development account of aesthetic judg-
ment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. New York: W.W. Norton.
Rawlinson, K., Wood, S., Osterman, M., & Sullivan, C. (2007). Thinking critically about social is-
sues through visual material. Journal of Museum Education, 32(2), 155–174. doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1179/jme.2007.32.2.155.
Shifrin, S. (2008). Visual literacy in North American secondary schools: Arts-centered learning,
the classroom, and visual literacy. In J. Elkins (Ed.), Visual literacy (pp.€105–128). New York:
Routledge.
Stafford, B. M. (2007). Echo objects: The cognitive work of images. Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press.
Stafford, B. M. (2008). The remaining ten percent. In J. Elkins (Ed.), Visual literacy (pp.€31–57).
New York: Routledge.
Ter Horst, R., & Kruiper-Doesborgh, S. (2012). Visual thinking strategies, toegepast als thera-
pie bij patiënten met niet-aangeboren hersenletsel. Tijdschrift voor Neuropsychologie, 7(3),
141–150.
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. CambridgeA: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Yenawine, P. (2003). Jumpstarting visual literacy: Thoughts on image selection. Art Education, 56
(1), 6–12.
Yenawine, P. (2013). Visual thinking strategies: Using art to deepen thinking across school disci-
plines. Cambridge: Harvard Education Press.

Dabney Hailey╇ Dabney is founding principal of a consultancy dedicated to improving leader-

ship and team and communication dynamics through art experiences. She works with commercial
enterprises and nonprofit organizations, exploring the ways visual literacy, and its improvement,
can realize more innovative, effective working processes. Hailey is also an independent curator,
educator, and writer specializing in modern and contemporary art. She has over 15 years of experi-
ence in university art museums and has been a facilitator and trainer in the art pedagogy, visual
thinking strategies (VTS), since 2001. Most recently, she was director of academic programs at the
Rose Art Museum, Brandeis University, where she integrated art discussions into undergraduate
and graduate courses across more than 15 disciplines. Previously, Hailey was the Gruber ’66 Cura-
tor of painting, sculpture, and photographs at Wellesley College’s Davis Museum, where she rein-
stalled the permanent-collection galleries to better serve student audiences and curated exhibitions.
Hailey has taught art history and museum studies courses at Brandeis University, Boston Univer-
sity’s Metropolitan College, and Northwestern University. She received her MA and reached PhD
candidacy in art history at Northwestern University; her BA was earned at Hendrix College.
Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach 73

Alexa Miller╇ Alexa is founder of Arts Practica, LLC, a medical education consultancy helping
health-care providers practice art viewing to be more mindful observers. A cocreator of Harvard
Medical School’s Training the Eye: Improving the Art of Physical Diagnosis, Miller is an educator,
consultant, and nationally recognized expert in aligning medical training with visual art. Formerly
curator of education at the Davis Museum, she has applied the VTS methodology in health care,
higher education, and art museum settings for over a decade. A frequent presenter to medical and
general audiences, Miller has written and contributed to research in peer-reviewed publications,
and has taught undergraduate courses in education at both Brandeis University and at Wellesley
College. She received her BA from Swarthmore College, her MA in studio painting from the
Wimbledon School of Art, and has completed extensive training in both the teaching and training
methods of VTS.
Philip Yenawine╇ Philip is cofounder of Visual Understanding in Education (VUE), a research
organization that studies ways of teaching visual literacy, thinking, and communication skills.
VUE’s curriculum, VTS is in use in schools across the USA and abroad. Director of education at
The Museum of Modern Art from 1983 to 1993, he also directed education programs at The Met-
ropolitan Museum of Art and Chicago’s Museum of Contemporary Art. He was founding director
of the Aspen Art Museum and consulting curator at the Institute of Contemporary Art (ICA) in
Boston. He taught art education at the School of the Art Institute in Chicago and Massachusetts
College of Art. He was the Miller visiting scholar at the University of Illinois in 1996 and awarded
an honorary doctorate from the Kansas City Art Institute in 2003. He received his master’s in art
education from Goddard College in 1979. He received the National Art Education Associations
Award for Distinguished Service in 1993, among other honors. He is author of How to Look at
Modern Art, Key Art Terms for Beginners, six children’s books about art, and most recently, Visual
Thinking Strategies: Using Art to Deepen Thinking Across School Disciplines.
Visual Communication and Culture:
Design Education for a Globalized World

Brooke N. Scherer

Abstract╇ In an age of readily available technologies and rapidly expanding com-

munication, opportunities for cross-cultural relationships and business practices
have extended from the primarily wealthy and powerful to those on a more global
scale. As a result of these advancements, a need for specialized knowledge in visual
and media literacy has arisen; one that requires not only an understanding of why
but how we communicate to societies different than our own. One major area sig-
nificantly affected by this transformation is the field of graphic design, where prac-
titioners now find themselves in the position to work with international clientele
and design for global audiences. As a result, rebuilding and modernizing this prac-
tice to fit the needs of a specialized—yet pivotal—industry has become a necessity;
a transformation that must begin in the classroom. This chapter aims to explain how
a variety of cultural variances affect the major components of visual literacy and
communication, while also providing examples of curricular content, pedagogical
methods, and student projects which may be used as a basis for integrating cultural
studies into graphic design education.

Introduction

The late twentieth century was a time of great change. The advent of Internet con-
nectivity and the World Wide Web drastically redefined the way humans live and
communicate. A generation driven by invention and innovation, we now possess
the ability to make global video calls by simply powering up our computers or
smartphones. This advanced technology has also revolutionized consumerism and
business practices, allowing advertising, selling, and purchasing to be done from
anywhere, to anywhere, and at any time. As a result, modes of visual communica-
tion no longer focus merely on local audiences, but have advanced to those situated
around an infinite global spectrum. One major area affected by this transformation
is the field of graphic design, where industry professionals are now afforded op-
portunities to work and design for international audiences—all of whom define key

B.€N.€Scherer€()
Department of Art, The University of Tampa, Tampa, FL, USA
e-mail: bscherer@ut.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 75
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_4
76 B. N. Scherer

components of visual messaging in different ways. But how do we ensure these

professionals are properly equipped to meet the demands of a globally expanding
industry?
Throughout my tenure as a graphic design educator, I have worked diligently to
create a level of cultural awareness in hopes of changing the way students communi-
cate both personally and visually with audiences of varying backgrounds. I was first
introduced to this topic in graduate school. While there, I participated in a semester-
long seminar where we discussed the differences in design aesthetics within varying
global contexts. A classmate, who is originally from India, brought up the topic of
white space use within visual communication: something Western designers regard
as fundamental, but a practice rarely utilized within my classmate’s native country.
Having previously worked for a global outdoor advertising agency (that, regardless
of office location, employed mostly American designers), my interest in this subject
piqued and encouraged me to inquire further. I was perplexed by the notion that
Western-based designers were potentially misrepresenting their clients by thinking
locally but acting globally; in other words, assuming their own design aesthetics
were similarly regarded within other cultural audiences. If this was the case, how
then were the actual messages being perceived?
Our classmate would go on to explain that in her village, billboards posted with
copious amounts of white space are quickly filled with flyers and advertisements
of local business owners—not as to deface the design, but simply because they
saw this as unused space free for the taking. To think, clients spend large amounts
of money to advertise through this medium only to have their messages ultimately
squandered due to misunderstandings of cultural design aesthetics.
Our conversation was an eye-opening experience. Current design pedagogy
teaches us how to visually communicate for our own societal needs, but what about
culturally diverse audiences who do not share in the same backgrounds and beliefs?
A tremendous gap exists in educational and professional training when it comes to
cultural sensitivity and accessibility. The following sections aim to present ways in
which this content can be both addressed and implemented.

Cross-Cultural Advertising: Case Studies

Three specific examples support this need for education in cross-cultural visual
communication. The first involves the American-based company Hertz Rent-A-Car,
who made a detrimental advertising mistake due to a misunderstanding in color
association within their Asian market. Upon the launch of their #1 Gold Club mem-
bership in the late 1990s, Hertz, whose corporate colors are black and gold, mailed
announcements to their global customers enclosed in black envelopes displaying
only addressee information on the front. While the campaign was successful in the
USA, where receiving this type of piece has no immediate symbolic association,
the outcomes were disastrous when presented to Japanese customers. Clearly, un-
beknownst to those responsible, when a person in Japan receives a black envelope
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World 77

in the mail, it signifies a family member’s death announcement (McCarron 2003).

As quoted by Ashmita Goswami, senior strategist for Razorfish, “Japanese citizens
were extremely upset thinking they were receiving horrible news and instead they
found a membership for Hertz’s Gold Club” (McCarron 2003, p.€21).
Other global chains to come under fire in recent years include McDonald’s and
Burger King. In 2005, McDonald’s ran a television campaign within the Chinese
market presenting a man kneeling before a retail vendor, pleading that his expired
coupon for services be honored. McDonald’s continues by explaining that custom-
ers will never have to beg for discounts at the restaurant because coupons remain
valid for an entire year. Although meant only in generosity, McDonald’s quickly
pulled the commercial from the air after receiving extreme backlash (China Daily
2005). As quoted by an angry consumer, “What a shame that the commercial por-
trayed Chinese consumers as willing to bend to such a petty interest” (China Daily
2005, para. 5).
With intentions of illustrating a “mixture of influences from the southwestern
United States and Mexico” (Rosenberg 2009a, para. 4), Burger King’s 2009 Euro-
pean “Tex-Mex” burger campaign also led to outrage. To emphasize the sandwich’s
“South of the Border” taste, the advertisement illustrates a rugged, Westernized
cowboy perched against a fence alongside a midget Mexican wrestler draped in his
country’s flag (Rosenberg 2009b). After spotting the advertisement in Spain, Mexi-
can Ambassador Jorge Zermeno requested the campaign be immediately pulled.
Not only is the Mexican’s portrayal discriminatory and disrespectful, but the flag
also carries strong symbolic importance to the country and was inappropriately dis-
played. As quoted by Zermeno, “This advertisement denigrates [belittles] the image
of our country and uses improperly Mexico’s national flag…. Mexico has strict
laws prohibiting the defamation of the flag” (Rosenberg 2009b, para. 3).
There are instances, however, where cross-cultural design not only has the po-
tential to be successful but also exemplary. In 2008, PepsiCo Inc. drastically re-
fashioned their iconic Pepsi can within the Chinese market by changing the colors
from blue to red in honor of the country’s Olympic Games participation. Although
appearing to some as imitating their Coca-Cola counterpart, the new design was a
major success (Chao and McKay 2007). In this specific case, PepsiCo Inc. clear-
ly understood that, to the Chinese, the color red strongly symbolizes luck, good
fortune, and celebration (Peterson and Cullen 2000). As supported by BevMark’s
Mr. Pirko, “If you’re going to a party you wear the right clothes, and the right
clothes in China are red” (Chao and McKay 2007, para. 23). Altering the can’s stan-
dard blue exterior in support of China’s Olympic Team was not the first time Pepsi
had transformed its appearance. In 2006, they ran a similar campaign in Brazil by
which the can’s color was changed to yellow and blue in support of the country’s
World Cup participation (Chao and McKay 2007).
As the above case studies prove, designers walk a fine line when visually com-
municating across cultural boundaries. The emergence of technology and ease of
forming multicultural relationships have largely expanded opportunities for profes-
sionals to work on a global scale. As a result, a significant need to reevaluate meth-
ods of learning, interacting, and educating has developed; one that integrates the
78 B. N. Scherer

visually communicative needs of a rapidly expanding globalized world into higher

education curriculum. Understanding such a pivotal demand exists, however, where
does one begin when rebuilding and modernizing this practice?
Ultimately, our answer lies within the classroom. What content do we teach?
What questions do we encourage students to ask? What specific educational tools
can be utilized when helping guide students toward appropriate assessments of both
preexisting and future cross-cultural visual communication? The first part of this
answer begins with the concept of cultural imperialism.
Why did the Hertz, McDonald’s, and Burger King campaigns fail? The answer:
A lack of educational awareness regarding audience background, and the assump-
tion that one’s own common views and traditions are the same across all cultural
lines. Cultural imperialism, therefore, defines a group or groups of people who at-
tempt to force their practices and beliefs onto societies unlike their own (Snow
2002). In fact, according to Doctor of Communications Marieke de Mooij (2004):
Many international marketing managers are convinced that their own ideas or practices
represent universal wisdom and try to impose them on everybody. Most global advertis-
ing agencies and many multinational companies have Anglo-American management. Their
universalism makes them focus on the similarities and ignore the differences (p.€12).

But why are these differences so easily ignored? What specific barriers commonly
interfere with the transmission of proper messaging? Simply put: a lack of founda-
tional and educational awareness. Never before have we encountered such a need to
incorporate these cultural issues into higher education curriculum. For that reason,
the time to regroup, refocus, and revolutionize this practice is now.
The area of graphic design is a continuously evolving discipline that both adapts
to and advances through modern-day visually communicative needs. The rapid in-
crease of globalization, combined with conveniences of day-to-day cross-cultural
interactions, has created an immediacy for practitioners to understand the makeup
of various demographics; not only for the purpose of personal relationships but also
in order to deliver intended messages in an appropriate manner. To do this—and fur-
ther eliminate culturally imperialistic thinking within visual communication—we
must first introduce to students the following set of questions:
1.)>> What is your real message? What is the exact message the client is trying to com-
municate? Be as detailed and specific as possible.
2.)>> Who are you talking to? Who is your audience? What is their demographic?
What are their beliefs, traditions, and social attitudes? What specific audience
characteristics are important?
3.)>> What will make them look? What design components are most important within
the given visual communication? Are there certain colors or symbolic elements
that are important to the audience? Does imagery play a specific role?
4.)>> Have I used their prejudices? Properly understanding the audience’s attitudes,
needs, and beliefs is essential to proper visual communication.
5.)>> Is the balance right between words and images? Does a prescribed balance
already exist for the audiences to which you are communicating the message?
Are the images composed correctly?
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World 79

6.)>> Does my presentation mean what I think it does? Has the designer properly cre-
ated a visual message that represents the intended audience (Morgan and Welton
1992)?
Imagine what the outcomes could have been if Hertz, McDonald’s, and Burger King
fully understood the implications of their visual messaging. Even an acknowledg-
ment of the above questions prior to the release of these campaigns could have
potentially prevented upset and disrespect, not to mention a loss of money. Com-
bining these with an awareness of cultural imperialism and the pedagogical content
listed in the following section, we now have the tools to begin modernizing our
curriculum.

Foundational Components: An Overview

I began testing these methods after arriving at The University of Tampa in 2010.
Through experimentation, I have found it important that students are knowledge-
able of certain foundational components—alongside the questions listed above—
when creating appropriately designed visual communication. These include cultural
dimensions created and defined by psychologist Dr. Geert Hofstede; environmen-
tal context and its relationship to image construction, as explored by Dr. Richard
Nisbett; symbolic importance in both color and iconography; and primary differ-
ences in consumer behavior, defined by Marieke de Mooij. In conjunction with re-
quired readings, I also provide in-depth class lectures to help clarify the information
studied by the students. A breakdown of these components is as follows:
Cultural Component One: Dimensions╇ Cultural dimensions are the very first
topic I cover in class when teaching a project that includes cultural sensitivity.
These, I believe, are essential in laying groundwork for the remaining content.
According to Hofstede (2004), culture has distinguishable characteristics—such as
peer relationships, personal aspirations, and values—that make one society unique
in comparison to others. He breaks these into the five major categories:
1.)>> Power Distance—the way in which a society deals with equality and inequality.
2.)>> Individualistic Versus Collectivistic—the role of the individual in a society ver-
sus the role of the group.
3.)>> Femininity Versus Masculinity—whether males within a specific culture are
expected to display masculine traits only, or if society allows them to display
both feminine and masculine traits.
4.)>> Uncertainty Avoidance—the way a society adapts and behaves to uncertainties
of the future.
5.)>> Long-term Versus Short-Term Orientation—the importance of an individual’s
or group’s actions based on immediate versus future results (pp.€46–214).
Based on research by Michael Minkov, a sixth dimension—Indulgence versus
Â� estraint—was added in 2010. An indulgent society is one where individuals are
R
free to participate in activities that provide enjoyment and happiness within their
80 B. N. Scherer

daily lives. A culture practicing restraint, on the other hand, restricts this freedom
for the sake of adhering to rigid societal norms (The Hofstede Center n.d.a).
Hofstede provides a wonderful Country Comparison Chart on his website,
which assigns rankings of each dimension for various countries around the world.
In addition, a breakdown of standards, beliefs, and common activities for those
listed are explained in detail, helping support the country’s dimensional rankings.
For those looking to create a comparison analysis, the chart also allows a selection
of up to three countries at a time for cross-reference (The Hofstede Center n.d.b).
Cultural Component Two: Environmental Context╇ With data on cultural
dimensions delivered, I then transition into the research of Dr. Richard Nisbett.
Dr. Nisbett’s work has shown that environmental factors greatly affect how people
perceive their social context. For example, Eastern (collectivistic) cultures believe a
person—or individual object if humans are not involved—is defined by their imme-
diate surroundings; without it, this particular being could not exist. Comparatively,
Western (individualistic) cultures believe that an object’s meaning is completely
disconnected from its surrounding environment; the focus is the object, not the con-
text by which it is placed (Norenzayan and Nisbett 2000).
In support of this research, a study by Masuda, Mequita, Tanida, Ellsworth, Len,
and Van de Veerdonk (2008) published in the article, Placing the Face in Context:
Cultural Differences in the Perception of Facial Emotion, explores differences in
interpreted meaning of an individual’s facial expression in relationship to the sub-
ject’s given social context. Here, American students from the University of Michi-
gan and Japanese students from Kyoto University were shown two cartoon videos,
each illustrating a centralized individual in the foreground with supporting charac-
ters expressing distinct, constantly changing emotions in the background. Results
revealed that 72↜% of the Japanese participants felt emotions of the centralized per-
son were influenced by those of the supporting background characters, while 72↜%
of the American students reported the emotions of the centralized figures were not
indicative of the emotions expressed by the background figures. In other words,
“Westerners see emotions as individual feelings, whereas Japanese see them as in-
separable from the feelings of the group” (Masuda et€al 2008). These findings play
an essential role when creating a visually communicative message. In a Western
(individualistic) culture, the focal point of an image would not be directly related to
its environment, where the focal point in an Eastern (collectivistic) culture could not
exist or be defined without its surroundings.
Cultural Component Three: Symbolism.╇ Providing background information
regarding various symbolic connotations created through color and iconography
are also important. For example, where the color red signifies warning, death, and
passion in America, it represents fertility in India and good luck, celebration, and
good fortune in China. Blue, in Turkey and Africa, symbolizes fertility and healing,
whereas it means truth and justice in Egypt (Peterson and Cullen 2000). Under-
standing color associations is essential when communicating to an audience, as we
saw with the failed Hertz Rent-A-Car campaign and PepsiCo’s success during the
2008 Olympics.
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World 81

Iconographic symbolism offers the same notion: We cannot expect those with
specific meanings to carry across all cultural lines. For example, where most Amer-
icans perceive the anaconda to be a terrifying, deathly reptile, Africans worship
these creatures, believing they are a sign of Earth and rain. For the Chinese, the
anaconda symbolizes wealth (Miller et€al. 2000).
Cultural Component Four: Consumer Behavior.╇ Lastly, I find it essential to
inform students the effect cultural dimensions have on purchasing behavior. For
instance, where individualistic cultures focus more on purchasing items that high-
light one’s status, wealth, image, or success (houses, cars, technology), collectiv-
istic cultures are prone to make purchases focused more on the quality of life and
the overall group. (Remember that in these societies, the individual does not exist
outside the whole). Examples of long-term oriented purchases might be investing
in real estate for future gain, as well as the extensive education of a child in order
to care and provide for elderly family members. Uncertainty avoidance is another
interesting dimension where behaviors in consumption emerge. Where fear of the
unknown cause high uncertainty avoidance cultures to purchase whole foods and
products that provide cleanliness and safety, low uncertainty avoidance cultures are
actually more attracted to convenience, such as fast-food (de Mooij 2004).

The Cultural Design Components Matrix

Providing information of such a detailed, extensive, and oftentimes complicated

Â�nature—and expecting students to make appropriately informed connections be-
tween all areas—can be a difficult task. It is with this in mind that I designed a
tool to assist in both breaking down cultural elements used in preexisting visual
communication, as well as for a cross-reference when creating these designs. This
Cultural Design Components Matrix (Fig.€1) works by grouping Hofstede’s dimen-
sions—located on the x-axis—with the remaining foundational components previ-
ously discussed on the y-axis.
In order to understand how this matrix works, I reference a multicultural de-
sign campaign for Verizon, designed by the New York/Los Angeles-based firm
�AdAsia (Figs.€2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). The following advertisements ran in the USA
between the years 2003 and 2005, but were each geared to five distinct cultural au-
diences: Americans, Korean-Americans (in both New York City and Los Angeles),
�Japanese-Americans (Hawaii), Filipino-Americans (Hawaii), and Chinese-Americans
(Chinatown, New York City).
The cultural components of each design are then charted on to the matrix in order
to flush out compositional elements (Figs.€7, 8, 9, 10 and 11).
Immediately apparent is the distinguishable difference of the matrix for the
American advertisement, where all plotted points exist to the left of the y-axis. The
design’s message reveals a single, confident, centralized businessman announcing
his achieved success through the use of Verizon Wireless’s Iobi products. Placing
focus on the “i” (“I”), Verizon primarily supports Hofstede’s individualistic (“I”),
82 B. N. Scherer

Fig. 1 ╇ Cultural design components matrix. (cultural design components matrix Legend: ( x-axis)
IND individualistic, COL collectivistic, MAS↜ ↜masculine, FEM↜ feminine, LPD low power dis-
tance, HPD high power distance, WUA weak uncertainty avoidance, SUA↜ ↜strong uncertainty
avoidance, STO short-term orientation, LTO long-term orientation, SYM symbolism, x SYM no
symbolism; ( y-axis) DIM dimension, EC environmental context, IC image construction (cultural
dimension), CB consumer behavior, CLR color, SYM symbol)

masculine (male success), short-term orientation (immediate gain) dimensions,

which also affect other components such as image construction and consumer be-
havior. The other four examples, however, generate plotted points that cross over to
the right side of the matrix, integrating the collectivistic and long-term orientation
components in all. The Korean-American example also represents the femininity
dimension by illustrating both male and female working together in an education-
al role. Importantly, where the four Eastern audience-based advertisements show
similarities in cultural background, it should not be assumed that each would own
identical values just because of their native country’s proximity to the next. Never-
theless, what makes the Eastern advertisements substantially different is the idea of
collectivism and environmental context, which is a striking contrast in comparison
to the American advertisement.

Cultural Integration Project: Piecing

Together Components

After the bulk of this information has been delivered through readings, lectures,
and discussions, students are then required to put knowledge into practice. To date,
I have constructed the design portion of this project through two specific methods:
1.)>> Poster Design and Full-Class Presentation (Individual or Group): Students are
responsible for creating a set of posters that illustrate important traditions and
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World 83

Fig. 2 ╇ AdAsia Verizon Wire-

less advertisement: American
demographic

characteristics—including cultural components—of an assigned culture. Stu-

dents then present their findings to the class. No two students or groups may
choose the same demographic. In theory, this should allow students a broader
range of cultural knowledge.
2.)>> Local Company Goes Global: Students are placed in groups and required to
create global campaigns for American companies who have yet to venture their
business overseas. Students are not only required to research the culture in
which the company would be advertising but also companies of similar retail or
84 B. N. Scherer

Fig. 3 ╇ AdAsia Verizon Wire-

less advertisement: Korean-
American demographic

�
operations within the foreign market to help assess components used in preexist-
ing design communication. As in the poster project, students present their find-
ings in a formal presentation.
I have found each method to produce its own challenges and successes. Regardless
of which technique I use, however, background research and design processes are
identical. In the first stage of the project, students are placed in groups and provided
an audience list from which to choose. So that I do not overwhelm them too greatly,
I generally include major countries such as China, Korea, Japan, India, and Mexico.
Having said that, groups in the past have also decided to work with Irish, Italian,
and Russian audiences. After demographics have been chosen, students are then
given time to compile research, gathering and presenting their findings in one large
document that includes:
a.)>> In-depth background studies on the chosen country’s culture in accordance to the
primary foundational background learned in lectures, readings, and discussion.
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World 85

Fig. 4 ╇ AdAsia Verizon Wire-

less advertisement: Filipino-
American demographic

b.)>> Interviews with cultural natives that help the student further understand the
makeup of their intended audience (these interviewees are also asked to critique
student designs once in digital rough draft form).
c.)>> A selection of preexisting visually communicative examples from the chosen
country, which include corresponding matrices that break down dimension,
image construction, color usage, and symbolic content.
This design document acts as the primary framework for all visual elements stu-
dents intend to use within their visual messaging. I have found without it—or when
students do not put adequate time and effort into this step—end results can be both
disastrous and embarrassing. In order to encourage full engagement in the research
of cultural material, I designate a substantial portion of the project grade to this
specific component.
From here, students transition to the design portion of the project. An essential
step in this stage, however, is requiring students to continually cross-check their
work with completed cultural design components matrices to ensure they are us-
ing appropriate cultural foundations within their visual messaging. During the de-
sign process, I spend each class period meeting with all groups, talking with them
86 B. N. Scherer

Fig. 5 ╇ AdAsia Verizon Wire-

less advertisement: Japanese-
American demographic

about both their compositions and current matrices to ensure they keep on track.
Interestingly, I have found that students have a tendency to overuse the matrix—an
occurrence that I believe is a result of both unfamiliarity and simply being unsure
of the appropriate answers—which can lead to confusion and misrepresentation of
cultural elements within their designs. Helping guide students to more refined solu-
tions provides for better accuracy and end results.
At project end, each group is required to explain their findings and reveal the cor-
responding designs through a detailed, professional presentation. When possible, I
bring in outside guests to critique work on the basis of information the students
provide. If someone unbiased to the content is unable to understand the message put
forth, I use this opportunity as a learning tool: How will one break clients of cultural
imperialism if they are not able to successfully present this topic, its importance,
and strong corresponding visual design work within a class setting?
Pedagogically speaking, my ultimate goal for this project is that students gain the
following tools through this experience:
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World 87

Fig. 6 ╇ AdAsia Verizon Wire-

less advertisement: Chinese-
American demographic.
Note: Design consists of a
red and gold color palette

Fig. 7 ╇ Verizon Wireless corresponding matrix: American demographic

88 B. N. Scherer

Fig. 8 ╇ Verizon Wireless corresponding matrix: Korean-American demographic

Fig. 9 ╇ Verizon Wireless corresponding matrix: Filipino-American demographic

a.)>> An awareness of multiple cultures and the components that specifically make up
their societal traditions, beliefs, and common actions.
b.)>> The effect a demographics’ social makeup has on the creation of visual
communication.
c.)>> The idea that their own individual ways of thinking does not represent those of
the rest of the world.
d.)>> The ability to present this information in a clear, convincing, and informative
manner.
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World 89

Fig. 10 ╇ Verizon Wireless corresponding matrix: Japanese-American demographic

Fig. 11 ╇ Verizon Wireless corresponding matrix: Chinese-American demographic

Outcomes

One of the most successful outcomes to result from this project was created by Muri-
el Lizárraga and Stephanie Cwalina. Lizárraga and Cwalina selected Mexico as their
base demographic and chose to design posters that celebrated three of the country’s
traditional festivals: Día De Muertos (Day of the Dead), Carnaval, and Equinoc-
cio de Primavera (the spring equinox). Aside from the fact that these two students
worked exceptionally well as a team, their research and process was extensively de-
tailed. The only group in the class to have less than three people, Lizárraga and Cwa-
lina spent a copious amount of time researching their audience in order to understand
90 B. N. Scherer

as much as possible about the demographic’s traditions, beliefs, and defining sym-
bolism. Their process documents show in-depth annotation within each piece of re-
search presented, which was important in understanding the culture’s most essential
foundational elements. Lizárraga and Cwalina also spent a great deal of time working
with matrices in both preexisting visual communication and their own work.
Through identifying specific cultural dimensions, such as collectivism, low pow-
er distance, and weak uncertainty avoidance; acquiring an understanding of signifi-
cant symbolic and color associations; recognizing Mexico’s affinity for an expres-
sive illustrative style, including typeface design; and discovering their importance
in cultural history and heritage, Lizárraga and Cwalina successfully presented a set
of posters which thoroughly illustrate specific elements that define their intended
audience (Figs.€12, 13 and 14).
To further explain the methodology behind these designs, Lizárraga and Cwalina
(2012) wrote that:
Symbolism exists in the color here [Carnaval poster]. The predominance of red and orange
are to symbolize the festivity. Consumer behavior is short-term oriented, because the poster
is advertising an event that takes place at a specific time. There is a weak uncertainty avoid-
ance, because the event creates a care-free, anything goes environment and is celebrated
collectively, making the collectivism of the poster very important…. [Día De Muertos
poster] Symbolism is used in the skull, which represents death. The festive, fearless por-
trayal of death gives the poster a weak uncertainty avoidance. The subject of death makes
the poster more long-term oriented…. [Equinoccio de Primavera poster] This poster con-
tains a lot of color symbolism. The colors in the sky represent a rainbow, and the white of
the hands represent bringing energy to the pyramids…. This festivity is considered spiritual
and sacred; it is something that people celebrate together, making it collectivistic, and also
giving it a low power-distance. Which is why we added in multiple hands (pp.€126–131).

I would have preferred the students explore the usage of imagery within at least one
of their posters, but the usage of illustration helped bring the set together as a whole.
Additionally, while their final matrices (Figs.€15, 16 and 17) are fairly intensive,
they each take into account many prime cultural components that largely contribute
to appropriate visual communication for a Mexican audience.
Although the time frame for this project was limited to a third of a semester, I be-
lieve Lizárraga and Cwalina’s final outcome was extremely successful. The attention
to detail in their research component, along with the corresponding class presenta-
tion, was exemplary. Whenever I teach this project, I always reference their material.
It is clear that these students excelled beyond my expectations, especially consider-
ing it was the first time they had created a project of such a complicated nature.

Conclusion

It goes without saying that teaching this particular subject is not an easy task to
accomplish, especially in the format of a one-project per-semester basis like mini-
mal time has allowed me to do. It took me 2 years to write a thesis covering the
content of which I now try to fit within one short student project. In recognizing the
immediate demand of developing cultural awareness within students, however, it
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World 91

Fig. 12 ╇ Lizárraga and Cwalina, cultural integration poster: Día De Muertos

is my belief that a small amount of education on the topic is absolutely better than
none.
In the future, I would like to explore these types of projects on a larger scale.
Ideas include working on long-distance collaborations where students can gain a
more hands-on approach by working side by side with peers from another culture,
as well as requiring students to redesign preexisting campaigns for stronger mes-
sage relay (for example, explore the unsuccessful advertisements of Burger King or
McDonald’s and work to create more appropriate visual messaging). Additionally,
I would like to integrate a full semester seminar class that focuses primarily on the
foundations of cultural studies. This course would then act as a prerequisite to all
foundational and upper-level graphic design classes so that I may include culturally
related projects on a more frequent basis.
92 B. N. Scherer

Fig. 13 ╇ Lizárraga and

Cwalina, cultural integration
poster: Carnaval

Fig. 14 ╇ Lizárraga and

Cwalina, cultural integra-
tion poster: Equinoccio de
Primavera

Fig. 15 ╇ Lizárraga and Cwalina, cultural integration posters corresponding matrix: Día De Muertos
Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World 93

Fig. 16 ╇ Lizárraga and Cwalina, cultural integration posters corresponding matrix: Carnaval

Fig. 17 ╇ Lizárraga and Cwalina, cultural integration posters corresponding matrix: Equinoccio de
Primavera

The design of visual communication for worldwide audiences centralizes around

the concept that culture largely influences the way a message is received and under-
stood. It cannot be assumed that factors which define one society are the same—or
even relatable—to others. In a vast technological age where media and visual litera-
cy are essential tools in communication, understanding how to both deconstruct and
adequately understand image content must become an integral component of dis-
course, pedagogy, and practice—not just in graphic design but for many disciplines
across the educational spectrum. It now lies upon us to embrace these changes and
work together in order to deliver more comprehensive-minded visual communica-
tors in this rapidly expanding, globalized world.
94 B. N. Scherer

References

Chao, L., & McKay, B. (2007, September 12). Pepsi steps into Coke realm: Red, China. The Wall
Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/public/article_print/SB118953841749624079. Accessed
4 Dec 2009
China Daily. (2005, June 23). McDonald’s ad banned due to insulting plot. China Daily.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-06/23/content_453733.htm. Accessed 4 Dec
2009
De Mooij, M. (2004). Consumer behavior and culture: Consequences for global marketing and
advertising. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2004). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. Colum-
bus, OH: MacGraw-Hill.
Lizárraga, M. & Cwalina, S. (2012). Design and Process Notebook. Cultural Integration Posters
Project: Mexico. Art 306: Graphic Design II. Tampa: The University of Tampa.
Masuda, T., Ellsworth, P. C., Mesquita, B., Leu, J., Tanida, S., & Van de Veerdonk, E. (2008).
Placing the face in context: Cultural differences in the perception of facial emotion. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 94(3), 365–381.
McCarron, C. (2003). Expanding our field of vision: Globalization and the changing landscape of
visual communications. Communication Arts, 45(1), 16–23.
Miller, A. R., Brown, J. M., & Cullen, C. D. (2000). Global graphics: Symbols: Designing with
symbols for an international market. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers.
Morgan, J. & Welton, P. (1992). See what I mean: An introduction to visual communication
(2nd ed)? New York: Bloomsbury USA.
Norenzayan, A., & Nisbett, R. E. (2000). Culture and causal cognition. Current Directions in Psy-
chological Science, 9(4), 132–135.
Peterson, L. K., & Cullen, C. D. (2000). Global graphics: Color: Designing with color for an
international market. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers.
Rosenberg, M. (2009a, April 14). Burger King ad angers ambassador. Reuters. http://www.reuters.
com/article/2009/04/14/us-burgerking-idUSTRE53D48A20090414. Accessed 2 Apr 2013
Rosenberg, M. (2009b, April 14). Burger King to scrap ad after complaint by Mexico. Reuters.
http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/04/14/mexico-burgerking-idUSN1444925920090414.
Accessed 10 May 2014
Snow, N. (2002). Propaganda, Inc.: Selling America’s culture to the world (2nd ed.). New York:
Seven Stories Press.
The Hofstede Center. (n.d.a). Indulgence versus Restraint. http://geert-ofstede.com/dimensions.
html. Accessed 10 May 2014
The Hofstede Center. (n.d.b). Country comparison chart. http://geert-hofstede.com/countries.
html. Accessed 10 May 2014

Brooke N. Scherer╇ received her Master of Fine Arts (MFA) in graphic design from Iowa State
University in 2010. As assistant professor of graphic design at the University of Tampa, Brooke
teaches courses in graphic design foundations and application, typography, the history of graphic
design, and sustainable design. Her most current academic achievement includes the complete
redesign of the Bachelor of Fine Arts in Graphic Design program for The University of Tampa.
Brooke’s research background primarily focuses on culture and visual communication, sustainable
design, and technology/social media integration in the design classroom. She has presented papers
and conducted workshops at notable industry venues such as American Institute of Graphic Arts
(AIGA), University and College Designers Association (UCDA), and Southeastern College Arts
Conference (SECAC). Brooke’s professional and student work can be found on her website at
www.brookescherer.com.
 Part II
Integrating
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s
Pedagogical Potential

Jeff Share

Abstract╇ This chapter looks at the unique qualities of photography that makes it
an ideal tool to use in classrooms for teaching all different subject matter as well as
an important device to teach about. Having years of experience as a photojournalist
and as an educator, the author explores theoretical underpinnings of photography as
well as practical applications for teaching. Today, the camera has become a power-
ful pedagogical tool because of its ubiquity in society, low price, ease of use, and
democratic potential. What had for years been too expensive or difficult to utilize
in the classroom, is now an invaluable teaching aid that educators should integrate
throughout their curricula and encourage students to analyze and use. Photographs
have become so common these days that neither adults nor children are accustomed
to questioning the construction or bias of the pictures that surround them. When
using a critical media literacy framework, teachers and students can support demo-
cratic pedagogy by using photography to co-construct knowledge and create alter-
native representations of their world.

Introduction: The Power of Photography

Working as a professional photojournalist years ago, I had many opportunities to

experience the power and limitations of photography. On occasion, my photographs
contributed to positive change, educated some people about problems, and caused
others to feel joy, pain, compassion, and outrage. There is a power that the photo-
graphic image conveys that no other medium can do in the same way. French pho-
tographer Gisele Freund (1980) asserts, “The importance of photography does not
rest primarily in its art form, but rather in its ability to shape our ideas, to influence
our behavior, and to define our society” (p.€5). Since Joseph Nicéphore Niépce’s
first photographic image taken in 1826, the medium of photography has been influ-
encing society. In her renowned book On Photography, Susan Sontag (1990) states,
“To photograph is to confer importance” (p.€28).

J.€Share€()
Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles,
Los Angeles, CA, USA
e-mail: jshare@ucla.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 97
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_5
98 J. Share

In comparison with other forms of representation, such as hieroglyphics, paint-

ings, and even printed text, photography is relatively new. However, the photo-
graphic image has been a major influence on the world in ways few previous repre-
sentations were able to do (Goldberg 1991; Lacayo & Russell 1990; Monk 1989).
Photographs by Lewis Hines of children toiling in factories contributed to the first
child labor laws in the USA. Pictures of US soldiers abusing detainees at the Abu
Ghraib prison in Iraq led to congressional hearings, military court-martials, and
outrage around the world. Even my own photos of peace marchers walking across
the USA for global nuclear disarmament were helpful to convince media outfits
to report on the 9-month-long protest—something several editors had previously
told me they were not interested in covering (Elliman 1986). Photographs have
contributed to the starting and ending of wars, to sending people to jail, inspiring
political dissent, and even like Cupid’s arrows, rousing people to fall in love. The
photograph is said to be worth a thousand words because it transports us vicari-
ously to experience a frozen moment in time; it permits us to see and feel the world
beyond our touch and allows us to express our innermost feelings without speaking
a single word.
“Photographs have a swifter and more succinct impact than words, an impact that
is instantaneous, visceral, and intense. They share the power of images in general,
which have always played havoc with the human mind and heart, and they have the
added force of evident accuracy,” writes Goldberg (1991, p.€7). This assumption of
accuracy combines with positivist notions about a single objective reality that leads
many to consider photographs to be indisputable proof; they are permitted as evi-
dence in a court of law and used by scientists to record data. Barthes (1981) states,
“From a phenomenological viewpoint, in the Photograph, the power of authentica-
tion exceeds the power of representation” (p.€89). For people around the world, the
photograph is a document that conveys truth and preserves history.
While photography can be an important instrument to record reality and docu-
ment our present and past, it is also a device that can mislead and be misused. By as
early as the 1850s, Louis Agassiz and other eugenicists were using photography to
justify their theories about the racial inferiority of non-Europeans. Banta and Hin-
sley (1986) report that in the 1930s, similar racist ideas were promoted by Harvard
University anthropologist Earnest A. Hooton, who claimed that his photographs
of human skulls “furnished the ultimate proof of the validity of our morphological
types” (p.€65). These days, the vast number of photographs in mainstream media
that glamorize whiteness and marginalize people of color continue the legacy of
racial misrepresentation. The rampant use of Photoshop and digital manipulation on
practically all advertising and magazine covers contributes to the popular ideals of
beauty as Eurocentric, artificially skinny, and unattainable (Jhally 2010).
Sontag (1990) asserts, “Although there is a sense in which the camera does in-
deed capture reality, not just interpret it, photographs are as much an interpretation
of the world as paintings and drawings are” (pp.€6–7). Photographs, no matter how
realistic they look, are always a subjective representation, shaped by the photogra-
pher’s choices of who and what to photograph, as well as the context of how, when,
where, and why to take the picture (Cappello & Hollingsworth 2008; Share 2003).
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 99

The content that ends up inside the frame of any photograph is never neutral be-
cause it has been chosen and constructed by a subjective human being. While pho-
tography often seems to be objective and is given great storytelling authority, it is
still just a human tool subject to all the limitations and frailties of any other gizmo.
It is this power of credibility that is given to photography that makes the camera an
especially important tool to use and critique.

Everyone Today Is a Photographer

For many years, this amazing tool has been primarily in the hands of photojour-
nalists, visual artists, and photobuffs; yet now, with the popularity of tiny cam-
eras embedded in computers, tablets, and cell phones, it seems that everyone is a
photographer. New web 2.0 applications and smaller–faster hardware are making
photography so common that millions of people are creating, sharing, and viewing
photographs daily. Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, Imgur, Flickr, and Pinterest are
popular social media that capitalize on photography’s powers and the technological
ease of sharing images globally. According to a survey of adult Internet users by the
Pew Research Center’s Internet Project, “Photos and videos have become an inte-
gral part of the online social experience…more than half of internet users post or
share photos or videos online” (Duggan 2013). A Pew survey of teenagers, 12–17,
found 78↜% of teens have cell phones, and about half of those are smartphones
(Madden et€al. 2013). One survey of youth in Massachusetts reports the percentages
of students with cell phones as: 18–20↜% of third graders, 25–26↜% of fourth grad-
ers, 39↜% of fifth graders, and 83–84↜% of middle schoolers (Englander 2011, p.€3).
The popularity of taking and sharing photographs has also spawned new words,
such as snaparazzi, snapaholic, screenshot, photoshop, webcam, livecam, photo-
bombing, and selfie. The handheld self-portrait known as a “selfie” has become so
popular that even the Pope has a selfie posted online (Alexander 2013) and come-
dian Ellen DeGeneres broke records for the most retweeted selfie at the 2014 Oscars
(Gerick 2014). Today, almost everyone and every place has a camera, so we are all
being photographed numerous times throughout the day by security cams, traffic
enforcement cameras, satellites, and people we never suspect. Photography is no
longer just an expensive hobby or profession requiring costly cameras, lenses, film,
developing, and printing. The camera is not just the instrument of experts; it is now
one of the most popular tools and toys of millions.
Today’s educators can benefit from digital cameras that cost less than a trip to
the movies or cell phones with cameras that most students walk into the classroom
with and are often forbidden to use. Once you have a digital camera, everything
else is basically free; you can take as many pictures as you want. For educators, this
makes photography an option for the classroom that even most financially strapped
schools can afford. The costs are no longer prohibitive and the level of complexity
has been simplified, making most cameras very user-friendly. In the not-so-distant
past, photographers needed specialized skills to read a light meter, factor the sen-
sitivity of the film, change aperture settings, adjust shutter speeds, and maintain
100 J. Share

reciprocity. They also needed to understand depth of field and be able to focus the
lens with the speed and accuracy to assure that their images would look clear while
also framing and composing the foreground and background. And once they did all
this, they then had to choose the decisive moment (Cartier-Bresson 1952) for when
to push the button and take the picture that they would not be able to see until after
the film was developed and the negatives or slides were printed. What a change—
now even our cell phones can adjust for the lighting, focus for clarity, capture the
image, and show us the results in seconds. However, since the technical skills for
taking a picture are no longer needed, that does not mean that people do not need to
understand the visual literacy skills for critically reading and creating images. Part
of the requirement for being literate in the twenty-first century is being able to read
and write images, sounds, multimedia, and numerous other “multiliteracies” (New
London Group 1996).
It is the unique power of photography and the new ease of use, low cost, and
accessibility that has made the camera a practical tool for education to teach with
and about. Wendy Ewald has been working for years with children and cameras,
and argues about the potential of connecting art with education through photogra-
phy. Ewald (2012) explains that “certain formal elements of photography such as
framing, point of view, timing, the use of symbols, and observation of details…
have parallels in writing” (p.€2). Since the 1960s, Eliot Wigginton and the folks at
Foxfire have been taking cameras outside the classroom to document their Appa-
lachian community and create their own publications that became New York Times
best sellers (Wigginton 1991). Cameras in journalism or photography classes are
not new, but cameras in elementary schools and secondary school science, math,
history, English as a second language (ESL), and English classrooms are far more
rare. As the technology changes and more students enter the classroom with cell
phones that can record still and moving images, schools have new opportunities to
integrate photography into instruction as never before (Kolb 2008; Schiller & Tillett
2004; Cappello 2011). These new opportunities also require educators to embrace
different ways of teaching, making learning more student-centered, project-based,
collaborative, multimodal, and critical. Cappello and Hollingsworth (2008) state,
“photography is best used where there is an understanding that reality is perceived
or constructed” (p.€444). When educators integrate media education with photogra-
phy, they gain a framework to help their students think critically about the camera.

Critical Media Literacy

Media education has evolved from cultural studies and is defined less as a specific
body of knowledge or set of skills, and more as a framework of conceptual un-
derstandings (Buckingham 2003). While many media literacy organizations have
their own list of essential ideas (Canada’s Ontario Ministry of Education’s (2009)
Eight Key Concepts, British Film Institute’s Signpost Questions, Center for Media
Literacy’s Five Core Concepts and Key Questions, National Association for Me-
dia Literacy Education’s (2014) Six Core Principles, and the Action Coalition for
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 101

Media Education’s (2015) Seven Basic Principles/Questions), most share a handful

of basic commonalities:
1.)>> Recognition of the construction of media and communication as a social process
as opposed to accepting texts as isolated neutral or transparent conveyors of
information.
2.)>> Some type of textual analysis that explores the languages, genres, codes, and
conventions of the text.
3.)>> An exploration of the role audiences play in negotiating meanings.
4.)>> Problematizing the process of representation to uncover and engage issues of
ideology, power, and pleasure.
5.)>> Examination of the production and institutions that motivate and structure the
media industries as corporate profit-seeking businesses (Kellner and Share 2007).
These elements of media education can provide a useful theoretical framework to
support teachers as they guide their students to analyze and create media. In the
Teacher Education Program at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA),
we use a critical media literacy pedagogy that includes these five conceptual un-
derstandings along with feminist theory and critical pedagogy in order to critically
analyze relationships between media and audiences, information and power (Garcia
et€al. 2013). We use the list of five core concepts and key questions assembled by
the Center for Media Literacy because they simplify these abstract ideas into ac-
cessible language for teachers to use in the classroom. While it is important for
teachers to understand the concepts, most students only need to learn the questions
because the questions, with teacher guidance, should lead students on a path of in-
quiry where they will experience the concept:
1.)>> All media messages are “constructed.” Who created this message?
2.)>> Media messages are constructed using a creative language with its own rules.
What creative techniques are used to attract my attention?
3.)>> Different people experience the same media message differently. How might dif-
ferent people understand this message differently from me?
4.)>> Media have embedded values and points of view. What lifestyles, values, and
points of view are represented in, or omitted from, this message?
5.)>> Most media are organized to gain profit and/or power. Why is this message being
sent? (Center for Media Literacy 2015).
These concepts should guide educators and the questions support students as they
critically engage with media, technology, and popular culture. This is a theoretical
frame that teachers at Leo Politi Elementary School in Los Angeles used for Project
SMARTArt, a 3-year federal grant integrating arts education with media literacy
(Quesada 2005; Share 2009). When this framework is combined with photography,
much potential for learning can emerge, even with the very young. Schiller and Til-
lett (2004) report on their experience using cameras with kindergartners:
Digital photography provided young children with the opportunity to present their views
“about things that matter” in a medium taken seriously by adults and older children, as
demonstrated by positive responses from older students at the school and the enthusiastic
comments from the Kindergarten parents about the “professional” look of the children’s
photographs. (p.€413)
102 J. Share

Elementary School

For 7 years, I taught in an elementary school classroom and used digital cameras
with my students to document, investigate, and express their ideas. The camera was
a magical instrument that motivated and educated in ways I had not seen before.
My fourth graders and kindergartners were transformed from passive recipients of
information into active photographers and/or subjects of their own pictures, co-
constructing knowledge and representing their ideas. My English language learn-
ers (ELLs) created their own flash cards by photographing each other in action to
learn adjectives (synonyms and antonyms), irregular verbs, and prepositions. These
students can be challenged by the many aspects of English that they need to learn
explicitly, aspects that native speakers acquire from hearing and using English re-
peatedly all around them (Krashen 1992). Not continually surrounded by English,
ELLs face considerable difficulty learning irregular verbs, nominalizations, prepo-
sitions, and the vast number of new adjectives and adverbs (Gibbons 2009). It can
be overwhelming to learn a second language while simultaneously trying to learn
the content of different subject matter. Writing from over 30 years of experience
teaching elementary school, Pat Barrett Dragan (2008) explains that for ELLs, pho-
tography “gives them a feeling of power and control over a piece of equipment,
and that helps compensate for the lack of control they may feel over not yet speak-
ing English. Photography gives my ELLs an additional language—another way for
them to convey who they are and show what they know” (p.€41). Britsch (2010)
reports that while there is little research available on using photography with young
ELLs, it is important to recognize that “Language does not develop as an isolated
mode of communication. Its relationship with visual imagery is primal” (p.€171). It
was with my ELLs that I began to recognize the pedagogical power of photography.
My students used cameras to document their learning and record our fieldtrips.
However, it was not until they started to use the camera to construct meanings of
the words and ideas they were learning, that I saw the incredible potential that pho-
tography offered for so many other academic goals.
In my fourth-grade classroom in Pico Union, a largely Central American com-
munity in downtown Los Angeles, we began by illustrating our vocabulary words.
First, I had students take pictures that showed words they encountered in their text-
books. The activity began with a class discussion about the meaning of the word and
the different ways we could show it in a single image. The student photographer had
to tell her/his classmates where and how to pose in order for the picture to commu-
nicate the intended meaning of the word. We analyzed photographs from newspa-
pers and magazines and brainstormed a list of techniques that photographers use to
convey feelings and ideas, such as camera angles, composition, and lighting. After
a couple weeks, the students were so enthusiastic about taking pictures that they be-
gan bringing their own words into the classroom. This sparked an activity in which
whoever brought in a new word would get to choose to take the picture illustrating
that word or be in the picture. Because of the enthusiasm, we spent 5–10€min every
morning illustrating vocabulary words and generating a massive collection of new
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 103

Fig. 1 ╇ This pocket-sized

booklet of adjectives and
synonyms is illustrated with
photographs of and by fourth-
grade students acting out
their vocabulary words

words. I imported the digital images into a PowerPoint file that became a synonym/
antonym flash card game. Students wrote sentences or stories to accompany their
photographs and then printed PowerPoint handouts that we folded into pocket-sized
books for each student. Some of the PowerPoint handouts were printed on colored
paper, laminated, and cut up into popular trading cards. These personalized vocabu-
lary cards and booklets were a huge hit with students and their families, as well as
powerful student-made teaching materials to increase their vocabulary and literacy
skills (Fig.€1).
My kindergarten ELLs were struggling with English prepositions, so as a whole
class, we collaboratively took pictures to illustrate words such as: in, on, under,
over, next to, etc. For each picture, we discussed how to best show the meaning of
the word. One student would use the camera and all the other students would help
her/him compose the picture to best communicate the word they were learning.
Once we had the image, we would gather around a computer and through a guided
writing activity, the whole class contributed to writing sentences about the word and
photograph. As the students saw themselves in the pictures and wrestled with how
to frame and show the word visually, the learning was meaningful and intrinsic.
Even the students who were struggling with phonics were able to read these words
because they had been actively involved in co-constructing the meanings of each
word. The learning was amazing, test scores increased, students were using much
more vocabulary words than previously, and they were becoming not only print
literate but also media literate (Share 2009).
Jennifer Pineda (2014), a first year teacher working in an inner-city classroom
documented the benefits she encountered using photography to improve her first
graders’ writing. Before introducing photography to her class, her students were
struggling with writing, finding it difficult and boring. When she told them that
they would be taking pictures, Pineda states, “Cheers filled the room!” Pineda let
her students use an iPad to take pictures of anything they wanted. She explains that
104 J. Share

the students did not need any help taking pictures and they loved the process. Their
photographs became the motivation for their writing and each student wrote stories
based on the photographs they took or brought in from home.
Pineda encouraged her students to work together to take pictures, discuss their
photos, and then write about them. By orienting students to each other, the children
were able to help each other take the pictures and talk through their writing. Pineda
reports, “My students were gaining a clearer understanding of how to show a story
with their writing versus simply telling.” An unexpected outcome was the discovery
that the photography process was also building community. Pineda writes, “Stu-
dents would explain to one another why they needed to take pictures with each other
and this always connected to how great their friendships were.”
The best writing emerging from Pineda’s students came from those who were
writing about family photographs they brought from home. Pineda explains, “It
was these students who were writing the most detailed stories. It seemed as though
these students had strong connections with the pictures they were using because
they had a vivid memory of the experiences they had in the moment the picture was
taken.” This was a powerful way to motivate the writing process and also validate
students’ funds of knowledge as they took pride in sharing about their lives beyond
the classroom (Moll 1998).
Taking pictures involved more than just making writing fun and motivating.
Pineda states, “The process of using pictures that they took on their own made the
story behind every picture important. They were truly engaged in their writing be-
cause every picture they took and used for their writing held a different experience
in it.” In other elementary classrooms in which teachers gave cameras to students
to use as part of the writing process, Cappello and Hollingsworth (2008) found “the
photographs were both process and product. Photographs and the photo-graphic
process provided the stimulus for writing, extended the meaning of the original
texts (drafts), and encouraged complex thinking” (p.€448). These authors suggest
that “[t]ransmediation, the process of interpreting meaning from one sign system to
another is central to understanding the possibilities of photography in classrooms”
(p.€444). When students move between different communication systems, be they
oral language, print literacy, or visual imagery, they must invent connections be-
tween the different sign systems, something that enlarges and expands the meaning.
The photographs did not replace print literacy—they enhanced the multiple literacy
processes.
Pineda asserts, “The most beneficial part of this process was seeing how stu-
dents’ confidence grew and how their interest in a subject changed in such a short
period of time.” Similar conclusions were reached by researchers who gave kin-
dergarten and first-grade students access to a camera to create photo journals. In a
�student-centered approach to technology integration, Ching, Wang, Shih, and Kedem
(2006) had students take turns using a digital camera in their classroom to photo-
graph anything they wanted. The researchers noted that while technology in class-
rooms is mostly used by teachers, when the students are given a camera, this can
change the classroom dynamics and increase student access and empowerment. Ch-
ing et€al. (2006) report that when students became photographers, “they had more
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 105

leeway to deviate from their normal activities to roam around the learning environ-
ment and document various aspects of it” (p.€359). They explain:
The students were able to appropriate digital photography and use it as a means to shift from
their usual roles as restricted participants in worlds where others make the rules (Carere
1987), and engage in sophisticated negotiations with their fellow students as photographic
subjects and within the norms of classroom behavior. (p.€366)

Teacher Education
Now, as I teach the critical media literacy class in the teacher education program at
the University of California, Los Angeles, I help student teachers recognize the ped-
agogical power of photography for them to use with their K–12 students in urban
schools. Our preservice teachers use cameras to explore their communities, to find
mathematics and science in the real world around them, to reflect on their personal
identities, to express their feelings and thoughts, to create visual representations
of vocabulary words, to tell stories, to convince others about issues, to challenge
dominant ideologies, to play games, and to make art. We explore different ways
they can use digital cameras with their K–12 students and many of them implement
the ideas right away.
In the critical media literacy class, the first activity students do with photography
is to create a visual poster about a peer. For this assignment, students have to visu-
ally represent their partner without ever showing the person’s face or name. They
interview their colleague for just 5€min and then create a poster about her/him using
any visual imagery they choose, photographs (of anything but the person’s face),
drawings, logos, etc. This is our first opportunity to begin the conversation about
visual communication and what it feels like to be represented visually as well as
how it feels to represent somebody else only with images. For some, this is chal-
lenging, as they try to visually generalize qualities of their subject while also trying
to avoid stereotypes. This leads to discussions about media literacy core concept #4
( media have embedded values and points of view) and the ways images in media
often stereotype groups of people.
While we explore many aspects of visual literacy, we concentrate significantly
on photography and its unique qualities. We discuss ideas about why the camera
has the power to send a person to jail, something that drawings or other visual
representations rarely can do since they are seldom allowed into a court of law as
evidence. Why do people give photographs such power and believe almost anything
they see? Is it the fact that photographs are created using machinery and science? Is
it simply that a photograph looks so real that common sense convinces us to believe
what we see? Whatever the reason, photographs have taken an authoritative, seldom
questioned, role in society. We explore how this power has been used for posi-
tive and negative purposes this past century as photographs have influenced laws,
changed public discourse, and even contributed to saving lives (Goldberg 1991).
Understanding this theoretical base helps educators and students recognize the po-
tential photographs have to influence us and affect others. As students become more
106 J. Share

�
critical readers of images and better creators of photographs, the potential increases
for them to use the camera as a tool to read and write their world (Freire & Macedo
1987).

Techniques of Photography
Students can address media literacy core concept #2 ( media messages are
�constructed using a creative language with its own rules) as they build a list of
techniques of photography through comparing different photographs of the same
person. They analyze two cover photographs of Arnold Schwarzenegger and name
the adjectives they feel when they look at the pictures (Fig.€2). This lesson can be
found in a booklet of 25 lesson plans that was written for the Center for Media
Literacy, lessons 2A and 2B on basic visual language (Share et€al. 2005). After the
students list their various adjectives for each picture, we discuss why they chose
different words to describe how they feel about the same person. This leads us
to talk about how the photographs were constructed differently, connecting with
the first core concept of media literacy ( all media messages are constructed). The
students then generate a list of “techniques of photography” that derives from their
prior knowledge, with minor guidance from the instructor. The students co-con-
struct their knowledge through working together to solve a problem. Their task is to
name all the things they see that are different between the two covers and explain
what the photographer did to create such different photographs of the same person.

Fig. 2 ╇ These two magazine covers of Arnold Schwarzenegger are shown to students for them to
compare and contrast the similarities and differences of the photographs and visual design
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 107

This visual literacy activity meets many of the Common Core State Standards as
students compare and contrast what they see in the photographs and explain their
understandings about how the photographers took the pictures. At this point, we
try to avoid discussing what they think or feel (connotations) about the pictures
and subject matter so we can focus just on what the photographers did to create the
photographs. Some of the common visual literacy techniques that students mention
are use of background color, body language, facial expression, wardrobe, camera
angle, lighting, and composition. When we analyze the effects that these techniques
have on positioning the viewer, we discuss the ways images and symbols connote
different ideas.
There are many aspects of visual literacy that we acquire through growing up in a
visual culture, but seldom are these elements made explicit. Messaris (1994) asserts
that learning about visual conventions is important because “it gives the viewer a
foundation for a heightened conscious appreciation of artistry” and “it is a prerequi-
site for the ability to see through the manipulative uses and ideological implications
of visual images” (p.€165). It is often not until the techniques of visual literacy are
taught explicitly and given names and examples that we gain the power to use them
and see through their effects upon us as visual spectators. As students provide ideas
for the list of photographic techniques, we chart their responses on a paper that can
be kept posted in the classroom and often added to throughout the course. This is
constructivist pedagogy (Vygotsky 1978) in which their ideas become resources for
them to use as they are constructing their own photographs.
The university students, just like the elementary school children, use these tech-
niques to create their own Good Photo/Bad Photo posters in which they take dif-
ferent pictures of one student. They apply the techniques of photography that they
just listed in order to make that same person look fabulous in one picture and aw-
ful in the other. The elementary school students display those images side by side
to demonstrate their understanding of visual literacy and provide the impetus for
writing activities about metamorphosis or character development. One class also
used these techniques to create two issues of the school newspaper. They created
one serious issue with the standard portraits of the principal and cafeteria manager,
then a second April Fools edition with scary pictures of the principal and cafeteria
manager (Fig.€ 3). This activity helped the students understand that the “typical”
school pictures with even lighting and eyelevel camera angles are just as much a
subjective construction as the scary pictures in which they used extreme lighting
and low camera angles.
Soon after the police killing of Michael Brown, an unarmed African American
teenager in Ferguson, Missouri, hundreds of African Americans used Twitter to
pose the question: If they gunned me down, which picture would the media choose?
Using the hashtag #IfTheyGunnedMeDown, they tweeted pairs of pictures of them-
selves, usually one in which they looked more “socially acceptable” by mainstream
media standards and another in which they looked less “respectable” to the domi-
nant media gaze (Vega 2014). This is a powerful example of how the new genera-
tion is combining photography and social media to protest and challenge hegemony.
108 J. Share

Fig. 3 ╇ Third-grade students at an elementary school in downtown Los Angeles engaged in a simi-
lar activity as the Good Photo/Bad Photo Assignment, when they created very different photo-
graphs of their cafeteria manager and principal

While photos are an intricate part of popular culture, analyzing and creating
photographs are seldom part of traditional public education. However, there are
countless ways photography can be brought into the classroom to make teaching
and learning more engaging and meaningful. A first step all teachers should do is
send home two letters for the parents or guardians to sign, one requesting permis-
sion to photograph and use images of their children and the second to allow stu-
dents to use the Internet by signing the school’s acceptable use policy. These two
letters give teachers the legal rights to use photography in the classroom and allow
their students to look at images online. An example of these letters can be found at
the website for the Los Angeles Unified School District (http://notebook.lausd.net/
portal/page?_pageid=33,136640&_dad=ptl&_ schema↜=↜PTL_EP). Additional free
online resources to support teachers include: the International Center of Photog-
raphy’s comprehensive Focus on Photography: A Curriculum Guide (Way 2006),
the Exchange’s Out of the Box Early Childhood training kit, Empowering Images:
Using Photography as a Medium to Develop Visual Literacy (Duncan 2007), and
Powerful Voices for Kids’ Interpreting and Creating Photos (n.d.).
Another use of visual images is for students to create wanted posters, visual
representations of subject matter they are learning. This assignment is an opportu-
nity to demonstrate content matter understandings, to use images to teach various
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 109

subjects as well as learn basic computer skills for combining images with words
and exploring visual designs. In the critical media literacy class, the wanted post-
ers become class projects, and like any good project-based learning, the process of
creating the product is where most of the learning occurs. It is important that teach-
ers recognize the value of the process, so they do not fall into the common trap of
overvaluing the final product at the expense of the creation process. The task also
serves as an introduction to basic technology skills such as: inserting an image into
a Word document, using Word Art for a title, including a border, and adding text
boxes—a description and a warning. The assignment requires teachers and students
to think about visual literacy and consider typography (type of font, color, size),
photography, illustration, composition, and design (core concept #2: media mes-
sages are constructed using a creative language with its own rules). In order for
students to transmediate (Cappello & Hollingsworth 2008) the information they are
learning into visual language, they need to synthesize the ideas into a single image,
title, and brief text that will describe it and warn the reader about it.
The assignment also provides an opportunity for student teachers to create post-
ers to use as examples for their own students to see visual alternatives for demon-
strating learning and reframing the discourse about whose story is seen and heard in
the classroom. A social studies student teacher created a wanted poster of Gabriela
Silang, an indigenous woman in the Philippines who led her people in armed resis-
tance against colonial domination. When teachers and students have the opportu-
nity to produce their own representations, they enact the power to determine whose
stories are told and how. This wanted poster assignment is one of the most common
assignments from the teacher education course that is taken directly into the student
teaching classroom where elementary and secondary students create their own post-
ers. One eighth-grade English teacher changes this assignment into the “wanted/
hero poster” so her students can decide if their poster should reflect something
negative that a character is wanted for or something positive and heroic to celebrate.
By taking selfies, students can create wanted/hero posters about themselves.
As teachers and students recognize the power of visual representations, we prob-
lematize the process to reflect on negative media portrayals they find of themselves.
Students use Voicethread.com, an online social media site, to create their Through
Others’ Eyes assignment that involves posting an image representing a visual por-
trayal of an aspect of their identity that they have seen maligned in the media. They
post the image and comment about how this representation negatively presents an
aspect of their identity. Voicethread provides the opportunity for students to see
and hear each other’s reflection as well as add their comments to their peer’s post-
ing. In addition to providing experience with more sophisticated technology than
the simple manipulation of images and text in the wanted poster, this assignment
requires students to critically analyze media representations and push back at the
messages that saturate the world around them. In doing so, students have critiqued
the portrayal of body image, immigration, domestic violence, alcoholism, and re-
ligion, as well as the intersections of racism, sexism, classism, and homophobia.
These critiques help students explore the influence of visual images and the deep
connection that media can have with power and identity, especially when represen-
tations are negative.
110 J. Share

Analyzing photographs and visual images is important and seldom part of tra-
ditional public education. There are countless ways photographs and visual images
can be brought into the classroom to make teaching and learning far more engag-
ing and meaningful. While observing Becky Padilla, a new student teacher, I was
impressed to see her taking a strategy she learned in a mathematics methods course
(Serra 2003) and applying it to teaching language arts to her third graders. Although
most teachers introduce new vocabulary by giving the words and definitions for
students to memorize, Padilla turned this common activity into a more constructive
and engaging lesson. She projected four photographs on the wall and put a vocabu-
lary word above them. Padilla instructed the students to find the one picture that is
not like the others. She explained that three of the photographs are related to the
word and one is not. Students were told to think on their own first, then pair up with
a partner to talk about their ideas, and finally to share their views with the whole
class. She projected four numbered boxes and placed a picture into each box, which
allowed the students to simply refer to the number of the picture they wanted to
mention. Padilla had the students explain how they interpreted the pictures and why
they were or were not related to the word at the top. By describing their similar and
different interpretations, students were also learning media literacy core concept #3
( different people experience the same media message differently).
The students were fully engaged in the activity and demonstrated enthusiasm
seldom seen when teachers introduce new vocabulary. This problem-posing use
of images for students to collaboratively construct the meanings of new vocabu-
lary words scaffolded the activity in a way that supported students to work at their
zone of proximal development (Vygotsky 1978). Mercer (2007) refers to this use
of language for thinking together as “interthinking,” something that enables people
working collaboratively “to achieve something greater than any of them ever could
alone” (p.€3). This activity was a wonderful way of using images for students to
construct knowledge. A next step could involve students taking their own pictures
to illustrate the vocabulary words.

Shooting Back
One of the best ways to teach students to critically analyze any media is through
having them make media. When students are actively creating their own photo-
graphs, the learning process becomes more academic and empowering. �Mohammed
�Choudhury was a middle school teacher in downtown Los Angeles who had his stu-
dents use cameras to learn media literacy, social studies, and ESL. His students be-
gan by analyzing the way mainstream media portrayed their neighborhood, some-
thing that also led to discussion about media literacy core concept #5 ( media are
organized to gain profit and/or power). As they noticed the patterns of negative im-
ages and articles about the inner city, they decided to do their own exploration and
went in search of the assets of their community. Students took walking fieldtrips to
explore their neighborhood and documented their findings with photographs and
interviews of the people and places they encountered. The interviews and photo-
graphs became primary source documents for their original research about their
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 111

community; something they were able to share with others to provide alternative
perspectives about life in the inner city (Choudhury & Share 2012). We did similar
activities with my fourth graders, exploring the neighborhood around our school
and photographing the people and things that sparked the students’ interest. In the
classroom, we used the pictures to map the community, write expository essays, and
publish student-made books. Photography became a regular part of our classroom,
with a different student working each week as the photography monitor, responsible
for documenting classroom activities.
The idea of using the camera as a tool to talk back and respond to dominant
media portrayals is something that has been utilized more often in nonprofit orga-
nizations and after-school programs than inside K–12 public schools. In the 1980s
and 1990s, photojournalist Jim Hubbard (1991) did powerful work putting cameras
into the hands of children who were homeless. He and other photographers taught
the inner-city youth and children living in homeless shelters, how to use cameras to
document their lives. Currently, in East Los Angeles, an after-school program called
Las Fotos Project teaches teenage girls to use cameras as phototherapy to build
self-confidence, as education to learn creative writing, and as advocacy for social
change. In southern Mexico, cameras have been finding their ways into the hands of
indigenous people as tools in their struggle for human rights. Carlota Duarte (1998)
led The Chiapas Photography Project in the 1990s, where they provided the photo-
graphic tools and resources for indigenous people to tell their own stories through
pictures. This is a significant change from history, in which Anglos used photogra-
phy to record indigenous people as objects of science, art, and entertainment.
Several organizations have been working internationally to do similar work.
Kids With Cameras (2014) is a nonprofit organization that was started in 2002 by
photographer Zana Briski based on her experiences teaching children to use camer-
as in brothels in Calcutta, India. PhotoVoice is another nonprofit organization based
in the United Kingdom with projects around the globe. Their mission statement
emphasizes the idea of empowering people to use cameras to shoot back: “Photo-
Voice’s mission is to build skills within disadvantaged and marginalised communi-
ties using innovative participatory photography and digital storytelling methods so
that they have the opportunity to represent themselves and create tools for advocacy
and communications to achieve positive social change” (PhotoVoice 2014).
The Indymedia movement is another example in which cameras are being used
by the people who for too long have been merely objects of photographs. The power
of photography to objectify people can be challenged when the camera is used to tell
different stories by the people who have traditionally been disempowered by tech-
nology. When the people who are often marginalized are the photographers, they
move from being objects to becoming subjects empowered to name and frame their
ways of seeing. Freire (2010) writes that science and technology have been long
used “to reduce men to the status of ‘things’” (p.€133). This objectification of people
through art and photography has been especially pernicious for people of color,
women, and the poor who have traditionally been represented as less than, othered,
exotic, or sexual objects to be looked upon (Berger 1977). Through Independent
Media Centers, videos and still photographs are being taken and shared around
the world by people with little economic or political power to bring �awareness to
112 J. Share

issues that are rarely covered in mainstream commercial and government media.
Photography can be a powerful tool for democratizing media representations, so
this power to move from being objects to becoming subjects is something teachers
and students should be learning how to use in their classrooms.

Connecting Academics to the World Beyond the Classroom

While photography may seem like a natural fit for teaching social studies or lan-
guage arts, it can also be an excellent tool for teaching mathematics and science.
Students can become mathematicians and scientists, armed with cameras to explore
their school and community for places where they can find mathematics and sci-
ence concepts in the real world (Neumann-Hinds 2007). This is an activity that can
be used with any age for almost any concept. I have had kindergartners search their
school with cameras to photograph and name the different shapes they could find
in the objects on the playground. A similar project was done with ELLs to photo-
graph real-world examples of shapes that they had been learning in the classroom
(Thompson & Williams 2009). Older elementary school students can use photo-
graphs of shapes to figure perimeter and area. Secondary school mathematics stu-
dents can hunt for slopes, parabolas, ratios, circle sectors, and functions. Motivation
increases and academics become more meaningful when students make connec-
tions between the world around them and the academic content they are learning
inside the classroom. The camera can be an ideal tool to bridge this gap between
students’ lives and academic concepts.
Orellana and Hernández (1999) report on a project in which they took first-grade
students on literacy walks around their neighborhood to explore and photograph
the environmental print. They write, “The print that surrounds children in urban
communities can provide an excellent source of literacy conversation and learn-
ing. By taking literacy walks with children in their community, teachers can learn
much about children’s everyday literacy and their worlds” (p.€612). Orellana and
Hernández found the photographs the children took on their walks helped connect
their home lives with school and also “prompted children to reveal rich experiential
knowledge” (p.€617).
In a language acquisition course for preservice elementary school teachers, stu-
dents took a similar literacy walk around the university in teams, using their cell
phones to photograph anything that interested them. After exploring for 30€min, the
students returned to the classroom and created products that combined their photos
with words. One team made homophone flash cards with photographs of a statue of
a bear and the bare ground, of stairs in a building, and two students as they stare
at each other. On another team, each person took numerous pictures, returned to
the class and selected one each, then displayed them on their cell phones and wrote
haikus to accompany the images (Fig.€4). A third team made a collage in PowerPoint
with their photos and wrote a poem to accompany them. While debriefing about the
activity, they commented about the power of having students become the creators of
their texts and how well the camera functions as fresh eyes to make the familiar new.
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 113

Fig. 4 ╇ This is the final product of a literacy walk in which preservice teachers used their cell
phones to explore the campus, photograph what they noticed, and then create a haiku poem

In the critical media literacy class, preservice mathematics and science teachers
use cameras to create mathematics trails and science trails. They work collabora-
tively to find and photograph concrete examples that demonstrate a mathematics or
science concept. They photograph it and then create questions for their students to
solve based on the photographs. One group of science teachers turned this into the
popular cell phone game 4 Pics 1 Word. They chose the word “photosynthesis” and
then took four pictures that represented key components necessary for photosynthe-
sis (Fig.€5). The lesson was engaging and academic, requiring students to demon-
strate their learning through the creation of a project using their surroundings and
photography. Another option could be for one group of students to create a treasure
hunt for other students to find the science or mathematics concepts that the students
photographed.
Britsch (2010) describes how creating photo trails can provide an opportunity
for ELLs to learn key vocabulary and syntactic patterns necessary for providing
directions and describing locations. She explains that English language develop-
ment occurs best when teachers plan strategic verbal interactions with the photog-
raphy assignment. “Verbal interactions will necessarily highlight the role of key
locational and temporal vocabulary in syntactic constructions such as PREPOSI-
TION↜+↜NOUN PHRASE (e.g., ‘toward the principal’s office’) or IMPERATIVE
VERB↜+↜ADVERBIAL (e.g., ‘Turn right.’)” (p.€175). One photo trail my preservice
teachers created included a photograph of a candy vending machine, with the ques-
tion: “Functions—for every x value, there is one and only one y value. How is a
vending machine like a function?” Another group took a picture of bicycle tires
and asked, “How many circle sectors exist on the bicycle? Find the area of each.”
114 J. Share

Fig. 5 ╇ Preservice science teachers created this game from their photo trail as they walked around
the campus photographing images to represent the scientific concept of photosynthesis

A photograph of cracks in the sidewalk generated the question, “How do cracks in

concrete form?” The picture of a streetlight elicited the following questions: “How
does this lamp work? How does electricity produce light in an incandescent bulb?
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 115

What happens when electricity passes through the filament? Is the filament under-
going a chemical reaction?” In all these examples, the camera was just one aspect
of an overall pedagogy that aims to make learning more inquiry based, interactive,
and student centered.
Applying these ideas during his student teaching, Alexander Dinh turned his
ninth-grade biology class into a critical media literacy inquiry. While studying DNA
and genetics, he asked his students, “Where do racial categorizations come from?”
To answer this question, his students split into inquiry teams to research and create
public service announcement (PSA) videos to explain their findings. Using their
cell phones to photograph and film, students unpacked the science about transcrip-
tion and DNA translation as well as discussed the way science has been misused to
promote racism. In one PSA, the students report:
The idea of genetics causing racism has constantly been twisted and turned in all sorts of
directions. Ninety-nine percent of our genes are similar to all around us. That one percent is
what makes us unique and apart from everyone else. Yet, society creates racism. Looks and
appearances, judging of one another, [telling] racial jokes, are what racism is and it needs
to be stopped. All must be informed about what genetics are to fully understand the concept
of racism. (Stop Racism 2013)

Photography can become a tool to democratize the classroom by empowering stu-

dents to question and explore their surroundings.

Challenges to Bringing Cameras into the Classroom

Any new endeavor has its challenges and the current atmosphere of scripted curricu-
la, pacing plans, and high-stakes testing is not helping promote creative educational
innovations. Schiller and Tillett (2004) report on a project in Australia involving
seven and 8-year-old students using digital cameras with a teacher who had very
little knowledge or experience with photography. For them, this project highlighted
“…the need for additional time to be spent on activities, the need for ‘just in time’ as-
sistance, the importance of team input and the crucial need for additional support for
the teacher” (Schiller & Tillett 2004, p.€411). The teacher was successful because she
reached out to other adults for support and even involved the students as co-learners
and co-teachers. Schiller and Tillett write, “…the children themselves contributed
to this ‘just in time’ assistance as they excelled in different areas…. Collaboration
between adults and between the children in assisting each other was an important
feature of this project” (p.€412). As with much of the new media and technology, the
rate of change is so fast that nobody is an expert in everything and we are all learners
in something. As more students are gaining access to cell phones, tablets, computers,
video games, and other information communication technologies, they are acquir-
ing skills that can be significant assets in the classroom. Using photography in the
classroom can become an opportunity for teachers to facilitate learning with students
in a process that can shift the power dynamics of the classroom to become more
democratic; from sage on the stage to guide on the side (King 1993).
116 J. Share

Conclusion
In the twenty-first century, the way we educate our youth must keep pace with the
realities they are experiencing in their home lives and in the world around them.
Photography and media are their tools of choice for engaging with others and ex-
pressing themselves. These are also the platforms that most commercial media are
using to sell products and disseminate messages. As educators, we have the respon-
sibility to prepare students to be able to critically analyze visual images as well as
printed texts. Visual literacy and critical media literacy skills are necessary today
for responsible citizens to be able to participate in a democracy. It is also one of the
expectations of the Common Core State Standards, which state that students need
to present information and demonstrate their learning with digital media and visual
displays. Students need to know how to use these tools to create their own alterna-
tive messages that can challenge injustices they find in the dominant discourse. The
type of literacy needed in the twenty-first century is far more visual, multimodal,
and complex than the print-based requirements for reading and writing in the last
century. The good news is that now the tools are cheaper and more user friendly
than ever. A powerful pedagogical tool has come of age and educators need to em-
brace photography for all its potential.

References
Action Coalition for Media Education. (2015). Understanding seven basic principles/questions to
ask of media. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from https://smartmediaeducation.files.wordpress.
com/2014/01/7principals_questions.pdf.
Alexander, H. (2013, August 31). Pope Francis and the first ‘Papal selfie’. The Telegraph . Retrieved
February 20, 2015 from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/the-pope/10277934/
Pope-Francis-and-the-first-Papal-selfie.html.
Banta, M., & Hinsley, C.M. (1986). From site to sight: Anthropology, photography, and the power
of imagery. Cambridge: Peabody Museum Press.
Barthes, R. (1981). Camera lucida: Reflections on photography. New York, Noonday Press
Berger, J. (1977). Ways of seeing. London: Penguin Books.
Britsch, S. (2010). Photo-booklets for English language learning: Incorporating visual commu-
nication into early childhood teacher preparation. Early Childhood Education Journal, 38(3),
171–177.
Buckingham, D. (2003). Media education: Literacy, learning and contemporary culture . Cam-
bridge: Polity Press.
Cappello, M. (2011). Photography for teacher preparation in literacy: Innovations in instruction.
Issues in Teacher Education, 20(1), 95–108.
Cappello, M., & Hollingsworth, S. (2008). Literacy inquiry and pedagogy through a photographic
lens. Language Arts, 85(6), 442–449.
Cartier-Bresson, H. (1952). The decisive moment. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Center for Media Literacy. (2015). CML’s five key questions and core concepts. Retrieved Febru-
ary 20, 2015 from http://www.medialit.org/reading-room/five-key-questions-form-foundation-
media-inquiry.
Ching, C. C., Wang, X. C., Shih, M. L., & Kedem, Y. (2006). Digital photography and journals in
a kindergarten-first-grade classroom: Toward meaningful technology integration in early child-
hood education. Early Education and Development, 17(3), 347–371.
Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential 117

Choudhury, M., & Share, J. (2012). Critical media literacy: A pedagogy for new literacies and
urban youth. Voices From the Middle, 19(4), 39–44.
Dragan, P. B. (2008). Kids, cameras, and the curriculum: Focusing on learning in the primary
grades. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Duarte, C. (1998). Camaristas: Fotógrafos Mayas de Chiapas. Mexico: CIESAS.
Duggan, M. (2013). Photo and video sharing grow online. Pew Research Center. http://www.
pewinternet.org/2013/10/28/photo-and-video-sharing-grow-online/.
Duncan, S. (2007). Empowering images: Using photography as a medium to develop visual lit-
eracy. Out of the Box Training. Redmond: Exchange Press. http://www.childcareexchange.
com/library_oob/4400218.pdf.
Elliman, D. M. (1986, October 27). Publisher’s letter. People Magazine 26 (7). http://www.people.
com/people/archive/article/0,,20094824,00.html.
Englander, E. K. (2011). Research findings: MARC 2011 survey grades 3–12. Bridgewater State
University, Massachusetts Aggression Ruction Center. http://cdn.theatlantic.com/static/mt/as-
sets/science/Research%20Findings_%20MARC%202011%20Survey%20Grades%203-12.pdf.
Ewald, W. (2012). Introduction. In Ewald, W., Hyde, K., & Lord, L. (Eds.), Literacy & justice
through photography: A classroom guide. New York: Teachers College Press.
Freire, P. (2010). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.
Freire, P., & Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the word and the world. Westport: Bergin &
Garvey.
Freund, G. (1980). Photography and society. Boston: David R. Godine. (Originally publish in
French in 1974).
Garcia, A., Seglem, R., & Share, J. (2013). Transforming teaching and learning through critical
media literacy pedagogy. LEARNing Landscapes, 6(2), 109–124.
Gerick, B. (2014, March 2). Oscars 2014: Ellen DeGeneres’ all-star selfie sets Twitter record for
most retweets. New York Daily News. http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/oscars/de-
generes-all-star-oscar-selfie-sets-twitter-record-article-1.1708566
Gibbons, P. (2009). English learners, academic literacy, and thinking: Learning in the challenge
zone. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Goldberg, V. (1991). The power of photography: How photographs changed our lives. New York:
Abbeville Press.
Hubbard, J. (1991). Shooting back: A photographic view of life by homeless children. San Fran-
cisco: Chronicle Books.
Jhally, S., In Kilbourne, J., Rabinovitz, D., & Media Education Foundation. (2010). Killing us
softly 4: Advertising’s image of women. Northampton: Media Education Foundation.
Kellner, D., & Share, J. (2007). Critical media literacy, democracy, and the reconstruction of
education . In D. Macedo & S. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Media literacy: A reader (pp.€3–23). New
York: Peter Lang.
Kids With Cameras (2014) Retrieved February 20, 2015 from http://www.kids-with-cameras.org/
home/
King, A. (1993). From sage on the stage to guide on the side. College Teaching, 41(1), 30–35.
Kolb, L. (2008). Toys to tools: Connecting student cell phones to education. Eugene: ISTE.
Krashen, S. (1992). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. Laredo: Laredo Publications.
Lacayo, R., & Russell, G. (1990). Eyewitness: 150 years of photojournalism. New York: Oxmoor
House, Inc.
Madden, M., Lenhart, A., Duggan, M., Cortesi, S., & Gasser, U. (2013). Teens and technology
2013. Pew Research Center. http://www.pewinternet.org/files/old-media/Files/Reports/2013/
PIP_TeensandTechnology2013.pdf.
Mercer, N. (2007). Words and minds: How we use language to think together. London: Routledge.
Messaris, P. (1994). Visual “literacy”: Image, mind, & reality. Boulder: Westview Press.
Ministry of Education. (1989). Media literacy: Intermediate and senior divisions, 1989. Ontario:
Ministry of Education.
Moll, L. C. (1998). Proceedings from twenty-first annual statewide conference for teachers of
linguistically and culturally diverse students: Funds of knowledge: A new approach to culture
in education. Illinois State: Board of Education.
118 J. Share

Monk, L. (1989). Photographs that changed the world . New York: Doubleday.
National Association for Media Literacy Education. (2014). Six core principles. http://namle.net/
publications/core-principles/.
Neumann-Hinds, C. (2007). Picture science: Using digital photography to teach young children.
St. Paul: Redleaf Press.
New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard
Educational Review, 66(1), 60–92.
Orellana, M. F. & Hernández, A. (1999). Talking the walk: Children reading urban environment
print. The Reading Teacher, 52(6), 612–614.
PhotoVoice. (2014). Mission statement. http://www.photovoice.org/about.
Pineda, J. (2014). The story behind the picture. (Unpublished Master’s Inquiry Project). Teacher
Education Program, University of California, Los Angeles.
Powerful Voices for Kids: Digital and Media Literacy Education. (n.€d.). Interpreting and creating
photos. http://powerfulvoicesforkids.com/ideas/interpreting-creating-photos.
Quesada, A. (2005). Project SMARTArt: A case study in elementary school media literacy and arts
education. http://www.medialit.org/sites/default/files/SmartArt_casestudy.pdf.
Schiller, J., & Tillett, B. (2004). Using digital images with young children: Challenges of integration.
Early Child Development and Care, 174(4), 401–414.
Serra, M. (2003). What’s wrong with this picture? Critical thinking exercises in geometry. Em-
eryville: Key Curriculum Press.
Share, J. (2003). The camera always lies. The Center for Media Literacy. http://www.medialit.org/
reading-room/camera-always-lies.
Share, J. (2009). Media literacy is elementary: Teaching youth to critically read and create media.
New York: Peter Lang Publishers.
Share, J., Jolls, T., & Thoman, E. (2005). Five key questions that can change the world: Classroom
activities for media literacy. Los Angeles: Center for Media Literacy.
Sontag, S. (1990). On photography. New York: Doubleday.
Stop Racism. (2013). Student made video in Alexander Dinh’s ninth grade biology class at the
Downtown Magnet High School, Los Angeles, CA.
Thompson, S.C., & Williams, K. (2009). Telling stories with photo essays: A guide for PreK-5
teachers. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.
Vega, T. (2014, August 12). Shooting spurs hashtag effort on stereotypes. The New York Times .
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/13/us/if-they-gunned-me-down-protest-on-twitter.html.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cam-
bridge: Harvard University Press.
Way, C. (2006). Focus on photography: A curriculum guide. New York: International Center of
Photography. http://www.icp.org/museum/education/teacher-resources.
Wigginton, E. (1991). Foxfire: 25 years: A celebration of our first quarter century. New York:
Anchor Books.

Jeff Share╇ worked for 10 years as a freelance photojournalist documenting situations of poverty
and social issues on three continents. After a decade of photojournalism, Jeff changed careers
and moved into education. He taught bilingual primary school in the Los Angeles Unified School
District for 6 years. During this time he earned his master’s degree researching the potential for
teaching students to think critically about media. Through combining his experiences in photo-
journalism with his passion for teaching, Jeff ventured deeper into the area of media literacy. For
a couple of years, he worked at the Center for Media Literacy as their regional coordinator for
training and later earned his PhD in the Graduate School of Education and Information Studies at
the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Jeff currently works as a faculty advisor for
UCLA’s Teacher Education Program and continues his research and practice focusing on the teach-
ing of critical media literacy in K–12 education. He has created a course in critical media literacy
that has become mandatory for all new teacher candidates at UCLA. In 2015, Peter Lang published
the second edition of his book, Media Literacy is Elementary: Teaching Students to Critically Read
and Create Media.
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World:
Visual Composition for Better Representation

Mary T. Christel

Abstract╇ The intention that motivates an online image’s creation might be ignored
by overwhelmed media consumers as images wash over them as they scroll through
Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, or Snapchat. Consumers of commercially and per-
sonally produced images tend to focus on how those images make them feel as
opposed to the narrative or reportorial information embedded in images. Since
both “experts” and “novices” create online images, discerning an imagemaker’s
level of expertise is difficult, if not impossible, to grasp due to lack of attribu-
tion, the availability of sophisticated online photo editing tools, and a steep learning
curve among many novice creators. To discourage merely skimming images and to
develop greater visual literacy, five principles of visual composition can be applied
to access and analyze the intended and unintended denotative and connotative mes-
sages embedded in personal or commercial images posted on various social media
platforms. Once those are understood, both novice and experienced image curators
and creators can expand their acumen analyzing existing images for their emotional
and narrative content. They could then produce effective images that include self-
ies, photograph-based narrative storyboards, and Vine videos to strengthen their
ability to share images that require more than a cursory skim and demonstrate an
understanding of digital citizenship in knowing not only what is worth posting but
also where it should be posted.

Introduction

Students live in an environment that increasingly privileges the image as the pre-
ferred medium of communication. The handwritten diary once kept under lock and
key has given way to the Facebook post combining words and images shared with
online “friends.” That in turn has been replaced by selfies and other candid pho-
tos followed on Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr, or Snapchat. Students also appropriate
�images to create comic and ironic memes or to post an image macro anonymously
on Whisper. The good news is that most students do not just act as curators of

M.€T.€Christel€()
Adlai E. Stevenson H.S. (emeritus), Wheeling, IL, USA
e-mail: Christel.mary@gmail.com
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 119
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_6
120 M. T. Christel

�
existing images that they appropriate and repost, they have become the creators of
images, which have the potential to reach audiences, large and small. According to
the Pew Research Center, “32↜% of [I]nternet users both create and curate online
content” (Brenner 2013). An earlier Pew study reported 64↜% of teens surveyed
shared pictures with others through social media and other platforms (Lenhart et€al.
2010). The bad news is those images can reach large audiences—sometimes inten-
tionally, other times not. Content posted on Facebook can typically reach 156–569
friends, and then fan out to 170 friends of friends as well as to the public at large
(Brenner 2013). Often novice image creators and social media posters are not fully
aware of the impact messages their images possess. Students have the technology
and access to online tools, but they may lack advanced levels of digital, media, vi-
sual literacies in order to access, analyze, interpret, evaluate, use, and create visual
messages with the acumen of expert creators. With K–12 curricula increasingly
rooted in acquisition of the twenty-first century literacy skills and a commitment to
foster digital citizenship, students could be equipped to create more effective im-
ages as well as understand how to share those images appropriately online.
This chapter presents a series of activities beginning with the analysis of fairly
traditional print media, the photograph, as a means to focus attention on the ele-
ments of effective visual composition, the heart of any image. Students explore how
emphasis and meaning changes based on how much a viewer is allowed to see by
assuming the role of a photo editor and cropping existing photographs they access
online. Since images have strong narrative properties, students also access images
at the PicLit website, where they create short prose narratives or poems to tease out
the meaning of a “found image.” Once students can identify the effective, commu-
nicative properties of a single image created by an expert or novice photographer,
those skills can be transferred to students producing their own images captured on
their smartphones and digital cameras to document a single moment in time (the
selfie), a sequence of still images (a digital narrative storyboard), and a 6-s moving
image (a Vine).
In addition to leading students through a series of experiences that access, ana-
lyze, interpret, evaluate, use, and create images (National Association of Media
Literacy Education, NAMLE 2014), a secondary focus promoting “digital citizen-
ship” is warranted. Just because one has the tools and a message to share in cyber-
space does not mean it belongs everywhere and should be accessible to everyone.
The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) addresses the im-
portance of digital citizenship in its standards for both teachers and their students.
Teachers “promote and model digital citizenship and responsibility” and as a result
their students come to “understand human, cultural, and societal issues related to
technology and practice legal and ethical behavior” (ISTE 2014). In order to meet
those standards, issues of digital citizenship must be melded with any analytical or
production-based activities. That focus is clearly embedded in the “evaluate” rung
of the scaffold, though linking the need to “evaluate” to a digital citizenship agenda
could be easily overlooked. “Evaluate” might simply imply the weighing the merits
of the communicative power and aesthetic appeal of any image, not its appropriate
or responsible placement in a social media platform. A comprehensive approach to
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 121

fostering digital, media, and visual literacies requires careful attention also to fos-
tering social responsibility online.

Considering Deeper “Ways of Seeing”

John Berger begins his seminal work Ways of Seeing (1977) with the observation:
“Seeing comes before words. The child looks and recognizes before it can speak”
(p.€ 7). John Medina (2014), a molecular biologist, agrees with Berger: “Babies
come with a variety of preloaded software devoted to visual processing” (p.€193).
A baby’s eye naturally follows movement as well as bright colors. Children’s abil-
ity to understand the world around them begins with their ability to react to visual
stimuli on an emotional level of liking or disliking what is directly observed. A baby
is not taught to react to what is seen. Because the process of learning to see and
understanding what is seen happens so automatically, there is no systematic train-
ing of an infant to “see” unless a child has some cognitive or visual impairment.
It is a skill generally taken for granted and not considered one that requires much
refinement, especially in comparison to how children are trained to read. According
to Medina’s research (2014), “brain sees words as lots of tiny pictures…, [so] read-
ing [text] creates a bottleneck in comprehension” (p.€192). That insight creates the
strongest argument to include visual literacy as part of a suite of literacies to form a
comprehensive curriculum in the digital age. Even though one may seem naturally
literate in a visual sense, visual literacy training is a powerful tool enabling an indi-
vidual to develop and refine certain “competencies… fundamental to normal human
learning” (John Debes 1969, as cited by International Visual Literacy Association
(IVLA) 2012).

Setting the Stage for Developing Twenty-First

Century Literacies

Integrating media and visual literacies initiatives into the K–12 English/Language
Arts curricula reaches back to the 1950s through the efforts of the National Council
of Teachers of English (NCTE 1996) and the National Telemedia Council (NTC).
In the 1980s, the advent of computer and video production technology entering the
classroom spurred these professional organizations to identify skills that moved be-
yond the traditional notions of reading and writing. NCTE and International Read-
ing Association (IRA) jointly published English/Language Arts standards in 1996,
and the very first standard privileged both media and visual literacy in a simple
statement: “Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts.” Half of the 12
NCTE/IRA standards set the stage for integrating learning experiences that develop
and refine visual and media literacy skills (VML) along with traditional reading
and writing competencies. The National Association for Media Literacy Education
122 M. T. Christel

(NAMLE) developed another set of standards to further articulate media literacy

competencies through a spectrum of skills that cultivate the ability to “access, ana-
lyze, evaluate and communicate information in a variety of forms, including print
and non-print messages” (NAMLE 2014). Clearly complementing the aims of me-
dia literacy, visual literacy calls for the development of “a set of abilities that en-
ables an individual to effectively find, interpret, evaluate, use, and create images
and visual media,” as defined by the Association of College and Research Libraries
(Hattwig et al. 2011). In 2005, NCTE adopted a “Position Statement on Multimodal
Literacies” to address expanded notions of critical emerging literacies in the com-
position process. The policy stated in part:
The use of multimodal literacies has expanded the ways we acquire information and under-
stand concepts. Ever since the days of illustrated books and maps texts have included visual
elements for the purpose of imparting information. The contemporary difference is the ease
with which we can combine words, images, sound, color, animation, video, and styles of
print in projects so that they are part of our everyday lives and, at least by our youngest
generation, often taken for granted.

By 2011, Common Core Standards were being developed in the USA by a con-
sortium of educators, administrators, and policy makers to create a more uniform
approach to curriculum development and measurable learning outcomes across the
nation. These standards recognize the importance of developing student VML com-
petencies in English/Language Arts curricula: CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RH.6-8.7 “Inte-
grate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos or maps) with
other information in print and digital texts” and CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.7
“Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including
visually and quantitatively, as well as in words” (Finley, Feb. 19, 2014). Song and
Turner (2010) remind educators when adapting curricula to these new standards
and policies that “[i]nstead of a single concept of literacy as the ability to read and
write (i.e., verbal literacy), we are now focusing on multiple literacies…” (p.€188).
All of these definitions and standards call for “digitally native” students to ex-
press themselves using available technology in a manner that demonstrates their
ability to understand and select the appropriate tools to communicate their ideas
as well as analyze and evaluate existing media messages. Though students easily
have access to technology at home and in the classroom, Susan E. Metros (2008)
noted when assessing her college students’ image production skills that “[t]hey do
not have the skills to understand how to decipher an image” as well as “lack a vo-
cabulary of vision to communicate nonverbally” in an effective manner. Ongoing
development of VML focused standards and their implementation laid the founda-
tion for students producing and sharing messages on a variety of digital platforms as
part of a standard curriculum across academic disciplines. As a result of these cur-
ricular shifts, students gradually would move from novice consumers, curators, and
creators to experts adept at using existing tools while anticipating rapidly emerging
tools and technology.
To fully integrate visual, media, and digital literacy education, educators need
to recognize that “[t]exts from mass media and popular culture may challenge and
disrupt the routines of the classroom, shifting authority and power relationships
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 123

between students and teachers” (Hobbs 2011, p.€21). That shift occurs as a result
of students’ greater knowledge and expertise in the realm of technology and online
culture than many of their teachers. For those teachers who feel like “digital dino-
saurs,” the task of focusing and implementing VML standards can be daunting. Es-
tablishing a scaffold to select and connect classroom experiences certainly is crucial
to help teachers wrestle with the role of VML in existing and emerging curricula,
and the definitions of media and visual literacies provided by NAMLE and ACRL
provide a useful framework. That framework involves students accessing/finding,
analyzing/interpreting, evaluating, using, and creating images in order to commu-
nicate a variety of messages embedded in a range of media products published in
both academic and personal contexts. The activities that follow can be integrated
into existing English/Language and Social Studies curricula and easily adapted to
grade and ability levels, so that students systematically acquire skills aimed at a
multimodal composition process that draw on multiple literacies.

Accessing, Analyzing, Using Images: Slowing Down

the Image-Skimming Process

Since images are so ubiquitous, human beings tend to skim visual information and
only linger for a closer reading of images that either provoke strong emotions or
cannot be understood easily. John Debes (1969), a VML pioneer, characterized a
visually literate person as able “to discriminate and interpret the visible actions,
objects, symbols, natural or man-made, that he encounters in his environment” (as
cited by IVLA 2014). “Discriminating” should be central to the “accessing” stage
of skimming and discovering images. Most images deliver messages on three lev-
els: to convey and provoke emotion, to deliver information, or to develop a narra-
tive. The undeniable, and perhaps primary, power of an image is how it makes the
viewer feel. The savvy viewer should be able to discriminate how an image plays
on the viewer’s emotions to stand out and stand apart from other images; therefore,
considering the emotional value of an image is crucial place to start analysis. Ac-
tivities that discourage merely skimming images promote A.W. Pailliotet’s (1997)
method of deep viewing, a “systematic process for analyzing, understanding, and
interacting with visual information” (p.€35). Pailliotet requires students to analyze
images on “three levels: literal observation [describe what is seen], interpretation
[including summarizing, hypothesizing, and connecting with personal experiences],
and evaluation/application [assigning importance and applying to new situations]”
(Flaum n.€d., p.€4).
To model the image-skimming process, a facilitator can create a slide show of
photographs culled from one of many online collections of photographs including
The Newseum’s online gallery of Pulitzer Prize photographs, The Lightbox feature
from Time Magazine online, or other online apps and websites. Reuters offers a wide
range of slide shows ideal for this activity at http://www.reuters.com/news/pictures,
notably a set of photographs posted daily and culled from the past 24 hours of news
and cultural events featuring images of people, places, and objects.
124 M. T. Christel

Once a set of images has been selected and organized as a slide show, students
should not be given any type of context for the images no matter if they document a
single event or various ones. The activity begins by scrolling through a dozen or so
images holding each for 10–15 s on the screen to create an “image skimming” expe-
rience and to model the literal observation level of deep viewing. After viewing all
the images in the set, students then describe the one image that stands out from the
rest and explain why that image makes a particularly strong impact on them, which
anticipates the interpretive level. On a second viewing, clearly moving into deep
viewing’s interpretive level, students then would consider each image individually
and respond to the following questions in writing:
•)>> What is your immediate response to the image?
•)>> How does it make you feel (focusing on connotative or emotive value)?
•)>> What does it make you think of (focusing on denotative—informational or re-
portorial value)?
•)>> What association or connection does this image have with images that you have
seen before?
•)>> What association or connection does this image have with any of your own per-
sonal experiences?
For this type of image scrutiny, Frank Baker (2014) suggests using the Photo Anal-
ysis Worksheet that can be found at the National Archives website (http://www.
archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/photo_analysis_worksheet.pdf) which
also encourages close reading and consideration rather than skimming of images
(p.€24).
Once students carefully have scrutinized a set of images and reflected on their
reaction to each, then they would discuss those reflections and compare their reac-
tions with classmates’ responses in order to determine if certain images have a simi-
lar resonance for different viewers, based on shared experiences or backgrounds.
This deep viewing activity could be extended to examining a set of iconic images
that have stood the test of time like raising the flag on Iwo Jima, JFK, Jr. saluting
his father’s casket, or the firemen raising the American flag at Ground Zero on 9/11.
The discussion of those images would center on what gives them their enduring ap-
peal: the emotions they produce, the historical event they document, and the explicit
or implicit narrative they reveal.
Students can move on to the application level of deep viewing by “applying what
was discovered to new situations” (Pailloitet 1997, p.€36) and experiment with se-
lecting an image to represent a breaking news event before any iconic photographs
are promoted and popularized by the mainstream media. Skimming daily or weekly
online photography digests like The Lightbox offers students the opportunity to se-
lect an image that both captures the viewer’s attention through its emotional appeals
and how it reveals something specific about the “who,” “what,” “where,” “when,”
or “why” of that breaking news event. By engaging in a photo-editing activity, stu-
dents experience how a complicated event can be represented to a single image that
may not reveal all the circumstances of that moment in time, even if that photograph
is worthy of a Pulitzer Prize.
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 125

Accessing, Analyzing, Using Images: Considering

What an Image’s Frame Contains

In “Capturing the Pulitzer Prize Photo: An Exercise in Photo Manipulation” (2007),

Belinha S. De Abreu challenged her middle school students to avoid skimming im-
ages that they encounter by merely “scrolling” through a gallery display of Pulitzer
Prize-winning photographs set up in her classroom (p.€7). She wanted her students
not only to consider the communicative power of an iconic image but also to take
into account how an image can be manipulated to increase its connotative or denota-
tive value. Her lesson plan acquaints students with non-digital means of manipulat-
ing photographs including air brushing and manual cropping that predate Photoshop
and other computer-based photo-retouching tools.
The lesson begins with an examination of the magazine covers of O.J. Simpson’s
mug shot that famously ran in Time and Newsweek in both June 17, 1994 issues to
demonstrate how the same picture creates either neutral or incendiary impact de-
pending on how that image has been manipulated. Both news magazines used the
same mug shot, but the cover photo editors at Time chose to manipulate the image
by darkening Simpson’s face, which resulted in many readers thinking that Simp-
son looking far more menacing and sinister in comparison to the original photo
or the Newsweek cover (Carmody 1994). Students then screen the video Is Seeing
Believing? How Can You Tell What’s Real? from the Media Matters series. That
program examines other examples of photo manipulation which have appeared in
newspapers and magazines across the country with journalists and media ethicists
providing commentary on the capacity of an image to tell “the truth” about any
given individual or event. A 6-min excerpt from this video and related lesson ideas
is available at the Media Clearinghouse website: http://www.frankwbaker.com/isb-
curriculum.htm.
The balance of the activity is devoted to students working with a news photo-
graph that they manually crop in order to change the emphasis and meaning of the
original image. Once students crop their photographs and display them in a class-
room gallery, De Abreu poses the following questions to the image “manipulators”:
•)>> How does the image’s message change when the photo is cropped? What is now
emphasized in the image?
•)>> Does image convey a positive or negative message based on the visual informa-
tion present?
•)>> What makes this image important or significant in its original form? How does
cropping the image change its importance or significance once some information
is eliminated?
•)>> Why would any photographer or editor choose to crop or eliminate information
from a particular photo? (2007, p.€11–12)
Selecting photos for this activity from Capture the Moment: The Pulitzer Prize
Photographs edited by Cyma Rubin and Eric Newton (Newseum 2000) and having
copies of the book in the classroom enable students to read the copy accompany-
ing each photo that places the image in its historical and cultural contexts as well
126 M. T. Christel

as reveals the photographer’s purpose in capturing that moment. That information

would enhance the students’ understanding of how their decisions in cropping and
manipulating an image change its meaning and impact.
The manipulation of Pulitzer Prize-winning photographs can be easily linked
to previous activities involving skimming photographs where students selected a
single image to represent a breaking news story. That image could undergo the
cropping process to determine how that image’s meaning and impact changes when
visual elements are excluded from the original frame. Students can revisit that
breaking news event by accessing further coverage online, paying attention to the
latest photographs and video selected to accompany news articles providing further
context of “who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” and “why.”
De Abreu’s activity has been used routinely with high school students and can
easily be implemented in its original form or adapted using other more sophisticated
manipulation photo tools like Photoshop to increase the activity’s level of rigor for
both high school and college students to promote the consideration of the veracity
of the photograph in the digital age as well as to examine the levels of meaning
embedded in an image based on the choices a photographer and a photo editor
make. This activity helps students consider how the eye and the brain can be trained
to “discriminate and interpret” images in a more meaningful way (IVLA 2012).
In order to refine a viewer’s ability to examine images with greater virtuosity, a
simple system of analyzing visual composition can be developed using five basic
principles of visual composition.

Analyzing, Interpreting, Evaluating Images by Developing

a “Practiced Eye”: Five Principles of Visual Composition

Lacking a comprehensive dictionary of symbols used in visual communication,

Anne Bamford (2003) advocates familiarizing students with the “syntax of an im-
age,” which should include “graphic composition… (e.g., shapes, lines, [colors],
etc.)” as well as “camera placement, editing [for video images] and juxtaposition
and point of view (e.g., low angle will make someone appear more imposing)”
(p.€ 3). In their textbook Exploring the Film, Robert Stanley and William Kuhns
(1968) offer a basic system to examine still images that serves as a springboard
for analyzing motion pictures. They define five visual composition elements pres-
ent to some degree in every image: arrangement, placement, framing, lighting, and
color (p.€49). Individual images may emphasize one or several of those elements
depending on their intended message or effect. Despite the seeming ease of col-
lecting information through visual stimuli, what we see “is not 100 percent trust-
worthy” and the “process is extremely complex, seldom provid[ing] a completely
accurate representation of our world” (Medina 2014, p.€184). Bearing those points
in mind, training the eye, and therefore the brain, to more closely access, analyze,
and interpret the visual cues embedded deliberately or haphazardly in an image will
lead to better understanding and recall of the emotions provoked or the information
provided by that image.
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 127

Fig. 1 ╇ Orchids at window

photo by David Fisk

Every image presents a subject for the viewer’s consideration. Arrangement is

then the first visual-composition strategy a viewer should consider. An image pres-
ents a central person, object, or environment as its subject, and that image empha-
sizes the central subject’s importance in relationship to other elements in the frame.
Some images exploit a depth of field to incorporate subject elements in the fore-
ground, middle ground, and background providing a good deal of situational con-
text, while other images exclude much of that context in order to train the viewer’s
eyes on a concentrated and isolated amount of information. For example, in Fig.€1
the viewer is able to see an orchid plant positioned in the window of a garden apart-
ment. The orchids are obviously the featured “subject” of the shot since they reside
in the foreground. Despite the emphasis on the flowers, the viewer’s eyes travel to
the middle ground where the windowpane offers some visual interest due to the
horizontal lines created by the safety frame placed in front of the glass. Then, the
viewer’s eyes move to the background that reveals a hazy street scene beyond the
window. Now the cumulative effect of considering the content of the foreground,
middle ground, and background would invite speculation of the photographer’s in-
tention in capturing the orchids that way. Is it the casual documentation of a house-
plant? Is the image attempting to make a statement about a fragile aspect of nature
that is confined (the presence of safety frame in the window) by some human desire
to preserve or control it? The deliberateness of the arrangement invites some level
of speculation or interpretation of the image’s meaning. The photographer, David
Fisk, actually posted that image (as well as Fig.€2) on his Facebook Timeline (April

Fig. 2 ╇ Orchid in close-up

photo by David Fisk
128 M. T. Christel

21, 2014) to simply document a second blooming of these flowers and indirectly
boast a bit about his orchid cultivation skills.
Once the viewer considers how the subject is arranged, the placement of the
camera then becomes a significant factor in examining how much context is in-
cluded or excluded in a shot. Placement takes into consideration the distance of
the camera from the subject. The photographer places the camera in a particular
position to capture anything from a long shot that provides context to an extreme
close-up that excludes most, or all, of that context. The angle of the camera can add
to connotative value to an image. Obviously, a viewer is most comfortable with im-
ages captured at eye level, which puts the viewer on par with what is being viewed.
That eye-level relationship with the subject is certainly established in Fig.€1 which
feels “natural,” as if the viewer were standing in the room casually observing the
plant. In Fig.€2, an extreme close-up of one of the orchids, the flower takes on a far
more sinister or even abstract quality based on the intimate relationship between
the camera/viewer and its subject. If the photographer places the camera below its
subject, that position can make an image loom over the viewer. Conversely, when
the camera is positioned at a high angle above the subject, there is a diminishment
of what is being viewed.
Based on the tilt of the camera, a benign subject can assume an air of menace
depending upon the subtle or extreme nature of the angle. In Fig.€3 when the or-
chids are shot from a lower angle, they seem to overpower the viewer. The image
is less about the flowers’ captivity in comparison to Fig.€1 since the safety frame
is no longer a very pronounced element in the shot. The placement of the camera
in Fig.€3 yields new details not visible in Fig.€1. In the upper left corner, two paper
cranes are arranged near the ceiling and behind the orchids. The viewer probably
does not notice the cranes on an initial skim of the image. The purposeful arrange-

Fig. 3 ╇ Orchids from low-

angle photo by David Fisk
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 129

Fig. 4 ╇ Orchids from exterior

photo by David Fisk

Fig. 5 ╇ Orchids and daffodils

from exterior photo by David
Fisk

ment of the cranes captured by a shift in the angle and distance of the camera invites
an interpretation of the photographer’s intention by revealing that detail in a par-
ticularly subtle manner, or if the cranes unintentionally became part of a casually
photographed image.
Color and lighting help create a mood as well as provide emphasis to comple-
ment or contradict the meaning of the image established through subject arrange-
ment and camera placement. In Fig.€4, the camera reveals an exterior view of the
orchids, and those flowers are now arranged in the background of the shot rather
than in the foreground. Their vibrant lavender color contrasts the gray and cream
colors of the window frame and concrete sill as well as the green of the barely bud-
ded daffodils and other plants flanking the orchids inside the window. The orchids’
vibrancy makes those flowers the center of attention even though the orchids are not
arranged strictly in the center of the shot. Figure€5 reveals the daffodils in full bloom
in the foreground. The brilliant yellow flowers in the foreground bathed in strong
sunlight compete with the lavender orchids in the background muted by the more
diffused light from the interior. Since the orchids seem to be arching toward the sun
outside the window, their arrangement underscores emphasis the brighter color and
lighting provide to make the daffodils the central focus in that shot.
130 M. T. Christel

Fig. 6 ╇ Snow fence photo by

David Fisk

The orchid photographs do not yield dramatic examples of how lighting can
shape the content of an image. The strong sunlight in Fig.€6 casts a dramatic shadow
of a snow fence which undulates over the snow bank creating an engaging sense of
rhythm and visual interest in a mundane feature of a Chicago winter. The fence is
arranged in the upper edge of the image’s frame, so the shadow receives greater at-
tention based on its larger proportion in comparison to the actual fence as well as its
foreground arrangement. Size or proportion is one of the features of image compo-
sition that particularly captivates viewer attention (Medina 2014, p.€195). Figure€7
provides an example of how the backlighting from the waning winter sun makes the
enormous tree more imposing by casting in darker color against the various greys
and whites of the sky and clouds. The sunlight sinking down toward the platform
draws the viewer’s eyes to the commuters seated on the bench and etches them into
sharper focus at the bottom of the frame inviting consideration of something so
small in comparison to the visually dominant tree.
All shots exist in a frame. A camera lens can only captures so much information
in one snap. The nature of that frame provides the boundary which contains the
primary subject of image and excludes what exists beyond the camera’s field of
vision. Highly evocative images will invite the viewer not only to consider what
the frame contains but also to speculate on what exists outside of that frame. For
example, the paper cranes lurking in the upper left hand corner of Fig.€3 seem super-
fluous to the composition of shot unless the viewer considers what might be beyond
what the camera can capture at that distance and angle. Might there be more paper
cranes surrounding the orchids? What might be the connection between the flowers
and the birds being displayed so close together in front of that window? In Fig.€6,
what did the snow fence protect from the drifting snow? Many images also rely on
interior framing to emphasize certain subject elements through the use of vertical
and horizontal lines created by shadows, doorways, windows, and other geometric
elements in the subject’s environment. With the exception of Fig.€2, all the photos of
the orchids rely on the presence of the window frame and the safety bars to create an
interior frame to suggest a sense of containment or captivity whether the orchids are
viewed from the interior or the exterior. Doorways, archways, other architectural
features, and strong shadows can provide interior framing to guide the eye. The ac-
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 131

Fig. 7 ╇ Elevated train plat-

form and tree photo by David
Fisk

tual structure of the elevated train platform in Fig.€7 provides a compressed interior
frame that draws the viewer’s attention to the figures on that platform despite the
visual power of the tree and the sky behind it. Careful orchestration of interior fram-
ing can create additional points of focus and ways for the viewer to enter an image.
This system for basic visual-composition analysis establishes the foundation
for discussing and producing images in a media class at Adlai E. Stevenson High
School, Lincolnshire, Illinois. The focus on visual composition provides the skills
to deconstruct print advertising, photojournalism, and website content. This training
is part of a film study course’s introductory lesson on shot composition to provide
the foundation for students’ analysis of classic films as wells their own original,
short videos. In both courses, additional vocabulary is gradually layered into the
discussion of image composition to increase the sophistication of analysis. But
these five principles provide an efficient method for students to articulate how an
image constructs its meaning. In both classes, once students are introduced to the
five principles of visual composition, they are given the task of finding images
(news photographs, print ads, personal photographs) that illustrate each technique
and write an analysis of how that technique draws the viewer into the image to cre-
ate the image’s emotional impact, convey a specific piece of information or develop
a narrative that the image captures.

Interpreting, Using, Creating Images: Tapping into Stories

They Tell

To foster deeper student engagement with images and their analysis, students eas-
ily can use the PicLit website (http://www.piclits.com/compose_dragdrop.aspx),
which provides a treasure trove of preselected images to examine for visual com-
position, emotional appeal, and narrative potential. What exactly is a PicLit? The
PicLit website defines it as “a combination of words placed on a photograph to
capture the essence, story, and meaning of the picture.” PicLits essentially embed
text onto a photograph. Unlike a meme that can be created with preselected images
132 M. T. Christel

on a site like Meme Generator (http://memegenerator.net/), a PicLit image does

not necessarily beg sarcastic commentary or cheap laugh. The PicLit site does not
include images of celebrities or popular culture characters, and the site’s images
tend to have high-end aesthetic value. The website offers students the opportunity
to select an image of a person, place, or object on which students would place text
in one of two ways: through a “drag-n-drop” system that offers a range of words
to choose or “freestyle,” which allows typing in words or phrases without select-
ing from suggested list of words and phrases. PicLit images lend themselves to
writing captions, haikus, and micro-narratives like six-word stories. They create an
opportunity for students to deconstruct the original image’s composition using Pail-
loitet’s deep viewing protocol and the five principles of visual composition, while
moving on to how that image inspires a particular kind of complementary text. The
PicLits that students create can be saved to their accounts as well as shared with the
basic features of the site. The website also offers fee-based “premium features” that
include teacher accounts, photo uploading, editing tools, and classroom grouping
capability. Acquiring the upgraded version of this tool makes a good investment if
the website would be used in an ongoing, sustained fashion (Fig.€8 and 9).
After students have examined the emotional content and narrative potential of
the images found, they can proceed to creating new images to document their ex-
periences. In Lesson Plans for Developing Digital Literacies (2010), Louis Mazza
contributed a lesson to that collection entitled, “Stop. Shoot. Send: Using Phone
Cameras to Find Meaning and to Engage Students.” His approach begins with his
high school students accessing the SMITHTeens website to examine how six-word
stories work. Since Mazza published his lesson, the SMITHTeens site is now re-
branded as “SIXTeens” (sixwordmemoirs.com) to create a space dedicated to stu-
dents’ six-word memoirs and moving it off the Smith Magazine website which is
dedicated to a wider range of online storytelling forms. If students have experi-
mented with creating image macros at the PicLit website, going to the SIXTeens site
will provide them with an opportunity to reflect on and assess their PicLit micro-
narratives and haikus.

Fig. 8 ╇ PicLit sample. (Samples courtesy of PicLit Gallery)

Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 133

Fig. 9 ╇ PicLit sample. (Samples courtesy of PicLit Gallery)

To begin the lesson, Mazza’s students examine snapshots that he culls from the
Smithsonian Institution’s click! photography changes everything which is acces-
sible at http://click.si.edu/. Mazza (2010) asks his students to consider the assump-
tions viewers make about images, and he challenges the notion “that a photograph
is evidence of a factual event” (p.€35). Mazza (2010) wants to dispel the age-old no-
tion that seeing is believing in order “[t]o help students distinguish between ‘truth’
and ‘speculation’” that an image inspires in the viewer (p.€36). The heart of Mazza’s
lesson begins with students receiving a text message from their teacher when stu-
dents are at home, extracurricular activities, or work. That text message instructs
them to shoot a picture of what they are doing at that moment. Those images are
sent to a flickr.com account, a photograph storage and sharing site. They will later
become the subject of classmates’ six-word stories. Once students receive or select
a photograph placed at flickr.com, they will develop at least a six-word story in-
spired by a moment captured in a jpg file (cannot say “on film” any longer).
This lesson is designed to test the notion of how effectively a single image can
capture the essence, the true nature of a single moment in time. Like using the
PicLit website to combine language with image, here students explore how fully a
single image captures a specific moment in their life and be understood accurately
by viewers.

Analyzing and Creating Images: Before We Snapped

Selfies, We Posed for Family Photos

Most, if not all, families have a pictorial history documented in photographs and
video footage, and those images certainly have powerful and intriguing stories to
tell. Though many times the stories conveyed by those images have a shared history
but the retelling of those stories can be as varied as the participants in those events.
134 M. T. Christel

Louis Mazza (2007) developed another lesson, which tests the veracity and narra-
tive limits of a single image called “Snapshot Stories.”
Students bring prints of family photos or uploading digital copies into a photo
sharing account like flickr.com. As a warm-up activity, students examine some
teacher-culled sample snapshots to help them in their own family snapshot selec-
tion so each photograph contains sufficient narrative content. Once the class has
brought in some of their family snapshots, each student selects or receives another
classmate’s photo and develops a short narrative fleshing out what is “happening”
in that single image. Students are provided with the probing questions to flesh out
details regarding the characters, setting, and social context depicted in the snapshot:
•)>> What are your characters’ names?
•)>> Where are they?
•)>> What just happened or is about to happen?
•)>> What are they thinking?
•)>> What is their relationship to the other character in the pictures? (Mazza 2007,
p.€20)
When the stories are created, they are shared with the class as a whole with attention
to evaluating how the story connects with the content of the image and the veri-
similitude the imagined story creates in comparison to what “actually” happened
when the snapshot was taken.
The students who originally contributed their family snapshots can share the
“real” story as they recall or as they have been told, which can lead to a memoir
writing assignment, a staple of English/Language Arts curricula, now augmented
by visual content.
No longer are traditional snapshots of family and friends glutting Facebook, In-
stagram, or Snapchat. The selfie has arrived—a phone camera and an arm’s length
away! The explosive popularity of selfies now garners a good deal of examination
in popular culture of what those extreme close-up self-portraits capture and reveal
about their creators. Some adults, adolescents, and children embrace whole-heart-
edly the ability to share themselves in close-up and document moments important
and superfluous to share with their followers on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter.
In “Why Selfies Matter,” Alexandra Sifferlin (2013) points out that “[d]evelopmen-
tally, selfies make sense for children and teens. And for the most part, they are sim-
ply reflections of their self-exploration and nothing more.” Even though selfie pro-
duction and sharing may be viewed as normal or typical behavior, what constitutes
appropriate selfie images and occasions to share them yield teachable moments in
the classroom. Appropriate for older students, Tim Stock (2014) has created a com-
prehensive 52-slide analysis of selfie culture aptly titled “Analyzing Selfies: culture
mapping the meaning and evolution of selfie shots” that deconstructs types of self-
ies, examines contexts for sharing, and explores personal and cultural implications
of these messages. “Don’t Hate the Selfies” from iPad ArtRoom provides other
examples of selfies that could be shared with middle and high school students along
with probing questions that address why individuals create these self-portraits. A
sample of those questions to stimulate discussion and inquiry include:
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 135

•)>> What is the difference between taking a selfie to convey meaning, versus using
text and talking?
•)>> When are selfies interesting, intriguing? What makes you look at or share some-
one else’s selfie?
•)>> How could a selfie be used to create change?
•)>> Is a selfie about you, the viewer, both…?
•)>> Are selfies an attempt to change how others see you?
•)>> Is the proliferation of selfies online affecting the way we interact with each other
and/or our relationships?
•)>> What affect does the “public” nature of selfies and sharing have on the image and
our perception of it? (iPad ArtRoom 2013)
The iPad Art Room page “Don’t Hate the Selfies” links to the article and slide show
cited here as well as other provocative pieces on the nature and impact of this social
media phenomenon.
If selfies are certainly easy to shoot and post to a variety of social media, is there
an artistic potential for the selfie? In the fall of 2013, the Moving Image Contem-
porary Art Fair featured an installation called “The National #Selfie Portrait Gal-
lery.” Those selfies actually take the form of micro-videos, similar to a Vine video.
Examples from that installation have been archived by Time’s Lightbox feature at
http://lightbox.time.com/2013/10/16/off-your-phone-and-on-view-the-national-
selfie-portrait-gallery/#3 (Reznick 2013). To continue an examination of the selfie
phenomenon, students first would skim, then scrutinize images culled from that
exhibit and archived at Lightbox. As students look more carefully at each image,
they would consider which images fall into the category of “typical selfie” and why
that image is included in this collection. Then, students might appreciate how selfies
could have a visually richer, more artistic approach to capturing its human subject.
To stimulate a more personal discussion among students who shoot and share
selfies on a regular basis, it is easy to set up a classroom gallery of classmates’
selfies. In preparation for creating the classroom gallery, students would bring a
hard copy of several classroom appropriate selfies shot at different times repre-
senting different circumstances or contexts. Some students may have to create a
set of selfies if they have not yet succumbed to this practice. Prior to displaying
the self-portrait in the classroom, each student would write about the occasion
surrounding when that image was shot, where it was posted (and possibly not
posted), and what kind of response was elicited by the image’s posting. For
students who do not have an existing backlog of selfies and created a set for the
assignment, they would write about why they consciously resisted or passively
ignored creating these self-portraits and comment on the process of creating
selfies.
After the initial selection process, the selfies would be prepared for display. Stu-
dents then would create mattes or frames that complement the mood, occasion, or
subject documented by the image. Digital copies of the selfies also can be loaded
into a slide show, but the gallery approach would be the preferred exhibition meth-
od, which puts sharing selfies in a very different viewing context from their usual
136 M. T. Christel

home on a social media platform. Once selfies are displayed on walls throughout
the classroom, students would circulate through the gallery paying close attention
to the images that gain the viewer’s attention and noting what makes an image
demand attention when it is exhibited with so many others. Students would then
select three to five selfies to examine in greater detail by responding to the follow-
ing questions:
•)>> How does the selfie “confront” the viewer? (“Confrontation” arises from the
subject looking directly at the camera and how authoritative or reticent the sub-
ject’s gaze at the viewer appears.)
•)>> How does the image invite the viewer to enter the image from a single point or
several different points? (Consider how the arrangement of the shot invites the
viewer to focus immediately and primarily on a particular element before scruti-
nizing other aspects of the shot.)
•)>> What kind of emotion does the selfie project? (Consider if the emotion is pri-
marily conveyed by the facial expression of the subject, the placement of the
camera—low versus high angle, or the surrounding environment.)
•)>> How much context does the selfie provide? How much information does that
context reveal about the circumstances that continue outside of the frame?
•)>> How does the selfie creator use any of the principles of visual composition
(arrangement, placement, framing, lighting, or color) to enhance the visual ap-
peal of the shot?
After scrutinizing the artistic and communicative potential of the selfie, perhaps
students will be “ready for their close-up” and produce ones that might be worthy
of including in an exhibit at the Moving Image Contemporary Art Fair.

Creating Images and Expanded Narratives:

Storyboards and Video Vines

Students who take Film Genres, a cinema history and aesthetics course, at Steven-
son High School in Lincolnshire, Illinois, create “12-shot storyboards” as part of an
introductory unit called “the grammar and syntax of film.” The storyboard relies on
12 still photographs to develop a simple story (see Fig.€10).
Twelve shots: no more or no less. Those 12 shots must depict the action in a
visually logical and coherent fashion. The images must demonstrate attention to
placement, arrangement, color, lighting, and framing. The idea for the sequence is
first submitted for teacher feedback and approval as a sketched storyboard with a
brief description of placement, arrangement, etc., below each thumbnail sketch. The
“pre-shooting” preparation helps students concentrate on the composition of each
shot. To ensure that sequences demonstrate thoughtful and creative control of the
camera, the parameters of the assignment can stipulate that there must be at least
three different angles and distances among the 12 shots. Without that clear state-
ment of expectations, less visually savvy students might favor eye-level medium
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 137

Fig. 10 ╇ Twelve-shot sample “Rumors” by Rachel Carter

shots throughout their sequence since that is a natural way of viewing an action.
And even though students have a planned storyboard for their 12 shots, they should
be encouraged to experiment a bit during the actual shoot to capture an element
with an angle or distance that was not part of the original plan. Once the 12 images
are finalized, students assemble them on a poster or in a slide show format adding
captions that include narration and dialogue to replace the descriptive captions they
used on the sketched storyboard. This activity helps students understand the poten-
tial and limitations of developing a simple narrative through the composition and
selection of still images.
138 M. T. Christel

Writing an analysis of the finished “12-shot storyboard,” is the final step in

the process. The assignment that the high school film students receive reads as
follows:
•)>> First explain why you chose the event or scenario you did to complete this as-
signment. Then go on to explain how you went about selecting the appropriate
props, actors, and locations.
•)>> Select two to three shots that you feel are the most successful in their execution.
Explain how the arrangement of the subject elements, camera placement, light-
ing, color, and framing, contribute to the success of those shots in developing
your narrative and setting the intended mood. Then discuss two to three shots
that are not as successful in realizing your plans and why they do not succeed in
fulfilling the planned, sketched image.
•)>> Finally evaluate the process itself. What were the problems that assignment
posed and how did you overcome those difficulties? Overall, how successful is
the 12-shot sequence in demonstrating control of the camera and creativity in
using a limited number of images to develop a narrative?
This written analysis is a crucial component helping students reflect on how their
intentions for the planned narrative are realized, the limits of their ability to use a
camera to construct effective images, and limitations of sequenced still images to
convey a narrative.
The written analysis can be easily adapted for students who are older or younger
than high school age. The entire process could be planned, executed, and evaluated
by a small group of students armed with a phone camera or an iPad who have the
limitation of using the classroom and adjacent spaces as their settings. The 12-shot
storyboard can be adapted as a live action video as the next logical step in telling
stories with images. This activity is certainly good preparation for making 6-s Vine
videos.
When assessing the range of social media options for sharing text and images,
Jenna Wortham (2014) points out, “Instagram is for your pictures and Twitter for
your thoughts…Vine is for your personality” (p.€ 3). Essentially, Vine videos are
selfies that move. This would be a natural progression from the appeal of static im-
age selfies, since viewers “pay special attention if [an] object is in motion” (Medina
2014, p.€195). Similar to the content of traditional selfies, novice Vine video cre-
ators turn to their own lives for inspiration and subject matter. Acquired by Twitter
2012, Vine burst onto the Internet in 2013 and “the video sharing app saw a 403↜%
growth” in the first three quarters of that year (Fox 2013). Internet surfers can find
6€ seconds of anything from a grandma’s wisdom to a 5-year-old dancing madly
around in her princess costume to the tune of Frozen’s “Let It Go.” Some Vine vid-
eos create a hypnotic loop of images and sounds as they repeat into infinity. Others
are just plain annoying. Vine videos are the visual equivalent of the six-word story
that students can develop for still images on the PicLit site. The advertising industry
latched on to Vine’s power and potential to remind consumers with dwindling at-
tention spans that a brand, product, or service will satisfy consumers’ desires and
make their lives better. Like anything that blows up online, a bit of thought and
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 139

self-training in the discipline of planning and shooting a micro-narrative video can

go a long way. Mashable offers a “Beginner’s Guide to Vine” at http://mashable.
com/2013/12/11/vine-beginners-guide/, which provides the steps necessary to set-
ting up a Vine account, shooting original footage, incorporating “stock” footage
from preexisting sources, adding sound and special effects as well as offering a
compilation of the best Vine videos and the best users to follow. Satirist and come-
dian, John Hodgman has posted a series of Vine videos to create an amusing primer
on how to make them, which is hosted at the GalleyCat site: www.mediabistro.com/
galleycat/ (Boog 2013).
Vine videos have an enormous potential for recreational self-expression. Refin-
ing the planning and execution of Vine videos in the classroom would have an enor-
mous benefit for students who would move from just posting selfies on social media
sites to expanding their repertoire with an occasional Vine video. In an academic
context, 6-s micro-videos would offer numerous opportunities to create a video
précis, which demonstrate a student’s understanding of a topic or concept. Though
a précis is, strictly speaking, a summary of a text or speech, in the arena of Vine vid-
eos distill a subject, an event, a person, or a character down to its essence and trans-
late those essential elements into images, words, and other sounds. When discussing
the power of Vine videos as a marketing tool for universities, James Knight (2013)
emphasizes the need to “break your message down to the bare bones.” The critical
thinking and composition skills necessary to complete that task have tremendous
transfer into other learning and communication contexts. Since some colleges are
accepting Vine videos as part of their admission protocols, high school students
could make a 6-s piece showcasing an aspect of their talents and interests to “show”
something in a powerful way that the standard written application can only “tell”
and perhaps not project that quality in a particularly powerful and memorable way.
Middle school students could create Vine videos at the end of the school year to
introduce themselves to next year’s teachers or to begin the year with a freshened
up take on that tired “what I did on my summer vacation” assignment with a Vine
video is assigned ahead of the opening of school. Since most students have access
to a smartphone or a point-and-shoot digital camera with video capability, it is not
an unrealistic expectation that they can at least shoot the “raw footage” during the
summer months and have that footage available for editing during those opening
days of school. The same assignment can be applied to summer reading, a staple
of all grade levels. Students could distill their understanding of a literary text in 6
seconds. Beginning the school year with a digital project helps to set the stage to
introduce or review the VML competencies students will acquire or refine during
that term as well as open up a discussion of digital citizenship.

Promoting and Fostering Digital Citizenship

Each of the activities presented in this chapter encourage students to consider shar-
ing visual and verbal messages using a variety of social media channels; therefore,
each classroom activity should focus on students assessing the value of sharing that
140 M. T. Christel

message to a narrowly or broadly articulated audience. Students need to develop

a set of digital citizenship competencies to support their emerging digital compe-
tencies. Mike Ribble (2012) articulates ISTE’s digital citizenship competencies at
the Digital Citizenship: Using Technology Appropriately website, which provides a
link to the nine themes related to responsible use of technology. Those themes are
best encapsulated in the acronym REP: “respect yourself/others,” “educate your-
self/connect with others,” and “protect yourself/others.” ISTE has created separate
sets of standards for teachers, administrators, coaches, and students. The set for
students includes a Digital Citizenship Standard that enumerates the following re-
sponsibilities:
a.)>> Advocate and practice safe, legal, responsible use of information and technology
b.)>> Exhibit a positive attitude toward using technology that supports collaboration,
learning, and productivity
c.)>> Demonstrate personal responsibility for lifelong learning
d.)>> Exhibit leadership for digital citizenship (2014, Student Standard 5)
These goals could certainly be emblazoned on a classroom poster, but in a stan-
dards-saturated classroom, students might not be motivated to internalize those ide-
als. In Digital Community, Digital Citizen, James B. Ohler (2010) suggests creating
mantras that express succinctly a school district’s or individual classroom’s edu-
cational technology philosophy. Ribble’s acronym “REP” would provide an ideal
candidate for a classroom mantra. Ohler (2010) offers two possible mantras he fa-
vors as models:
To use technology the way I use any of the tools I own, with respect and care, as well as
with interest and excitement.

To honor the power technology brings to my life by using it with the responsibility it
requires. (69)

Ohler (2010) admits that both of those statements do not fall easily off the tongue
as most effective mantras do, but these statements can be boiled down to “use tech-
nology effectively, creatively, and wisely” (70). Though it is not a real catch phrase
or t-shirt slogan, that mantra creates an easy tool to measure how and why a digital
message is created and then deployed, which can be at the heart of student’s as-
sessment of their academic and personal social media messages. Depending on the
age of the students, creating a clever catch phrase to distill a digital citizenship
mantra could be an engaging means to begin a discussion of what digital citizenship
encompasses. To foster greater ownership, students can condense ISTE’s Student
Standard 5 and Teacher Standard 4 into a classroom mantra that would follow their
work through the academic year and hopefully for a lifetime.
Any and every classroom can provide an ideal environment to explore system-
atically the aims and demands of digital citizenship. Responsible behavior can be
modeled through well-considered pedagogy, fostered through direct student experi-
ence, and transferred outside the classroom with a “full range of authentic texts that
[students will] use as part of their social and cultural lives” (Hobbs 2011, p.€21).
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 141

Looking Ahead: Impact on Curriculum Development

This chapter focused on visual literacy activities integrated into existing English/
Language Arts curricula, but the activities and the concepts informing them stretch
across the disciplines. Since English/Language Arts classrooms always have main-
tained the first lines of defense in cultivating traditional “reading” and “writing”
literacies, they seem to be the natural place once again for the twenty-first century
literacies to gain a foothold. The instructional tools which lead to developing visual
literacy: “(1) foundations, (2) visual cognition and perception, (3) visual design”
(Begoray 2001, Felten 2008 as accessed in Song and Turner 2010) combine natu-
rally with the composition, reading, and understanding written texts.
When technology and its social media applications enter the classroom, it is the
task of any teacher in every discipline to make what is largely invisible to students
visible (Ohler 2010, p.€70). Students are like fish that do not question the presence
of the water. It is just there, a part of their natural environment. Ohler suggests that
students become “de-tech-tives” which requires students to (1) investigate technol-
ogy and related tools, (2) analyze them to understand the capability of using spe-
cific tools, (3) evaluate and recommend which tools should be utilized and which
should be discarded (Ohler 2010, p.€ 72). Susan E. Metros (2008) observed that
students in her college freshman seminar “could not express themselves visually”
and “could not craft images” but “[t]hey could copy and mash up images from the
Web” (p.€103–104). Once students receive the necessary training and experience
in developing visual literacy skills, Metros advocates providing assignments that
require multimodal expression and are assessed using rubrics that value “a vari-
ety of project dimensions, including originality of concept, aesthetics, presentation,
professionalism, sources, and accessibility” (p.€107).
In 2014, Common Core Standards have been the driving force in curriculum
reform efforts across the academic disciplines in K–12 in the USA. Whether these
standards remain in place, evolve into the next generation of standard-based learn-
ing, or are discarded like the “No Child Left Behind” initiative, they have thrown a
powerful light on the purpose of an education in the twenty-first century to cultivate
“critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills that students will need to
be successful” and to be “prepared for today’s entry level, freshmen-level college
courses and workforce training programs” (Common Core State Standards Initia-
tive 2014). Common Core Standards strive to equip students for the world of work
in a complex digital environment when literacy must comprise a full complement
of skills that go well beyond traditional notions of text-based reading and writing.
VML is essential in a digital environment to create and convey information that is
more highly designed and graphic than ever before; therefore, as education does not
leave the acquisition of reading and writing skills to chance or “catch as catch can”
the same thinking needs to apply to VML that may start in the English/Language
Arts classroom but they must fan out and across the other disciplines much the same
way the reading and writing across the curriculum has taken root.
142 M. T. Christel

Glossary

Flickr)>> https://www.flickr.com
This app allows user to store, organize, and share photos.
Instagramç’•
http://instagram.com
This app enables user to modify, post, and share photos to Facebook,
Twitter, and Tumblr.
Memeç’•
memegenerator.net
The Meme Generator makes images available that are altered by the
user, then reposted on Facebook, Twitter, and other social media out-
lets. These image macros (text laid over image to comic effect) tend
to “go viral” and spread quickly in a variety of altered versions.
Snapchat)>> https://www.snapchat.com
This photo-messaging tool allows transmission of photos, videos, or
drawings that are only available to the recipient for a limited amount
of time before it is deleted from the recipient’s device as well as from
Snapchat’s server.
Tumblrç’•
https://www.tumblr.com
This app allows user to post photos, links, music, videos, and text that
can be organized by a particular theme’s HTML.
Twitterç’•
https://twitter.com
Twitter allows registered users to compose, share, and read 140 char-
acter messages or tweets. Unregistered users are limited to reading
messages.
Vineç’•
https://vine.co
Users create and post 6-s videos to this social network site.
Whisperç’•
http://whisper.sh/
This free app allows users to send messages anonymously usually in
the form of an image macro as well as receive replies to their mes-
sages shared anonymously. Responders can choose to post publicly or
privately.

Recommended Resources

Baker, F. (n.d.). Resources for teaching visual literacy as it applies to news & journalism. Media
Clearinghouse. http://www.frankwbaker.com/isbcurriculum.htm. Accessed 11 May 2014.
Barrett, T. (2000). Criticizing photographs: An introduction to understanding images (3rd ed.).
Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Barrett, T. (2003). Interpreting art: Reflecting, wondering and responding. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 143

Brown, E. B., Gordon, Z., Quinn, K., Staking, K., Stewart, N., & Zabriskie, C. H. (2012). Visual
literacy toolbox: learning to read images. http://www.humanities.umd.edu/vislit/. Accessed 22
April 2014.
Callow, J. (Ed.). (1999). Image matters: Visual texts in the classroom. Newtown: Primary English
Teaching Association.
Carr, N. (2010). What the Internet is doing to our brains . New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
Faigley, L., George, D., Palchik, A., & Selfe, C. (Eds.). (2004). Picturing texts. New York: W. W.
Norton & Co.
Holster, A. (2013, June 13). 3 ways to use Vine. Te@chThought. http://www.teachthought.com/
technology/3-ways-to-use-vine-in-the-project-based-learning-classroom/. Accessed 8 May
2014.
Kist, W. (2005). New literacies in action: Teaching and learning in multiple media. New York:
Teachers College Press.
Krueger, E., & Christel, M. T. (2001). Seeing and believing: How to teach media literacy in the
English classroom. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Worsnop, C. M. (1999). Screening images: Ideas for media education (Second2nd ed.). Missis-
saugua: Wright Communications.

References

Baker, F. (2014). Infusing media literacy and critical media analysis into the classroom. In H. H.
Jacobs (Ed.). Mastering Media Literacy, (4) 28. Bloomington: Solution Tree Press.
Bamford, A. (2003). The visual literacy white paper. Stockley Park: Adobe Systems.
Begoray, D. (2001). Through a class darkly: Visual literacy in the classroom. Canadian Journal of
Education, 26(2), 201–217. doi:10.2307/1602201.
Berger, J. (1977). Ways of seeing. New York: Viking Press.
Boog, J. (2013). John Hodgman gives Twitter Vine lessons. Galleycat. http://www.mediabistro.
com/galleycat/john-hodgman-gives-twitter-vine-lessons_b66023. Accessed 8 May 2014.
Brenner, J. (2013). Instagram, Vine and the evolution of social media. Pew Research Center. http://
www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/06/20/instagram-vine-and-the-evolution-of-social-media/.
Accessed 8 May 2014.
Carmody, D. (1994). Time responds to criticism over Simpson cover. New York Times Archive.
http://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/25/us/time-responds-to-criticism-over-simpson-cover.html.
Accessed 15 May 2014.
Common Core State Standards Initiative. (2014). What every parent should know. http://www.
corestandards.org/.
De Abreu, B. S. (2007). Capturing the Pulitzer Prize photo: An exercise in photo manipulation.
M.T. Christel & S. Sullivan (Eds.), Lesson plans for creating media-rich classrooms (pp.€7–14).
Urbana: NCTE.
Debes, J. L. (1969). The loom of visual literacy—An overview. Retrieved from ERIC http://eric.
ed.gov/?id=EJ010321 on Feb 27 2016 (EJ010321).
Felten, P. (2008). Resource review—Visual literacy. Change—The Magazine of Higher Learning,
40(6), 60–64. doi:10.3200/CHNG.40.6.60–64.
Finley, T. (2014). Common Core in action: 10 visual literacy strategies. Edutopia. http://www.
edutopia.org/blog/ccia-10-visual-literacy-strategies-todd-finley. Accessed 15 May 2014.
Flaum, S. (n.d.). Fostering visual literacy in the X-Box generation. STEM White Paper. https://
www.mheonline.com/mhmymath/pdf/visual_literacy.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2014.
Fox, Z. (2013, October 21). The ten fastest growing apps this year. Mashable. http://mashable.
com/2013/10/21/fastest-growing-apps/. Accessed 8 May 2013.
144 M. T. Christel

Hattwig, D., Burgess, J., Bussert, K., & Medaille, A. (2011). ACRL visual literacy competency
standards for higher education. Association of College and Research Libraries. http://www.ala.
org/acrl/standards/visualliteracy. Accessed 22 April 2014.
Hobbs, R. (2007). Reading the media: Media literacy in high school English. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Hobbs, R. (2011). Digital and media literacy: Connecting culture and classroom. Thousand Oaks:
Corwin.
International Society for Technology in Education. (2014). ISTE Standards. http://www.iste.org/
STANDARDS.
International Visual Literacy Association. (2012). What is visual literacy? http://www.ivla.org/
drupal2/content/what-visual-literacy-0. Accessed 15 May 2014.
iPad ArtRoom. (2014). Don’t hate the selfie. iPad art room: 21st century teaching and learning in
visual art. http://www.ipadartroom.com/dont-hate-the-selfie/. Accessed 15 May 2014.
Kajder, S. (2010). Adolescents and digital literacies: Learning alongside our students. Urbana:
NCTE.
Knight, J. (2013). 4 ways higher education institutions can use Vine . In iag.me seriously so-
cial. http://iag.me/socialmedia/4-ways-higher-education-institutions-can-use-vine/. Accessed
8 May 2014.
Kuhns, W., & Stanley, R. (1968). Exploring the film. Fairfield: Cebco.
Lenhart, A., Ling, R., Campbell, S., & Purcell, K. (2010, April 20). Press release: Teens and mo-
bile phones . http://www.pewinternet.org/2010/04/20/teens-and-mobile-phones/. Accessed 12
May 2014.
Mazza, L. (2007). Snapshot stories. In M. T. Christel & S. Sullivan (Eds.). Lesson plans for creat-
ing media-rich classrooms (pp.€15–29). Urbana: NCTE.
Mazza, L. (2010). Stop. Shoot. Send: Using phone cameras to find meaning and to engage stu-
dents. In M. T. Christel & S. Sullivan (Eds.), Lesson plans for developing digital literacies
(pp.€32–37). Urbana: NCTE.
Medina, J. (2014). Brain rules: 12 principles for surviving and thriving at work, home and school
(2nd ed.). Seattle: Pear Press.
Metros, S. E. (2008). The educator’s roles in preparing visually literate learners. Theory into Prac-
tice, 47, 102–109.
National Association for Media Literacy Education. (2014). Basic definition. http://namle.net/pub-
lications/media-literacy-definitions/. Accessed 15 May 2014.
National Council of Teachers of English. (1996). NCTE/IRA Standards for the English Language
Arts . http://www.ncte.org/standards. Accessed 12 May 2014.
National Council of Teachers of English. (2005). NCTE position on multimodal literacies . http://
www.ncte.org/positions/statements/multimodalliteracies. Accessed 15 May 2014.
Ohler, J. B. (2010). Digital community, digital citizen. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.
Ohler, J. B. (2013). Digital storytelling in the classroom: New media pathways to literacy, learn-
ing, and creativity. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.
Pailliotet, A. W. (1997). Questing toward cohesion: Connecting advertisements and classroom
reading through visual literacy. In VisionQuest: Journeys Toward Visual Literacy Annual Con-
ference of the International Visual Literacy Association. Cheyenne, WY. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED408945).
Reznick, E. (2013, October 16). Off your phone and on view: The national #selfie portrait gallery.
Time/Lightbox. http://lightbox.time.com/2013/10/16/off-your-phone-and-on-view-the-nation-
al-selfie-portrait-gallery/#3. Accessed 20 April 2014.
Ribble, M. (2014). Digital citizenship: Using technology appropriately. http://www.digitalcitizen-
ship.net/. Accessed 13 May 2014.
Rubin, C., & Newton, E. (Eds.). (2000) Capture the moment: The Pulitzer prize photographs.
Arlington: Newseum.
Sifferlin, A. (2013, September 6). Why selfies matter. In Time Online. http://healthland.time.
com/2013/09/06/why-selfies-matter/#ixzz2jLufeA5S. Accessed 15 May 2014.
Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World 145

Song, K. H., & G. Y.Turner, G. Y. (2010), Visual literacy and its impact on teaching and learning.
In T. Yuzer & G. Kurubacak. (Eds.). T ransformative learning and online education: Aesthet-
ics, dimensions and concepts (pp.€185–200). Hershey: IGI Global.
Stock, T. (2014, January 19). Analyzing selfies. In Slide Share. http://www.slideshare.net/ scenari-
odna/analyzing-selfies. Accessed 15 May 2014.
Visual Literacy Standards Task Force (VLTF), Association of College and Research Libraries.
(2011). ACRL visual literacy competency standards for higher education. http://www.ala.org/
acrl/standards/visualliteracy. Accessed 15 May 2014.
Worsnop, C. M. (1999). Screening images: Ideas for media education (Second2nd ed.). Missis-
saugua: Wright Communications.
Wortham, J. (2014, May 4). Six seconds of loopy creativity, and millions of fans. New York Times, 4.

Google Drive Links to 12 Shot Projects

Canter, R. (2014). Rumors. https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1dUX4lRxlNnb2pxd0hTMmMwckU/

edit?usp=sharing. Accessed 15 May 2014.
Ishaan, S. (2014). The missed called. https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1dUX4lRxlNnUTdWcnRFU
mpkT1U/edit?usp=sharing. Accessed 15 May 2014.
Staten,↜J.↜(2014).↜Travelled↜Path.↜https://drive.google.com/a/d125.org/file/d/0B1dUX4lRxlNn
Z1NGeHpfV25TTGM/edit?usp=sharing. Accessed 15 May 2014.

Mary T. Christel╇ taught world literature as well as media and film studies at Adlai E. Stevenson
High School from 1979 to 2012. She has published several books examining on media literacy’s
role in English/Language Arts curricula, including Seeing and Believing: How to Teach Media Lit-
eracy in the English Classroom (Heinemann 2001) with Ellen Krueger as well as coediting Lesson
Plans for Creating Media-Rich Classrooms and Lesson Plans for Developing Digital Literacies
(NCTE 2007, 2010) with Scott Sullivan. Mary has been recognized by the Midwest Chapter of
the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences with a special award for promoting media
literacy education. She has also served on various committees and boards focusing on the integra-
tion of media literacy into English/Language Arts curricula including for the National Council
of Teachers of English, the National Telemedia Council, and the National Board of Professional
Teaching Standards. Currently, Mary is a regular contributor to the teacher handbooks and the
related website for the Chicago Shakespeare Theater focusing on film, television, and other media
adaptations of Shakespeare’s plays.
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education:
From Consumers to Producers

Jill Ewing Flynn and William Lewis

Abstract╇ In the twenty-first century, visual texts are vital to learning in English
language arts (ELA). As English educators, we know the importance of telling and
sharing stories in various formats in order to build community as well as facilitate
deep understanding of the concepts we teach. In our methods courses for under-
graduates, two of our course projects help students think creatively and reflectively
about themselves as ELA teachers, particularly in this time of changing demands,
standards, and high-stakes testing. Further, these projects also help to expand stu-
dents’ understanding of visual and digital ELA content and promote their devel-
opment as sophisticated consumers of these texts. However, the projects also
encourage students to be producers of digital content and to better understand the
affordances of multimodal composition. We ask students to use digital tools such
as iMovie, Windows Movie Maker, and VoiceThread to achieve our goals. In this
chapter, we share the multimodal assignments we use and student project examples.
While we teach in a university setting, we discuss adaptations to these projects that
make them applicable to learners in other contexts.

Introduction

At the University of Delaware, we recently surveyed students from groups under-

represented in teacher education to understand what might prevent them from enter-
ing the profession (Flynn et al. 2014). When asked why they were not interested in
teaching, 47↜% of the responses from non-teacher education majors indicated they
had a negative view of the profession, with approximately 4↜% of the respondents
reporting that they believed teaching to be “boring” or “doing the same thing day
after day.” While the reality of most teachers’ experiences is vastly different from
this perception, unfortunately teaching, teachers, and texts are often viewed as re-

J.€E.€Flynn€()
Department of English, University of Delaware, Newark, USA
e-mail: jeflynn@udel.edu
W.€Lewis
School of Education, University of Delaware, Newark, USA
e-mail: wlewis@udel.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 147
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_7
148 J. E. Flynn and W. Lewis

petitive, unchanging, and out of touch with a dynamic, connected, and technology-
driven world. Integrating multimodal texts into the classroom is one way to combat
this mistaken belief, by expanding students’ and teachers’ communicative palettes
and bridging the divide between literacy practices that are traditionally associated
with school and those that are used to communicate our ideas and desires outside
of classroom walls.
In the twenty-first century, visual texts are vital to learning English language
arts (ELA). The National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE)
cites among its core principles that “the concept of literacy” must be expanded
“to include all forms of media” (2007). Literacy experts point out that modern-day
literacies are more likely to take place on a computer screen than on a paper page
(Ranker 2007) and that in order to be successful, students must come to think of
themselves not only as readers of digital texts but also as creators and designers of
those texts (Dalton 2012). As the Association of College and Research Libraries
(ACRL) (2011) notes:
The importance of images and visual media in contemporary culture is changing what it
means to be literate in the 21st century. Today’s society is highly visual, and visual imagery
is no longer supplemental to other forms of information. New digital technologies have
made it possible for almost anyone to create and share visual media. Yet the pervasiveness
of images and visual media does not necessarily mean that individuals are able to critically
view, use, and produce visual content. Individuals must develop these essential skills in
order to engage capably in a visually-oriented society. Visual literacy empowers individuals
to participate fully in a visual culture.

It is not surprising, then, that the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) for ELA,
the academic standards adopted in 43 of the 50 states of the USA at the elementary,
middle, and high school levels, include a new focus on visual and digital texts. Us-
ing media to create and publish, utilizing technology to foster collaboration, evalu-
ating the effectiveness of different mediums, and integrating sources from diverse
formats to enhance understanding are all incorporated into the CCSS (see Writing
4.6, Reading Informational 8.7, Speaking and Listening 11–12.2, and Speaking and
Listening 11–12.5; National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and
the Council of Chief State School Officers 2010. These standards—and the de-
mands of our increasingly digital world—must impact teachers’ instructional deci-
sion making and our responsibilities as teacher educators. For students to acquire
the skills needed to engage in this digital world and share their stories and develop-
ing understandings with others, we need to include more explicit instruction in the
real-world literacies that are represented by these texts (Lewis et€al. 2013).
As English educators, we know the importance of telling and sharing stories in
various formats in order to build community as well as facilitate deep understanding
of the concepts we teach. In our methods’ courses for undergraduates, two of our
course projects help students think creatively and reflectively about themselves as
ELA teachers, particularly in this time of changing demands, standards, and high-
stakes testing. Further, these projects also help to expand students’ understanding
of visual and digital ELA content and promote their development as sophisticat-
ed consumers of these texts. However, the projects also encourage students to be
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education 149

producers of digital content and to better understand how “modes carry meaning”
(Dalton 2012). We ask students to use digital tools such as iMovie, Windows Movie
Maker, and VoiceThread to achieve our goals, building on other studies that have
demonstrated their effectiveness in both secondary and university settings. Re-
searchers have discussed how adolescents successfully use digital storytelling and
podcasting projects to build community, tell their own stories, and develop mul-
timodal proficiencies (Kadjer 2004; Wilson et€al. 2012). Others have shown how
both urban students’ and preservice teachers’ creation of digital texts fosters critical
media literacy (Morrell et€al. 2013; Garcia et€al. 2013). Teachers need real-world
examples of how they can encourage both the production and the consumption of
visual texts, so in this chapter, we share the multimodal assignments we use and
student project examples. While we teach in a university setting, we discuss adap-
tations to these projects that make them applicable to learners in middle and high
school classrooms.

The Metaphorical Construct in Young Adult Literature

Bill: The Metaphorical Construct as Alternative Assessment

I was introduced to the “metaphorical construct” when I was a relatively inexperi-

enced high school English teacher in the early 1990s, well before the technological
explosion we are currently experiencing. It was attractive to me as an alternative to
the reading quizzes, exams, and five-paragraph essays that I had primarily used to
assess student understanding of literary texts, because the strategy pushed students
to make creative connections with literature that traditional assessments suppressed.
Researchers and educators have complained that instructional practices in schools
often limit students’ capacity for making imaginative links, even though “the relent-
less drive of every human being to make connections is at the heart of the creative
process” (Weaver and Prince 1990, p.€379).
The metaphorical construct strategy is loosely based on the “synectics” work of
Gordon (1961) and Prince (1970), a method for group problem-solving and innova-
tion. Literally translated as “bringing together diverse elements,” synectics encour-
ages participants to make connections between seemingly irrelevant ideas in order
to generate new ideas and creatively solve group problems (Weaver and Prince
1990). When applied to literary texts, the strategy itself is quite simple and elegant
and represented in Fig.€1 below.
After reading a literary text, students identify an element of the text that they
believe is important to the overall meaning of the work. This component could be
the trajectory of a character’s development, the story’s setting, a repeated symbol, a
textual motif, or other important aspect. Next, students “bring together diverse ele-
ments” by searching for a physical or cultural object that is metaphorically related
to that text. Students deconstruct that item into its constituent parts, demonstrating
150 J. E. Flynn and W. Lewis

Students search Students

for a cultural or deconstruct the
Students read a text
physical object object into its Students share
and identify an
that is constituent parts, their metaphors
important element
metaphorically relating each of with their peers
or motif
related to the the parts to the
element or motif element or motif

Fig. 1 ╇ Metaphorical construct process

how they relate to important thematic or structural elements of the work or the
author’s development of characters. Students then present their creative extended
metaphor to their peers.
Take the following example in Table 1. This thoughtful metaphorical construct
was created by a high school junior in response to the novel Slaughterhouse-Five
by Kurt Vonnegut (1994). The student was fascinated with Vonnegut’s time-travel
motif in the novel and decided to compare that motif to a fast-food “value meal.”
In his sophisticated analogy, the main course became the main character’s tragic
experiences as a prisoner of war because of the central and destructive role his war
experience played in his life. His uninspired present became the junk food French
fries, and the refreshing beverage became the main character’s escape into a future
on the planet, Trafalmadore (Table€1).
As you can imagine, this student needed to think, search, and experiment before
committing to a suitable metaphorical construct that fully represented his under-
standing of this significant aspect of the novel. This experimentation is an impor-
tant element of the strategy that encourages a type of critical and creative thinking
that Weaver and Prince (1990) call “generative,” a process where critical thinking
guides “the mental pursuits of guesses, approximations, absurdities, hunches, feel-
ings and intuitions” (p.€381). At first sight, it is not obvious that a fast-food value
meal is a suitable analogue for the central motif of Slaughterhouse-Five. However,
through the student’s generative thinking process, he was able to build those cre-
ative and critical connections. As he deconstructed each of the elements of the meal
into its constituent parts—hamburger, fries, and beverage—he developed a deeper
understanding of the time-travel motif and a lasting and sophisticated understand-
ing of how this motif is related to the main theme of the book. Instead of reading
the text as merely a screwball dark comedy or a bawdy science fiction book, after
engaging in the strategy he was able to understand the book as a more subtle and
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education 151

Table 1 ╇ Metaphorical construct for Slaughterhouse-Five (Vonnegut 1994)

Slaughterhouse-Five’s time-travel motif↜=↜fast-food value meal
Part of the Part of the motif it is like
metaphor
The burger Billy Pilgrim’s experience
as a prisoner of war during
WWII (that he keeps time
traveling to)
French fries Billy Pilgrim’s present life
Large beverage Billy Pilgrim’s time travel
into the future as a prisoner
in Trafalmadore
Connection
…Because this is the “meat” of the book.
Kurt Vonnegut is arguing that war is brutal
and dehumanizing and permanently impacts
the lives of those who are involved. Billy’s
safe but quietly desperate present life, and
his escapes to Trafalmadore are caused by his
“meaty” wartime experiences
…Because Billy Pilgrim’s current life is “junk
food” just like fries. He is in a job that he
does not like, and in a marriage with a woman
whom he does not love
…Because like a cooling beverage after salty
fries, Billy Pilgrim’s imprisonment on a future
Trafalmadore is an escape from the pain of
war and the meaninglessness of his current
life

sophisticated statement about the psychological and emotional impact of war on

individuals and society.
It is important to understand that students did not produce sophisticated meta-
phorical constructs such as this when I first utilized this strategy. Students often
had difficulty committing to a single symbol, motif, or character that would be
suitable for this kind of deep exploration. Other times, students either had difficulty
choosing a suitable cultural object related to their novel or were challenged by the
task of breaking down that object into its analogically related parts. Therefore, as I
continued to develop this project, I needed to make some essential modifications to
focus students on important textual elements in the project, to provide practice in
analogical/metaphorical thinking, and to more effectively support the planning and
writing process.
The first modification was to simply introduce the metaphorical construct assign-
ment even before we began reading the novel. This not only provided students with
a more explicit purpose for their reading but also allowed me to review authors’ use
of symbols, motifs, and character growth, encouraging students to generate mul-
tiple examples of each from books they had already read in preparation for their
reading. The second modification was to add explicit instruction in constructing
extended metaphors. Students generated extended metaphors for abstract concepts
such as “love,” “schooling,” “disappointment,” etc., choosing physical objects to
which these concepts were related, breaking those objects into its parts, and relating
each of the parts to elements of the concept. Applying this practice to the novel, I
asked them to identify the most important element of key sections in their reading
logs and to generate a metaphor as a “pass out of class” summary strategy for that
day’s work. These metaphors would serve as discussion starters for the next day’s
152 J. E. Flynn and W. Lewis

class. The third important modification was to add a collaborative planning and
writing element to the project. My students had a great deal of difficulty generating
ideas for their analogy on their own. However, they were much more successful
when they worked with peers as they experimented with ideas. Research demon-
strates that collaborative approaches to composition lead to higher-quality products
(Graham and Perin 2007), and can serve to build relationships within the classroom
(Nolen 2007). Through collaboration and explicit practice with analogical thinking,
students were much more successful with this project.

The Metaphorical Construct and Digital Tools

When I began instructing preservice teachers in the university setting in a young

adult literature and multimedia text course, I began to think more seriously about
how my preservice teachers could combine digital and visual storytelling with
the “creative connecting” that is a part of the metaphorical construct assessment.
Digital tools provide an opportunity for students to not only read but also practice
composing multimedia texts, and to efficiently share their work with their peers. A
digital version of this assessment provides a clear connection to the CCSS Writing
Anchors, which require students to use technology to “produce and publish writing
and to interact and collaborate with others” and to compose texts that “examine and
convey complex ideas and information clearly and accurately through the effective
selection, organization, and analysis of content” (National Governors Association
Center for Best Practices and the Council of Chief State School Officers 2010). Ad-
ditionally, multimodal composition provides a framework for reinforcing the com-
municative and social function of writing that is so important to student motivation
(Boscolo and Gelati 2013). Instead of framing composition as a solitary endeavor
that is only seen by the student and teacher (Boscolo and Gelati 2013), digital tools
provide an interactive context and literate community of practice where composi-
tion can be widely shared and new composing skills developed.

Instructing Modes and Meaning

The first step to changing to a digital version of the metaphorical construct was to
broaden students’ communicative palettes and to teach them how different modes
such as images, video, written and spoken words, and music can be combined for a
unified effect. As we said in the introduction, “modes carry meaning,” and a specific
attention to these modes was needed to be successful. Karchmer-Klein (2013) as-
serts that picture books and other early literacy material combine images and words
in ways that effectively convey meaning, and young children are encouraged to
look for visual cues in images when they do not understand a text’s words. How-
ever, she also points out that as students move through their educational careers,
focus shifts from looking at both visuals and words to a words-only focus. I wanted
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education 153

to broaden our students’ perspective and to bring back these other modes into our
students’ composition processes.
Although the picture book example above is merely an illustration of the shift
toward print as students move through the grades, we would suggest that a good
starting point for preparing students for the digital metaphorical construct is by
reintroducing them to high-quality picture books, as well as other print and digi-
tal media that integrate various compositional modes. We began using these texts
as the assignment evolved to help our students analyze and discuss the ways that
multimodal composers combine modes to develop a unified effect, after previous
students struggled to combine images, text, narration, and sound to effectively con-
vey their meaning. This approach not only targets the Common Core State Read-
ing Anchor 7 related to integrating and evaluating “content presented in diverse
formats and media” (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and
the Council of Chief State School Officers 2010) but also serves as additional prac-
tice and scaffolding for close reading, where students must evaluate how autho-
rial choices directly support meaning and create effect, the focus of Common Core
Reading Anchor 4. We also believe that this is a perfect opportunity to introduce
students to ineffective examples of multimodal composition, where the combina-
tion of modes fails to effectively communicate a unified message. This addresses
NAMLE’s core principle that media literacy education “requires active inquiry and
critical thinking about the messages we receive and create” (NAMLE 2007). For
this project we downloaded effective viral brand videos (short videos created to
sell a product), as well as those that we considered less effective. Students viewed
the videos, analyzed them in collaborative groups for their use of images, music,
and print text, and evaluated them as to whether they communicated—or failed to
communicate—a clear brand message.
After viewing and evaluating others’ multimodal compositions, students need to
be introduced to the digital tools that they can use to communicate their metaphor
and their understanding of the text to others. As discussed in our introduction, we
asked students to use iMovie, Windows Movie Maker, and VoiceThread to create
these digital products. Some students have previous experience with these tools,
and they are fairly simple to use as well as free or low cost (see in Table 3 for
more information). We provided students time to practice with these tools and sup-
ported them in their use. Further, a small number of tools allowed us to more effec-
tively introduce the tools and to guide and evaluate the final product. However, as
Karchmer-Klein (2013) suggests, if digital storytelling is going to be integrated into
classroom instruction—particularly if it is to be used with younger children—more
structured tools can also be helpful. Storytelling applications are widely available
to support digital composition. These apps scaffold students’ use of compositional
modes, and provide structure for their compositions using a basic story grammar.
In sum, we have come to believe through several iterations of this project and the
instruction that scaffolded it that if students are to produce effective digital meta-
phorical constructs, they must have explicit instruction and practice in three distinct
areas that are represented in Fig.€2. First, students need to understand the metaphori-
cal construct assessment and its goals. For students with a more literal bent, this
154 J. E. Flynn and W. Lewis

Knowledge about
how "modes carry
meaning" and
practice evaluating
multi-modal
compositions
Knowledge about Knowledge and
the metaphorical practice with
construct and digital storymaking
speciic examples. tools

Effective
Digital
Metaphorical
Construct

Fig. 2 ╇ Knowledge needed to build a metaphorical construct

understanding can be challenging! This phase of instruction includes introducing

students to the concept and working through several exemplary illustrations of suc-
cessful constructs. We would also suggest that teachers arrange for collaborative
practice with their students by identifying characters or motifs from previously read
works and provide opportunities for small groups of students to engage in the cre-
ative and generative thinking (Weaver and Prince 1990) needed to build suitable
constructs.
The second type of knowledge students need is knowledge about the tools of
multimodal composition. Therefore, teachers will have to instruct students in how
to use audio, video, print, and images to achieve a unified effect and to provide
students with practice analyzing and evaluating effective and ineffective examples.
The third type of knowledge is that of the digital compositional tools themselves.
Although as university instructors we are more comfortable with allowing students
a broader palette of tools, we would suggest that teachers of high school, middle
school, and elementary students utilize one specific tool, and provide instruction
and practice with its features before utilizing it in the context of the metaphorical
construct. Focusing on a single tool will help students to master that tool, and pro-
vide a single platform for collaboration and sharing of the digital products.

An Example of a Digital Metaphorical Construct

In order to illustrate a digital metaphorical construct, we would like to describe a

project that was created by one of our secondary ELA teacher candidates. Rachel
(all students gave their permission for their first names to be cited in our chapter)
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education 155

chose one of our course texts, the award winning young adult novel Looking for
Alaska (Green 2005), and decided to focus on the emotional growth of the main
character and narrator, Pudge. Besides being one of the most significant aspects
of this work of fiction, Rachel’s focus also meets CCSS Reading Anchor 3, which
holds students accountable for analyzing “how and why individuals, events, and
ideas develop and interact over the course of a text” (National Governors Associa-
tion Center for Best Practices and the Council of Chief State School Officers 2010).
Rachel’s first step after deciding on this textual focus was to think about, search
for, and experiment with physical or cultural objects that could become suitable
analogues for Pudge’s growth as a character across the course of the novel. Walk-
ing into her kitchen one day to grab a snack, Rachel noticed a number of bananas
on her counter that had quickly turned overripe in a matter of a few days. Although
not obviously connected at first, our student was able to bring together the “diverse
elements” (Weaver and Prince 1990) of banana and character growth in a metaphor
represented in Table€ 2. We warn you that this metaphor contains a “spoiler” for
those who have not yet read the novel!
Although this is a wonderful metaphor that makes creative connections between
two seemingly unrelated elements, developing the metaphor is not enough. Rachel
then had to take the role of multimedia designer (Dalton 2012) in order to share her
sophisticated understanding with others. In the case of this assignment, Rachel took
a direct approach, using a narrated PowerPoint, with multiple images of bananas at
each stage of ripeness, excerpts from the novel, various typographic elements, and
a recorded audio narration in a five-slide framework (introduction slide and four
slides dedicated to the stages of development).
However, because of students’ overreliance on PowerPoint, in more recent years
we have pushed our students to branch out to use more sophisticated and power-
ful tools. Our student could just as easily have used iMovie with Ken Burns-style
graphics of slowly moving bananas, print text, small snippets of video from You-
Tube, and Harry Belafonte’s “Banana Boat” song playing in the background. Simi-
larly, she could have created a Glogster EDU post that provides a digital framework
for combining a multimodal mix of video, pictures, text, audio, attached data files,
and hyperlinks in a creative and interactive digital poster (Lewis et€al. 2013).
One of the challenges that instructors face when assigning students digital proj-
ects is that students might seek to overuse some of the features of these tools, ex-
perimenting with the “bells and whistles” but failing to achieve a unified effect
(Karchmer-Klein 2013). That is why it is imperative for teachers to play a guiding
role in this design process. Just as we would suggest using a graphic organizer, like
you see in Table€2, for the construction of the metaphors themselves, we would also
suggest that teachers push students to create a “storyboard” for their metaphorical
construct before moving to the digital tool itself. In this way, students can sketch
out the flow of their ideas, decide what multimodal elements they will be using, and
where they will be used, while providing the teacher and their peers with a clear un-
derstanding of both the direction of the metaphorical construct and the multimodal
composition that communicates it.
156 J. E. Flynn and W. Lewis

Table 2 ╇ Metaphorical construct for Looking for Alaska (Green 2005)
Pudge’s growth as a character in Looking For Alaska↜=↜life cycle of a banana
Part of the metaphor Part of character Connection
development it is like
The green, unripe Pudge’s naïve life …Because Pudge is “green,” part of a bunch
banana in its bunch before going to of dull, flavorless friends, but full of untapped
boarding school potential
The bright yellow, Pudge’s life after …Because in this section of the novel, Pudge
ripe banana making friends with breaks away from the “bunch” of his family and
Alaska, the Colonel, friends at home, ripening to the possibilities of
and Takumi at board- his new life and new friends, experimenting,
ing school and rebelling. He is finding his “great perhaps”
The overripe banana Pudge’s life immedi- …Because like bananas that quickly turn from
ately after the sudden ripe and delicious to overripe, soft, and sicken-
death of his friend, ing, Pudge’s life also quickly goes downhill
Alaska after the sudden loss of his friend. He is devas-
tated and feels dead inside
The frozen overripe Pudge’s mourning Just like overripe bananas can be stored in the
banana period freezer, the period after Alaska’s death is like
this frozen storage period. Pudge is frozen with
guilt over Alaska’s death, and in a self-imposed
deep freeze in his friendships. He is also frozen
in that he cannot stop searching for the reason
for Alaska’s death
The banana bread Pudge’s coming to Because like a thawed frozen banana, Pudge
ingredient terms with the death has shed his “peel” of guilt, loss, and bitterness
that has separated himself from his friends, and
transformed himself into something beautiful
and complex like banana bread. He also appreci-
ates the complexity of this new state and under-
stands that life is about change and loss, just like
the bread changes bananas into a tasty treat

In William Calvin’s The Cerebral Code (1996), he highlights the importance of

metaphor to human understanding when he writes:
If we are to have meaningful, connected experiences; ones that we can comprehend and
reason about; we must be able to discern patterns to our actions, perceptions, and concep-
tions. Underlying our vast network of interrelated literal meanings (all of those words about
objects and actions) are those imaginative structures of understanding such as schema and
metaphor, such as the mental imagery that allows us to extrapolate a path, or zoom in on
one part of the whole, or zoom out until the trees merge into a forest (1996, p.€159–160).

We agree. By using the imaginative structures of metaphor, we believe that like Cal-
vin (1996), we can teach our students to discern patterns, and to develop the mental
flexibility and creativity to “zoom in” on the important elements of a text and their
world and then “zoom out” to reflect on the whole and what the text means to their
lives. It helps students to extrapolate a path through a text and to develop long last-
ing connections to its most salient elements.
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education 157

Digital Stories About Identity and Teaching

Jill: Students Telling Their Own Stories

Bill’s metaphorical construct project provides an example of how students can use
digital tools to understand stories. In his case, future ELA teachers use the project to
analyze a young adult novel, but the assignment could easily be adapted to different
ages and texts. In another course required for our future ELA teachers, Literacy and
Technology, students utilize digital tools to tell their own stories. In the course, stu-
dents create a multimodal narrative in which they consider how their backgrounds
impact their beliefs about teaching and learning English and how their worldviews
influence their future work with adolescents. Students address one or more of the
following questions:
•)>> How and when did you know you wanted to be a teacher (of English)?
•)>> What experiences have you had working with adolescents, and how have those
experiences influenced you?
•)>> What is your own background (defined in whatever ways you choose: race, eth-
nicity, class, sexuality, gender, region, etc.) and how do those parts of your iden-
tity affect how you see the world?
•)>> What and who has influenced your life thus far?
•)>> What is your philosophy of teaching?
Students begin work on this project by brainstorming about the story they want
to tell, using the website bubbl.us, another mind-mapping tool of their choice, or
pencil and paper. They start to focus on the question or questions they want to ad-
dress, taking notes on their responses, and begin to list potentially related audio and
visual content. After reading about narrative elements—exposition, flow, scripting,
images—and production elements—shots and narration—students then move to
developing a storyboard; many excellent digital storytelling resources, including
storyboards, are accessible on the web, including those collected on educator Kathy
Schrock’s website (Schrock 2014). As they do in Bill’s class, students explore both
good and bad examples of the use of visual and audio elements in texts, in this case
examining the digital poetry found in the Electronic Literature Collection (2011).
In preparation for a class meeting in our campus’ Student Multimedia Design Cen-
ter, students then write a script outline and bring with them at minimum three to
five images, one audio clip or song, one video clip, and a completed storyboard.
Throughout this time, students practice using both iMovie and VoiceThread during
short assignments in class to activate their knowledge of these tools.
On the final product, students are assessed on the story’s focus and substance,
pacing, visual elements, and audio content (voice and/or sounds/music). The project
addresses the National Council of Teachers of English’s (2012) standard 2.1 for
teacher education programs: “Candidates can compose a range of formal and in-
formal texts taking into consideration the interrelationships among form, audience,
context, and purpose; candidates understand that writing is a recursive process; can-
158 J. E. Flynn and W. Lewis

English Language
Arts: Students
analyze literature
through the lens of
their own experience
Community Building: Social Studies:
Students share their Students critically
backgrounds and examine texts for the
history to connect inclusion or
with peers and exclusion of their
course content identity marker

Digital
Storytelling
in other
Contexts

Fig. 3 ╇ How digital storytelling can be used in multiple contexts

didates can use contemporary technologies and/or digital media to compose multi-
modal discourse.”
Building on the skills developed in the metaphorical construct assignment, stu-
dents in the course answer the questions using multiple modes. This past fall, the
majority of students used photos (both Creative Commons-licensed pictures and
their own photographs), music, voice-over narration, and title/section slides to cre-
ate an organized final product that merged words, images, and sounds to convey
meaning. Since this course was a new offering in 2013, I am looking forward to
building up more examples of student work to share with the class as models, as
not all of the digital stories did successfully achieve visual media literacy goals.
However, the sharing of projects during class time helps students connect with one
another to strengthen their cohort of learners. At the end of the semester, many
students identified this project and our viewing of each other’s work as one of the
things they enjoyed most in the class.
While this assignment is focused on future teachers, these questions could easily
be adapted to other contexts, which are represented in Fig.€3. For instance, digital
storytelling can allow students of any age to share information about their back-
grounds in a community-building activity. In order to grapple with challenging in-
tellectual issues, teachers and students must first develop a productive and positive
classroom environment. As Christensen (2000) notes:
building community begins when students get inside the lives of others in history, literature,
or down the hallways, but students also learn by exploring their own lives and coming to
terms with the people they are “doing time” with in the classroom (p.€6).

She goes on to say that “the key to reaching my students and building community” is
“helping students excavate and reflect on their personal experiences, and connecting
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education 159

them to the world of language, literature, and society” (2000, p.€9). Along with us-
ing a digital story project to explore identity and connect with their peers, students
in an English class might construct a digital story to analyze a text using the reader
response lens (Appleman 2009), explaining which aspects of their identities influ-
enced their understanding of a text. In social studies, students might examine how
aspects of their culture, race, gender, sexuality, or other identity markers are or are
not represented fully in the sources they study. NAMLE (2007) “affirms that people
use their individual skills, beliefs and experiences to construct their own meanings
from media messages,” and unpacking these meanings is important. Such adapta-
tions would combine the analysis of texts that we have previously discussed and the
incorporation of students’ backgrounds to facilitate deeper understanding.
In our course Literacy and Technology, students also study popular culture rep-
resentations of teachers in films and TV shows. In their analysis, they find that
many films and television shows paint, at best, an incomplete picture of teaching
and learning. In some cases, media representations of teachers are overwhelmingly
negative. The digital story project enables future teachers to use their own com-
positions to “talk back” to such portrayals of teaching and of school. In her story,
Michele revealed that many people have discouraged her and her peers from enter-
ing the profession, but she was excited to prove them wrong. Sam proudly claimed
that “Teachers are influential and their position should be respected,” despite the
fact that “our society doesn’t value teachers enough.” Many projects extolled a
positive, student-centered approach to education. Alli remarked, “I want to support
my ‘family’ of students the way my family has me.” Emily noted, “My students
are capable of anything,” and expressed excitement that “there are so many ways
to connect with students.” Jill was eager to develop a “diverse and inclusive class-
room.” Both Sara and Mark pointed out that they expect to learn from their students
just as the students will learn from them. While our students are future English
teachers, responding to media representations of any group—whether it be a pro-
fession, gender, sexuality, race, generation—and complicating what could be an
overly simplified portrayal encourages students to be critical consumers of the me-
dia around them (Beach 2007; Flynn 2014). As NAMLE notes in its articulation of
core principles, “media are a part of culture and function as agents of socialization”
(NAMLE 2007). Through projects such as this, students of any age are empowered
to become the “visually literate individual” promoted by the ACRL (2011), who is
“both a critical consumer of visual media and a competent contributor to a body of
shared knowledge and culture.” While many students naturally took this opportu-
nity to talk back to negative or incomplete portrayals of teachers in the media, in the
future I plan to directly invite students to do so, sharing with them the ACRL goals
and NAMLE core principles.
The digital story project also helps students critically examine their “apprentice-
ship of observation” (Lortie 1975). Many preservice teachers have had positive
experiences in school and therefore ultimately replicate practices that perpetuate the
status quo, which can be problematic. In response, teacher educators often “seek to
confront the apprenticeship of observation and to stimulate reflection on teaching
and learning through the use of autobiography” (Hammerness et€al. 2005, p.€434).
160 J. E. Flynn and W. Lewis

The majority of students in my class did indeed talk about teachers who have posi-
tively impacted them and inspired them to teach, but some students also shared
more negative school experiences that they or others have had, enabling them to
take a more critical stance. Kaitlin discussed how the education system failed her
family. Her parents’ success in life, despite their difficulties in school, led Kaitlin to
notice “the disconnect” between her enriching educational experience and that of
her “disadvantaged peers.” Laura discussed her social struggles in school and noted
how her own difficulty motivated her to teach in high-needs areas. Veronica told
about her work with homeless youth, which opened her eyes to issues of poverty,
addiction, and abuse that she knew she would see play out in her secondary teach-
ing. Hannah explained that though she was a successful student, she became in-
creasingly “unsatisfied with the system.” George inserted text in his story that read,
“This slide represents the 18 years I spent in the closet. It’s my goal to make sure no
student feels like he/she/ze has to hide like I did.” Finally, Garrett, who identifies
outside the gender binary, talked about how ze wants to make sure zir “classroom
is a space where students feel safe and included, because I know learning can be
difficult when you’re on the fringe” (“ze” and “zir” are pronouns used by those who
identify outside of the gender categories of male and female). By thinking critically
about schools and classrooms, students therefore use this project to “be both critical
thinkers and creative producers of an increasingly wide range of messages using
image, language, and sound,” as the NAMLE (2014) advocates.

Digital Tools and Media Literacy

Multimodal composition can be a powerful way for students to understand and tell
stories. In this chapter, we have described our assignments, provided examples of
our students’ work, and discussed how these projects might be adapted to other
contexts. Just as our students learn through analyzing and telling stories, in writ-
ing this chapter, we developed new links between our courses and learned about
ways that will make stronger connections between these projects. For instance, by
identifying both the skills and digital tools that students need to be successful with
both projects, we began to think more strategically about how and when we teach
and reinforce these digital composition skills in our two courses. Furthermore, writ-
ing together pushed us to think how multimodal composition can be made a part of
other program assessments, and how we can effectively build more of these digital
composition skills across the trajectory of their teacher preparation program.
Another challenge for us, as it is for all educators, is staying abreast of and com-
petent in new technology tools that can help meet our goals. Teachers sometimes
fear using technology because they do not consider themselves experts. However,
we cannot allow the ever-emerging field to intimidate us. Jill learned tools like Voi-
ceThread and iMovie along with our students, and together we were able to solve
problems that arose. NAMLE’s core principle three articulates that effective media
literacy education “builds and reinforces skills for learners of all ages” and explains
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education 161

that, as with “print literacy, those skills necessitate integrated, interactive, and re-
peated practice” (NAMLE 2007). The projects that our students complete do not
make them or us, their teachers, experts in multimodal composing, but are neverthe-
less valuable in building digital composition proficiency and visualizing learning.
NAMLE (2014) defines media literacy as:
A series of communication competencies, including the ability to access, analyze, evaluate,
and communicate information in a variety of forms, including print and non-print mes-
sages. Media literacy empowers people to be both critical thinkers and creative producers
of an increasingly wide range of messages using image, language, and sound. It is the
skillful application of literacy skills to media and technology messages. (NAMLE 2007)

We believe that our course projects enable students to skillfully consume, assess,
and create both traditional and multimodal texts. However, in order to develop these
digital competencies, part of our jobs as teachers and teacher educators is to provide
multiple opportunities for digital composition, and to explicitly teach the skills that
students need to compose in multiple modes toward a unified effect. Even though
substantive interactions with texts and wrestling with developing identities as adult
professionals is difficult for students, we believe that digital tools are an effective
scaffold and conduit through which students can share their creativity and analysis
with others. These projects also serve as an effective catalyst for conversation, de-
bate, and, ultimately, understanding.

Glossary

Table 3 ╇ A list of digital tools for multimodal composition

Tool Description/purpose Cost
Bubbl.us An online brainstorming tool that allows stu- Free for up to 3 maps vari-
dents and teachers to create colorful mind maps able pricing for multiple
to print or share electronically with others licenses
Glogster EDU An online tool for creating multimedia posters Variable pricing for differ-
that utilize text, audio, video, images, and ent types of subscription
graphics
iMovie Movie making application that allows users to Free to those who have Mac
create HD movies using video, text, graphics, hardware
sound, and music
VoiceThread An interactive, multimedia slideshow tool Free for limited number of
which allows users to create and share presenta- individual subscriptions
tions, and allows viewers to add their own
audio, text, or video commentary
Windows A video creation and editing tool that allows Free
Movie Maker students to create movies using video, text,
graphics, sound, and music
162 J. E. Flynn and W. Lewis

References

Appleman, D, (2009). Critical encounters in high school English: Teaching literary theory to
adolescents . New York: Teachers College Press.
Association of College and Research Libraries. (2011). ACRL visual literacy competency stan-
dards for higher education. http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/visualliteracy. Accessed 6 Au-
gust 2014
Beach, R. (2007). Teachingmedialiteracy.com: A web-linked guide to resources and activities.
New York: Teachers College Press.
Boscolo, P., & Gelati, C. (2013). Best practices in promoting motivation in writing. In S. Gra-
ham, C. A. MacArthur, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Best practices in writing instruction. (2nd€ed.,
pp.€284–308). New York: Guilford.
Calvin, W. (1996). The cerebral code: Thinking a thought in the mosaics of the mind . Cambridge:
MIT Press.
Christensen, L. (2000). Reading, writing, and rising up: Teaching about social justice and the
power of the written word. Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools.
Dalton, B. (2012). Multi-modal composition and the common core state standards. Reading Teach-
er, 66, 333–339.
Electronic Literature Organization. (2011). Electronic literature collection, Vol€2. http://collection.
eliterature.org/. Accessed 14 May 2014
Flynn, J. E. (2014). Studying media representations to foster critical literacy. In K. Kumashiro &
B. Ngo (Eds.), Six lenses for anti-oppressive education: Partial stories, improbable conversa-
tions . New York: Peter Lang.
Flynn, J. E., Bieler, D., Kim, H., Rolón Dow, R., Wong, C., & Worden, L. (2014). Building connec-
tions and developing a plan through public scholarship. In L. Neal, K. Kumashiro, & C. Sleeter
(Eds.), Diversifying the teacher workforce: Preparing, and retaining highly effective teachers
(pp.€168–183). New York: Routledge.
Garcia, A., Seglem, R., & Share, J. (2013). Transforming teaching and learning through critical
media literacy pedagogy. Learning Landscapes, 6(2), 109–124.
Green, J. (2005). Looking for Alaska. New York: Dutton Juvenile.
Gordon, W. J. J. (1961). Synectics. New York: Harper & Row.
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adoles-
cents in middle and high schools. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Hammerness, K., Darling-Hammond, L., Grossman, P., Rust, F., & Shulman, L. (2005). The de-
sign of teacher education programs. In L. Darling-Hammond & J. Bransford (Eds.), Preparing
teachers for a changing world (pp.€390–441). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kadjer, S. (2004). Enter here: Personal narratives and digital storytelling. English Journal, 93(3),
64–68.
Karchmer-Klein, R. (2013). Best practices in using technology to support writing. In S. Graham,
C. MacArthur, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Best practices in writing instruction (pp.€309–333). New
York: Guilford.
Lewis, W. E., Walpole, S., & McKenna, M. (2013). Cracking the common core: Choosing and
using texts in grades 6–12. New York: Guilford.
Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Morrell, E., Dueñas, R., Garcia, V., & López, J. (2013) Critical media pedagogy: Teaching for
achievement in city schools. New York: Teachers College Press.
National Association for Media Literacy Education. (2007). Core principles of media literacy edu-
cation in the United States. http://namle.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/CorePrinciples.pdf.
Accessed 6 August 2014
National Association for Media Literacy Education. (2014). Media literacy defined. http://namle.
net/publications/media-literacy-definitions/.
Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education 163

National Council of Teachers of English. (2012). NCTE/NCATE standards for initial preparation
of teachers of secondary english language arts, Grades 7–12. http://www.ncte.org/library/NC-
TEFiles/Groups/CEE/NCATE/ApprovedStandards_111212.pdf. Accessed 12 May 2014
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and the Council of Chief State School
Officers. (2010). Common core state standards (English Language Arts). Washington, DC: Na-
tional Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers.
http://www.corestandards.org/ ELA-Literacy. Accessed 12 May 2014
Nolen, S. (2007). The role of literate communities in the development of children’s interest in writ-
ing. In S. Hidi & P. Boscolo (Eds.), Writing and motivation (pp.€241–255). Oxford: Elsevier.
Prince, G. M. (1970). The practice of creativity; a manual for dynamic group problem solving.
New York: Harper & Row.
Ranker, J. (2007). A new perspective on inquiry: A case study of digital video production. English
Journal, 97(1), 77–82.
Schrock, K. (2014). Kathy Schrock’s guide to everything: Digital storytelling. http://www.schrock
guide.net/digital-storytelling.html. Accessed 15 September 2014
Vonnegut, K. (1994). Slaughterhouse five or the children’s crusade . New York: Delacorte.
Weaver, W. T., & Prince, G. M. (1990). Synectics®: Its potential for education. The Phi Delta Kap-
pan, 71(5), 378–388.
Wilson, A. A., Chavez, K., & Anders, P. L. (2012). From the Koran and Family Guy: Expres-
sions of identity in English learners’ digital podcasts. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy,
55(5), 374–384.

Jill Ewing Flynn╇ is associate professor at the University of Delaware, where she teaches under-
graduate methods courses and serves as the student teaching coordinator for the English Education
Program. After graduating with a B.A. in English and History from Duke University, she taught
middle and high school English for 9 years. She earned her Ph.D. in curriculum and instruction
from the University of Minnesota and a master’s degree in secondary English education from Pace
University (NY). Her research and teaching interests include critical multicultural education and
teacher preparation.
William Lewis╇ is associate professor of literacy education in the School of Education at the
University of Delaware. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in disciplinary literacy,
English language arts (ELA) methods, writing, and young adult literature, and serves as the coor-
dinator for the Middle School ELA Teacher Education Program in the School of Education. He has
served as a consultant to both the Delaware and Georgia Departments of Education, and presents
a range of professional development seminars on disciplinary literacy, the Common Core State
Standards, and text-based writing at the local and state level. Before coming to the University
of Delaware, William taught secondary ELA for 20 years in Pennsylvania public schools. His
research has been published in The Journal of Educational Psychology, Contemporary Educa-
tional Psychology, The Harvard Educational Review, and Reading and Writing Quarterly, and
he is the lead author of the recently published Cracking the Common Core: Choosing and Using
Texts in Grades 6–12.
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy
in YouTube Video Projects

Chareen Snelson

Abstract╇ Advancements in social media technologies have made it easier than ever
to locate, produce, and share online video. Much of the rapid expansion of online
video can be attributed to YouTube, which has become the largest and most popu-
lar video-sharing platform online. The development of visual and media literacy
(VML) competencies is valuable when engaging with social media content and
technologies like YouTube. This chapter illustrates how VML have been integrated
within a set of educational YouTube video projects in an online university course
that has been offered regularly since 2008. The projects discussed in this chapter
were designed for an audience of adult educators, but have applicability in K–16
classrooms. YouTube was selected as the central video platform for several reasons,
which include practical, technological, and societal factors. Competencies described
in published definitions of VML frame the discussion. Curation projects involve
finding, interpreting, and evaluating video resources, which are grouped into col-
lections for educational purposes. Educational video creation projects include video
blogs, remix, PowerPoint movies, and interactive videos.

Introduction

The ready availability of social media and video recording technologies has contrib-
uted to the rapid growth of online video and an upsurge in video production among
adult Internet users (Purcell 2013). A prime destination for user-generated video is
YouTube, which consistently remains at or near the top of online traffic rankings
(Alexa 2014; comScore 2014). Statistics provided on the YouTube website in 2014
reported that 100€h of video were uploaded per minute and more than six€billion
unique users visited per month (YouTube, n.d.). These statistics correspond to gen-
eral trends for online video usage which have been reported as increasing for both
video watching and video production (Duggan 2013; Purcell 2013).

C.€Snelson€()
Department of Educational Technology, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
e-mail: csnelson@boisestate.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 165
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_8
166 C. Snelson

The growth of online video offers educators and students instant access to seem-
ingly endless quantities of media content. Videos on a wide variety of topics are
available and instantly accessible to support formal or informal learning endeavors.
However, YouTube and other social media sites contain videos that may contain
errors or be inappropriate for classroom use. It is evident that educators who use
these materials must carefully review the content first or produce their own when
suitable videos are not found. The development of visual and media competencies
related to accessing, analyzing, evaluating, using, and producing media are valuable
for anyone who draws on social media sites for educational content. This is true
of educators as well as their students who may benefit from instruction regarding
appropriate and effective use of video drawn from YouTube or other similar video-
sharing sites.
This chapter illustrates how visual and media literacies (VML) have been in-
tegrated within a set of YouTube video projects in an online university course de-
signed for adult educators, many of whom are classroom teachers. The informa-
tion is practitioner oriented, rather than research oriented, and is derived from the
author’s experience designing and teaching the online YouTube course for several
years. The development of a “YouTube for Educators” course is described, followed
by a discussion of VML and how they were naturally infused within the curricu-
lum. Several class projects are discussed to show how media literacy competencies
manifested in real-world practice. Although these projects were completed within
the context of higher education, they can be adapted to a variety of instructional
settings. Students who took the course created projects for instruction in a variety
of settings including K–12 schools, colleges, and business settings. Therefore, the
information has relevance for instructors in K–16 settings.

Development of a YouTube Course

In 2008, the “YouTube for Educators” course was created as an elective in a large
fully online graduate-level educational technology program that offers two master’s
degrees, three graduate certificate programs, and a doctoral program. Courses at
the master’s level include topics in instructional theory, instructional design, evalu-
ation, online teaching, web design, technology coordination, game-based learning,
virtual worlds, mobile app design, and emergent technologies. Students are primar-
ily working adults, many of whom work as K–12 educators, instructional designers,
trainers, or college instructors. It is within this context that the YouTube for Educa-
tors course emerged.
YouTube was selected as the centerpiece of the course for several reasons, which
included curricular, technological, and societal factors. These factors are described
next to further explain the context and rationale behind the decision to create a
YouTube for Educators course. Some of the challenges associated with the course
are also discussed to provide a balanced overview of the background and history of
the course.
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects 167

Curricular Factors

One of the curricular factors associated with the decision to create the YouTube
course was the long-term role of film and video as educational media, with an ex-
tensive history spanning back for more than a century (Alexander 2010; Snelson
and Perkins 2009). At the time the course was created, YouTube was quickly turn-
ing into a huge repository of free video content some of which was valuable for
instructional purposes. Enough colleges and universities were creating YouTube
channels and uploading videos that YouTube EDU was launched in 2009 to collect
and organize the growing body of educational video content (Greenburg 2009). It
seemed evident that the advancement of YouTube and online video was inaugurat-
ing a new chapter in the history of educational film that should not be ignored in an
educational technology program.
In addition to the widespread presence of educational videos and channels on
YouTube, there exists a growing body of scholarly literature on the topic of You-
Tube in education. In the years from 2006 through 2009, 30 peer-reviewed jour-
nal articles and conference papers from the field of education were published
(Snelson 2011). More recent literature reveals continued interest in educational ap-
plications of YouTube. For example, Forristal (2012) described how a series of You-
Tube videos about the life and work of cultural anthropologist Valene Smith were
integrated in two undergraduate tourism courses to augment the curriculum and fill
an identified gap in the content of available textbooks. YouTube videos were used in
engineering education as a source of discussion and problem solving related to the
topic of thermodynamics. As part of a “YouTube Fridays” activity, students wrote
and solved problems based on the events in the videos (Liberatore et€ al. 2012).
Alon and Herath (2014) described a class project where students developed a You-
Tube video in an international marketing course offered to masters in business
(MBA) and undergraduate students. Student perceptions of the project, as measured
by their responses to a questionnaire, indicated that the experience was positive and
helped promote an understanding of the importance of teamwork and the uses of
technology.

Technological Factors

From the start of the YouTube for Educators course to the present, YouTube has
proven to be a robust and intuitive online video platform. When the course began,
YouTube was more compatible with the diverse array of student computer systems
than anything previously tried for video delivery in the online classroom. Techno-
logical problems sometimes surfaced with YouTube, but students could collabora-
tively problem-solve since they were working with a common technology. Alter-
native online video sites were slow to load, had fewer features, or contained less
content making them less robust and more problematic than YouTube. Furthermore,
YouTube had been acquired by Google in 2006, which suggested the likelihood of
168 C. Snelson

further development over time. So far, this has proven to be the case. Over time,
the suite of tools for video recording, editing, captioning, and interactivity have
evolved on YouTube and many of the technical problems seen during early years
have largely vanished.

Societal Factors

The societal role YouTube has played remains interesting and discussion worthy.
YouTube has routinely played a role in politics, school policy, news reporting, and
other aspects of society, for example, the CNN YouTube presidential debates con-
ducted in 2007 marking a political first (YouTube Official Blog 2007). News stories
featuring YouTube videos have become common as journalists scour social media
for newsworthy content (Paulussen and Harder 2014). It seemed as though anything
could end up on YouTube including scenes from classrooms that are recorded and
publicly shared in student video blogs (vlogs; Snelson 2013). Early in the history of
the course, students were less familiar with the growing role of YouTube in society,
but it has grown more familiar after years of exposure to YouTube and news stories
featuring YouTube videos.
Another societal factor is the growth in engagement with social media, which
has been defined as “…a group of Internet-based applications that build on the
ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 and that allow the creation
and exchange of User Generated Content” (Kaplan and Haenlein 2010, p.€61). The
rise of Web 2.0 brought with it dynamic and interactive websites that enable users
to create, upload, and distribute content through web browsers. The creation and
exchange of user-generated content is a hallmark of YouTube, where users can use
its tools to curate video collections and share their video creations. The YouTube
for Educators course was designed for adult learners who are becoming increas-
ingly engaged with curation, creation, and sharing of video and other visual content
through social media sites. According to results of a survey of adult Internet users,
47↜% had curated visual content for reposting and 54↜% posted original images and
videos online (Duggan 2013). The role of creating original content has gained trac-
tion in higher education as the growing ubiquity of social media sites like YouTube
has leaders viewing students more as creators than consumers (Johnson et€al. 2014).
The YouTube for Educators course was designed to help prepare adults in the field
of educational technology to become knowledgeable curators and creators of edu-
cational video.

Challenges

Despite the benefits in preparing educators to use online video and social media
technologies, a few challenges can be encountered when designing and implement-
ing a course like YouTube for Educators. First of all, there may be a perception
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects 169

that the subject matter is questionable for a serious academic course. This issue
was observed to some extent in the Learning from YouTube course offered in 2007
at Pitzer College, which became the source of curious commentary among several
news outlets (Pitzer College 2007). The YouTube for Educators course, while not
scrutinized by news commentary, has fallen prey to student misperceptions that the
course primarily involves spending class time passively watching YouTube videos.
While it is true that videos are watched, the course is designed to challenge learners.
Great care has been taken to design high-quality curriculum that promotes develop-
ment of essential competencies adult educators need in a social-media-rich soci-
ety where video has assumed a prominent role. To promote quality and rigor, the
course has been mapped to standards produced by the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology (AECT; Earle and Persichitte 2005; AECT 2012),
which define knowledge, skills, and dispositions deemed important in the field of
educational technology. VML are naturally embedded within projects that will be
described later in this chapter. The combination of educational technology, visual
literacy, and media literacy competencies provide a guiding framework for instruc-
tional design.
The YouTube course was designed as a place for educators to explore its benefits,
controversial aspects, and educational applications. However, a glaring challenge
faced by many K–12 educators and some international educators is that YouTube
is blocked and cannot be accessed from school. Access policies vary and students
taking the course have reported that some of their schools are completely blocked,
some have limited access, and others have full access to YouTube. Furthermore,
students taking the online course from outside of the USA may live in a country
where service to YouTube is disrupted or blocked (Google 2014). This is one of the
reasons that the word “YouTube” was specifically added to the course title. It alerts
students that they will need to gain access to the site in order to complete the course.
Some creative solutions for using YouTube in the classroom are available. In
2011, YouTube announced a service called “YouTube for Schools” (Truong 2011),
which provides a mechanism for opening access to educational content in school
while filtering out everything else. Another option that students in the YouTube
course have tried is the use of YouTube download tools, which are commonly avail-
able online. Videos can be downloaded, copied to a portable drive, and carried to
school where they can be played without accessing YouTube directly. However, this
practice is in opposition to the YouTube Terms of Service, which states, “You shall
not download any Content unless you see a ‘download’ or similar link displayed by
YouTube on the Service for that Content” (YouTube 2010, 5B). As another possible
option, students in blocked-access schools may have home or mobile access to You-
Tube where they can view materials their teachers prepare for them. Off-campus
access strategies align well with the flipped learning approach where video-based
content is reviewed at home followed by homework or laboratory practice at school
(Bergman and Sams 2012).
This section has provided an overview of the background of the YouTube for
Educators course to explain the curricular factors, technological factors, societal
factors, and challenges associated with it. The rest of the chapter delves into the
170 C. Snelson

relationship between course projects and VML. An overview of VML competencies

is presented first, followed by a discussion of the course curriculum and how VML
competencies are embedded within several video curation and creation activities.

VML Competencies in the YouTube for Educators Course

Potter (2013) explained that there are many definitions for media literacy, but they
are largely complementary. It is not difficult to identify certain similarities in defini-
tions related to media literacy education. The National Association for Media Lit-
eracy Education (NAMLE, n.d.) defines media literacy as “…the ability to access,
analyze, evaluate, and communicate information in a variety of forms, including
print and non-print messages” (The Basic Definition, para. 1, n.d.). Hobbs’ (2011)
definition includes five essential dimensions of media literacy: access, analyze, cre-
ate, reflect, and act. Scheibe and Rogow (2012) present a collection of eight com-
petencies defining media literacy that include access, understanding, awareness,
analysis, evaluation, creation, reflection, and participation. Similar attributes are
found in the related area of visual literacy. The Association of College and Research
Libraries (ACRL) definition of visual literacy states that, “Visual literacy is a set of
abilities that enables an individual to effectively find, interpret, evaluate, use, and
create images and visual media” (ACRL 2011, para. 2). The definitions for media
and visual literacy are clearly complementary with overlapping elements. In addi-
tion, they are in alignment to educational technology, which has been defined as “…
the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by
creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources”
(Januszewski and Molenda 2008, p.€1). Essential processes involved in accessing,
analyzing, evaluating, using, and producing media emerge as core elements among
this collection of definitions. These overlapping elements offer a good starting point
for designing curriculum to develop these competencies.
New media literacies also factor into the equation when considering the role of
social media sites like YouTube in education. Jenkins et€al. (2006) have argued for
the importance of new media literacies amid the rise of participatory culture and on-
line communities. Young people and adults are creating and sharing content through
social media sites, thus prompting a need to carefully consider how new media
literacies should be addressed in contemporary education. YouTube, in particular, is
home to extensive video content shared by everyday users who record and upload
from their cell phones or home computers to share their opinions, experiences, in-
terests, or expertise with the online public.
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects 171

VML and the YouTube Curriculum

The curriculum for the YouTube for Educators course includes a series of projects
and activities that fall into two broad categories: (1) video curation and (2) video cre-
ation. Video curation involves collecting and organizing videos on YouTube while
video creation involves production of several types of educational YouTube videos.
Curation and creation processes integrate VML competencies whereby learners ac-
cess, analyze, evaluate, use, and produce media (Hobbs 2011; Mihailidis and Cohen
2013). Table€1 contains a list of several projects together with corresponding VML
competencies mapped across the remaining columns.
The information in Table€1 provides a global view of how VML aligns to video
curation and creation projects. A deeper explanation of the video projects completed
in the YouTube for Educators course is provided next. Video curation is described
first followed by a section on video creation projects. Within each section, corre-
sponding projects from Table€1 will be discussed in detail to illustrate how VML
competencies are naturally embedded within the process of creating the projects.

Video Curation on YouTube

Video curation in the context of the current discussion refers to the process of
collecting and organizing videos on YouTube. Mihailidis and Cohen (2013) have
argued that curation is a core media literacy competency that can be facilitated
through online tools and social media platforms. Video curation on YouTube can be
conducted through several mechanisms including development of a YouTube chan-
nel to collect and organize video content, subscription to other channels, and col-
lection of videos into a playlist. The playlist tool on YouTube can be used to curate
instructional videos for a wide variety of instructional purposes.

Playlist Lessons

The process of instructional video curation in the YouTube for Educators course
is emphasized in a project called the “playlist lesson.” To create a playlist lesson,
students collect a group of videos in a YouTube playlist and type a lesson plan
inside the playlist description box. The note tool in the YouTube playlist is used to
type short comments or questions beside each video in the playlist for reflection,
discussion, or written response. Figure€1 illustrates the anatomy of a playlist lesson
created in the YouTube playlist tool to curate YouTube videos together with a lesson
plan and question prompts for students.
172 C. Snelson

Table 1 ╇ YouTube video projects mapped to VML competenciesa

Curate Create
Projects Access Analyze Evaluate Use Produce
Playlist les- Access Analyze Evaluate Use collec- Produce
sons (vlog) educational content for content and tion of exist- written lesson
collect exist- videos on meaning and audiovisual ing YouTube plan, notes,
ing YouTube YouTube suitability for quality for videos in a and question
videos into a using basic the learning instructional classroom prompts in
playlist with and advanced domain and use lesson playlist YouTube
lesson plan search topic playlist editor
techniques
Video blog Access exam- Analyze con- Evaluate Use vlog to Produce
(vlog) record ples of video tent, record- existing reflect on reflective
reflective blogs on ing styles, vlogs to changes of commentary
monologue various topics settings, and identify best perspective as video blog
with text through basic audience, for production over time with closed
captions and advanced various types techniques or identify captioning
search of vlogs for video speech
techniques commentary patterns
PowerPoint Access appro- Analyze Evaluate Use images Produce nar-
movie record priate images, images for media source or diagrams rated screen
narrated diagrams, or meaning as and suitabil- to visually record-
video from other visual they relate to ity of images illustrate ing video
visual elements the topic and for conveying instruc- of visual
PowerPoint through audience information tional video PowerPoint
presentation search in an educa- based on presentation
of image tional video PowerPoint
archives or similar
presentation
technology
Remix reuse Access public Analyze Evaluate Use media Produce edu-
existing domain or media assets media assets assets cational video
media assets Creative for meaning for content downloaded with remixed
in an instruc- Commons and content. and audiovi- from public media assets
tional video media Review sual quality domain or that help
through terms of use prior to use Creative illustrate
search or to identify Commons or commu-
browsing media that archives nicate the
of online can be legally instructional
archives remixed message
Interactive Access Analyze Evaluate Use annota- Produce
video link examples of interac- interac- tions tool on several video
several vid- interactive tive video tive video YouTube to segments,
eos together YouTube examples to designs for experiment upload to
to create a videos identify dif- best approach with various YouTube, add
nonlinear through basic ferent styles to use for a types of annotations
educational and advanced of linking given topic interactive links, and test
video search and nonlinear linking the interactive
techniques design instructional
video
a
The competencies in this table can be adapted for other types of video projects. Examples of proj-
ects are available online https://sites.google.com/site/vmlexamples VML visual and media literacy
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects 173

Fig. 1 ╇ Diagram of the parts of a playlist lesson created on YouTube

While developing playlist lessons, students expand their understanding of how

to teach with video while simultaneously developing VML competencies related to
accessing, analyzing, evaluating, and using visual media. A closer examination of
the sequence of events engaged in during the process of selecting videos, reviewing
them, and developing the lesson plan illustrates how VML are naturally embedded
within the overall process. The following discussion aligns to Table€ 1 where the
competencies (access, analyze, evaluate, use, produce) were mapped for each of the
YouTube video projects.
Access, Analyze, and Evaluate╇ The playlist lesson is populated with YouTube vid-
eos that are located and accessed through the YouTube search tool. The search pro-
cess is critical for accessing topic-specific videos and it integrates the visual literacy
standard regarding effective search strategies (ACRL 2011). Basic YouTube search
is intuitive and accomplished by simply entering a key phrase. Advanced search
techniques are available, but less obvious as advanced filtering options appear only
after entering the search phrase. Some filters that may be of more interest to educa-
tors are those that sort or limit results by upload date, length, or closed captioning
for use with students with disabilities. Knowledge of these tools enhances the abil-
ity to locate and access instructional videos on YouTube.
174 C. Snelson

Video search can also be improved by using some of the same types of operators
that work with Internet search tools such as Google. For example, when searching
for videos about volcanoes, a basic search with the phrase “volcano” is a logical
starting point. However, other videos, which are not currently needed, might ap-
pear in the results. A search for volcanoes might yield a variety of results including
volcanoes found in Hawaii, Mount St. Helens, or volcanoes crafted in the Minecraft
game. If the Minecraft results are unwanted, the search phrase can be rewritten as
“volcano−Minecraft” so that the minus sign acts as an operator to exclude those
videos. Knowledge of these more advanced search strategies supports development
of VML competencies related to locating and accessing media.
During the process of searching for videos, students analyze the content for
meaning and evaluate it for instructional use. Criteria for evaluating online video
can emphasize attributes including, but not limited to, accuracy, credibility, visual
quality, sound quality, use of media assets, organization, pace, educational value,
and accessibility. An online video rubric, based on assessment rubrics from the
YouTube for Educators course, is available for use when evaluating or assessing
YouTube videos (see Table€2). Videos designed for specific genres or projects may
have additional attributes to evaluate and require additional criteria within the as-
sessment rubric. For example, Morain and Swarts (2012) included zooms and pans
(i.e., magnify and move focus) in their rubric developed as part of a study of soft-
ware tutorials on YouTube.
Use and Produce╇ Playlist lessons have been used in the YouTube for Educators
course as a method for lesson planning with video in the cognitive (knowledge,
concepts), affective (attitudes, values), and psychomotor (physical skill) learning
domains (Anderson and Krathwohl 2001; Snelson 2010). When students access,
evaluate, and use videos to meet instructional objectives in different learning
domains they discover the diverse representational quality of video as audiovisual
media. It has been typical for thinking to be stretched for those who are more accus-
tomed to one domain as opposed to another. For example, math teachers sometimes
struggle with psychomotor learning while physical education teachers sometimes
struggle with cognitive learning. The playlist lessons offer a method through which
they can explore alternative approaches for structuring content-area teaching.

YouTube Video Creation

The production of video aligns well to VML creation competencies since visual me-
dia must be selected and used for the purpose of conveying instructional informa-
tion. Educational video can be designed as a form of multimedia instructional mes-
sage, which has been defined as a presentation involving words and pictures that
is intended to foster learning (Mayer 2009). The multimedia message can be com-
posed in a variety of ways depending on the content, purpose, or learners. However,
research-based principles of multimedia learning offer guidance for many types of
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects 175

Table 2 ╇ Online video evaluation rubric

Excellent Average Poor
Accuracy The video contains The video contains The information in
accurate and verifiable information that is the video is clearly
information generally accurate, but inaccurate
may be hard to verify
or a matter of opinion
Credibility The video comes The video seems to The video is of dubi-
from a highly credible be credible, but the ous origin, has a clear
source that can be eas- source is a bit unclear or unfair bias, or seems
ily identified to be selling something
Visual quality Visual elements are Visual elements Visual elements are
clear, stable (no cam- are generally clear, fuzzy, have a lot of
era shake), and easy to stable, and easy to camera shake, or are
see throughout see, although slight generally difficult to
problems might be see throughout
present
Sound quality Audio is clear and Audio may have Audio is muffled and
at sufficient volume. slight problems with has substantial prob-
Voice narration (if volume or may contain lems such as noise,
present) is easy to hear slight noises such as low volume, or unclear
and understand humming, clicking, or voice narration
sputtering
Media assets Images, audio, and Images, audio, and Images, audio, and
video segments are video segments are video segments are
used effectively to used fairly well to used ineffectively to
convey information convey information convey information
Organization Information in the Information in the Information in the
video is well organized video is generally well video is poorly orga-
and easy to follow organized, but may be nized and difficult to
somewhat confusing follow
Pace The video does not The video seems to The video seems to
seem to rush or dwell rush or dwell for too rush or dwell for too
for too long on any long on a small portion long on a medium to
part of the presentation of the presentation large portion of the
presentation
Educational value The video has strong The video has The video has some
educational value. It is adequate educational educational value. It is
an excellent instruc- value. It's an accept- a marginal instruc-
tional video able instructional tional video
video
Credit for media Credit is given for Credit is given for No credit or attribu-
assets used (if media assets used (e.g., media assets used tion provided or it is
applicable) images, sound, video) (e.g., images, sound, evident that media
along with informa- video), but infor- are used without
tion about source and mation is vague or permission
permission for use incomplete
176 C. Snelson

Table 2╇ (continued)

Excellent Average Poor
Video info The title and descrip- The title and descrip- The title and descrip-
tion on the video site tion on the video site tion on the video site is
clearly matches the somewhat matches the missing, misleading, or
content in the video content in the video, not descriptive of the
but is not overtly content in the video
misleading
Accessibility The video has accurate The video has text There are no captions,
text captions that are captions, but they have so many mistakes that
synchronized to the some inaccuracies or is it hard to understand
video are not completely the text, or too far out
synchronized to the of sync with the video
video to be helpful

instructional video projects. For example, some of the principles suggest that people
learn better with a combination of narration and pictures (modality principle) pre-
sented in a conversational style (personalization principle). Other principles de-
scribe the importance of clustering words and pictures in space (spatial contiguity)
and time (temporal contiguity). These principles offer guidance toward effective
selection and use of visuals in educational video.
Attaining knowledge of best practice for design of a multimedia instructional
message is important as a first step, but falls short of being enough to produce an
educational video. Technologies must also be mastered with enough proficiency to
yield a usable video. A beneficial approach is to progress through a series of video
projects ranging from low to high complexity. Projects in the YouTube for Educa-
tors course were designed with this in mind. Students begin with a simple vlog and
progress to more advanced video projects. Each project introduces a different aspect
of composition with visual media.

Vlog Project

The vlog is a good starting project due to its low technical complexity. Vlogs are
common on YouTube with people sharing a wide variety of interests as monologues
or mobile follow-me commentaries recorded on the go. In the vlog project, students
create a monologue style of vlog where they sit before a webcam or video camera.
The vlog project is one of the simpler forms of video project, but still integrates
VML competencies.
Access, Analyze, and Evaluate╇ Students begin this project by searching for
(access) and reviewing several types of interest-driven vlogs for content and record-
ing style (analyze, evaluate). The list in Table 3 shows some of the various types
of search phrases that can be entered in a YouTube search box to access vlogs on
various interest-related topics. Each phrase combines a topic keyword (e.g., student,
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects 177

Table 3 ╇ Examples of YouTube search phrases for interest-driven vlogs

Artist vlog Fashion vlog Journalism vlog Student vlog
Author vlog Filmmaking vlog Parenting vlog Teaching vlog
College vlog Gadget vlog Pet vlog Technology vlog
Cooking vlog Gaming vlog Photography vlog Travel vlog
Exercise vlog Gardening vlog Riding vlog Yoga vlog

teaching, technology) with the word “vlog.” These examples show some of the wide
range of commentary found on YouTube as well as some of the variance in vlog
recording styles and contexts (Table€3).
Use and Produce╇ The vlog offers opportunities to develop VML use and produce
competencies in an interrelated manner. In the first vlog produced near the begin-
ning of the course, students discuss their thoughts on the topic of “pros and cons of
YouTube in education.” The second vlog is a final reflection where students answer
questions about their learning in the course and discuss changes in perspective, if
any, after reviewing their first vlog. (Playlists of example vlogs are available at
https://sites.google.com/site/vmlexamples.)
In addition to producing the vlog video, students are required to add a closed
caption track to the initial vlog to gain experience in accessible video production for
learners with disabilities. The caption track displays synchronously with the video
on YouTube after clicking the closed caption button on the player. Students use the
caption and subtitling tool, accessed through YouTube, to create and edit the cap-
tions (YouTube Help Center, n.d.a). Once created, the captions can be translated to
other languages on YouTube making the video message accessible to a wider audi-
ence. An additional side effect of captioning videos is that it helps students identify
patterns of speech, wordiness, or the presence of problems such as “um” or “uh”
while speaking.
The vlog project requires students to record and display their image along with
their personal thoughts regarding the assigned topic or questions. Even though the
syllabus states that their work will be uploaded to YouTube, which is a public space,
some are not comfortable displaying the vlog in public view due to its more per-
sonal nature. The privacy settings for YouTube videos are introduced at this point
and students are given the option to upload their vlog as a public video (anyone
can view), unlisted (only people with the link can view), or private (must be shared
between YouTube users to view). The remaining projects in the course are instruc-
tional videos, typically without student faces and personal opinions, and they evoke
fewer privacy concerns.

PowerPoint Movie

The PowerPoint movie project provides an intermediate level of complexity for

instructional video design in the YouTube for Educators course. Familiarity with
178 C. Snelson

PowerPoint is typically high as many people have created or viewed presentations

prior to the course. It is common for misgivings to be expressed about the project
due to having experienced boring or poor-quality presentations in the past. The
project offers an opportunity to apply a fresh visually oriented approach to what
some consider an older and less exciting technology. VML competencies, as well as
technical skills, are easily integrated in a simultaneous process.
Access, Analyze, and Evaluate╇ One of the goals for the PowerPoint movie project
is to use visuals, such as images, pictures, and diagrams, to help convey instruc-
tional information in a video. Students are encouraged to begin by selecting a topic
that lends itself to representation in visual form. For example, a tutorial about parts
of the cell is an example of a visual topic where visuals are easily integrated. How-
ever, a presentation on study tips for students or parts of speech may be more chal-
lenging to represent in visual form. Once a topic is selected, students must either
locate or create suitable visual elements that clearly serve to illustrate what they are
teaching in the video. Images are typically selected from online archives containing
public domain or Creative Commons media.
Use and Produce╇ The PowerPoint project requires using PowerPoint or a similar
presentation tool (e.g., Google Drive, Keynote) to teach something with pictures,
images, or diagrams in video form. Minimal text is used on the slides as suggested
by the redundancy principle of multimedia learning, which states that on-screen
text can be detrimental to learning under certain conditions (Mayer 2009). Text is
used according to the signaling principle of multimedia learning to provide cues
about content organization. Slide titles, short phrases, or labels are often applicable.
Animations are also used as a visual and signaling aid to draw the eye toward screen
elements corresponding to voice narration.
Once the PowerPoint presentation is ready, screen-recording technology is used
record a video of the computer screen while the presentation is clicked through.
Voice narration is simultaneously recorded by speaking through a microphone at-
tached to the computer. The final video is uploaded to YouTube where it can be
easily shared and captioned for accessibility. Many educators in the course have
expressed surprise at how easy it was to use this approach to develop visual presen-
tations in video format. (A playlists of example PowerPoint movies is available at
https://sites.google.com/site/vmlexamples.)

Remix Video

The remix video is a more advanced educational video project involving selec-
tion or repurposing of visual content found online in public domain or Creative
Commons archives. Goals for this project include identification of online media
resources, management of multiple media assets, and production of an educational
video with a combination of media elements. VML competencies are embedded
within the process of completing a remix video.
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects 179

Access, Analyze, and Evaluate╇ One of the first steps in the remix project is to
identify a topic and acquire or create media assets to produce a video that teaches
something about the selected topic. Students are encouraged to search online media
archives (e.g., Internet Archive, Wikimedia Commons, Library of Congress) for
public domain or Creative Commons media with a CC-BY license permitting remix
and reuse (Creative Commons, n.d.). Close examination of media licenses, copy-
right, and fair use come into play when selecting and reusing media assets. This can
be a challenging and eye-opening experience for some. Hobbs (2010) has noted
considerable confusion among educators who sometimes think there are no limits
when it comes to using media in education. Similar confusion has come up numer-
ous times in the YouTube for Educators course when students upload copyrighted
materials in their video projects despite instructions provided to circumvent these
problems. Videos are automatically scanned by the Content ID system on YouTube
and students sometimes encounter problems with videos getting muted or blocked
(YouTube Help Center, n.d.b). This can happen even with legitimate public domain
content, although a dispute system is in place to resolve these types of problems. It
opens an interesting dialogue regarding copyright, fair use, and automated scanning
systems.
Use and Produce╇ Students have created a variety of videos with the remix
approach in the YouTube for Educators course on topics such as the evolution of
animation, parts of speech in classic cartoons, and propaganda in film. (A playl-
ists of remix examples is available at https://sites.google.com/site/vmlexamples.)
In these educational remix videos, students use images, sound files, and portions of
existing videos to compose something new. Possibilities for creative repurposing of
media assets are endless. However, the mini-documentary video is one particularly
good application for video remix due to the availability of media that has entered
the public domain because of age. In a mini-documentary, a video is created as a
factual story that can feature local people, places, events, or other historical stories.
An example is the video called Making Movies in the Late 1800s: Edison’s Black
Maria (Snelson 2012), which was created with public domain media to tell the story
of the first movie studio in the USA where films were produced in conjunction with
the newly invented motion picture technologies.

Interactive YouTube Videos

Interactive video is another advanced project created in the YouTube for Educa-
tors course. This project highlights how the tools on YouTube add functionality
after video production and upload. Interactive video is created with an annotations
tool on YouTube, which offers a way to add links from one video to another after
upload. It is possible to create video quizzes, simulations, virtual tours, interactive
adventures, or branching stories by linking a collection of videos together. Each
new video presents a set of choices for different pathways through the content based
on user decision enacted by clicking on the video link.
180 C. Snelson

Access and Evaluate╇ One of the first steps in the interactive video project is to
access and evaluate several examples on YouTube, which are provided in a playlist
at https://sites.google.com/site/vmlexamples. The examples are reviewed for con-
tent, but also for branching structures, to analyze and evaluate how the videos are
linked together on YouTube. Each video contains links on it that allow users to click
and open a new video.
Use and Produce╇ The process of designing and creating an interactive video intro-
duces the nonlinear element to video, which can change the instructional message
depending on user selection. This is different from traditional film or video, which
is a sequential presentation. With interactive video, an educator can create a vir-
tual tour of a local historical site, create an audiovisual quiz, or simulate decision-
making processes. This is a much different way to engage learners with the video
content and relatively easy to do on YouTube.

Reflection and Conclusion

YouTube was selected as a platform where students could develop their technical
and instructional media design skills and it has worked very well over the years.
The technologies are robust, content is widely available on many topics, and the
presence of YouTube-related stories in the news provide plenty to talk about. As
illustrated in this chapter, VML skills are naturally integrated within the mix of edu-
cational technology, pedagogy, social media, and educational video design projects.
Over the years, Web 2.0 technologies have evolved along with the baseline skill
set of students. As compared to the early days of the course, students now tend to ar-
rive with more sophisticated skills, greater familiarity with video technologies, and
a comfort level with YouTube. Curriculum must be regularly updated to maintain
projects and assignments set at an appropriate level for an increasingly advanced
entry level. In addition, YouTube functionality tends to change often, which adds
another reason for continual updates. Anyone who teaches a course like the one
described in this chapter should be prepared for continual updates to course cur-
riculum and materials.
One of the remaining challenges for instruction involving video production or
social media is that of assessment. It can be challenging to identify and assess VML
or quality of instructional message in video projects (Schilder 2014). There is room
to continue refining what it means to have attained visual or media literacy and how
to measure those outcomes. Rubrics are used to assess student video projects in the
YouTube for Educators course, but they assess VML indirectly through assessment
of the final product. The online video rubric (Table€2) is a generalized version of the
rubrics used for class assessment of video projects created for the course.
Overall, it has been an interesting experience to design and teach the YouTube
for Educators course over the years. Much has been learned from reviewing projects
and discussion forum posts produced by students who are themselves educators.
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects 181

Student reactions to the course, and particularly to the video editing aspects, have
been positive. As one student stated, “This was such an innovative course. I really
like how it focused on video production in the education setting. I never thought
I’d learn some of these techniques, and I am really glad I took the course. I would
recommend it for any educator, and I had fun creating projects.”
The symbiosis of VML and educational technology is evident in student proj-
ects and also when mapping out the related standards across the course curriculum.
The course will continue to evolve, because social media and student experiences
with these technologies are constantly changing. However, VML and educational
technology competencies will remain central to future iterations of the YouTube for
Educators course.

References

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and as-
sessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Alexa (2014). Top sites: The top 100 sites on the web. http://www.alexa.com/topsites. Accessed
10 May 2014
Alexander, G. (2010). Academic films for the classroom: A history. Jefferson: McFarland.
Alon, I., & Herath, R. K. (2014). Teaching international business via social media projects. Jour-
nal of Teaching in International Business, 25(1), 44–59. doi:10.1080/08975930.2013.847814.
Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL). (2011). ACRL Visual literacy competency
standards for higher education. http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/visualliteracy. Accessed 10
May 2014
Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT). (2012). AECT standards
2012 version. http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/aect.site-ym.com/resource/resmgr/AECT_Documents/
AECT_ Standards_adopted7_16_2.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2014
Bergman, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every
day. Eugene: International Society for Technology in Education.
comScore. (2014). comScore Releases January 2014 U.S. Online video rankings. https://www.
comscore.com/Insights/Press_Releases/2014/2/comScore_Releases_January_2014_US_On-
line_Video_Rankings. Accessed 10 May 2014
Creative Commons. (n.d.). About the licenses. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/.
Duggan, M. (2013). Photo and video sharing grow online. Retrieved from the Pew Research In-
ternet Project. http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/10/28/photo-and-video-sharing-grow-online/.
Accessed 10 May 2014
Earle, R.S., & Persichitte, K.A. (Eds.) (2005). Standards for the accreditation of school media
specialist and educational technology specialist programs (4th€ed.). Bloomington: Association
for Educational Communications and Technology. http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/aect.site-ym.com/
resource/resmgr/AECT_Documents/AECTstandardsREV2005.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2014
Forristal, L. J. (2012). Using YouTube videos of anthropology of tourism pioneer Valene Smith’s
work and philosophy to balance the tourism curriculum. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tour-
ism, 12(1), 91–104. doi:10.1080/15313220.2012.650098.
Google (2014). Recent and ongoing disruptions of traffic to Google products. http://www.google.
com/transparencyreport/traffic/. Accessed 10 May 2014
Greenburg, O. (2009). Education for all [Web log post]. Official YouTube Blog. http://youtube-
global.blogspot.com/2009/03/higher-education-for-all.html. Accessed 10 May 2014
Hobbs, R. (2010). Copyright clarity: How fair use supports digital learning. Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
182 C. Snelson

Hobbs, R. (2011). Digital and media literacy: Connecting culture and classroom. Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
Januszewski, A., & Molenda, M. (eds) (2008). Educational technology: A definition with com-
mentary. New York: Routledge.
Jenkins, H., Clinton, K., Purushotma, R., Robison, A.J., & Weigel, M. (2006). Confronting the
challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. http://www.mac-
found.org/press/publications/white-paper-confronting-the-challenges-of-participatory-culture-
media-education-for-the-21st-century-by-henry-jenkins/. Accessed 10 May 2014
Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Estrada, V., & Freeman, A. (2014). NMC horizon report:
2014 higher education edition. Austin: The New Media Consortium. http://www.nmc.org/
publications/2014-horizon-report-higher-ed. Accessed 10 May 2014
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities
of social media. Business Horizons, 53(1), 59–68. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2009.09.003.
Liberatore, M. W., Vestal, C. R., & Herring, A. M. (2012). Advances in engineering education
YouTube Fridays: Student led development of engineering estimate problems. Advances in
Engineering Education, 3(1), 1–16.
Mayer, R.E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd€ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mihailidis, P., & Cohen, J. (2013). Exploring curation as a core competency in digital and media
literacy education. Journal of Interactive Media in Education. http://www-jime.open.ac.uk/
jime/article/viewArticle/2013-02/html. Accessed 10 May 2014
Morain, M., & Swarts, J. (2012). YouTutorial: A framework for assessing instructional online
video. Technical Communication Quarterly, 21(1), 6–24. doi:10.1080/10572252.2012.626690.
National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE). (n.d). Media literacy defined.
http://namle.net/publications/media-literacy-definitions/.
Paulussen, S., & Harder, R. A. (2014). Social media references in newspapers. Journalism Prac-
tice. doi:10.1080/17512786.2014.894327.
Pitzer College. (2007). Learning from YouTube. Participant Online. https://www.pitzer.edu/par-
ticipant_online/2007_fall/pitzer-college-news/in-the-news.asp. Accessed 10 May 2014
Potter, J.W. (2013). Review of literature on media literacy. Sociology Compass, 7(6), 417–435.
doi:10.1111/soc4.12041.
Purcell, K. (2013). Online video 2013. Retrieved from the Pew Research Internet Project. http://
www.pewinternet.org/2013/10/10/online-video-2013/. Accessed 10 May 2014
Scheibe, C., & Rogow, F. (2012). The teacher’s guide to media literacy: Critical thinking in a
multimedia world. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Schilder, E.A.M. (2014). Perceptions of media literacy assessment: A mixed methods study. Dis-
sertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. http://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bit-
stream/handle/10919/47727/Schilder_EA_D_2014.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2014
Snelson, C. (2010). Mapping YouTube “video playlist lessons” to the learning domains: Plan-
ning for cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning. In C. Crawford et€al. (Eds.), Proceed-
ings of society for information technology & teacher education international conference 2010
(pp.€1193–1198). Chesapeake: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
Snelson, C. (2011). YouTube across the disciplines: A review of the literature. MERLOT Journal
of Online Learning and Teaching, 7(1), 159–169. http://jolt.merlot.org/vol7no1/snelson_0311.
htm. Accessed 10 May 2014
Snelson, C. (2012). Making movies in the late 1800s: Edison’s Black Maria [Video file]. https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=CjSNrfpPFCg. Accessed 10 May 2014
Snelson, C. (2013). Vlogging about school on YouTube: An exploratory study. New Media & So-
ciety. doi:10.1177/1461444813504271.
Snelson, C., & Perkins, R.A. (2009). From silent film to YouTube: Tracing the historical roots of
motion picture technologies in education. Journal of Visual Literacy, 28(1): 1–27.
Truong, B. (2011). Opening up a world of educational content with YouTube for Schools [Web log
post]. Official YouTube Blog. http://youtube-global.blogspot.com/2011/12/opening-up-world-
of-educational-content.html. Accessed 10 May 2014
Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects 183

YouTube Official Blog. (2007). Announcing the CNN/YouTube debates [Web log post]. http://
youtube-global.blogspot.com/2007/06/announcing-cnnyoutube-debates.html. Accessed 10
May 2014
YouTube. (2010). Terms of service. https://www.youtube.com/static?template=terms. Accessed 10
May 2014
YouTube. (n.d.). Statistics. http://www.youtube.com/yt/press/statistics.html.
YouTube Help Center. (n.d.a). Add subtitles and closed captions. https://support.google.com/you-
tube/answer/2734796?hl=en&ref_topic=3014331.
YouTube Help Center. (n.d.b.). How content ID works. https://support.google.com/youtube/an-
swer/2797370.

Chareen Snelson╇ is an associate professor and associate chair in the Department of Educational
Technology at Boise State University. The EDTECH program offers several graduate degrees
online. Dr. Snelson has designed and taught online courses for more than a decade on topics
including web design, multimedia, and technology integration. Dr. Snelson developed a course
called YouTube for Educators, which covers video sharing and online video production for the
classroom. She has produced hundreds of instructional videos for use in her online courses, and
she maintains an active YouTube channel. Her scholarly activity centers on YouTube, online video,
and qualitative research methodologies for YouTube and other social media.
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance
the Teaching and Learning of Core Concepts

S. Raj Chaudhury, Lynn Mandeltort, Amy B. Mulnix, Eleanor V.H. Vandegrift

and Jennifer R. Yates

Abstract╇ Scientific visualization is a particular type of information representation

that involves the use of static and dynamic visual and graphical media. To develop
fluency with scientific visualization, one needs to develop the ability to interpret,
analyze, and construct meaning from appropriate visual representations. Results
from the cognitive sciences and discipline-based education research indicate that
visual images help us learn and reason. We present vignettes from a variety of
higher education perspectives in science, technology, engineering, and mathemat-
ics (STEM) disciplines that illustrate the use of scientific visualizations in differ-
ent settings. In particular, the cases illustrate how faculty recognized that a lack of
media literacy was impairing student success and then responded by embedding
the teaching of those skills into course content. In this chapter, we move from basic
interpretation of x–y line graphs in mathematics, physics, and chemistry courses to
learning biology from animated simulations and student-generated digital videos to
explain neuroscience concepts. Practitioners reading this chapter will gain instruc-
tional insight into the challenges students encounter when learning and strategies
that faculty can employ to overcome those challenges.

Introduction

In this chapter, we present vignettes that illustrate challenges the authors have faced
in teaching and supporting student learning and how we addressed these challenges.
We discovered that our students in college-level science, technology, engineering,

S.€R.€Chaudhury€() · L. Mandeltort
Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
e-mail: schaudhury@auburn.edu
A. B. Mulnix
Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, PA, USA
E.€V. H.€Vandegrift
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
J.€R.€Yates
Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, OH, USA
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 185
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_9
186 S. R. Chaudhury et al.

and mathematics (STEM) courses needed a particular type of media literacy—

namely the ability to interpret, analyze, predict, and construct representations of
scientific phenomena. Our instructional goals have required the use of static and
dynamic visual and graphical media. The National Association for Media Literacy
Education (NAMLE) defines a set of competencies, including the ability to access,
analyze, evaluate, and communicate information in a variety of formats (NAMLE
2014). This type of visual media literacy is, in our view, most closely aligned with
the interdisciplinary field of scientific visualization.
Abstract representations of ideas through static pictures, visuals, and diagrams
(long available in text books) are being supplemented by the ready availability of
computer animations and models, videos, screen casts, and podcasts that require
students to focus on visuals that represent the material (Toto and Booth 2008). Yet,
results from discipline-based education research in STEM consistently demonstrate
that students have difficulty interpreting representations of ideas and phenomena
(Singer et€al. 2012). Faculty often overlook such difficulties, even as students are
asked in situations such as a flipped classroom to interpret visuals without faculty
explanation and then use those visuals during subsequent class time to expand on
the material through discussion and guided inquiry activities (Fulton 2012). In ad-
dition, there is now widespread consumption of digital video through sites such as
YouTube and the instant production of videos through the availability of smart-
phones and other handheld devices.
The research base for the ideas expressed in this chapter is captured most re-
cently in Thinking Visually by Reed (2010), which presents evidence from empiri-
cal studies that human learning is influenced by visual images, both static and dy-
namic, that “help us learn and reason” (Reed 2010, p.€173). Reed points out that
while we communicate primarily through language, much of our thought is actually
composed of visual images. Mayer and Alexander (2011) contend that the act of
integrating verbal and pictorial components is critical for learning to understand. It
follows that to teach students to “think scientifically” it is imperative they learn to
interpret and produce visual images. At the same time, one has to be careful about
cognitive overload in the student (Ambrose et€al. 2010; Sweller 1994). Compound-
ing the challenges, particularly in STEM fields, is that students do not always inter-
pret media in the way instructors intend (Jenkinson and McGill 2012).
A likely explanation for the gap between students and teachers may be that ex-
perts interpret and utilize information within their expertise in different ways than
novices in the same field (Ambrose et€ al. 2010). Not only do experts think and
learn differently than novices but they are also typically unaware of the compo-
nent processes that contribute to their own learning, reasoning, and problem solving
(Wieman 2004).
Each of the authors has detected at least one instance when the beginner’s level
of knowledge and skills coupled with our erroneous assumptions about students’
media literacy skills, inhibited, if not prevented, student understanding, as well as
higher-order thinking. Independently, each of us arrived at the conclusion that for
students to make progress in our classrooms, we needed to teach them how to make
sense of the visual information we were presenting. We needed also to make our own
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learning … 187

cognitive processes more transparent for them. In the vignettes, each author uses a
lens informed by best practices in student-centered learning (Bransford et€al. 2000;
Handelsman et€al. 2007; Pellegrino and Hilton 2012) to understand the shortcom-
ings in media literacy of our respective introductory-level college students’ abili-
ties and to subsequently adapt our classroom practices to grow student fluency in
representational thinking.
The adjustments each of us made to our teaching address one or more of the
NAMLE (2014) competencies. We introduced scaffolding and opportunities for
students to interpret, analyze, predict, and construct representations of phenomena
with static and dynamic visual and graphical media. The NAMLE media literacy
standards also call for instructors and students to be critical thinkers and creative
producers in the use of language, media, and sound to deliver a certain message.
We use the vignettes to model how technology can support intended educational
outcomes and to draw attention to the roles of the teacher and student as both con-
sumers and producers of media.
Although each one of us teaches in a STEM field and describes experiences
mostly with college students in introductory courses, we believe these issues are
relevant across many college courses. Furthermore, because our experiences repre-
sent diverse student bodies, some of our reflections may be appropriate for persons
teaching advanced high school students or upper-level college students.
We demonstrate in this chapter that: (1) when students are finding it difficult to
learn from visual resources, teachers ought to consider whether poor media literacy
skills are contributing; (2) teachers can support students in moving from novice-to
expert-like behaviors through intentional development of students’ media literacy
skills; and (3) best practices in teaching and learning can be applied to teaching
media literacy skills.
In each of the vignettes below, we explain why media literacy is important to the
field, and provide the context and content of each course. Each vignette also illus-
trates why media literacy not only supports students in learning scientific content,
which cannot be easily visualized (be it atoms or vectors), but is necessary for their
success in the authors’ respective fields.
Scientists and science-oriented readers may recognize the representations of sci-
entific principles we are demonstrating in the vignettes. Nonscientist readers may
benefit from actively engaging in the vignettes by asking how media literacy plays
out in their own fields. A theme cutting across the cases is that each of us encoun-
tered experiences in our teaching when we expected students to have a particular
visual literacy skill only to find that students were lacking this key skill—a skill
independent of the content. We have each described how we tried to support student
learning along the novice to expert continuum (Ambrose et€al. 2010).
In each vignette, the faculty experience is italicized and concludes with a re-
flective interpretation of the incident and advice for other teachers. The vignettes
are not based on empirical research collected on students. Instead, they model the
reflective and metacognitive strategies that teachers can engage in to improve their
teaching and how evidence-based pedagogical practices can be designed to support
specific issues in student-centered classrooms (Ambrose et€al. 2010; Singer et€al.
2012).
188 S. R. Chaudhury et al.

Vignettes

Graphical Literacy

Across scientific disciplines, ideas are communicated through symbols and graphs
with visual representations of data used to explain phenomena (Roth 2002). Graphi-
cal literacy, one way that students can demonstrate scientific literacy (Gormally
et€al. 2012; NAMLE 2014), involves cognitive skills such as reading, finding re-
lationships, drawing conclusions, and creating graphical representations of data
(Beck and Blumer 2012; Beichner 2008; Beichner 1994; Gormally et€ al. 2012;
Picone et€al. 2007). Pe’rez-Echeverria et€al. (2014) point out, however, that high
school students are infrequently asked to analyze graphical or visual information
and how it relates to written descriptions and yet this skill is important in college
science courses. Even students who have developed some skills in graphical literacy
may be unable to correctly interpret graphs when given more complex questions
(Carlson et€al. 2002; Pe’rez-Echeverria et€al. 2014) such as those involving rates of
change (Carlson et€al. 2002). Developing graphical literacy can be a learning goal
integrated across a college disciplinary curriculum. The vignette below describes
how one academic program created a collaborative tool focused on supporting stu-
dents’ development of graphical literacy. Both formative and summative assess-
ments, active learning, and authenticity of tasks are incorporated to support student
learning (Freeman et€al. 2014; Speth et€al. 2010).
One of the authors is part of a team of colleagues that teach undergraduate general educa-
tion courses in a program focused on building scientific literacy for nonscience majors.
A common concern across their science disciplines was that students lacked the skills to
synthesize and analyze graphs. The faculty assumed students would be able to extract infor-
mation from graphs and found that this skill was not only lacking, but its absence was also
hindering students’ development towards scientific literacy, including the ability to read
and interpret scientific claims relevant to their daily lives in popular media.
The collective recognition of the lack of graphical literacy led to a collaborative project
between faculty and the library to develop an online tool, “Graphicacy,” to evaluate stu-
dents’ ability to use and interpret graphs across disciplines. The online tool has several
layers, which can be used in or out of class to provide faculty and students with real-time
formative assessment about the students’ graph interpretation and construction abilities.
The most basic level is a ten-question diagnostic quiz where students respond to a set of
predetermined multiple-choice questions about content in graphs from a wide range of sci-
entific and nonscientific disciplines. Both faculty and students can receive feedback about
the overall quiz performance, success with different graph types, or understanding spe-
cific questions. Results are used to guide further learning objectives and classroom activi-
ties such as those described below for the chemistry and physics vignettes. At the most
advanced level, students and faculty can create their own unique graphs to best represent
data collected during the course and share the graphs with colleagues in other disciplines.
Graphical literacy is easily embedded directly throughout a general education course using
the online tool. Students start the beginning of the term with reading simple two-axis plot or
line graphs and move to more complex graphs with different axes or comparison of graphs
with multiple scales as others have suggested for graphing skills development (Pe’rez-
Echeverria et€al. 2014). As the term progresses, students are asked to read and interpret
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learning … 189

written text and transform those data into graphical representations. Without the early
introductions and step-by-step scaffolding, novice students may not be able to understand
the symbols and representations in a visual format.

Media Literacy Takeaways for Practitioners

1.)>> Progressive development of graphical literacy where students are asked to

access, analyze, and evaluate information across a course is critical to success
with graph content tied directly to course content.
2.)>> Students should learn how to communicate information and should receive con-
tinuous feedback on their performance through formative assessments and prog-
ress to higher levels of graphing skills.
3.)>> Development of graphical literacy needed for accessing, analyzing, evaluating,
and communicating visual information can be integrated directly into the course
assessments and activities using evidence-based teaching practices so it is an
authentic part of the course.

Application in Physics

Scientific visualizations play a prominent role in most instructional materials for

physics. In particular, the interpretation and creation of motion graphs is a central
tenet of the study of kinematics and dynamics and often challenges students who
must link the graphs to both Newton’s Laws of Motion and the real-world picture
being presented (Beichner 1994; Testa et€al. 2002). Moreover, graphs demand and
support visual thinking (Reed 2010, p.€99). In a packed curriculum, teachers need to
address building foundational skills early in the term, (e.g., graphical literacy) while
not sacrificing the learning of basic phenomena. The vignette below describes the
approach adopted by one of the authors to meet these challenges:
The first author teaches an introductory college level physical science course that is pri-
marily designed to meet the general education requirements for nonscience majors. He
noticed that students were having trouble extracting physical meaning from an image of a
relatively common phenomenon—a person throwing a baseball straight up in the air and
letting it hit the ground. Students’ mathematical backgrounds appeared to be correlated
to their abilities to make meaning from the diagram. After preliminary investigations, he
determined that students with a calculus background had no trouble analyzing the motion
(see Fig.€1). Vectors are used to represent change of position, velocity, and acceleration
of the ball at different times during its flight. Previous researchers (Carlson et€al. 2002)
investigated the issues that even high-performing students encounter with graphs of rates
of change (echoed in the chemistry vignette below). In addition, a compounding instruc-
tional barrier was that most students were nonscience majors and had less-developed
mathematical skills and little exposure to vector representations. Interestingly, the diagram
was provided in the students’ textbook (targeted for this audience) with multiple layers
of information that needed to be deconstructed to understand the physical phenomenon
being studied (see baseball player in Fig.€1). The text simply referred to the diagram as
an example of the motion of an object under gravity with no further explanation of the
190 S. R. Chaudhury et al.

Fig. 1 ╇ Example of motion represented pictorially in a learning-supportive manner with both sym-
bolic ( vectors) and mathematical ( graphs) representations side by side

visual details necessary to understand it. To help students grasp the underlying physics, the
teacher designed three additional versions of the diagram, each of which addressed only
one aspect of the more complex diagram (not shown here):
• Showed only the position vectors of the ball as a function of time.
• Showed the velocity of the ball as a function of time.
• Showed only the acceleration of the ball as a function of time.
Due to time constraints, only a single 75-min lesson using the visual materials was devoted
to this topic in class (which would have been typical for most instructors covering this
content). To enhance instruction, the faculty member linked the pictorial and graphical
representations of motion by creating the enhanced diagram shown in Fig.€1 where the
artwork is presented proximally with a set of graphs representing the same physical quanti-
ties—position, velocity, and acceleration as a function of time. To properly assess students’
learning, the physics faculty had to create his own quiz and exam problems. The textbook
had no questions that addressed the baseball toss visualization in either the end of chapter
problems or the supplied test bank. Working with the professor’s simpler set of diagrams
enabled students to demonstrate a greater understanding of these phenomena at a later
time. Other instructors verified that students enrolled in all course sections had covered
the same material from the chapter but without explicit attention to the visualization. These
students scored 20↜% lower on the same common final exam problem (Chaudhury 2005).
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learning … 191

Media Literacy Takeaways for Practitioners

1.)>> Explicit instruction in decoding scientific diagrams can help students overcome
limited mathematical knowledge to gain sophisticated insight.
2.)>> To align instruction with assessment, instructors may need to create their own
visualizations and examination or homework problems that explicitly test visual
literacy.
3.)>> Development of graphing skills for accessing, analyzing, evaluating, and com-
municating visual information can be embedded within the context of the course
and thus not detract from content coverage.

Application in Chemistry

Since the early 1930s, the American Chemical Society has recognized the impor-
tance of conveying both abstract and concrete ideas with images including the use
of projectors, slides, motion pictures, and other technologies for the display of static
or moving images in the chemistry classroom (ACS 1930). Because chemists work
by “thinking molecularly,” visualizations of the abstract are ubiquitous in chemistry
culture (Kozma and Russell 2005; Rocke 2010). In the realm of chemical educa-
tion, however, fewer recent efforts have been focused on the use of data-driven
rather than concept-driven visualizations (Davis 1929; DeMeo 2005; Hoshall 1934;
Kozma and Russell 2005).
The need for graphical literacy as a foundational skill in chemistry is evident in
that the vast majority of introductory and advanced techniques used by chemists
make use of graphical data. The skill of encoding and decoding discipline-specific
information through graphs deserves more explicit attention, as suggested by Speth
and colleagues (2010) who incorporated graph visualization in the framework of
quantitative literacy (QL) within introductory biology. This vignette describes a
common disconnect in the general chemistry classroom:
The chemistry faculty’s lesson was constructed based on student performance on homework
that was submitted and graded online. She included interspersed clicker questions on top-
ics that many students had responded to incorrectly in the homework. After a few minutes of
lecture, the first clicker question presented equilibrium concentration data from a reaction
( A  B) in a familiar tabular form. The students were asked to calculate the equilibrium
constant K from the given data. The majority of students quickly identified the correct
answer (from Table€1, K↜=↜B/A↜=↜1.0/0.5).
Upon reviewing the answer with students, the faculty presented the next question, which
employed a visual representation of the same conceptual material. The graph showed the
concentrations of two chemical species (reactant C and product D) changing as a function
of time, followed by a flattening as they approached equilibrium. The students were again
charged with determining the equilibrium constant for the reaction C  D. The distribu-
tion of responses on this question was much more scattered, with most students selecting
an incorrect answer.
192 S. R. Chaudhury et al.

Table 1 ╇ Numerical representations of data for calculation of equilibrium constant of reaction A↜ 
B
Species A Species B
Equilibrium concentration 0.5 1.0

Fig. 2 ╇ Numerical and visual

representations of data for
calculation of equilibrium
constant of reaction C  D

The faculty then instructed the students to consider the features of the graph and what
they knew about the condition of equilibrium. With the second polling of the class, the
majority of students (but not all) were able to correctly answer the question (from Fig.€2,
K↜=↜D/C↜=↜1.0/0.5; Table€ 1).
The numerical presentation of the data failed to make visible to students a fundamental fea-
ture of equilibrium—that the reaction approaches this condition asymptotically over time
(i.e., at infinite time, D approaches a value of 1 and C approaches a value of 0.5). Although
the graphical presentation still required students to use familiar calculations in the numeri-
cal form, the initial processing of the visual data was hindered. Recognizing the students’
discomfort with the graphical presentation, from this point on, the faculty utilized strategies
incorporating visual data in both the classroom and teaching laboratory. Deliberately jux-
taposing graphical and numerical forms of the same conceptual material provides a means
to probe and practice visual literacy and can lead to students more consistently responding
correctly on assessments.
In the teaching laboratory, where students collect and use data, the visualization exercises
can be used in greater depth as pre-laboratory or “dry laboratory” assignments. In one
iteration, the faculty distributed hypothetical data to students for experiments that mirrored
content from the lecture course. Another disconnect emerged in this context. Although stu-
dents had spent significant time studying and practicing problems with the same conceptual
content, they struggled to graph and interpret the data in the visual format.
Finally, the chemistry faculty used varied forms of assessment both inside and outside class
to help students learn. She also adjusted instruction to be informed by assessment. She
approached graphical literacy as tightly coupled to chemistry—students learn to process
visual data not just as an isolated skill but also as a means to understand concepts. It
may be pertinent here to make an analogy to the “learn to read” and “read to learn”
approaches in traditional literacy (Duke et€al. 2003): Students should not learn to read
(graphs) solely for the purpose of reading. A more productive view of reading might be as
“a cognitive process in which learners actively construct their [science] knowledge in a
transaction with the text” (Gillis and MacDougall 2007).
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learning … 193

Media Literacy Takeaways for Practitioners

1.)>> Students who excel in traditional numerical assessments of evaluating informa-

tion may struggle with visual equivalents.
2.)>> Juxtaposing visual and tabular/numeric forms of the same content can help
instructors identify the degree to which students can evaluate and analyze visual
information.
3.)>> Deliberate integration of numerical competence and visual literacy for evalua-
tion, analysis, and construction of meaning can be addressed through collabora-
tion between laboratory and lecture courses.

Application in Biology

Biology has benefited tremendously from advances in various forms of microscopy

and structural analyses of complex molecules (e.g., X-ray crystallography). Each
of these tools generates static images that range across orders of magnitude in size
(tissue to cell to molecule) or that capture a series across time (how a molecule
moves from one compartment in a cell to another) or space (rotation of a molecule
around an axis). In the last decade, sophisticated computer graphics and animations
have allowed composite representations of cells, molecules, and processes to be
represented in ways that illustrate changes across size (zoom in/out), time (forward/
reverse stepping), and space (rotation). Teachers highly value these latter develop-
ments in part because they better represent complex multidimensional relationships
(Jenkinson and McGill 2012). However, teacher-experts often fail to understand that
it is their extensive knowledge and experience that allows them to recognize, com-
prehend, and extract information from all of these visuals (Bransford et€al. 2000).
In fact, students do not always understand in what ways a visual represents a real-
world phenomenon (Uttal and O’Doherty 2008). As novices, students need explicit
instruction in interpreting and utilizing these animations, videos, or even the dia-
grams that accompany a text (Schönborn and Anderson 2006). The vignette below
describes one instructor’s experience in cell/molecular biology:
The “Inner Life of the Cell” is a beautiful and dynamic animation of the workings of a cell
built from an understanding of abstract structures and functions that experts have con-
structed over their careers (Fig. 3). When watching this video, a cell biologist immediately
recognizes a plasma membrane, nucleus, and mitochondrion. The relationships among the
cells and their components with respect to size, time, and space are so obvious that the
expert can, in fact, create a coherent story even without the narration.
Much to her surprise, the biology faculty discovered that her first-year students, while
captured by the beauty, could make little sense of the meaning, even after the content was
covered multiple times and in multiple modes. She did not recognize that although students
might have an understanding of the function of the mitochondrion and have seen both
electron micrographs and diagrams, they did not necessarily have the skills in abstract
thinking or in transferring their knowledge to new contexts required to interpret the anima-
tion. This became apparent when the faculty asked students to be ready to identify organ-
194 S. R. Chaudhury et al.

Fig. 3 ╇ Example of an image

from “Inner Life of the Cell”
showing a motor protein
transporting a large mem-
brane-bound vesicle along a
microtubule protein (Viel and
Liu n.€d.)

elles and molecules from “Inner Life of the Cell” as part of an examination. Because this
content was covered in lecture and represented in multiple two-dimensional images in the
text (e.g., micrographic images and diagrammatic representations of mitochondria), she
assumed students would easily recognize images. However, about a third of her students
were unable to answer: “What is the molecule/organelle to which the arrow is pointing?”
when asked on an exam. These students were unable to transfer their understanding from
a text-based, two-dimensional representation to an animated representation of molecules
and their functions.
The biology faculty probably should have anticipated the difficulty since a few years ear-
lier she had stumbled on the fact that her students were relying on textual descriptions of
molecules and processes rather than images and diagrams in their text. She used an active
learning exercise that asked students to match diagrams from the reading to their respective
figure legends. Many struggled. When she listened to the conversations that were occur-
ring, and when asked why this was so difficult, students admitted that they did not look at
the images when reading and expected her to explain them when she covered the material.
Both of these experiences have led the biology faculty to be more explicit in teaching media
literacy skills. During class time or as homework, she now asks students to interpret an
image on their own and/or to engage in pair and share before she provides a class-wide
explanation. In simple cases, this can mean labeling the structures in a diagram. For an
animation, she may pause and ask students to describe what they see in writing. Alter-
natively, she may read the text and/or legend associated with a diagram aloud, making
frequent stops and asking students to check with their neighbor to match words with the
image. She has also used this strategy when assisting students with interpreting results
in a research paper. Other kinds of scaffolding she uses to support media literacy and
deeper understanding includes asking students to predict outcomes of changes in the pro-
cess (what-if questions). She also models her reasoning processes by verbalizing her under-
standing of the visuals and how she verifies her interpretations are correct.

Media Literacy Takeaways for Practitioners

1.)>> Because some students rely solely on text-based descriptions when preparing
and studying for a biology class, they do not learn to analyze and evaluate infor-
mation presented in other media formats (micrographs, diagrams, flowcharts).
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learning … 195

2.)>> This reliance on text only may be due to lack of skill and practice in the relevant
visual media literacy or due to lack of recognition that use of visual media are
an integral part of the culture of science. Both of these can be developed through
classroom activities that require students to analyze and evaluate a variety of
images.
3.)>> Explicit instruction, scaffolding, and practice with feedback not only aid learning
media literacy skills but also move learners towards increased depth of under-
standing of the course content and lay the foundation for more advanced literacy
skills, including creation of media components.

Application in Neuroscience

Among the media literacy goals of NAMLE (2014) is to foster the ability of stu-
dents to creatively produce artifacts that communicate information relevant to their
�studies. While there are limited assessment data of learning outcomes based on
student-generated content in late K–12 and early college-level courses, several
positive outcomes are noted in the literature. With increasing use of digital video in
many fields of study and business, the creation of video and other visual media is an
authentic, skill-building task (Kearny and Schuck 2005; Willmott 2014). Instructors
who use these types of assignments find benefits such as creative thinking by stu-
dents, development of group work, storytelling, and building multimedia/software
skills that are transferable to other academic pursuits (Willmott 2014). Students
appreciate the creative nature of an assignment in fields that may normally seem
more quantitative and dry. Greene and Crespi (2012) discuss the value to students
such as actively engaging in activities, opportunities for social learning, and bond-
ing with classmates. The vignette below describes one instructor’s experience in
neuroscience:
The last author engages in two activities to build communication and presentation skills
in her students. In one, she has her students take part in a program by the Society for
Neuroscience called the Brain Awareness Video Contest. Students generate a video on a
topic of their own choosing related to neuroscience. The goal of the contest is to create
videos that can later be added to the many visual and other resources available to the
public (with a particular focus on K–12 educators and students) on http://www.brainfacts.
org, the society’s primary public outreach tool. While she does this with college students, a
recent high school student submission was of such high quality as to earn a special award,
and submissions have even come from elementary school students. She has created rubrics
to consistently assess student efforts when she assigns course credit for the student video
submissions. These video are professionally judged, but more importantly the very act of
creating the videos requires students to integrate different representations of the neurosci-
ence concepts and students have all reported on the benefit to themselves of engaging in
the exercise.
The second activity has grown from the realization by the neuroscience faculty that she has
worked in her courses to make her students good consumers of science in both academic
and popular press domains and good communicators of science in more traditional aca-
demic writing, but she has placed little emphasis on building public science communication
196 S. R. Chaudhury et al.

skills in her students. With a colleague in the English department who teaches courses in
Native American literature and storytelling, she designed a series of assignments focused
on “scientific storytelling.” Students have the option of telling their own story of science
(how they came to be scientists or an important event in their lives that involved science)
or adapting an empirical article to tell a story accessible to the general public. Creating a
video story is one of the options that students have to create and share their stories. Grad-
ing rubrics for these projects include content-based evaluation (e.g., accuracy of informa-
tion), accessibility of presentation (e.g., would a “lay” audience Â�understand the content
as presented), and presentation effectiveness (e.g., presentation skill in oral presentations,
writing skill in written stories, and video quality and style in visual media).

This faculty uses the video contest to provide an outlet for students’ creative sides
in dealing with a highly technical discipline. Her students also gain skills through
storytelling, such as making scientific information accessible to a public audience
as well as the practical skills of video recording and editing.

Media Literacy Takeaways for Practitioners

1.)>> Student production of videos, whether to illustrate a complex scientific concept

or to tell a story of science, is a valuable process and helps to meet NAMLE’s
goal of communicating science in a variety of formats.
2.)>> Video production can be used as a tool for students to practice the skill of trans-
lating science to a “lay” audience, a key component of raising the scientific liter-
acy of the general public. This allows students to gain skill in evaluating science
(for appropriateness to a given audience) and communicating that science.
3.)>> Video production need not be a costly or cumbersome process as reasonably
high-quality videography is found on smart phones and other electronic devices
commonly available to students and faculty. Most computers now come with
basic, yet versatile, video editing software (e.g., iMovie on Apple computers).
To communicate the science, it is imperative that students learn to use the tools
that enable the best communication and storytelling.

Summary and Conclusions

As the tools for investigating and representing phenomena have advanced, visual
media have become even more central to teaching and learning in STEM fields.
Students, however, struggle for a variety of reasons with understanding, interpret-
ing, relating, applying, and creating visual content. It is not clear on whom the
burden lies to teach skills associated with scientific visualization, graphical literacy,
and quantitative literacy (Speth et€al. 2010). Our approaches, as illustrated by the
vignettes and discussion throughout the chapter, have been to directly teach these
skills. Importantly, doing so has not detracted from course content coverage be-
cause each of us intentionally integrated discipline-based content with teaching the
media literacy skills (see Table€2). Our vignettes should be especially valuable in
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learning … 197

Table 2 ╇ Summary of student difficulty and faculty response and goals addressed by each vignette
Vignette Student difficulty
Graphical Unable to interpret meaning
literacy of graphs.
Unable to take data and
represent it as a graph
Physics Unable to analyze diagrams
when limited in mathemati-
cal knowledge and expo-
sure to rates of change.
Understanding multi-
layered diagrammatic
representations
Chemistry Unable to apply conceptual
knowledge to graphical
representations and vice
versa. Unable to recognize
multiple representations of
same abstract idea
Cell biology Ignore images and
relying only on text for
understanding.
Do not recognize multiple
representations of same
abstract idea.
Do not understand conven-
tions in diagrams
Neuroscience Lack of experience present-
ing material visually and,
in particular, to a “lay”
audience
Response NAMLE goal
Coordination and collabora- Access
tion across disciplines to Analyze
create a tool to help with Evaluate
formative assessment of Communicate
students’ graphing abilities.
Progressively building skills
using authentic examples
Explicit instruction in Access
decoding a diagram with Analyze
embedded rates of change Evaluate
information. Communicate
Redrawing diagrams so
each layer is represented
separately
Deliberate incorporation of Analyze
graphical forms paired with Evaluate
numerical forms. Communicate
Explicit instructions to cre-
ate and interpret graphs
Explicit instruction in Analyze
diagrammatic conventions. Evaluate
Scaffold exercises with
formative feedback.
Explicit modeling of expert
thought processes
Introduction of summa- Evaluate
tive assessments based on Communicate
creation of videos.
Use of disciplinary video
production contest to drive
student creative video
production. Tailoring video
products for different
audiences

higher education for STEM research professors, who spend significant time ponder-
ing visual data with fellow experts, and are also expected to teach novices, who, as
demonstrated, often lack these skills.
Scientific visualizations have the power to make concrete that which is not ap-
parent to the naked eye and thereby engage and inspire learners. We view the use
of scientific visualizations as a new type of literacy, which has requisite demands
on explicit instruction and requires appropriate scaffolding for learners. Proper
�attention needs to be paid to the development and usage of pedagogical constructs
to best support learners and educators in teaching media literacy in STEM fields.
198 S. R. Chaudhury et al.

Faculty should also be mindful that expert use of representations is an acquired

skill and, as experts, we need to build the same capability in our students. These
skills are not only essential for a deep understanding of content but are also be-
coming expected of a twenty-first-century workforce and effective citizenry
(Pellegrino and Hilton 2012).
A challenge that cuts across all educational levels is matching educational experi-
ences with development of cognitive skills. College faculty differ from K–12 Â�faculty
in that most do not receive formal instruction in cognitive developmental processes
(Brownell and Tanner 2012). The lack of awareness of students’ true abilities is
compounded by college faculty not recognizing how their own expertise contributes
to learning, reasoning, and problem solving (Brown and Roediger 2014). The vi-
gnettes we presented illustrate that even when faculty are otherwise striving to work
with and from what students know and to engage in best pedagogical practices, it
is easy to fall into practices that are faculty-or content-focused, rather than student
centered. The vignettes also illustrate how the process of converting to a student-
centered approach is an iterative one that occurs when faculty become attuned to
student learning versus content delivery and they engage in reflective and metacog-
nitive practices based on student learning assessments (Handelsman et€al. 2007). It
is our hope that the vignettes not only make other teachers aware of their assump-
tions regarding students and provide teachers with best-practice examples of how
to respond to student difficulties but that they also describe the reality that student-
centered teaching is a process, not an end point.
While our learning activities were intended to support student development in
STEM higher education settings, they are also applicable to K–12 teachers and to
non-STEM disciplines. Educators throughout the P–20 educational system should
want to work on developing students’ media literacy both for lifelong learning and
for a deeper understanding of content knowledge; excellent learning experiences for
students can be supported in both K–12 and higher education scenarios.
While the specific examples from the vignettes are designed for our unique teach-
ing experiences, they can be seen more broadly as faculty encountering areas where
students were struggling to understand content presented through traditional text
representation. Each author addressed this bottleneck in student understanding by
incorporating activities that allowed students to address the concepts through visual
means, and in doing so, faculty realized the necessity of integrating the teaching of
skills in media literacy with content knowledge. We believe more research should
be conducted about which particular skills and pedagogical approaches best sup-
port student media literacy development. However, we find the evidence discussed
above sufficiently convincing that we encourage instructors at all educational levels
to consider multiple media representations of content.
The approaches we have taken to building media literacy while teaching sci-
entific concepts may have implications beyond improving the performance of
our individual students. We propose that intentional skill building can contribute
to increasing the persistence and success of underrepresented groups in STEM
fields. Research suggests that student-centered approaches that build explicit
bridges between what students know and what they are learning can help close
the achievement gaps between students who have advantages versus those from
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learning … 199

disadvantaged educational backgrounds (Bransford et€al. 2000; Singer et€al. 2012).

Graham and colleagues (2013) review many of the challenges faced by students
and propose a framework to increase student persistence in STEM. Prominent in
their proposal is the use of active learning methods in introductory courses such as
those illustrated here. This active engagement of students in scientific visualization
may maintain interest in the subject, encourage identity as a scientific thinker, and
support persistence in STEM as others have found (e.g., Summers and Hrabowski
2006; Watkins and Mazur 2013). Additionally, we are hopeful that providing ex-
periences to learn science through visual representations and to improve media lit-
eracy levels the playing field for our classrooms that are filled with students from
diverse backgrounds by asking everyone to engage and learn in new ways.
In closing, we found several overlapping teaching takeaways for practitioners,
which are applicable to various disciplines. First, pedagogical approaches that com-
bine active learning and oral explication of expert thought processes are highly
valuable uses of instruction in face-to-face settings for students and instructors
alike. Second, providing introductory-level college students with multiple represen-
tations (text, numerical, diagrammatic, video, etc.) in the absence of instruction to
enhance media literacy may be insufficient for the desired literacy and content mas-
tery outcomes. Third, assessment of student knowledge and skill must be consistent
with desired student outcomes; if an expectation is that students gain skills in graph-
ing, diagram interpretation, or generation of media, then students must be assessed
on products (e.g., exam questions, activities, or projects) designed to measure those
skills as well. Fourth, translation of numerical competence into visual literacy is
not always direct but can be addressed by deliberate integration of multiple courses
or portions of courses (e.g., coordination of laboratory and lecture components or
course content aligned with a video production project). Fifth, teaching visual lit-
eracy can be authentically embedded in regular coursework and assessed through
careful design of formative assessments (e.g., clicker questions and graphing inter-
pretation assignments). Lastly, visual media literacy exists as a multidimensional
continuum, from the interpretation of simple line graphs to the creation of original
video. Appropriate course design in any discipline can help students achieve media
literacy.

Acknowledgment╇ Eleanor Vandegrift acknowledges support of HHMI Science Education Award

52006956 and her colleagues from the University of Oregon Library Interactive Media Group and
Science Literacy Program for their work on Graphicacy. Amy Mulnix acknowledges support from
The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. S. Raj Chaudhury acknowledges the contribution of Paul
Springfield in creating some graphics for the chapter.

References

American Chemical Society (ACS). (1930). Visual aids in chemical education. Journal of Chemical
Education, 7(4), 828–833.
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (2010). How learn-
ing works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco: Wiley.
200 S. R. Chaudhury et al.

Beck, C. W., & Blumer, L. S. (2012). Inquiry-based ecology laboratory courses improve student
confidence and scientific reasoning skills. Ecosphere, 3(12), art112.
Beichner, R. J. (1994). Testing student interpretation of kinematics graphs. American Journal of
Physics, 62(8), 750–762.
Beichner R. (2008). The SCALE-UP project: A student-centered active learning environment for un-
dergraduate programs. Evidence on promising practices in undergraduate science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education workshop 2. Symposium convened by the
Board on Science Education, Washington, D.C.
Brainfacts.org. (n. d.) http://www.brainfacts.org/. Accessed (2014 December 15)
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.) (2000). How people learn. Washington
DC: The National Academies Press.
Brown, P. C., & Roediger, H. L. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cam-
bridge: Belknap.
Brownell, S. E., & Tanner, K. D. (2012). Barriers to faculty pedagogical change: Lack of training,
time, incentives, and tensions with professional identity? CBE Life Sciences Education, 11(4),
339–346.
Carlson, M., Jacobs, S., Coe, E., Larsen, S., & Hsu, E. (2002). Applying covariational reasoning
while modeling dynamic events: A framework and a study. Journal for Research in Mathemat-
ics Education, 33(5), 352–378.
Chaudhury, S. R. (2005). Learning science through visualizations. Announcer, American Associa-
tion of Physics Teachers, 34(4), 77.
Davis, E. R. (1929). More about problems and graphs. Journal of Chemical Education, 6(5), 943.
DeMeo, S. (2005). Mass relationships in a chemical reaction: Incorporating additional graph-
ing exercises into the introductory chemistry laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education,
82(8), 1219.
Duke, N. K., Bennett-Armistead, V. S., & Roberts, E. M. (2003). Bridging the gap between learn-
ing to read and reading to learn. In D. Barone & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Literacy and young
children: Research-based practices, (pp.€226–242). New York: Guilford.
Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth,
M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and math-
ematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A, 111(23), 8410–8415.
Fulton, K. (2012). Upside down and inside out: Flip your classroom to improve student learning.
Learning & Leading with Technology, 39(8), 12–17.
Gillis, R. V., & MacDougall, G. (2007). Reading to learn science as an active process. The Science
Teacher, 74(5), 45–50.
Gormally, C., Brickman, P., & Lutz, M. (2012). Developing a test of scientific literacy skills (TO-
SLS): Measuring undergraduates’ evaluation of scientific information and arguments. CBE
Life Sciences Education, 11(4), 364–377.
Graham, M. J., Frederick, J., Byars-Winston, A., Hunter, A. B., & Handelsman, J. (2013). Increas-
ing persistence of college students in STEM. Science, 341(6153), 1455–1456.
Greene, H., & Crespi, C. (2012). The value of student created videos in the college classroom—An
exploratory study in marketing and accounting. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 5,
273–283.
Handelsman, J., Miller, S., & Pfund, C. (2007). Scientific teaching. New York: Freeman.
Hoshall, E. M. (1934). Chemical drawing. IV. Charts, graphs, and diagrams. Journal of Chemical
Education, 11(4), 235.
Jenkinson, J., & McGill, G. (2012). Visualizing protein interactions and dynamics: Evolving a
visual language for molecular animation. CBE Life Sciences Education, 11(1), 103–110.
Kearny, M., & Schuck, S. (2005). Students in the director’s seat: Teaching and learning with
students-generated video. In P. Kommers & D. Richards (Eds.), Proceedings from 2005: World
conference on educational multimedia, hypermedia, and telecommunications (pp.€2864–2871).
Norfolk: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
Kozma, R., & Russell, J. (2005). Students becoming chemists: Developing representational com-
petence. In J. K. Gilbert (Ed.), Visualization in science education. Dordrecht: Springer.
Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learning … 201

Mayer, R. E., & Alexander, P. A. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of research on learning and instruction.
New York: Routlge.
NAMLE. (2014). Media literacy defined. In namle.net. http://namle.net/publications/media-litera-
cy-definitions/. Accessed (2015 February 23)
Pellegrino, J. W. & Hilton, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transfer-
able knowledge and skills in the 21st century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Pe’rez-Echeverria, M.-P., Postigo, Y., & Marin-Oller, C. (2014). Students’ handling of graphs at
the university level. In B. M. Bruzuela & B. E. Gravel (Eds.), “Show me what you know”:
Exploring student representations across stem disciplines (pp.€ 71–85). New York: Teachers
College Press
Picone, C., Rhode, J., Hyatt, L., & Parshall, T. (2007). Assessing gains in undergraduate students’
abilities to analyze graphical data. Teaching Issues and Experiments in Ecology, 5, 1–54.
Reed, S. K. (2010). Thinking visually. New York: Psychology.
Rocke, A. J. (2010). Image and reality: Kekule, Kopp, and the scientific imagination. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Roth, W.-M. (2002). Reading graphs: Contributions to an integrative concept of literacy. Journal
of Curriculum Studies, 34(1), 1–24.
Schönborn, K. J., & Anderson, T. R. (2006). The importance of visual literacy in the education of
biochemists. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 34(2), 94–102.
Singer, S. R., Nielsen, N. R., & Schweingruber, H. A. (Eds). (2012). Discipline-based education
research: Understanding and improving learning in undergraduate science and engineering.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Speth, E. B., Momsen, J. L., Moyerbrailean, G. A., Ebert-May, D., Long, T. M., Wyse, S., &
Linton, D. (2010). 1, 2, 3, 4: Infusing quantitative literacy into introductory biology. CBE Life
Sciences Education, 9(3), 323–332.
Summers, M. F., & Hrabowski, F. A. (2006). Preparing minority scientists and engineers. Science,
311(5769), 1870–1871.
Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning
and instruction, 4(4), 295–312.
Testa, I., Monroy, G., & Sassi, E. (2002). Students’s reading images in kinematics: The case of
real-time graphs. International Journal of Science Education, 24(3), 235–256.
Toto, J., & Booth, K. (2008). Effects and implications of mini-lectures on learning in first-semester
general chemistry. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 9(3), 259–266.
Uttal, D. H., & O’Doherty, K. (2008). Comprehending and learning from “visualizations”: A de-
velopmental perspective. In J. K. Gilbert, M. Reiner, & M. Nakhleh (Eds.), Models and model-
ing in science education: Vol.€3. Visualization: theory and practice in science education. The
Netherlands: Springer.
Viel, A. & Liu, R. A. (n.€d.) Inner life of the cell. http://multimedia.mcb.harvard.edu/. Accessed
(2014 December 15)
Watkins, J., & Mazur, E. (2013). Retaining students in science, technology, engineering, and math-
ematics (STEM) majors. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(5), 36–41.
Wieman, C. (2004). Why not try a scientific approach to science education. Change, (Sept–Oct)
9–15.
Willmott, C. (2014). Teaching bioethics via the production of student-generated videos. Journal of
Biological Education. doi:10.1080/00219266.2014.897640. (1–12).

S. Raj Chaudhuryâ•… is a Special Assistant for International Programs and Distance Learning in
the Office of the Provost at Auburn University. He was formerly with the Biggio Center for the
Enhancement of Teaching and Learning. He has conducted research into the use of emerging tech-
nologies for the teaching and learning of abstract science concepts in secondary and postsecond-
ary instructional settings, including digital video, classroom response systems, and graphical data
visualizations. His work has been funded by The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
202 S. R. Chaudhury et al.

(NASA), National Science Foundation (NSF), and US Department of Education. A member of the
Carnegie Academy for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (CASTL), Chaudhury received
his B.A. in physics from Vassar College and Ph.D. in physics from University of California, Los
Angeles.

Lynn Mandeltortâ•… is a Lecturer with the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Au-
burn University. After earning a B.S. from the College of Charleston, she pursued a doctorate in
physical chemistry from the University of Virginia. She then worked as a postdoctoral scholar at
Auburn University where she developed course curricula for introductory chemistry laboratories.
As a lecturer for medium and large enrollment courses, her interests lie in student engagement and
active learning spaces.

Amy B. Mulnixâ•… is director of the Faculty Center at Franklin and Marshall College which pro-
vides programming and support for faculty across all career stages in the areas of teaching and
learning, scholarship, and contributions to community. A biologist by training, Dr. Mulnix’s pri-
mary interests are in translation of learning research to classroom practice and investigating factors
that characterize faculty willing to take risks in the classroom.

Eleanor V.H. Vandegriftâ•… is the associate director of the Science Literacy Program and a senior
instructor of biology at the University of Oregon. Her work focuses on supporting faculty and
graduate students with implementation of active learning through evidence-based student-centered
pedagogical approaches in college science courses. She is active in efforts to promote national
STEM reform as a National Academies Education fellow and National Academies Education men-
tor with the Summer Institutes on Undergraduate Education. She completed her undergraduate
studies in biology at Earlham College and graduate studies in forest ecology at Oregon State
University.

Jennifer R. Yates╇ is assistant professor of psychology and neuroscience at Ohio Wesleyan Uni-
versity (OWU). She is director of the David O. Robbins Neuroscience Program. She served in the
past as the president of the Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience and currently serves on the
Society for Neuroscience Public Education and Communication Committee. She is coordinator
of the Teaching Circle at OWU. She received her B.S. in psychology and pre-medicine from the
University of Dayton and earned her Ph.D. in neurobiology from the University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill.
Mapping Concepts for Learning

Taralynn Hartsell

Abstract╇ Graphic organizers such as concept mapping help instructors and stu-
dents organize information visually. For instructors, concept maps help in the plan-
ning and presentation of course material through visual means to demonstrate how
ideas, concepts, and topics are related. Concept maps can also offer students an
alternative way to structure content, comprehend the relationships between topics,
and present their understanding to others. This pilot case study demonstrates how
an instructor of a graduate course uses concept maps to structure textbook material.
Instead of using text notes and traditional outlines to highlight certain information
in the textbook, the instructor uses concept maps to present the information visually.
Student responses concerning the use of concept maps are also addressed in the case
study. As a result, the instructor discovered that although concept maps were much
more difficult to design initially, graduate students appeared to enjoy the option of
reviewing a visual organizer of the key points in the textbook chapters than reading
text-based notes. Concept maps accommodated the various learning styles of the
students and helped the instructor organize course content.

Introduction

Visual learning occurs when learners improve their comprehension and retention
of information through a graphical means by associating ideas, words, and con-
cepts with images (O’Bannon and Puckett 2010).Visual learning has been related to
graphic organizers as they provide a visual display of information that may be more
easily understood. Visual learning through the means of graphic organizers can as-
sist both instructors and learners in facilitating the presentation and acquisition of
knowledge. Information and content presented in text-based formats can be more
easily understood once images and links between the concepts, supplemented with
words and notes, are offered.

T.€Hartsell€()
Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Education,
The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA
e-mail: taralynn.hartsell@usm.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 203
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_10
204 T. Hartsell

This chapter addresses the various areas associated with the use of graphic orga-
nizers and their relation to teaching and learning, particularly in the form of concept
maps. Concept maps, in particular, “demonstrate how individuals visualize relation-
ships between various concepts” and is generally, “a graphical node-arc represen-
tation of concepts and their relationships with each other” (Daugherty et€al. 2012,
p.€11). First, an overview of graphic organizers will be presented to offer a back-
ground into this form of visual learning and how the research has examined use of
graphic organizers. A discussion of learning theories that sustain visual learning is
then given to provide a foundation of how graphic organizers and concept mapping
can support the learning process. A descriptive case study of the author’s imple-
mentation of concept maps in instruction is described to assist in understanding
the value of using graphic organizers. Finally, a discussion for further examination
concerning the integration of concept mapping into learning activities is offered.

Background

Graphic organizers provide a visual aid in facilitating learning and instruction of

both concrete and abstract concepts. Graphic organizers can become an effective
visual representation of information that permits learners to examine patterns and
relationships. Lerner (2000) defines graphic organizers as “visual representations of
concepts, knowledge, or information that incorporate both text and pictures. They
make it easier for a person to understand the information by allowing the mind ‘to
see’ complex relationships” (p.€207). There are different types of graphic organizers
and have been referred to as concept maps, diagrams, advance organizers, semantic
maps, and webs (Dexter and Hughes 2011; Kim et€al. 2004). Although each type
may vary slightly in terms of focus and design, graphics organizers overall serve
one purpose: provide an alternative way to comprehend concepts, ideas, content,
and relationships in a graphical representation by the learner.

Application of Learning Theories

Learning information visually is based upon the original work of David Ausubel in
the 1960s. He focused upon how learners’ cognitive structures help them organize
new information through the assimilation learning theory (Ausubel et€al. 1978).This
theory assumes that learning occurs through the assimilation of new concepts into
existing concept frameworks held by the learner. Ausubel believed that graphic or-
ganizers could help students put in order the new information through visual means
(Mayer 2003; Novak 1998). Visuals such as maps, diagrams, and charts could facili-
tate learning by assembling the information into categories. This is particularly use-
ful when ideas are unfamiliar or abstract. Graphic organizers could direct learners’
Mapping Concepts for Learning 205

attention to new concepts by highlighting information and reinforcing learners’ pri-

or knowledge. Ausubel was a supporter of the now-known schema theory in which
new knowledge was dependent upon previous knowledge embedded in the indi-
vidual. By constructing a network of ideas from previous experiences, learners can
add upon those ideas with the new information. Construction of knowledge begins
as learners observe and recognize instances in which the information has already
been ingrained by their experiences. Graphic organizers, in this sense, are useful in
clarifying links between the old and new knowledge (All et€al. 2003).
Graphic organizers or visual learning encompasses a variety of learning
theories. These learning theories help explain the foundation from which graphic
organizers are built upon. Understanding the foundation assists instructors in facil-
itating student learning by connecting learning styles with the creation of graphic
organizers. Three primary learning theories include dual coding, schema, and cog-
nitive load. Dual coding theory suggests that learners code information in both
verbal and nonverbal formats (Clark and Paivio 1991). Both can be addressed with
visual learning tools, and thus, make retention easier. Schema theory proposes that
schemas (networks of information) exist in a learner’s memory, and these schemas
make up prior knowledge (Axelrod 1973). Visual learning tools assist learners in
linking the existing schemas to the new knowledge. Finally, cognitive load theory
explains that there is a limit to the information that can be processed at one time
(Ayers and Pass 2012). If that limit exceeds, no learning will take place. Visual
learning tools such as graphic organizers can reduce the load and make learning
possible.

Relation to Visual–Spatial Learning

Using images instead of text form can accommodate learners with different learn-
ing styles. This is true in particular for the visual–spatial learner. Linda Silverman
(2002), one of the founders of visual–spatial learning in the 1980s, developed the
concept after observing several gifted children who excelled on tests that integrated
a visual component. She defined visual–spatial learners as those who (a) think in
pictures than words, (b) learn better visually than auditorally, (c) learn holistically
and not from repetition and drill, (d) are nonsequential and take tasks head-on, (e)
arrive to solutions that they themselves cannot explain, (f) have difficulty in com-
pleting easy tasks and excel with complex ones, (g) view problems as a system and
miss minor details, (h) are organizationally impaired and unconscious about time,
and (i) are often gifted creatively, technologically, mathematically, or emotionally.
Because this group of learners that relies upon visual elements exists in the educa-
tion system, she proposes using visual–spatial learning methods to accommodate
such learners.
206 T. Hartsell

Rationale for Using Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers, particularly concept maps, can be effective tools to help the
instructor plan his or her instruction (Rye et€al. 2013). Concept maps are graphical
tools for organizing and representing knowledge that are generally focused around
a central topic or focus question (Novak and Canas 2007). For instance, a focus
question could be “what are birds?” The concepts or ideas related to that question
are then enclosed in nodes that can be in the form of shapes, boxes, or graphics that
represent the concept or idea (e.g., an image of an egg or feather). Each concept
or idea is then linked using lines and arrows that signify relationships between the
concepts. On the links, certain linking words or phrases are given to demonstrate
the relationship between the two concepts. For instance, if the concept map is about
birds, then a linking word between the concept of birds and concept of eggs could
be “lay.” Another example would be inserting a linking word “offer” between the
concept of feathers and insulation. In short, the concept map is a visual representa-
tion of all of the concepts and ideas that represent the main topic. The map helps
viewers comprehend information in a hierarchical order from top to bottom using
graphical means. Much like an outline, the concept map demonstrates the relation-
ships between concepts and ideas in a different layout represented by shapes, color,
text, links, sound, video, etc. (Novak and Canas 2007). In short, concept mapping
“can be used to transform abstract knowledge and understanding into concrete vi-
sual representations that are amenable to comparison and measurement” (Hay et€al.
2008, p.€295).
Because concept maps are graphical representations of ideas, relationships, con-
nections, etc., they serve as a foundation to plan lessons and content modules. No
instructor can teach every detail of a subject area, no matter how knowledgeable he
or she may be. Time, resources, and limitations of the human mind cannot instill
and remember every little detail. Careful planning must occur and concept maps
can assist instructors to prepare and review teaching lessons. By brainstorming a
subject area and dividing these areas into topics through the form of nodes or con-
cepts on a map, the instructor is able to see what topics are vital and what topics
can be eliminated from the module or lesson. Further, by examining the map the
instructor has the opportunity to begin developing class notes, student questions,
learning activities, and assessment. Instructors can also use concept maps in lessons
(Edwards and Cooper 2010). When they present information on a particular topic,
the instructor can match concepts on the map with the presentation slides. This ac-
tion provides learners with a visual organizer of the more linear presentation by the
instructor. Completed maps can also be given to learners as a summary of a lesson
or module. These maps can be used as a form of retrieval and practice for studying.
Concept maps could also be used as a form of assessment to measure knowledge
gained (Kamble and Tembe 2013). Creating maps with learners during class time
as a form of brainstorming activity can help learners become more involved in the
knowledge construction process.
Creating concept maps also benefits student learning of complex material
(Harris and Zha 2013), and improves their motivation (Paxman 2011) and retention
Mapping Concepts for Learning 207

of information (Blunt and Karpicke 2014; Wahidin and Meerah 2013; Yen et€ al.
2012). Mapping activities should be integrated into learning tasks as a way to
supplement lecture-type of instruction through a more collaborative and visual ap-
proach. When using mapping as a form of activity, instructors need to make sure
that certain processes are followed. These would include providing context for the
learners, providing clear instructions, focusing on the learning outcomes, and using
maps as a presentation tool to others (Daugherty et€al. 2012). First, learners must
be provided with an authentic situation in which the concept maps are created. If
the learning context is not authentic, then the motivation to create maps will not be
present. Clear instructions need to be offered to learners as they create the maps.
Loosely defined criteria can be given to learners, but this should be reserved for
those who are more advanced in using and developing concept maps. Third, focus-
ing the maps on achieving specific learning outcomes can assist learners to acquire
the information needed for a particular concept, idea, theory, etc., without straying
too far from the target. Finally, concept maps are to be shared. Learners can have
their peers review the concept maps to obtain different perspectives and develop
collaborative relationships with others.

Instructional Case Study of Implementing Concept Maps

The following case study documents how this author used concept maps in organiz-
ing material for a graduate level course in instructional technology and design. In
the past, the author has taught an undergraduate preservice technology education
course that required students to create concept maps concerning a subject area of
their choice. The students used the Inspiration software to create these concept maps
that embedded images, sounds, animations, and hyperlinks (e.g., web site). Students
have particularly enjoyed creating these concept maps and using the software. Af-
ter teaching concept maps for several years in this particular class, the author fi-
nally decided to take the next step and use concept maps to organize content for a
graduate-level course. Although the graduate students themselves did not create the
concept maps in this particular class, the maps created by the author were targeted
toward helping students better understand course content, primarily the readings.

Concept Mapping Software

There are a number of tools that can be used for creating concept maps. Beyond
using paper-and-pencil methods, computer- and web-based tools are also available
at low to no cost for the teacher and students. In this instructional case study, the
author used commercial software called Inspiration (http://www.inspiration.com)
to create concept maps. Inspiration had been used because it was (a) available to
the author, (b) simple to use, and (c) easy to export the maps into different file for-
208 T. Hartsell

mats (e.g., MS Word). Inspiration was a proprietary software, and students needed
the software program to view the actual.isf file format; thus, the ability to export
concept maps as image files, word documents, etc., was convenient in this case.
The software allowed the author to save the map as a Word document or a graphic
file. Because students would not have the actual Inspiration software on their own
computer systems, all concept maps were converted into a Word document. Inspira-
tion did this conversion very well in that the program inserts a graphic image of the
actual concept map and included a text outline that contained the instructor’s notes,
hyperlinks to web sites, etc. Inspiration could be downloaded for a trial period of 30
days, and some students did this to view the Inspiration maps initially. Further, the
software program allowed the user to add images, sounds, and change formatting
of the maps. This was very useful to differentiate the different levels and highlight
certain topics as the instructor.
Other software is available to teachers and students without cost. The Institute
for Human and Machine Cognition (IHMC) CmapTools is a free program that em-
powers users to construct and share concept maps (http://cmap.ihmc.us/). Created
by the Florida IHMC, the software allows users to construct their maps on personal
computers and share them on CmapServers anywhere on the Internet. Bubbl.us is
an interactive online mind-mapping program that allows others to participate syn-
chronously (https://bubbl.us/). This program is like an online interactive whiteboard
where individuals participate to create a mind map. Text 2 Mind Map is another
free online mapping tool for those in education and needing a quick map to create
(https://www.text2mindmap.com/). Once at the site, a person can insert his or her
keywords and the nodes are automatically created. Although the free tools may not
have the same features as proprietary software (e.g., ability to add sound files, con-
vert to different file formats, use images instead of shapes), such tools are obtain-
able and can be used for instruction or learning content.

Using Concept Maps for Organizing Content

Concept maps were created for the first time for an online instructional technology
and design graduate course called Sociological Perspectives of Technology. The
topics of this course included issues and trends related to social, human, ethical,
and legal concerns of technology such as developing an understanding of the factors
that contribute to digital inequities in education, promoting safe and healthy use of
technology resources, ensuring legal use of technologies, and modeling proper use
of technologies. In this particular online course, five doctoral and eight master’s
students were enrolled. Majority of the students were instructional technology ma-
jors ( N↜=↜8), with one student from the following areas: general studies, educational
research, curriculum and instruction, occupational education, and mass communi-
cation. This was the second time the author taught this particular course and she
decided to incorporate concept maps. This case study served as a pilot project to
determine the practicability of creating concept maps to highlight material from
Mapping Concepts for Learning 209

textbook chapters. Although the case study focused more on what the instructor
actually completed in the course, students were asked a few questions concerning
the use of concept maps at the end. These three questions were:
•)>> Did the overall course map aid in your planning for this course? If so, please
explain how the map helped you organize your learning (or not)?
•)>> Did you find the concept maps for the book chapters useful? If so, please explain
how they helped you in understanding the chapters (or not)?
•)>> If you were an instructor/teacher, how would you use concept maps for your
classes?

Procedures Implemented

At the beginning of the semester, an overall course map was created. Major topics
were organized visually into a web form that highlighted major topics from the sub-
topics. Each level was identified by a different format in the use of colors, shapes,
images, etc. Because the course included online reading material, web sites, and
videos (e.g., YouTube) these hyperlinks were inserted onto the map. This course
map helped the author “visualize” the overall structure of the course and served as a
bridge to the hyperlinked readings. The figure below illustrates the course map that
has been developed for the course. As seen in Fig.€1, the main topics were divided
into subtopics identified with a different format such as color. Hyperlinks were
underlined in blue font, and one instructor note was shown as an example of how
the software allowed instructors to add notes. Notes included additional information

Fig. 1 ╇ Concept map of the course

210 T. Hartsell

such as definitions, facts, questions, and links to sources (e.g., web site, e-mail,
files). Instructor notes in Inspiration could be opened and minimized, thus freeing
space on the map itself.
Concept maps for several of the book chapters were also created to provide stu-
dents with a visual representation of the important topics in the chapter, which later
helped facilitate the online discussions. These chapter concept maps also included
relevant hyperlinks to online sources. Only a few of these maps were made be-
cause of time. The chapter maps highlighted major ideas or terms addressed in the
chapters the author believed were most relevant and would help students plan their
discussion response.
Text versions of these concept maps were also offered to students who preferred
to learn through a text-based medium. This was a simple task to perform as Inspi-
ration allowed the user to quickly create a text outline from the maps with a click
of a button. Therefore, students were given a choice to select the most appropriate
medium to use. This author has observed that not all learners prefer visual images
and diagrams over text-based notes. Such learners acquire information best by see-
ing words and phrases, and thus, both formats have to be made available.
When creating concept maps for this course, the author went through a proce-
dure. First, the goal (course) or main topic (chapter) was identified. From this point,
the author brainstormed in a word processor the possible concepts or ideas that
related to the goal or main topic. In fact, the map originally began as an outline as
the author was determining first-, second-, and third-level concepts or ideas. Creat-
ing an outline helped the author in this particular situation because everyone learns
differently and she was attempting to create concept maps for the first time. Thus,
the transition from an outline form to a visual map assisted the author in this situ-
ation. After the levels were determined, the mapping of ideas began in Inspiration.
Because the outline had more words than what a node concept would contain (e.g.,
the assistive technology idea was originally written out as a sentence), the author
had to reduce the sentences into one or three words otherwise the nodes would
be too large. After inserting all of the concepts, decisions had to be made toward
the design. Color was used to separate the different concepts instead of altering
shapes. The author chose color with the intention that color would help students
differentiate concepts. To distinguish between levels (e.g., first, second), the author
used images to represent the first-level ideas to make them stand out and provide a
graphical representation of that idea. Pictures, instead of shapes, could help students
remember the concept or idea better. The layout of the maps was in a spider or web
form. Other layouts are possible such as hierarchical tree, flowchart, systems, etc.
The author selected to use the spider layout because the concepts in the maps have
no descending order of importance.
Mapping Concepts for Learning 211

Results from Using the Concept Maps

As an instructor developing concept maps for the first time, the author found the
task to be quite time-consuming at the beginning. Choices had to be made, not only
of the content but also design considerations. Colors, shapes, words, font styles and
sizes, images, and other features had to be considered. In addition, because concept
maps only include so much text information, narrowing material to a few words can
be difficult. Inspiration does allow the author to use the notes feature to add more
text, but she could not insert entire paragraphs of information into these. In addition,
because the author has been using text outlines and notes for many years, transi-
tioning from text to visual is quite daunting. Even for a visual learner who prefers
to have graphics, tables, figures, images, and visuals to remember information, the
transition is difficult because it required a different instructional style and thought
process. Like any other instructional material however, once the map is completed
the instructor can revise and add onto the original. The map does not have to be
recreated entirely, but serves as a living document to be modified as changes occur.
The students enjoyed the concept maps and having an alternative method of vi-
sualizing the course structure and chapter content based upon the feedback gathered
at the end of the course. Although not all of the students found the maps practical
in assisting with their readings, they benefitted from the maps being made available
and aided in their preview of material as they commented to the author’s ques-
tions. The author could not track or monitor students’ use of the maps throughout
the course. For instance, the author could not track how long a student viewed the
map or visited any of the hyperlinks on the map. Therefore, feedback from students
concerning the usefulness of the concept maps was based upon answers given to the
three previously mentioned questions.
The course map, as explained by the students in their comments, assisted in the
students’ overall impression of the course. To explain, the map served as a holistic
picture of the topics that would be covered in the course. Because the map contained
all of the major topics, along with hyperlinks to the course readings, the map was
more inclusive to the students, as opposed to going between different documents
to locate the information. With the map, they could see the entire picture without
jumping back and forth. One issue with the map was that the course map had not
been organized by week. Thus, students did eventually refer back to the course
schedule to make certain that they accessed the correct reading materials and re-
viewed due dates of assignments and discussions. The course map did offer students
a good overview as one instructional technology student explained, “The course
map was a good representation of what we would be covering in the course in terms
of topics. I had no clue what I was getting into before coming to class, and the map
helped me see the overall picture.”
Another common response concerning the course map was the layout and de-
sign. Students liked the visual layout of the course map as it separated different
levels and integrated colors and images. The course map was different from a flow-
chart format and helped increase interest as another instructional technology student
said, “A flowchart would have worked just as well, but I like this format because the
212 T. Hartsell

colors, images, shapes, etc. offered variety. I was able to see how things are divided
from one another.”
The course map also helped students identify and remember key terms. They
began to associate images, colors, and shapes to key terms or ideas that would be
repeated in the course. In other words, the map served as a useful tool for recalling
key terms and ideas as they proceeded through the course. For instance, a first-year
instructional technology student said that she associated the image of the stop sign
on the course map with the term security, or being more aware of the consequences
and repercussions if certain legal and ethical guidelines are not adhered. As she
completed assignments and participated in discussions, that image always emerged
when the topic had been mentioned.
The chapter maps also had the same reactions. Students seem to appreciate the
mixture of having colors, images, and levels to separate chapter content. The chap-
ter maps helped students remember key terms as they associated them with different
images, shapes, and colors. One response, different from the course map, was that
the chapter maps offered students a preview and/or review of what was to come.
Chapter maps gave students a preview of the information to be read. As students
read through the chapter, they remembered what they had seen in the map. This of-
fered them a way to organize and comprehend the readings as the mass communica-
tion student commented, “The chapter maps helped me see what is to come in the
readings, as opposed to going in blind. If the maps were not there, I would have just
begun reading the chapter without an idea of what was to come.” Another comment
concerning chapter maps was that they served as a review of material from previous
chapters. This aided in recall and retention of material as students remembered what
had been covered earlier. A student from educational research mentioned that the
maps “…helped me remember what the previous chapter was about. I was able to
see how the chapters either differed or expanded the ideas.”
A majority of students were new to concept maps, not even knowing they could
serve as an instructional tool. Only a few of the students in class had seen or used
a concept map before. Thus, concept maps in this particular class were a novelty
and students benefited from seeing how they were modeled. Some students, espe-
cially those who have been teaching, valued the opportunity to see how maps could
serve as an organizing tool for learners. A general studies student commented, “I
never thought of using something like Inspiration to create maps for my classroom.
Although my students are adults, I still can see value of giving them a visual dia-
gram of my course.” A curriculum and instruction student also mentioned how maps
would help organize his own curriculum, “Mapping my course may help ‘me’ bet-
ter understand why I am teaching the topics.” The students who were not teachers
also enjoyed the maps and saw benefit of using concept maps as instructional and
visual tools. One instructional technology student mentioned in this regard, “Maps,
because they are visual, helped me as a student in this class and I would like to try
to use them for my classes in the future.”
In short, the findings revealed that the students in this particular class did find the
maps useful. A few students did mention that the maps were difficult to understand
and navigate, and thus, they reverted back to the text outline form. This response
Mapping Concepts for Learning 213

was expected as everyone learns through different methods and approaches. Some
learners are more visual than others, and providing material in two different forms
(text or diagram) permits learners to select which method is best for them.

Reflections and Conclusion

This pilot project of integrating concept maps as a visual tool was enlightening to
the instructor and author. Personally, she enjoyed the process of making the maps
and found them helpful in preparing course material and assignments. As the course
map was being created, some topics were removed or changed from the previous
year because they were either insignificant or did not fit within the scope of the
course goals. Creating the chapter maps also helped the author in identifying the
most relevant information in the chapters that pertained to the learning goals. Over-
all, concept maps assisted her in planning instruction (Rye et€al. 2013).
For the students, they found the concept maps an effective visual overview of the
content (Harris and Zha 2013). Many commented on the diversity given in the maps
that appealed to their visual senses such as colors, shapes, images, and animations.
This helped stimulate interest among the students and aid in the recall of key terms
and ideas (Blunt and Karpicke 2014; Wahidin and Meerah 2013). The hyperlinking
capability was also mentioned as a benefit, but students did not rely too much on
these links in using the maps themselves. The visual aspect of the concept maps was
a feature addressed most by the students in this class.
Reflecting back on the course, several changes could be made to further examine
this area. One issue encountered was not being able to monitor use of the concept
maps. Because students downloaded the maps to their own computers and drives,
there was no ability to track how many times they referred to the maps. The online
course could only track how many times a student visited the page where the maps
were housed, but could not track how many times a map was viewed by the student
or for how long. Thus, a student could have just looked at the map once or twice and
did not even click on the hyperlinks. The author does not know how to overcome
this issue, but tracking students’ access to maps would have been beneficial.
Another issue that could help further investigation is making the concept maps
more interactive. In other words, students were the passive receivers of the maps in
this course and requiring them to create maps themselves would be a worthwhile ac-
tivity to examine. Instead of having the author create maps of the chapters, requiring
students to create concept maps of each chapter may be more beneficial, especially
when she cannot track the viewing of concept maps. Even more beneficial is to
group students after they created a chapter map to share their experiences and the
differences in perspectives among themselves (Daugherty et€al. 2012). This may be
more beneficial for the use of the threaded discussions that we, as instructors, rely
upon a great deal. Everyone perceives ideas and concepts differently, and concept
maps can highlight those differences. Student-created maps could also serve as as-
sessments to monitor student understanding of the topics being studied (Kamble
214 T. Hartsell

and Tembe 2013). Using concept maps for students to study from and then requiring
them to fill-in a blank concept map can be a form of learning assessment. Learning
can also be examined by having students create concept maps concerning a prob-
lem-based scenario, an examination question, or as a course reflection. Regardless
of how maps are used, student-created maps can be an alternative form of instruc-
tion and assessment.
Considering the visual aspects of concept maps, further exploration into the
types of visuals and their effectiveness upon learning could be performed. For in-
stance, creating different types of maps, one with just shapes and another with im-
ages or clipart, could offer some interesting findings when comparing the two types.
Furthermore, creating concept maps with different color schemes, such as creating a
monotone map (e.g., gray scale) versus a vibrant map (e.g., caliente), may be useful.
Comparing whether students prefer one color scheme to another could be useful in
terms of instructional design. In this case study, the author used a spider layout for
the concept maps. Examining how different layouts (e.g., flowchart, systems, pic-
ture) affect retention of material can be beneficial, especially when applied to the
subject matter being taught.
Using concept maps as graphic organizers for this course proved to be beneficial,
even though the author was not able to track their use. Concept maps, in this case,
helped students connect old information with new information in the chapters (All
et€al. 2003). The visual aspects of the maps assisted visual–spatial learners in that
they could see the course holistically (Silverman 2002). Although this pilot project
is just the beginning, other studies are certainly planned for the future.

References

All, A. C., Huycke, L. I., & Fisher, M. J. (2003). Instructional tools for nursing education: Concept
maps. Nursing Education Perspectives, 24(6), 311–317.
Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational psychology: A cognitive
view(2nd€ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Axelrod, R. (1973). Schema theory: An information processing model of perception and cognition.
The American Political Science Review, 67(4), 1248–1266.
Ayres, P., & Pass, F. (2012). Cognitive load theory: New directions and challenges. Applied Cogni-
tive Psychology, 26, 827–832. doi:10.1002/acp.2882
Blunt, J. R., & Karpicke, J. D. (2014). Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping. Journal
Educational Psychology, 106, 849–858.
Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology
Review, 3(3), 149–210.
Daugherty, J. L., Custer, R. C., & Dixon, R. A. (2012). Mapping concepts for learning and assess-
ment. Technology and Engineering Teacher, 71(8), 10–14.
Dexter, D. D., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Graphic organizers and students with learning disabilities:
A meta-analysis. Learning Disability Quarterly, 34, 51–72
Edwards, S., & Cooper, N. (2010). Mind mapping as a teaching resource. The Clinical Teacher,
7, 236–239.
Harris, C. M., & Zha, S. (2013). Concept mapping: A critical thinking technique. Education,
134(2), 207–211.
Mapping Concepts for Learning 215

Hay, D., Kinchin, I., & Lygo-Baker, S. (2008). Making Learning Visible: The Role of Concept
Mapping in Higher Education. Studies in Higher Education, 33(3), 295–311.
Kamble, S. K., & Tembe, B. L. (2013). Teaching of the second law of thermodynamics: Evaluation
of learners’ concept maps. International Journal of the Computer, the Internet and Manage-
ment, 20(2), 17–21.
Kim, A.H., Vaughn, S., Wanzek, J, & Wei, S. (2004). Graphic organizers and their effects on the
reading comprehension of students with LD: A synthesis of research. Journal of Learning Dis-
abilities, 37, 105–118.
Lerner, J. (2000). Learning disabilities: Theories, diagnosis, and teaching strategies. Boston:
Houghton-Mifflin.
Mayer, R.E. (2003). Learning and instruction.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Novak, J. D. (1998). Learning, creating, and using knowledge: Concept maps as facilitative tools
in schools and corporations (pp.€49–78). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Novak, J. D., & Canas, A. J. (2007). Theoretical origins of concept maps, how to construct them,
and uses in education. Reflecting Education, 3(1), 29–42.
O’Bannon, B., & Puckett, K. (2010). Preparing to use technology: A practical guide to curriculum
integration. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Paxman, C. (2011). Map your way to speech success! Employing mind mapping as a speech prepa-
ration technique. Communication Teacher, 25(1), 7–11.
Rye, J., Landenberger, R., & Warner, T. A. (2013). Incorporating concept mapping in project-based
learning: Lessons from watershed investigations. Journal of Science Education & Technology,
22(3), 79–392. doi:10.1007/s10956-012-9400-1
Silverman, L. K. (2002). Upside-down brilliance: The visual-spatial learner . Denver: DeLeon
Pub.
Wahidin, K.O., & Meerah, S. M. (2013). Concept mapping in chemistry lessons: Tools for in-
culcating thinking skills in chemistry learning. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 12(5),
666–681.
Yen, J., Lee, C., & Chen, I. (2012). The effects of image-based concept mapping on the learning
outcomes and cognitive processes of mobile learners. British Journal of Educational Technol-
ogy, 43(2), 307–320. doi:10.1111/j.1467–8535.2011.01189.x

Taralynn Hartsell╇ Taralynn is an associate professor at the University of Southern Mississippi

where she currently teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in the Instructional Technology
and Design programs. She earned her Ph.D. in language, reading, and culture at the University
of Arizona, with a focus on educational technologies. Her research interests include gender and
technology, distance learning, math and science education concerning the implementation of tech-
nology, instructional design, and preservice teacher education. Dr. Hartsell has published numer-
ous journal articles, book chapters, and encyclopedia entries in various publications, and has been
serving as an editorial reviewer for two international journals.
 Part III
Teaching
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional
Strategy to Promote Visual Literacy: A Case
Study

Darryl C. Draper

Abstract╇This case study discusses the effectiveness of concept mapping and

graphic organizers as an instructional strategy to promote visual literacy in an
online graduate-level course. The challenge for teachers is to select instructional
strategies that integrate visual literacy into the curriculum. Students utilizing visual
thinking strategies to interpret and produce visuals will help foster a higher level
of learning. Knowledge mapping as an instructional strategy promotes meaningful
learning. Digital knowledge mapping offers the potential to link knowledge of com-
plex theories and concepts to text, images, websites, virtual learning environments,
and audio and video resources. Graphic organizers are knowledge visualization
tools that support meaningful learning. Gowin’s Knowledge Vee diagram facili-
tates students’ use of their metacognitive processes to newly acquired information
in order to make meaningful connections. In 1984, Novak and Gowin presented
two constructivist techniques for learning: concept maps and the Knowledge Vee
diagram. The Knowledge Vee enables students not only to understand the structure
and meaning of knowledge but also in making important learning connections. A
content analysis was used to examine the presence of themes within students’ final
digital knowledge map justification assignment that provided insights on students’
thought processes, creation, and justification of concept map topics used to provide
evidence of higher thinking levels and visual literacy approaches. The chapter dis-
cusses the study results and recommends instructional strategies to promote visual
literacy.

Introduction

Technology has influenced the way students learn and how teachers deliver content.
There are two central challenges facing students and instructors alike: the dynamic
nature of technology and the acceleration of newly created knowledge. The rap-
idly increasing use of visuals and media in digital technology has increased the

D.€C.€Draper€()
Department of STEM Education and Professional Studies,
Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
e-mail: ddraper@odu.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 219
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_11
220 D. C. Draper

importance of visual literacy as well as pressure from accreditation agencies for

teachers to utilize engaging and meaningful instructional strategies to help promote
visual literacy. As a result, the challenge for teachers is the selection of instructional
strategies and learning activities that integrate visual literacy into the curriculum. A
descriptive case study of the implementation of digital knowledge mapping activi-
ties is provided to demonstrate the value of visual-based tools in the effectiveness
of learning. This case study focuses on a graduate-level blended modality course in
which students used the digital knowledge maps and graphic organizers to develop
their knowledge of course content. This chapter addresses the instructional strate-
gies used to promote visual literacy in the context of a blended knowledge-building
community of practice (CoP) learning environment.

Visual Literacy

Visual imagery has been employed as a form of communication since prehistoric

times. In 1969, the term visual literacy was first used by John Debes, Coordinator
for Eastman Kodak Company of the Visual Scholars Program at the University of
Iowa. After Debes’ initial concepts, visual literacy was tentatively defined as “a
group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at the same
time having and integrating other sensory experiences” (Avgerinou and Ericson
1997, p.€280). The term visual literacy can be deceptive because vision is used in
reading text. However, Robinson (1984) posited “…visual literacy is the ability to
process the elements of and to interpret visual messages, the ability to understand
and appreciate the content and the purpose of any image as well as structural and
aesthetic composition” (p.€267). More recently, Brumberger (2011) suggested that
the best definitions of visual literacy “stipulate that the ability to analyze and inter-
pret images, and other visual material, although critical, is not by itself sufficient
for full visual literacy; it must be accompanied by some ability to create visual
material” as well.
A visually literate person has the ability to read and write visual information,
the ability to learn visually, and to think and solve problems in the visual domain.
According to Smaldino et€al. (2012), visual literacy refers to the learned ability to
interpret and create visual messages accurately and can be developed through two
major approaches. First, teachers can facilitate students in decoding or “reading”
visual images proficiently by using appropriate visuals in their instruction. Teach-
ers select the most appropriate visuals keeping in mind the students’ age, education
level, cultural background, image type, image color, and realistic or abstract images
that reach desired instructional goals. Second, teachers can encourage practicing
visual analysis skills in encoding or “writing” visuals by incorporating learning
activities that foster students’ use of digital imagery to create visual representations
of knowledge in the form of presentations, posters, reports that include graphs and
charts, and concept maps.
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy … 221

Knowledge Visualization: A New Frontier

Technological advances and ongoing research in cognition and perception have cre-
ated new practices and approaches for visualizing knowledge. Unlike the field of
visual literacy, knowledge visualization is a relatively new area of study. The tre-
mendous amount of information communicated visually has made it imperative that
students become visually literate. In order to comprehend or “read” a visual image,
students must be able to consider the purpose and techniques used in the creation of
the visual message. “Knowledge visualization is the field of study that investigates
the power of visual formats to represent knowledge. It aims at supporting cogni-
tive processes in generating, representing, structuring, retrieving sharing and using
knowledge” (Tergan 2005, p.€168). Burkhard and Meier (2004) defined knowledge
visualization as the use of visual representations to transfer knowledge between at
least two individuals. Concept mapping is an analytical framework that can be used
as an instructional strategy that facilitates knowledge visualization to externalize
knowledge. Concept mapping can represent an individual’s knowledge that can be
shared and transferred to others within a group or classroom with the assistance of
technology (Novak and Cañas 2008). A set of concept mapping tools can be used to
facilitate the development and sharing of visual ideas.

CmapTools

CmapTools (http://cmap.ihmc.us/) was developed by Joseph Novak at the Florida

Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (IHMC) and was designed as a concept
map-centered learning environment that enables students individually or collab-
oratively to visually represent their knowledge. CmapTools has many features that
support the development and collection of knowledge maps with visual and media-
rich resources.
The application was developed with four guiding objectives (See Table€1). First,
low threshold/high ceiling refers to the difficulty level of use and the capability of
the application. CmapTools is easy to learn in a short amount of time due to the
streamlined interface. Students are able to focus on concept mapping and not a mul-
titude of icons that might distract the students. For example, students are presented
with a blank screen, and with simple drag and drop actions they can create and link
concepts in the construction of their concept maps. Even though the application is
easy to use, the environment can support large collections of concept maps.
The second objective is the extensive support for the construction of knowledge
models. Knowledge models are defined as a set of concept maps and the associated
visual and media resources (Cañas et€al. 2003, p.€3). CmapTools supports large
and small concept maps and resources allowing collaboration and the inclusion of
media resources such as URLs, documents, videos, and graphics. “CmapTools sup-
ports the construction of ‘knowledge models’ sets of concept maps and associated
resources about a particular topic” (Cañas et€al. 2003, p.€2).
The third objective extensive support for collaboration and sharing is based on
constructivist pedagogy and facilitates the collaboration and construction of knowl-
222 D. C. Draper

Table 1 ╇ CmapTools development objectives. (Cañas et€al. 2003)

Objectives
Low threshold/high ceiling
Extensive support for the
construction of knowledge
models
Extensive support for collabo- Constructivist learning environment where users of all ages
ration and sharing
Modular architecture
Description
Low threshold refers to the difficulty level of the application.
The ceiling refers to the amount of data that can be supported
by the platform
Concept maps and associated digital resources about a domain
are identified as knowledge models. Knowledge models are
scalable
are able to collaborate and share in knowledge construction
activities
Enables the development and evaluation of program function-
ality in a research environment without affecting other parts of
the program. Different versions of the program can be custom-
ized to the needs of different users

edge of students. The fourth guiding objective is modular architecture that operates
from a core module in which components can be added or eliminated from the ap-
plication.

Community of Practice Learning Environment

A CoP is a type of learning environment intended to codify and convert valuable,

tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge (Draper 2010). A CoP that is designed
explicitly around knowledge building entails several key principles: real ideas,
authentic experiences, community knowledge, constructive uses of authoritative
sources, and knowledge building discourse (Zhang et€al. 2009). These principles
provide empirically based guidelines for the design of learning environments that
support goals and elements of the CoP.
In a CoP learning environment, students engage in active learning by sharing
knowledge, real-world experiences, challenges, stories, tools, and techniques to
build and apply new knowledge through interaction and collaboration. This implies
a level of competence or a baseline of common knowledge as the foundation for
which members are able to use their individual perspectives to build knowledge and
effectively work together (Draper 2010).

Concept Maps Evolution to Digital Knowledge Maps

Novak developed concept maps in the 1970s. His research monitored changes in ele-
mentary school children’s understanding of science concepts over time. The theoreti-
cal underpinning of Novak’s research is based on David Ausubel’s work on meaning-
ful learning (Novak and Musconda 1991). Ausubel’s assimilation theory of cognitive
learning described how an individual’s cognitive structure develops and elaborates the
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy … 223

notion of meaningful learning. Ausubel posited that learning happens by the assimi-
lation of new concepts and propositions into existing concept propositional frame-
works. On the learning continuum, rote learning happens when the learner makes no
attempt to integrate new concepts and prepositions into their cognitive structure and
possess relevant concepts and propositions, and/or must be relatable to other ideas in
the knowledge domain. For example, concept maps are graphical tools of organizing
and representing an individual’s knowledge. Typical concept maps contain shapes
with identifying key words or concepts and connecting lines often with directional
arrows that represent relationships among the various words or ideas. Propositions
located on the connecting lines are “linking words” or cross-links between two or
more concepts. Essentially, concept maps are networks of concepts linked by phrases
to show the relationship between concepts, which can be either causal or temporal.
Novak (1977, 1993) suggested that knowledge creation is a high level of meaningful
learning accomplished by individuals or groups who have a well-organized knowl-
edge structure in a particular domain of knowledge and have a high emotional com-
mitment to persist in finding new meanings. To further his research in meaningful
learning, another visually based instructional tool was developed in conjunction with
concept maps. In a study with seventh graders, Novak et€al. (1983) combined concept
mapping and Gowin’s Knowledge Vee diagram to enabled middle school students to
understand the structure of knowledge and the process of knowledge construction.
Graphic organizers are knowledge visualization tools that support meaningful
learning. Graphic organizers are based on schema theory of organizing information
(Derry 1996). For example, Gowin’s (1981) Knowledge Vee diagram facilitates
students’ use of their metacognitive processes to newly acquired information in
order to make meaningful connections. In 1984, Novak and Gowin presented two
constructivist techniques for learning: concept maps and the Knowledge Vee dia-
gram (Novak and Gowin 1984). The Knowledge Vee enables students not only to
understand the structure and meaning of knowledge but also in making important
learning connections. Novak and Gowin (1984) posited that the Knowledge Vee
emphasizes the structure of, and interplay between, the theoretical and method-
ological dimensions of knowledge (see Fig.€1).
The Knowledge Vee comprises 12 elements divided into two parts: conceptual
and methodological. The overarching focus question guides the process. There is in-
teraction between the two sides. The left side or the conceptual side of the diagram
comprises philosophies, concepts, constructs, and theories that provide the founda-
tion for learning. The right side or methodological side of the diagram comprises
elements relating to each conceptual element located on the left. The right or meth-
odological side elements are: value claims, knowledge claims, transformations,
constructs, and data. Critical to the current discussion is the relationship of concepts
and records, toward the bottom of the Vee, the conceptual element is “concepts” or
the perceived regularity in which events or objects that directly relates to the focus
question. Directly across the diagram on the right side is the “records” element or
the data that represents the observation of the perceived concepts or events on the
left side of the diagram.
In a natural evolution, advances in technology have transformed Novak’s origi-
nal idea of concept maps to include resources in digital visuals and media that en-
224 D. C. Draper

ŽŶĐĞƉƚƵĂů;dŚŝŶŬŝŶŐͿ
tŽƌůĚsŝĞǁ
dŚĞŐĞŶĞƌĂůďĞůŝĞĨĂŶĚ
ŬŶŽǁůĞĚŐĞƐLJƐƚĞŵŵŽƟǀĂƟŶŐ
ĂŶĚŐƵŝĚŝŶŐƚŚĞŝŶƋƵŝƌLJ͘
WŚŝůŽƐŽƉŚLJ
dŚĞďĞůŝĞĨƐĂďŽƵƚƚŚĞŶĂƚƵƌĞŽĨ
ŬŶŽǁůĞĚŐĞĂŶĚŬŶŽǁŝŶŐ
ŐƵŝĚŝŶŐƚŚĞŝŶƋƵŝƌLJ͘
dŚĞŽƌLJ
dŚĞŐĞŶĞƌĂůƉƌŝŶĐŝƉůĞƐ
ŐƵŝĚŝŶŐǁŚLJĞǀĞŶƚƐŽƌ
ŽďũĞĐƚƐĞdžŚŝďŝƚǁŚĂƚŝƐ
ŽďƐĞƌǀĞĚ͘
WƌŝŶĐŝƉůĞƐ
^ƚĂƚĞŵĞŶƚƐŽĨƌĞůĂƟŽŶƐŚŝƉƐ
ďĞƚǁĞĞŶĐŽŶĐĞƉƚƐƚŚĂƚĞdžƉůĂŝŶ
ŚŽǁĞǀĞŶƚƐŽƌŽďũĞĐƚƐǀĂŶďĞ
ĞdžƉĞĐƚĞĚƚŽĂƉƉĞĂƌŽƌďĞŚĂǀĞ͘
dŚĞ<ŶŽǁůĞĚŐĞsĞĞ
DĞƚŚŽĚƐ;ŽŝŶŐͿ
&ŽĐƵƐYƵĞƐƟŽŶ;ƐͿ sĂůƵĞůĂŝŵƐ
dŚĞƋƵĞƐƟŽŶƚŽďĞĂŶƐǁĞƌĞĚďLJƚŚĞ
ŝŶǀĞƐƟŐĂƟŽŶ;Ă͞ƉƵƌƉŽƐĞ͟ǁƌŝƩĞŶŝŶ ^ƚĂƚĞŵĞŶƚƐďĂƐĞĚŽŶŬŶŽǁůĞĚŐĞ
ƋƵĞƐƟŽŶĨŽƌŵͿ͕ŝĚĞŶƟĨLJŝŶŐƚŚĞ ĐůĂŝŵƐƚŚĂƚĚĞĐůĂƌĞƚŚĞǁŽƌƚŚŽƌ
ǀĂƌŝĂďůĞƐŽĨƚŚĞŝŶǀĞƐƟŐĂƟŽŶ͘ ǀĂůƵĞŽĨƚŚĞŝŶƋƵŝƌLJ͘
<ŶŽǁůĞĚŐĞůĂŝŵƐ
^ƚĂƚĞŵĞŶƚƐƚŚĂƚĂŶƐǁĞƌƚŚĞĨŽĐƵƐ
ƋƵĞƐƟŽŶ;ƐͿ͕ƌĞĂƐŽŶĂďůĞ
ŝŶƚĞƌƉƌĞƚĂƟŽŶƐŽĨƚŚĞƌĞĐŽƌĚƐĂŶĚ
ƚƌĂŶƐĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶƐŵĂĚĞ͘
dƌĂŶƐĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶƐ
dĂďůĞƐ͕ŐƌĂƉŚƐ͕ĐŽŶĐĞƉƚŵĂƉƐ͕
ƐƚĂƟƐƟĐƐ͕ŽƌŽƚŚĞƌĨŽƌŵƐŽĨ
ŽƌŐĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶŽĨƌĞĐŽƌĚƐŵĂĚĞ͘
ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƚƐ
/ĚĞĂƐƐŚŽǁŝŶŐƐƉĞĐŝĮĐƌĞůĂƟŽŶƐŚŝƉƐ
ďĞƚǁĞĞŶĐŽŶĐĞƉƚƐǁŝƚŚŽƵƚĚŝƌĞĐƚ
ŽƌŝŐŝŶŝŶĞǀĞŶƚƐŽƌŽďũĞĐƚƐ͘

ŽŶĐĞƉƚƐ ZĞĐŽƌĚƐ
/ŶƚĞƌƉůĂLJ
WĞƌĐĞŝǀĞĚƌĞŐƵůĂƌŝƚLJŝŶĞǀĞŶƚƐŽƌ dŚĞŽďƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶƐŵĂĚĞĂŶĚ
ŽďũĞĐƚƐ;ŽƌƌĞĐŽƌĚƐŽĨĞǀĞŶƚƐŽƌ ƌĞĐŽƌĚĞĚĨƌŽŵƚŚĞ
ŽďũĞĐƚƐͿĚĞƐŝŐŶĂƚĞĚďLJĂůĂďĞů͘ ĞǀĞŶƚƐͬŽďũĞĐƚƐƐƚƵĚŝĞĚ͘

ǀĞŶƚƐĂŶĚͬŽƌKďũĞĐƚƐ
ĞƐĐƌŝƉƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞĞǀĞŶƚ;ƐͿĂŶĚͬŽƌ
ŽďũĞĐƚƐƚŽďĞƐƚƵĚŝĞĚŝŶŽƌĚĞƌƚŽ
ĂŶƐǁĞƌƚŚĞĨŽĐƵƐƋƵĞƐƟŽŶ͘

Fig. 1 ╇ The Knowledge Vee. (Source: after Novak and Gowin (1984))

compass both visual and media literacy. Therefore, digital knowledge maps have
proven to be a valuable cognitive tool in a variety of learning and instructional
settings (O’Donnell et€al. 2002). Digital knowledge mapping offers the potential to
link knowledge of complex theories and concepts to text, images, websites, virtual
learning environments, and audio and video resources (Tergan 2006).
Today, the need for visual literacy has spread across disciplines. A recent study
conducted in a graduate-level engineering program measured the effectiveness of
teaching physics concepts using digital knowledge maps (Martinez et€al. 2013).
The quasi-experimental study used a posttest to measure the amount of learning in
two groups of students. One group of students used digital knowledge maps and
the other group of students relied on traditional methods of learning that relied on
textbooks. The results of the study showed a significant difference in the amount
of learning from the group of students that used digital knowledge maps and “are
consistent with those of other studies showing that concept maps are a useful cogni-
tive strategy for the structured acquisition of information and for discovering the
meaning of the concepts being learned” (Martinez et€al. 2013, p.€211). Chiou (2008)
used digital mapping in a graduate-level university advanced accounting course
and found that the instructional strategy was effective in improving student learning
outcomes. Concept maps provide students an overview of the course content (Lim
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy … 225

et al.2009). Lim et€al. showed that engaging undergraduate students in the creation
of digital maps was more beneficial to learning than using digital mapping as a
static instructional tool in the presentation of information.
Concept mapping has been used as an instructional strategy to enhance learning at
the university level. In an undergraduate biology course, Adesope and Nesbit (2013)
utilized concept maps to effect learning. First, a group of students were presented with
content in a concept map versus text and animation versus static text in a computer-
based learning environment. Spoken narration accompanied the concepts and anima-
tion in the presentation of concept maps. The results of Andesope and Nesbit’s (2013)
study suggested that students’ studying a spoken narration with a corresponding con-
cept map was found more effective than students studying the same narration with
accompanying text. These research studies showed that when visual literacy compe-
tencies are developed, they empower a visually literate person to discriminate and in-
terpret the visible objects and representations presented in the environment. Through
the creative use of these competencies, students are able to learn more effectively.
Concept maps are a metacognitive tool that fosters higher levels of thinking and
are used as graphic organizers to externalize knowledge. Explicit knowledge is ar-
ticulated visually through the use of digital knowledge maps and reified or hardened
in the form of explicit concepts, propositions, and the inclusion of media embed-
ded within each concept. The resulting digital knowledge map can be shared and
transferred to others within a group or classroom with the assistance of technology.

Visual-Based Tools

Visual thinking instructional strategies enable students to handle complex and

ill-structured subject matter because they reduce the cognitive load on working
memory. Instructors utilizing visual thinking instructional strategies to interpret
and produce visuals will help students employ a higher level of learning to evalu-
ate, synthesize, structure, construct, and elaborate knowledge to achieve full visual
literacy (Bloom 1956). “The idea behind all methods is that cognitive processing
of complex subject matter maybe enhanced if structures behind ideas and knowl-
edge, as well as their relevance for learning and problem solving are made explicit”
(Tegan et€al. 2006, p.€328).
Visuals provide a concrete representation for ideas and information. In some in-
stances, text does not adequately represent the meaning of ideas; however, visuals
are iconic and resemble conceptual meaning that can be easily remembered and
linked to the original idea. Digital knowledge map as a visualization technique is an
example of an individual’s knowledge structure of a topic. Instructors use visuals
as an instructional strategy to gain, hold, and sustain attention of students. Using
visuals encourages students to engage in active learning by mentally making the
connections between image and verbal representations. Thus, connecting Gowin’s
Knowledge Vee conceptual and methodological domains as previously discussed in
the example of concept and records. Cognitive learning theory posits that individuals
have multiple information processing channels for visual/pictorial processing and
auditory learning (Mayer 2009). Visuals provide a redundant information-processing
226 D. C. Draper

Table 2 ╇ Revised Bloom’s taxonomy. (Anderson et€al. 2001)

Level/category Explanation
Remembering Recall information. Retrieve previously learned information
Understanding Comprehension of meaning
Applying The use of a concept in a new context
Analyzing Breaking down knowledge into parts in order to understand structure
Evaluating Making value judgments regarding ideas or concrete objects
Creating Creates new meaning or structure

channel when presented with spoken or written verbal information giving students
the opportunity to comprehend visually what they might otherwise omit verbally. Vi-
suals in the form of digital knowledge maps simplify complex information, facilitate
the storage and retrieval of the information, and serve as an organizing function that
depicts the relationships between ideas.

Bloom’s Taxonomy, Revised

Benjamin Bloom created Bloom’s taxonomy in 1956 as a tool to promote higher

levels of learning. The categories of Bloom’s taxonomy are knowledge, compre-
hension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Bloom posited three do-
mains of educational activities: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. According to
Bloom (1956), the cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of
intellectual skills. In 2001, Bloom’s taxonomy was revised to embody a more robust
range of cognitive processes and promote meaningful learning. (Anderson et€al.
2001). Meaningful learning can be defined as the ability to remember material, and
to use what was learned to solve new problems (Mayer 2002) and is based on Aus-
ubel’s (1960) work. Bloom’s taxonomy and the revised taxonomy (Anderson et€al.
2001) are useful tools for instructors to use when designing instruction or learning
activities that relate to knowledge acquisition. There are six major classifications of
the revised taxonomy (Anderson et€al. 2001) ordered from simple to complex and
concrete to abstract types of learning. (See Table€2)

Procedures

The following exploratory case study documents how digital knowledge maps as
an instructional strategy to promote visual literacy and learning outcomes were suc-
cessfully used in a course at a medium-sized state university in the USA. This case
study focuses on a graduate-level blended course in which digital knowledge maps
and graphic organizers were used in the course design. According to Yin (2009),
case studies are appropriate when the type of research question is either how or
why, and the investigator lack’s control of both behavioral events and the degree
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy … 227

of focus on contemporary events. The exploratory case study research method was
selected because this study sought to explain how digital knowledge mapping and
graphic organizers promote visual literacy and learning outcomes. Moreover, the
investigator did not control behavioral events (learner actions), and focused on a
contemporary event (i.e., course activities).

Course Design

A graduate-level course was designed for presentation in the blended modality and
using a knowledge-building CoP learning environment. Wenger et€al. (2002) de-
fined a community as a group of individuals who share experiences, learn together,
and engage in regular interaction through discussion and knowledge sharing ac-
tivities relevant to their domain. An online CoP may foster a high level of student
interaction through group discussions and collaborative activities (Draper 2010).
The newly created 8-week “Special Topics: Digital Knowledge Mapping/Man-
agement” elective course was developed. The course was specifically designed to
incorporate visual content instead of the traditional text-based, guided readings and
rich media resources, and directed class discussions that immerse students in the
scholarly works of the field. The students were introduced to cognitive theories of
instructional technology with guided, hands-on instruction on concept mapping and
CmapTools. The final course assignment required an individual digital knowledge
map to be developed on a topic of the students’ interest. Accompanying the final
digital knowledge map was a justification paper that followed the Knowledge Vee
diagram and the thinking skills associated with the knowledge construction process.
The course was developed for delivery in a blended modality: the first, middle, and
last classes were conducted in the classroom, while synchronous and asynchronous
online weekly sessions were used for the remaining weeks of the course.
The participants for this study included seven nonnative English speaking and
13 native English-speaking graduate-level students. The course was designed to
operate in modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment (Moodle; see
Table€3). Moodle was selected for this course because it is modular, highly custom-
izable, and is built on the constructivist pedagogy. Each module focused on a spe-
cific topic. The students were required to complete group and individual activities
each week. Group activities included collaboration on the creation of three digital
knowledge maps relating to relevant course topics. Individual assignments included
a final digital knowledge map that represented a student selected research topic
with an accompanying final justification paper that followed Gowin’s Knowledge
Vee framework (1984) to discuss the creation and decision-making processes in the
construction of the final digital knowledge map.
Course Activities╇ The pre-course activities were designed to promote a sense of
community and the foundation of the CoP learning environment. In addition to
the course introductory and team-building activities, the students started working
with the CmapTools application during the first class meeting. Additional resources
228 D. C. Draper

Table 3 ╇ Instructional strategies

Instructional strategy Description
Learning A community of practice (CoP)
environment is a type of learning environment
design intended to codify and convert
valuable, tacit knowledge into
explicit knowledge
Bloom’s The six levels of thinking:
taxonomy (revised) remembering, understanding,
(Anderson applying, analyzing, evaluating,
et€al. 2001) and creating
Graphic organizers Graphic organizers are another
visual instructional strategy that
supports meaningful learning
Use
Students engage in active learning
by sharing knowledge, real-world
experiences, challenges, stories,
tools, and techniques to build and
apply new knowledge through
interaction and collaboration
Instructors use the revised
Bloom’s taxonomy when
designing instruction or learning
activities that relate to knowledge
acquisition. There are six major
classifications of the revised
taxonomy ordered from simple to
complex and concrete to abstract
types of learning
The Knowledge Vee graphic orga-
nizer as a scaffolding technique
to help students construct digital
knowledge maps and make critical
learning connections in the devel-
opment of their final research
projects

were provided in Moodle to provide ongoing support for mastering CmapTools.

Each week’s assignments included collaborative knowledge mapping activities, and
discussion forum questions with critical thinking prompts that related the course
content to the practice and application of concept maps. During week 3, Gowin’s
Knowledge Vee (1984) was introduced to scaffold the students’ thinking skills to
focus on the structural elements of the task instead of the context.
Support for Knowledge Map Creation╇Novak’s (1977) research on concept
mapping for children suggested two different techniques to start concept mapping
activities: focus question and a list of predetermined concepts called the “parking
lot” and the use of an expert concept map for more complex knowledge. A modified
version of the former technique that used a focus question without the parking lot
was utilized in this study. In addition to the focus question, a number of readings or
Web resources were provided to start the process of creating knowledge maps and
the use of the Knowledge Vee to formulate the focus question.
The assignment required students to write a five-to-seven-page justification
paper of their final digital knowledge map that included an argument statement,
Knowledge Vee development elements and process as it relates to the knowledge
claims, value claims, sources explored, and an explanation of the placement and
interrelatedness between concepts.
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy … 229

Table 4 ╇ Selected technologies

Technology Description
Moodle An open source Learning
(https://moodle.org/) Management System applica-
tion developed and maintained
by a consortium of educators to
promote constructivist pedagogy
and a focus on interaction and
collaborative construction and
evolution of content
CmapTools A concept map-centered learn-
(http://cmap.ihmc.us/) ing environment that enables
students individually or col-
laboratively to visually represent
their knowledge
Adobe Connect Web-conferencing platform for
e-learning
Use
Discussion forums, URLs,
imbedded YouTube videos,
groups, content pages, e-books
The creation of digital knowl-
edge maps that include visuals
and media
Lectures and breakout session
were utilized for collaboration.
Group virtual workspaces were
created for ongoing synchronous
collaboration

Instructional Activities that Supported Learning

The following discussion will describe the methodology of the study. Table€3: in-
structional strategies and Table€4: selected technology provides an overview of the
elements selected and used in the design and delivery of the course. Then, a discus-
sion of the methodology will provide an in-depth description of the instructional
strategies, and the technologies used in the design and development of this course.
Learning Environment Design╇ As mentioned above, a CoP learning environment
was used to promote students’ ability to share and build knowledge using discussion
forums. Knowledge-building activities are not an inherent characteristic of commu-
nities and require facilitation for individual community members to achieve deep
understanding and the collective advancement of knowledge (Draper 2010). In this
study, students were encouraged to share their individual digital knowledge maps
with other students and to collaborate on group knowledge maps. The intent was for
students to codify and convert tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge.
Graphic Organizers╇ The Knowledge Vee graphic organizer was used as a scaf-
folding technique to help students construct digital knowledge maps and make criti-
cal learning connections in the development of their final research projects.
Blooms Taxonomy╇ The revised Bloom’s taxonomy design principle was used to
develop course objectives, learning activities, and the framework of evaluation for
students’ final justification paper statements.
Knowledge Mapping Software╇ CmapTools (http://cmap.ihmc.us/) was selected
as the knowledge mapping software because the features support the inclusion of
230 D. C. Draper

media resources such as URLs, documents, videos, and graphics and the ability to
link concept maps to related concept maps. The application was designed so that
students of all ages could easily learn the system without a complex interface; it
supports knowledge maps of all sizes and is designed on a modular architecture,
similar to Moodle.

Results and Discussion

The goal of this chapter was to demonstrate the implementation of instructional

strategies that promote visual literacy through the use of digital knowledge mapping
within a blended knowledge-building CoP learning environment.
The assignment required students to write a justification paper of their final
digital knowledge map that includes an argument statement, Knowledge Vee devel-
opment elements and process as it relates to the knowledge claims, value claims,
sources explored, and an explanation of the placement of, and interrelatedness be-
tween concepts. The following discussion focuses on the results of the statements
made in the students’ individual justification assignment. Emergent themes and cor-
responding statements as they relate to the Knowledge Vee diagram were identified.
The statements in each theme were evaluated using the following:
1.)>> Thinking activities using the revised Bloom’s taxonomy categories of remem-
bering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating (Anderson
et€al. 2001).
2.)>> Relating thinking activities to the interpretive or “decoding” and productive or
“encoding” approaches of visual literacy.
3.)>> Frequency count of each student statement by theme.
A qualitative data analysis tool, nVivo (http://www.qsrinternational.com), was used
to analyze and organize the data to examine the emergent themes in the individual
final justification assignment. A conventional content analysis was used to examine
the presence of themes within the students’ justification assignment. The justifica-
tion papers were reviewed to identify emergent themes. After initial coding, the list
of themes was reviewed for overlap. Four themes emerged: Research, construction
process, organization, and behavior reflected the students’ activities in the process
of creating their digital knowledge maps. The second step was to review the stu-
dent’s justification papers for statements that are associated with the themes.
The following charts show the frequency of each statement. Student statements
were then categorized within each of the four theme categories. The students’ state-
ments were evaluated to determine the level of thinking activities in each of the
themes and further evaluated to identify if the types of thinking activities are either
an interpretive or “decoding” of visuals or the productive or “encoding” of visuals.
Table€5 shows student statements regarding the research theme activities before and
during knowledge map construction. All students referenced scholarly resources
to support their knowledge map concepts, while less than half referenced personal
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy … 231

Table 5 ╇ Research theme

Student statements—research category Frequency Revised Bloom’s Visual literacy
taxonomy
Referenced the use of scholarly resources to 20 Analyzing Productive
support knowledge map concepts
Performed Web searches 11 Understanding Interpretive
Referenced the use of library databases 8 Understanding Interpretive
Explained the use of personal experience in 8 Remembering Interpretive
concept map construction
Referenced the use of personal notes 7 Understanding Interpretive
Referenced the use of textbook readings 6 Analyzing Productive

experience. It is important to note that the types of thinking represented in the re-
search theme are remembering, analyzing, and understanding which is representa-
tive of student research activities (Anderson et€al. 2001). Most of the student activ-
ity statements reflect an interpretive approach to visual literacy. The research theme
included the use of scholarly resources and personal experiences in the construction
of digital knowledge maps. A representative student commented that “many of the
resources collected for this concept map were from periodicals, think tanks, and
personal experience. These resources included bibliographies that directed him to
other sources that provided insight, but were not necessarily included in the map.”
Student justification paper statements construction process theme statements in
Table€ 6 show activities that directly relate to the process of constructing digital
knowledge maps. The types of thinking represented in the construction process
theme is remembering, applying, evaluating, and creating (Anderson et€al. 2001)
which is representative of student activities in the construction of digital knowledge
maps. Most of the students’ thinking statements reflect a productive or “encoding”
approach to visual literacy (Brumberger 2011 Smaldino et€al. 2012). A representa-

Table 6 ╇ Construction process theme

Student statements—process Frequency Revised Bloom’s Visual literacy
taxonomy
Referenced focus question development 20 Applying Productive
Referenced Novak’s concept mapping theory 13 Remembering Interpretive
Used resource analysis in the construction of 13 Evaluating Productive
knowledge map
Referenced Gowin’s Knowledge Vee 7 Remembering Interpretive
elements
Identified knowledge map creation pro- 5 Creating Productive
cess—generalization to specific
Identified the knowledge mapping process as 4 Evaluating Productive
a decision-making tool
Explained knowledge map creation pro- 3 Creating Productive
cess—nodes first, then connections
232 D. C. Draper

Table 7 ╇ Organization process theme

Student statements —organization Frequency Revised Bloom’s Visual literacy
taxonomy
Identification of concepts 20 Remembering Productive
Explained rationale for concept 20 Evaluating Productive
inclusion
Explanation of connections (links) in 18 Evaluating/creating Productive
concept maps
Referenced concept relationships 15 Analyzing Productive
Discussed concept links 13 Understanding Productive
Referenced the organization of concepts 12 Analyzing/creating Productive
Explained rationale for concept 11 Evaluating Productive
exclusion
Identification of knowledge gaps 4 Analyzing/evaluating Productive
Use of “pre-map” in final knowledge 3 Remembering/creating Productive
map construction

tive comment in this theme explained the knowledge map creation process “My
concept map went through at least 10 revisions each time redrawing links and creat-
ing at least 1 new concept.” Another student lamented on the challenges creating
their knowledge map, “the content of the map did come together in a fairly cohesive
fashion. One of the strengths—and challenges—with concept mapping is there is no
single ‘right’ way to ‘connect the dots’.”
Table€7 shows student justification paper statements in the organization process
theme. The statements in this theme represent activities during the knowledge map
development process. It is during this phase that the students are making decisions
about the inclusion and exclusion of concepts, placement of concepts, how the con-
cepts interrelate. It is interesting to note that the types of thinking represented in
the organization theme are remembering, understanding, analyzing, evaluating, and
creating (Anderson et€al. 2001) and are representative of student organization ac-
tivities. Some of the statements represented a combination of thinking levels that
depicts a more active form of thinking. For example, the student statement in the
organization theme “referenced the organization of concepts” reflects analyzing
and creating thinking activities (Anderson et€al. 2001). All of the student activity
statements reflect a productive or “encoding” approach to visual literacy (Smaldino
et€al. 2012; Brumberger 2011). A representative student comment in the organiza-
tion theme focused on the importance of nodes, “In this map, connecting the nodes
with transition words that represent how a ‘higher’ node modifies the next node
creates these propositions. My connection words are generally action words that de-
fine the relationship between nodes.” Another student commented on how concept
mapping would help manage large amount of information. “Utilizing Cmap helped
bridge the gap when reviewing the abundance of information on ‘mobile technol-
ogy’ and ‘higher education.’ Completing this task helped improve my strategies, to
connect the framework to the methodologies and key elements.”
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy … 233

Table 8 ╇ Behavior theme

Student statements—behavior Frequency Revised Bloom’s Visual literacy
taxonomy
Expressed the intent to use knowledge map- 11 Applying Productive
ping in professional practice
Identified the use of knowledge maps for 8 Applying Productive
literature review
Expressed the intent to use knowledge map- 6 Applying Productive
ping in academic activities
Expressed the value of concept mapping 6 Evaluating Productive

The data showed that all of the students referenced the identification and ratio-
nale for including concepts, and more than half the students provided an explana-
tion as to why they excluded certain concepts. The organization process is iterative
as students move concepts and analyze the relationships between them. One repre-
sentative comment included the interrelatedness of concepts:
Looking back at building this concept map, it was tremendously difficult for me to think
in these terms. I really do look at things in a big picture way and believe the detail fall into
place. However, what I was pleasantly surprised to find in building my map was that after
I had all my nodes in place, when I went back to look at the connections, I would never
have considered that the term differentiation could connect in so many ways to the rest of
the map.

The student reflection behavior theme statements in Table€8 show activities that
directly relate to behavior. Student statements expressed the value of knowledge
mapping and the transfer of the activity to the workplace and academic activities,
such as workflow processes and literature reviews, indicate that students realize
the benefit and value of visual literacy. The types of thinking represented in the
behavior theme are applying and evaluating (Anderson et€al. 2001) which are rep-
resentative of student behavioral intent. Most of the student activity statements re-
flect a productive or “encoding” approach to visual literacy (Smaldino et€al. 2012;
Brumberger 2011; Robinson 1984). A representative comment included the value of
concept mapping in other contexts, “I do see value in developing maps with teams
of individuals as we take those big ideas and get to the heart of the details.” Another
comment represented the benefit of knowledge mapping activities in professional
practice, “This exercise confirmed a suspicion I held. That is, concept mapping
could be a dynamic tool used in the corporate world.”

Reflections and Conclusion

Digital knowledge maps, as an instructional strategy, is a viable tool in promoting

visual literacy and learning effectiveness. Gowin’s (1984) Knowledge Vee diagram
enabled graduate students to analyze a research topic to scaffold concept-mapping
activities to come away with a deeper understanding of their research topics. Novak
234 D. C. Draper

(1977, 1993) posited that knowledge creation is a high level of meaningful learn-
ing and was indicated by the justification assignment statement organization theme
data. The organization theme category yielded higher levels of thinking skills that
included, analyzing, evaluating, and creating (Anderson et€al. 2001).
Overall, student comments indicated a general agreement that they enjoyed cre-
ating digital knowledge maps as a way to visualize their knowledge. Moreover,
their post-course critiques indicated that students believed creating the knowledge
maps enhanced their learning and that they would continue using this technique. Vi-
suals provide a concrete representation for ideas and information. Text does not ad-
equately represent the meaning of ideas; however, visuals are iconic and resemble
conceptual meaning that can be easily remembered and linked to the original idea.
It is interesting to note that the nonnative English-speaking students found digital
knowledge mapping extremely beneficial in their learning effectiveness because
the course content and their research activities focused on how they evaluate, apply,
and create conceptual visual representations of knowledge which is independent of
language. One nonnative English-speaking student intends to use this technology
in future classes as a way of managing knowledge. “I will use what I learn from
this course in my future courses and research projects. I will start to think about the
knowledge I know and the knowledge that I just learned.”
A limitation of the study was the duration of the course. Due to the complex
nature of the course content and the new technologies required, the 8-week acceler-
ated course should be extended to an entire semester lasting 15 weeks. Increasing
the amount of content weeks would provide more practice using the CmapTools ap-
plication, more time using the Knowledge Vee which supports meaningful learning
(Ausubel 1960; Novak 1977, 1993), and concept map development, which would
strengthen students’ ability to comprehend visual information while integrating
other sensory experiences in order to think and solve problems in the visual domain.
Digital knowledge maps served as an evaluation instrument for the instructor
and student alike. They provided a visual representation of the student’s knowledge
structure through the relatedness of ideas and concepts. Students became aware of
their own learning and were able to correct their misunderstandings through the
knowledge mapping activity to support the literature and other visual and media
resources.
Using digital knowledge maps as an instructional strategy was beneficial for
promoting visual literacy and learning effectiveness. Graduate students were able to
understand concepts and techniques associated with their research topics. Using the
Knowledge Vee and CmapTools as metacognitive monitoring tools, they were able
to make connections, structure their knowledge, and create their own meaning. Stu-
dents grasped the information in the textbook and readings and found new meaning
through the use of digital knowledge mapping and reflective thought.
Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy … 235

References

Adesope, O. O., & Nesbit, J. C. (2013). Animated and static concept maps enhance learning from
spoken narration. Learning and Instruction, 27, 1–10.
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P.
R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M. C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A
revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives . New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.
Ausubel, D. (1960). The use of advanced organizers in learning and retention of meaningful infor-
mation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51(26).
Avgerinou, M., & Ericson, J. (1997). A review of the concept of visual literacy. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 28(4), 280–291.
Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook 1: The cognitive domain. New
York: David McKay, Co., Inc.
Brumberger, E. (2011). Visual literacy and the digital native: An examination of the millennial
learner. Journal of Visual Literacy, 30(1), 19–46.
Burkhard, R., & Meier, M. (2004). Tube map: Evaluation of a visual metaphor for interfunctional
communication of complex projects . Paper presented at the I-KNOW ’04, Austria.
Cañas, A. J., Hill, G., & Lott, J. (2003). Support for constructing knowledge models in Cmap
Tools. (Technical report No. IHMC CmapTools 2003-02). Pensacola, FL: Institute for Human
Machine Cognition.
Chiou, C. C. (2008). The effect of concept mapping on students’ learning achievements and inter-
ests. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 25(4), 375–387.
Derry, S. (1996). Cognitive schema theory. Educational Psychologist, 31(3), 163–174.
Draper, D. C. (2010). The instructional effects of knowledge-based community of practice learning
environments on student achievement and knowledge convergence . (Doctoral dissertation).
Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3436066).
Gowin, D. B. (1981). Educating. New York: Cornell University Press.
Lim, K.Y., Lee, H.W., & Grabowski, B. (2009). Does concept mapping strategy work for every-
one? The levels of generativity and learners’ self-regulated learning skills. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 40(4), 606–618.
Martinez, G., Perez, A. J., Suero, M. I., & Pardo, P. J. (2013). The effectiveness of concept maps
in teaching physics concepts applied to engineering education: Experimental comparison of
the amount of learning achieved with and without concept maps. Journal of Science Education
Technology, 22, 204–214. doi 10.1007/s10956-012-9386-8
Mayer, R. E. (2002, Autumn). Rote versus meaningful learning. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 227–
237.
Mayer, R. (2009). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Novak, J. D. (1977). A theory of education. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Novak, J. D. (1993). Human constructivism: A unification of psychological and epistemological
phenomena in meaning making. International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology, 6,
167–193.
Novak, J. D. & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and
use them. Technical Report IHMC Cmap Tools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Pensacola, FL: Florida
Institute for Human and Machine Cognition.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge Press.
Novak, J. D., & Musconda, D. (1991). A twelve-year longitudinal study of science concept learn-
ing. American Educational Research Journal, 28(1), 117–153.
Novak, J. D., Gowin, D. B., & Johansen, G. T. (1983). The use of concept mapping and Knowledge
Vee mapping with junior high school science students. Science Education, 67, 625–645.
O’Donnell A., Dansereau D., & Hall, R. (2002). Knowledge maps as scaffolds for cognitive pro-
cessing. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 71–86.
Robinson, R. S. (1984) Learning to see: Developing visual literacy through film. Top of the News,
40(3), 267–275.
236 D. C. Draper

Smaldino, S. E., Lowther, D. L., & Russell J. D. (2012). Instructional technology and media for
learning (10th€ed.). Boston MA: Pearson.
Tergan, S.-O. (2005) Digital concept maps for managing knowledge and knowledge resources.
In: S.-O. Tergan & T. Keller (Eds.). Knowledge and information visualization: Searching for
synergies. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Tergan, S.-O., Gräber, W., & Neumann, A. (2006). Mapping and managing knowledge and infor-
mation in resource-based learning. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 4(4),
327–336.
Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice. Boston:
Harvard Business School Press.
Yin, R. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th€ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Zhang, J., Scardamalia, M., Reeve, R., & Messina, R. (2009). Designs for collective cognitive
responsibility in knowledge building communities. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 18(1),
7–44.

Darryl C. Draper╇ Darryl is an assistant professor at Old Dominion University in the Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education and Professional Studies Depart-
ment. Darryl has over 25 years of experience as an instructional designer and human performance
technologist with broad experience in all aspects of instructional design for e-learning and class-
room environments. She transitioned from the corporate arena into higher education to further
her passion in knowledge creation and sharing in groups and organizations. Her research interests
are knowledge convergence, online collaboration, and instructional strategies that promote online
collaboration, and knowledge sharing. She specializes in using instructional strategies that pro-
mote online collaboration through the creation and development of virtual communities of practice
(CoP) and the interplay of individual and organizational knowledge in its creation, sharing, and
management
Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills
Through Media Production Technology

Lindsay Kistler Mattock

Abstract╇ Information professionals such as archivists and librarians are faced

with the challenge of preserving, describing, and providing access to information
encoded on a variety of media, both text based and visual. While the visual and
media literacy discourse recognizes the role of information professionals in visual,
media, and information literacy education, the literature contains few pedagogical
approaches those charged with training informational professionals at the graduate
level. This chapter discusses one approach to visual and media literacy instruc-
tion in the Moving Image Archives course offered at the University of Pittsburgh
School of Information Sciences, and suggests one method for visual and media
literacy instruction at the graduate level. This technology-based approach addresses
the “designing and creating” competencies from the Association of College and
Research Libraries Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education,
creating an environment that simulates production by introducing students to the
tools and technologies of media production. This approach could also be used in
other academic disciplines, such as film and media studies, where students learn to
analyze and interpret specific media products, but do not engage directly with the
technologies used to create these images.

Introduction

Cultural institutions such as libraries and archives often contain collections of visual
materials, yet the programs that train the professionals who care for these materials
rarely offer training specific to visual media. While librarians and other information
professionals are generally recognized as facilitators of visual and media literacy
(VML) education, there are few recommendations for those charged with �educating
future professionals in the library and information sciences (LIS) as to how to in-
corporate VML into training for these professionals. Approaches to visual literacy
education often emphasize the analysis of the informational content of the images,

L.€K.€Mattock€()
School of Library and Information Science, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
e-mail: Lindsay-mattock@uiowa.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 237
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_12
238 L. K. Mattock

giving little attention to the technology of media production. This chapter discusses
an approach that flips this method, highlighting the technology of media production
in an effort to address the Association of College and Research Libraries’ (ACRL’s)
visual literacy competencies for creation and design.

A Need for VML in the LIS Graduate Curriculum

Historically, libraries and archives are places where texts are stored. The Oxford
English Dictionary defines a library as “a place set apart to contain books for read-
ing, study or reference.” Likewise, archives are associated with text-based records
and documentation; the first entry for “record” in the Society of American Archi-
vist’s Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology defines a record as a “written
or printed work.” While in more recent years, photographs and other visual docu-
mentation have been brought into the archival fold, images, whether still or moving,
are often “relegated to a secondary status” in archival collections and repositories
(Ritzenthaler and Vogt-O’Connor 2006). As archival practice has emerged from a
text-based paradigm of paper-based records, archival theory, customs, and tools
have been established on the basis of textual documentation.
In his review of the archival literature related to photographs, Tim Schlak (2008)
reflected on this logocentrisim of the archival field, observing that archivists have
applied text-based archival models to visual materials with little consideration of
the differences between these modes of communication. The ways in which archi-
vists and librarians select, arrange, describe, and preserve photographs and moving
image media often marginalizes these materials in the archives. Unlike text-based
records, which can “speak” for themselves, providing information readily to those
who are literate in the traditional sense, visual media are not as easy to interpret.
The indexical nature of the photographic image and the illusion of objectivity, for
example, provide challenges to archivists who may be unfamiliar with the nature of
photographic technology as they assess visual materials as archival evidence. The
material nature of these collections further relegates such materials to the physical
margins of the archives. Nitrate- and acetate-based photographic film exemplify
this problem; while paper-based materials can be stored a just below room tempera-
ture, photographic materials must be stored at cold or freezing temperatures (below
40 °F) to ensure their long-term survival.
Audiovisual archivist Sam Kula (2003) further illustrated this disconnect in
the archival practices related to moving image collections, observing, “moving
image records are seldom part of records series” (p.€ 2), the basis for the hier-
archical description of archival records collections. Instead, these materials are
described at the item level, much like library resources, and as such, “are not
readily assessable in the context of the activity that initiated their production.”
Because moving image materials are often requested and accessed as individual
titles, these visual materials are often described at the item level rather than at the
Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills Through Media … 239

collection level as is the practice with paper-based collections, thus decontextu-

alizing these materials from the text-based materials that may also be contained
within the collection. This contextualization at the collection level respects the
archival value of the materials, which is determined by the informational and
evidential value of the records.
Andrea Leigh (2006) also has argued against this practice, suggesting that
“adopting a collection level approach, access may actually be increased, since the
contextual information of the group items would not be lost, thereby increasing the
collection’s integrity, authenticity, and evidential value” (p.€36), thus preserving
the archival value of the materials. This item-level description for archival materi-
als relegates moving image collections to mere stock footage libraries, acknowl-
edging the usefulness of individual images for illustrative purposes, but failing to
recognize and preserve the evidentiary nature of the images in archival context.
In this way, as Joan Schwartz (1995) argues, photographic media are “othered” in
the archive as archivists fail to recognize the “recordness” or the specific eviden-
tiary functions of photographic media. While item-level description is the common
practice for libraries, collection-level description remains the archival standard.
Describing records as part of their originating records group ensures that the re-
cords are understood in the full context of their creation, preserving existing rela-
tionships between records as intended by the creator. Description at the item level
strips visual media of their evidential properties, thus negating the archival value
of such materials.
Joan Schwartz (2002) has suggested that it is the visual illiteracy of archivists that
has perpetuated the marginalization of photographs and other visual documentation
in the archive, and argues that this marginalization has led to the poor use of these
records as historical evidence. She asserts, “if historians and other users of archives
have persistently failed to appreciate the value of visual materials in the making and
the writing of history, then archivists—through their ideas and standards, practices
and actions, whether consciously or unconsciously, intentionally or unintentionally,
overtly or systemically—are, in large measure, responsible” (p.€ 143). Archivists
Elisabeth Kaplan and Jeffrey Mifflin (2000) have also argued for the archival field
to become more visually aware, suggesting that archivists must gain an understand-
ing of visual modes of expression in film, photography, and video and the conven-
tions of each of these technologies; explore the visual literacy discourse as well as
other literacy discourses; investigate how historians and scholars in related fields
are addressing visual awareness; and further review the archival response to these
issues over time. Kaplan and Mifflin describe the lack of understanding of the criti-
cal nature of visual literacy skills within the archival profession, and observe that
library schools and archival programs have failed to offer the proper training or
devote significant portions of their curriculum to the topic. While such critics of ar-
chival theory and practice have raised these concerns, LIS education has yet to fully
integrate practical and theoretical approaches to incorporating these visual literacy
competencies into the curriculum.
240 L. K. Mattock

VML as a Solution

The International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) suggests the interdisciplinary

nature of visual literacy has led to variances among definitions of the concept; as
society shapes the use and development of new technologies, new literacies con-
tinue to evolve. The Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences reflects this
notion, including VML under the broader term “information technology literacy”
a “many-dimensional description of the skills and knowledge needed for effective
participation in business and education in the twenty-first century” (Marcum and
O’Shea 2009). This comprehensive definition of literacy moves beyond the notion
of text-based or computer-based literacy competencies, suggesting an inclusiveness
that is not found within the archival discourse as it relates to visual media.
Within the context of archival education, VML have a somewhat limited per-
spective. The Society of American Archivists’ Photographs: Archival Care and
Management defines visual literacy as “the ability to understand (read) and use
(write) images and to think and learn in terms of images” (Ritzenthaler and Vogt-
O’Connor 2006, p.€60). Here “reading” refers to the analysis of the artifact in the ar-
chive, that is the technology used to create the images, the conventions of the time,
the provenance (history) of the image and perspective of the creator, as well as the
meaning and interpretation of the content of the image itself. “Writing” refers to the
reuse of such materials, not the creation or production of such media.
Approaches to visual literacy in archival education emphasize the physical
identification of materials, or the skills necessary for the archivist to preserve, ar-
range, describe, and facilitate access within archival collections. While a cursory
understanding of technology is necessary to date and identify archival photographic
materials, an understanding of technology from the perspective of creation is not
addressed. These archival definitions align with the concept as originally defined by
Eugene Debes in 1969, referring to the competencies that “enable a visually literate
person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions, objects, symbols, natural or
man-made, that he encounters in his environment” (IVLA 2010). The ACRL defines
visual literacy similarly as “a set of abilities that enables an individual to effectively
find, interpret, evaluate, use, and create images and visual media,” emphasizing
the balance between “reading” and “writing” (ACRL 2011). The ACRL guidelines
expand the core competencies including among them creation and design, assert-
ing that a visually literate individual must possess the ability not only to interpret,
analyze, and reuse visual media but also to create and produce images. “Designing
and creating” requires a visually literate individual to “use a variety of tools and
technologies to produce images and visual media” (ACRL 2011).
By including creation in the core competencies, the ACRL’s definition overlaps
with definitions of media literacy, a similar concept that includes the “knowledge,
skills, and competencies that are required in order to use and interpret media.” Here,
media is broadly defined, including all “visual and aural forms of communica-
tion”—video, television, cinema, radio, photography, advertising, newspapers and
magazines, recorded music, computer games, and the Internet (Buckingham 2003,
Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills Through Media … 241

pp.€36, 3). The National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) simi-
larly suggests that media literacy is a “necessary, inevitable, and realistic response
to the complex, ever-changing electronic environment and communication cornu-
copia that surround us” (NAMLE 2014). Unlike visual literacy, media literacy is
more often connected with the competencies of media creation, while visual literacy
is often used in context of consuming images on television or in print.
With the ACRL’s updated guidelines, both media and visual literacy suggest a
level of technical competency with visual media. Here, the ACRL argues for the
“technological literacy” facets of visual literacy, including experimentation with
tools and technologies, the ability to evaluate the tools for their use, and the profi-
cient use of these tools. Technological literacy is more commonly associated with
the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields; however,
contextualizing technology in this way limits the scope of how “technology” is de-
fined. “Technology” often connotes “high-tech” technologies, rather than acknowl-
edging other cultural objects such as books, photographs, and other cultural artifacts
(Kahn and Kellner 2006). Broadly defined, technology includes “everything that
humans do or make to change the natural environment to suit their own purposes”
(Garmire and Pearson 2006, p.€29), yet technological literacy remains closely con-
nected to scientific literacy, historical literacy, and design thinking. However, like
media literacy, technological literacy assumes that one has a basic knowledge about
the design and use of the technology, the ability to use technology, as well as the
ability to “think critically” about technology and its impact on society, defined as
a “general understanding of technology…developed enough so that a person can
function effectively in a technology-dependent society where rapid technological
change is the norm” (Garmire and Pearson 2006, p.€32).
In each of these examples, literacy is used as a means for defining a set of skills
to be taught in conjunction with reading and writing that assist the reader with the
ability to understand both the technology and its products as socially constructed.
The ACRL’s competencies suggest that visual literacy is more than merely having
the ability to interpret the messages encoded on visual media, or the informational
content, as emphasized in the archival discourse. Instead, the ACRL brings creation
competencies into the fold, suggesting that a visually literate individual must also
be technologically literate when it comes to the technologies of image creation and
production.

Rationale for a VML Approach in Moving Image Archives

So, how do we teach these competencies to information professionals? The Uni-

versity of Pittsburgh is one of the few Master of Library and Information Science
(MLIS) programs to offer two elective courses addressing visual materials in the
archival context—photographic archives and moving image archives. Moving im-
age archives provides an introduction to the history and development of audiovi-
sual archives as well as the principles and practices related to the preservation of
242 L. K. Mattock

audiovisual media from an interdisciplinary perspective. Both courses are offered in

the students’ final term of study as specialized applications of the archival theories
and practices they have learned in pervious terms.
When preparing to teach the course for the first time during the summer term of
2012, I designed the course following the visual literacy guidelines suggested by
the archival literature, providing opportunities for the students to develop the skills
necessary to “‘read’ the message of the photograph [or moving image], to compre-
hend its evidential value, and understand it as an archival document. …as the prod-
uct of a series of decisions; created by a will, for a purpose, to convey a message
to an audience” (Schwartz 1995, p.€55). The lectures, activities, and assignments
were designed to help students develop the competencies necessary to interpret and
analyze the visual materials they were likely to encounter in their archival practice.
In this iteration of the course, the course structure reflected the visual literacy
instruction outlined in the archival literature, and focused on the skills that archi-
vists’ require to interpret and use images in their archival work. The first third of
the 12-week course included lectures addressing the history and development of
moving image technology, the identification of formats, as well as a discussion of
preservation issues specific to each medium (see Fig.€1).
This overview included motion picture film and analog and digital video as well
as other forms of “new media.” Through watching film and video and inspecting ar-
tifacts, students learned to identify the various traces of production (such as splices
and edge codes) and to read the images encoded on the medium (aesthetic choices
and visual conventions).
However, just as the creation of moving image materials is dependent on a va-
riety of tools and technologies, the practice of archiving moving image media is
equally dependent on technology to preserve and access these records. The audiovi-
sual archival discourse suggests that it is not enough for archivists and other infor-

Fig. 1 ╇ Course structure summer 2012

Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills Through Media … 243

mation professionals working with moving image media to only possess the ability
to interpret artifacts. Rather, archivists working with these materials must also learn
to manipulate the technology necessary for inspection and use as well.
In contrast to the texts related to photographic archives, manuals for moving im-
age archivists emphasize the technical proficiency that archival professionals must
have to complete even a simple inspection of moving image materials. The Na-
tional Film Preservation Foundation’s (NFPF) Film Preservation Guide: The Basics
for Archives, Libraries, and Museums introduces archivists to the technology used
for a basic inspection (rewinds, projection reels, cores, split reels, splicers, sound
readers, and footage counters), as well as more advanced processes offered by labs
(wet-gate and optical printing, redimensioning, and digital restoration techniques).
The Guide also addresses the visual identification of various formats and technolo-
gies, such as magnetic and optical soundtracks, negative and reversal film stock,
as well as methods for dating film from date codes imprinted by the manufacturer
(NFPF 2004). More advanced manuals, such as Restoration of Motion Picture Film,
describe the chemical composition of the film base (including diagrams of the mo-
lecular structure of the plastics), as well as the mechanics of cameras, projectors,
and sound equipment (Read and Meyer 2000). And, projection manuals, such as
Torkell Sætervadent’s 2006 and 2012 publications from the International Federa-
tion of Film Archivists (FIAF), assume that film archivists and curators must have
intimate knowledge of the design and operation of projection systems as well.
To familiarize students with these processes and technologies of preservation
and access, two of the initial lectures for Moving Image Archives 2012 were led by
faculty from Pittsburgh Filmmakers, a local media arts center. The guest lecturers
discussed the mechanics of moving image technology, emphasizing the technolo-
gies that archivists were likely to encounter in their practice. The artist-instructors
demonstrated how cameras and playback technologies function and introduced the
students to some of the basic tools used to inspect and preserve moving image ma-
terials. The remaining weeks of the course were dedicated to a discussion of each of
the core archival concepts (preservation, selection, arrangement, description, refer-
ence, and access) as they apply to the archival management of media collections.
To supplement the technological instruction provided early in the term, in these
later weeks lectures were accompanied by screenings that served as the basis for
class discussion. The screenings exposed students to various modes of production
(fiction film, newsreels, documentary, experimental, etc.) allowing students to dem-
onstrate and build upon their visual literacy skills throughout the term as they were
asked to analyze the images on the screen and the media artifacts on which these
messages were encoded.
Students reported that over the semester they gained a better understanding and
appreciation for visual media, but noted in the teaching evaluations that the tech-
nical information they received from the guest lecturers was particularly helpful.
Students also indicated that they also would have liked an opportunity for hands-on
work with media technology. While this course design addressed the competen-
cies of analysis and interpretation as described in the visual literacy discourse, the
244 L. K. Mattock

students expressed a desire to also develop the technological literacy skills associ-
ated with the ACRL’s creation competencies.

Technology-Based VML Workshops

During the following summer, the course was redesigned to address moving image
technology from the perspective of creation, providing opportunities for the stu-
dents to work directly with media technology and further develop the technological
literacy skills associated with the creation and production competencies suggested
by the ACRL. The time constrictions imposed by the 12-week term prohibited the
inclusion of full production workshops that would allow students to fully explore
creation and design; instead, the production process was simulated in three work-
shop sessions that emphasized engagement with media production technology. This
revised course structure broadened the definition of visual literacy beyond those
skills outlined in the archival literature to include the visual, media, and technologi-
cal literacies suggested in the ACRL guidelines.
The new iteration of the course was reconfigured into three modules, each con-
centrating on a different visual media, beginning with photography, followed by
moving image film, and concluding with analog and digital video (Fig.€2). Each
three-course module was designed to address the full range of visual literacy com-
petencies suggested by the ACRL, beginning with a lab session held at Pittsburgh
Filmmakers to provide instruction in the technological literacy associated with cre-
ation and design. The second and third sessions explored the remaining media and
visual literacy skills (discovery, interpretation and analysis, evaluation, and use).
The session following the lab introduced the perspective of the user of the archive,
that is, those working outside of the information fields, incorporating literature from
media, communications, and film studies and methods of analysis for visual media
from these fields. The third session of each module highlighted the visual literacy
skills emphasized in the archival discourse, discussing the archival management of

Fig. 2 ╇ Course structure summer 2013

Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills Through Media … 245

media. As with the previous iteration of the course, weekly screenings accompanied
the lectures to familiarize students with a broad range of modes of production and to
provide additional opportunities for students to apply literacy skills across sessions.
The lab sessions were codesigned with Professors John Cantine and Brady Lew-
is and photography instructor Sarah Shank of Pittsburgh Filmmakers, a Pittsburgh-
based media arts center that provides media production coursework for the local
community. Each of the guest lecturers were asked to speak from their point of view
as a creator of media, lecturing on the history and development of the tools and
technologies of production and discussing their creative use of each of the technolo-
gies from their perspective. The lectures provided opportunities for students to not
only learn about the creative use of the tools but also question the instructors about
their personal preservation practices and attitudes toward archives. The lectures
were followed by a hands-on activity that allowed students to work with the tools
and technologies of media production simulating creation and design by condensing
production workshops into a single class session.
The first module began with photography to introduce student to the principles
of photochemical reproduction, as processing a photograph is very similar to pro-
cessing moving image film. In the first lab, students processed photographic prints
in the darkroom from negatives provided by the instructor. Students were taught to
use the enlarger and other darkroom tools utilized to manipulate photographic im-
ages. This activity gave students a sense of the multiplicity of photographic media
and illustrated relationship between negative and positive prints. This exercise di-
rectly maps to the ACRL’s standard for creation and design, as students were taught
to produce and create their own photographic images. Working in the darkroom
afforded students the opportunity to experiment with darkroom technology and
evaluate the images they created with their classmates. The darkroom exercise also
addressed interpretation and analysis of images, as students learned the significance
of the decisions they made in the selection and composition of the images as they
evaluated the prints generated in the lab.
The second lab built from the first, introducing the mechanics of motion pic-
ture film technology—how a series of still images are recorded and projected to
reproduce the illusion of movement. Due to time constraints, it was not possible for
students to create their own films as developing the film would have required addi-
tional lab sessions to provide time for the students to process the materials or to send
the films to a lab for processing. To simulate this experience, students inspected
the various production elements from the instructor’s films and the tools and tech-
nologies used to create these elements. Students learned to identify the various film
and sound elements created during the production workflow, including: negatives,
work prints, and magnetic soundtracks. Students also handled and manipulated the
cameras and editing equipment used to create these artifacts, offering a simulated
experience of what it is like to work with these tools. While students did not gain di-
rect experience with creation and design, this lab afforded an opportunity to experi-
ment with the tools used to produce moving image film and to evaluate the genera-
tions of visual elements generated in this process. Through engaging with the media
artifacts and the production technologies, students could make direct connections
246 L. K. Mattock

between the tools and their products and interpolate the choices made by creators in
selecting one technology over another.
The final lab session shared a similar structure, first describing the mechanics
of analog and digital video technology—how an image is encoded onto magnetic
tape or a hard drive. Students learned to identify a variety of physical formats, in-
cluding a number of obsolete formats, and handled cameras, editing, and playback
equipment to familiarize themselves with the media objects they will encounter in
the archive and the tools used to create them. As with the other labs, students were
taught to identify the various artifacts and documentation created during the pro-
duction of specific media products, and were provided with opportunities to inspect
and handle the technologies used to create these artifacts. This final lab, as with the
previous, was designed to simulate the production experience by affording students
an opportunity to experiment with the tools and artifacts of media production. By
working with the technology, students could make inferences about the tools and
the media products they are used to create, and apply this understanding to evaluate
and interpret visual media from this context in the following class sessions.

Outcomes and Student Feedback

Throughout the term, students were required to journal about their experiences pro-
viding a means for tracking their comprehension and the development of visual
literacy skills over each module. Students were asked to reflect on the progression
of their understanding of visual media over each three-class module, prompted by
two broad questions. The first, following the lab session at Pittsburgh Filmmakers,
asked students to reflect on their experience working with the technology. The sec-
ond reflection followed the conclusion of each module, asking students to reflect
on their experience across the progression of the three sessions and to discuss how
their understanding of the medium and archival practices related to the media had
changed. In addition to these six entries, students were asked to write two additional
entries at the beginning and end of the term. In the first prompt, each student was
asked to outline his/her current understanding of and experience with visual media,
along with his/her expectations for the course. At the end of the term, students were
then asked to reflect on how this understanding had changed and pose any lingering
questions.
In the first journal entry, the class reported varying exposures to visual media pri-
or to enrolling in moving image archives. Of the 15 students enrolled in the course,
6 students indicated that they had majored in a related area as an undergraduate
(art history, fine arts, arts conservation, communications), 4 students reported some
undergraduate film studies coursework, and 5 students indicated that they had no
experience with visual media outside of casual use (snapping pictures with their cell
phones). Four students also indicated that they had worked or were currently work-
ing with photographic collections in a library or archival setting.
Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills Through Media … 247

In their reflections and final journal entries, all 15 students reported a positive
response to the labs. Many indicated that they would have liked the opportunity for
even more hands-on work with the technology. Both the students with no prior ex-
perience and those with some level of familiarity with media production suggested
that they had benefitted from the workshop sessions. As one student responded:
Despite having a background in film, I feel as though I have been provided with huge
amounts of valuable information that I didn’t know before this class. The labs and lectures
gave me a greater understanding of how the technologies of photography, film, and digital
video work and how these functions impact each medium handled within an archive.

Students also suggested that working with the technology had positively impacted
their understanding of archival work with visual media. One student appreciated:
Even though I worked with photographic prints at [a college archives] while creating an
online photograph archive, I had no idea as to how they were created. I realized that this
knowledge is important as archivists can put visual media in better context for researchers
and other archives users if we have some idea as to the process involved in their creation.

Students also acknowledged that this interaction with the technology helped to de-
mystify process of media production. One of the respondents suggested:
One of the most important aspects of this course for me has been the greater understand-
ing of the technology I have gained through hands-on experience in the labs. For me-and,
I imagine, for many non-practitioners there is an air of mystery to the photography and
movie-making processes.

In their reflections throughout the term, students appreciated how the hands-on
work in these sessions coupled with the in-class screenings and exercises through-
out the remaining sessions in each module, impacted their understanding of archival
work with images as well as their general understanding of how images are cre-
ated and used. The ACRL’s 2011 Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher
Education suggests that a visually literate individual should be able to “effectively
find, interpret, evaluate, use, and create images and visual media.” While students
did not produce their own media in the labs, by introducing students to the tools
and technologies of media production and the artifacts created in these processes,
the labs were designed to simulate this production experience and the technological
literacy necessary for one to create and design visual media.

Reflections and Conclusions

While the visual literacy skills associated with reading visual media can be ad-
dressed in the classroom through watching films and looking at photographs, these
workshops were designed to simulate creation and production for students who
were unfamiliar with the tools and technologies of media creation. The time con-
straints imposed by a 12-week term prohibited the inclusion of production work-
shops in which students produced and created their own media, but the simulated
experience of working with and learning about the technology from the perspective
248 L. K. Mattock

of the creator helped students to more fully understand the media products they will
encounter in their archival practice and to develop a more balanced set of visual
literacy skills to enhance their archival practice. As this course was a prototype, in
future iterations a more robust method of assessment based on the ACRL competen-
cies could be used to track the development of literacy skills over the term. For this
initial experiment in archival pedagogy, the students’ reflections demonstrated that
addressing the full range of visual literacy competencies positively impacted their
knowledge and understanding of visual media.
The partnership with media creators was key to the design of the workshops.
The instruction was provided by individuals who create with and use media tech-
nology, rather than from the point of view of the information professionals who
work with these records in archives, libraries, and museums. In this way, students
were exposed to a general understanding of the creation and production of media
that they were able to apply to their particular academic domain—archives. This
approach could also be used in other academic disciplines, such as film and media
studies, where students learn to analyze and interpret specific media products, but
do not engage directly with the technologies used to create these images. Media
arts centers and production facilities like Pittsburgh Filmmakers exist across USA
(the organizational membership directory of the National Alliance of Media Arts
and Culture is one source for this information http://www.NAMAC.org). In many
cases, these organizations already provide media and visual literacy instruction as
part of their mission. Such organizations can become critical partners not only for
LIS programs, but for other domains of higher education and for working profes-
sionals as well.
Media scholar Leo Enticknap (2013) has argued that an understanding of the use
of technology is a specific gap in the knowledge of those studying film and media,
observing:
The dynamic of the interaction between the creators of the technology, the users of the tech-
nology, and the creation of cultural and evidential artefacts using the technology that result
from this necessity [mediating technology] is something that critics, theorists and historians
of film have struggled to cope with ever since their emergence as a profession. (p.€6)

This course structure and technology workshops can be employed where this under-
standing of technology is desired, but where full production workshops are imprac-
tical. While the competencies of creation can only be simulated though this method,
this limited introduction may be the only production experience students encounter
in their archival practice. More work is needed to develop these pedagogical ap-
proaches to developing VML skills in higher education, but as this chapter has dem-
onstrated, through creative partnerships the full range of visual literacy skills can be
addressed in the classroom.
Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills Through Media … 249

References

Association of College and Research Libraries. (2011). ACRL Visual literacy competency standards
for higher education. http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/visualliteracy. Accessed May 14, 2014
Buckingham, D. (2003). Media education: Literacy, learning and contemporary culture. Malden:
Polity.
Enticknap, L. (2013). Film restoration: The culture and science of audiovisual heritage. New
York: Palgave Macmillan.
Garmire, E. M., & Pearson, G. (2006). Tech tally approaches to assessing technological literacy.
Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
International Visual Literacy Association. (2010). What is visual literacy? http://www.ivla.org/
drupal2/content/what-visual-literacy-0. Accessed May 14, 2014
Kahn, R., & Kellner, D. (2006). Reconstructing technoliteracy. In J. R. Drakers (Ed.), Defining
technological literacy: Towards an epistemological framework. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kaplan, E., & Mifflin, J. (2000). ‘Mind and sight’: Visual literacy and the archivist. In R. Jimer-
son (Ed.), American archival studies: Readings in theory and practice. Chicago: Society of
American Archivists.
Kula, S. (2003). Appraising moving images: Assessing the archival and monetary value of film and
video records. Lanham: Scarecrow Press.
Leigh, A. (2006). Context! context! context!: Describing moving images at the collection level.
Moving Image, 6(1), 33–65.
Marcum, J. W., & O’Shea, D. I. (2009). Information technology literacy. In Encyclopedia of library
and information sciences (3rd ed.). New York: Taylor and Francis. http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/E-
ELIS3-120044482.
National Association of Media Literacy Education. (2014). Media literacy defined. http://namle.
net/publications/media-literacy-definitions/. Accessed May 14, 2014
National Film Preservation Foundation. (2004). The film preservation guide: The basics for ar-
chives, libraries, and museums. San Francisco: NFPF.
Read, P., & Meyer, M. P. (Eds.). (2000). Restoration of motion picture film. Oxford: Butterworth
Heinemann.
Ritzenthaler, M. L., & Vogt-O’Connor, D. (Eds.). (2006). Photographs: Archival care and man-
agement. Chicago: Society of American Archivists.
Sætervadent, T. (2006). The advanced projection manual. Brussels: FIAF.
Sætervadent, T. (2012). FIAF digital projection guide. Brussels: FIAF.
Schlak, T. (2008). Framing photographs, denying archives: The difficulty of focusing on archival
photographs. Archival Science, 8, 85–101.
Schwartz, J. (1995). ‘We make our tools and our tools make us’: Lessons from photographs for the
practice, politics, and poetics of diplomacy. Archivaria, 40, 40–74.
Schwartz, J. (2002). Coming to terms with photographs: Descriptive standards, linguistic ‘other-
ing,’ and the margins of archivy. Archivaria, 54, 142–171.

Lindsay Kistler Mattock╇ is an assistant professor at the University of Iowa School of Library
and Information Science. Mattock’s professional experience as a video technician and background
in filmmaking and photography have shaped her academic interest in the preservation of visual
media, both analog and digital, and the record-keeping practices of media creators. Her current
research reframes media maker spaces as community archives, critiquing the development of
professional archival practices and suggesting new frameworks for the archival preservation and
management of media collections.
Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching
Images and Objects in Digital Environments

Julia A. Finch

Abstract╇ Though the image is central to the discipline, art history has not con-
tributed extensively to the definition and practice of visual literacy studies. This
chapter identifies an intersection between the two fields by examining the role of
digital reproduction in the study of art history, particularly the ways in which repro-
ductions of art objects and architecture in online digital environments provide an
egalitarian space for students and teachers to hold discussion beyond the classroom.
First, this chapter provides a brief examination of art history’s pedagogical prac-
tices as they relate to visual literacy studies. Then, four activities and assignments
are presented which highlight the digitized object as a pedagogical tool. Students
demonstrate visual and media literacy in assignments that make use of familiar apps
like Instagram to perform traditional art historical methods of evaluating images,
such as visual analysis and iconography, on the digitally reproduced image. Instruc-
tors guide students through web sites that host digitized objects, meeting their stu-
dents, for example, in a medieval cathedral and discussing the articulation of the
digital space. Through these activities, art history instructors capitalize on students’
technological abilities as digital natives while providing them with perspective on
image-based technologies of previous eras. Although the focus is on students in a
traditional higher education environment, many of the exercises presented can be
modified for a younger learner base or the nontraditional higher education student.

Introduction: Art History and the Image

In the discipline of art history, professors and students look at images, write about
images, and teach with images every day. These images for study are typically re-
productions of the original works, and therein resides an uncomfortable truth of art
history—even experts will likely have spent more time looking at reproductions and
copies of paintings, sculpture, and architecture than time actually spent in the same
physical space as these things. From art history’s inception, scholars spent their

J.€A.€Finch€()
Department of Art and Design, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY, USA
e-mail: j.finch@moreheadstate.edu
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 251
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_13
252 J. A. Finch

hours of study poring over reproductions in books and facsimiles, then later in pho-
tographic image sets and the slide libraries of colleges and universities. In light of
photographic reproduction, questions of authenticity, of a unique work’s aura, and
of an audience’s perception were of great concern to the art historians of the early
twentieth century. Walter Benjamin’s (1939) seminal 1936 essay, “The Work of Art
in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” is still an essential and thought-provoking
read on the subject. He describes the role of technology, especially photography,
in freeing the art object from ritual origins and placing it in an egalitarian space.
Benjamin could not have imagined the sheer number of images we confront each
day in our visual-rich contemporary culture, and the speed with which we create
and cycle through these images using digital media and tools. I think, however,
that he would have celebrated the unrestricted, shared digital environments of the
twenty-first century, made globally accessible online, in which students, professors,
and others can encounter a Rembrandt painting, a Rodin sculpture, or virtually stroll
through a medieval cathedral.
In the twenty-first century, how can educators harness the nascent visual literacy
of our students that develops through exposure to images in film, television, and
digital media and apply it to the traditional stalwarts of art history: iconography
and formal analysis? More importantly, why does the art historian, who will react
violently against accusations of antiquarianism or connoisseurship in their research,
often lag behind other humanities fields in the adaptation of digital media in their
work? Although some art historians are reluctant to transition to a digital pedagogy,
others are embracing their role as digital humanists. Still, reluctance to adapt to
digital formats and a general ambivalence about the role of digital media (and by
extension, digital media-based literacy) not only persists but also has been the topic
of a recent study of the status of digital art history in the broader discipline (Zorich
2012). Using new pedagogical models as a way of breaking through this resistance,
I propose that art history instructors can reach their students in the equalizing space
of the digital environment, where traditional modes of meaning-making with im-
ages are enhanced by new technological platforms.
By “equalizing space,” I mean one in which students and teachers actively con-
tribute to knowledge. The teacher is not the “sage on the stage,” but rather the
“guide on the side” (King 1993), fostering discussion and creating connections.
Students and teachers alike contribute to classroom experience and knowledge in
the manner of the model set by “the Wikiworld,” the collaborative free resources
available on the Internet (Suoranta and Vadén 2012). This model, paired with the
experiential component of art viewing, creates a space where student observations
and critiques are validated by their peers as well as their professor, and where con-
ventional student–teacher relationships can be flipped towards more collaborative
models.
Whether or not the Internet provides a truly democratic space for user interaction,
there is little doubt that increasing access to digital image collections and virtual
spaces has forever changed the way that art and architectural history is practiced
and taught. The antiquated slide library, once a hub of activity and discussion
accessible only to professors and graduate students, is being phased out of art history
Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images and Objects … 253

departments as its image collections are scanned for remote digital access. Now,
conversations about a work of art often take place online, with participants viewing
digitally photographed reproductions in billions of pixels on their individual laptop
screens. This is possible, for example, through the Closer to Van Eyck web site,
which hosts the Ghent Altarpiece, a canonical work of the Western tradition, in
100€billion pixels (all web addresses are listed below in the References section). The
web site is the result of an initiative, supported by The Getty Foundation, to assess
the structural condition of the altarpiece. Through an in-depth material study and
high-resolution photography, the web site represents the translation of a material
object to a digital space. Students and professors can discuss minute aspects of the
painted panels, such as the individual stitches of gold thread that van Eyck works
into the garments of many of the figures that do not appear to the naked eye when
visiting the altarpiece’s current physical location. Likewise, students and professors
can “meet” in a digital reproduction of the cathedral of Amiens made available
through the web site Mapping Gothic France and hold a discussion section there,
exploring the inaccessible upper reaches of the Gothic elevation in a way that is
impossible during a visit to the cathedral itself.
As more and more students have ready access to the Internet on mobile devices,
holding an art history discussion in a digital environment can remove social and
economic divisions which can remain in a physical museum. Recent studies support
the trend that most educators have seen in recent years in their own classrooms: At
the University of Florida, up to 98↜% of students arrived on campus with Internet-
capable devices in 2013 (O’Neil 2013); and a 2012 EDUCAUSE Center for Applied
Research (ECAR) survey cited 67↜% of students polled as believing mobile devices
are important to their academic success (Gikas and Grant 2013). Students asked to
visit a virtual Gothic cathedral are able to bypass a financial barrier as they do not
have to travel to France or pay for museum admission to view Gothic sculpture at
the Met, for example, but perhaps more importantly, they bypass a social barrier.
Students new to art history, and especially first-generation college students, can ex-
plore an image on their own device at a slower pace, without the restrictions of the
gallery environment, and may become more willing to discuss their observations.
The social stratification of the museum is still a focus of the American Association
of Museums, which recently commissioned a report addressing the need to broaden
their visitor demographics (American Association of Museums 2010).
Rather than react against digitization or work to suppress it, instructors of art his-
tory should embrace this ability to connect with their students in new and innovative
ways. Whether digital native or digital immigrant, to borrow Mark Prensky’s (2001)
terminology, students in higher education are requesting alternative modes of in-
struction, from online courses to multimedia-enriched classroom settings (Carlson
2005; Pollara and Broussard 2011). Neil Selwyn (2009) has demonstrated that bal-
ance is necessary in this approach, lest we fall into a kind of digital determinism,
and assume that all students born during the 1990s, the so-called digital natives,
have the same innate abilities or affinities for digital media. However, I believe
that the study of images through a field like art history can help students to hone a
skill set that they may be demonstrating elsewhere in their media use. In light of an
254 J. A. Finch

increasingly digitized world, perhaps the most important question that art history
educators can pose is how, over the next decade of technological changes and be-
yond, the discipline of art history will contribute to the increasing visual literacy of
its students? In this chapter, I examine ways in which the undergraduate art history
classroom of 2015 and beyond can adapt to the challenge of fostering visual literacy
in higher education (with students’ adaptability in mind, the exercises presented
later in this chapter could be modified to a K–12 classroom as well).

Visual Literacy: An Art Historical Perspective

For a field that is as deeply entrenched in its relationship with images as art history,
surprisingly little has been written on how art historians as educators use digital
images, digital environments, and digital spaces/objects to instruct their students.
This is emblematic of the dearth of pedagogical writing on visual literacy in higher
education across disciplines, but perhaps comes as a surprise to those outside of
the field who might assume that historians of art would have much to say about
digital images. Although the presentation of images in the darkened classroom ac-
companied by lecture remains fundamental to teaching art history, PowerPoint and
Prezi have replaced the slide carousel as image viewing platforms, and digital im-
ages can be uploaded to course web sites, or even to social media platforms, such
as Instagram, Flickr, and Pinterest, for a large community of users to access and
annotate. Given its dependence upon reproduced images, it seems logical that art
history would have been one of the first fields to embrace alternative modes of
communicating via visual media. The transition, however, has been slower than one
might expect, perhaps due to the discomfort of having to, once again, evaluate the
role of a new technology for reproduction.
In 2011, The Kress Foundation, in conjunction with the Roy Rosenzweig Center
for History and New Media at George Mason University, sponsored the first ever
survey of the art history community on digital art history (Zorich 2012). Its pur-
pose was to clarify the perceptions within the community on digital scholarship and
teaching, and its impact on the discipline. Findings showed a field predominantly
ambivalent or negative towards digital art history, which has a marginal status in
the discipline. At the heart of this seems to be not only a perceived threat to exist-
ing paradigms but also a lack of infrastructure and absence of training in digital art
history. An exception to this marginal status is found in the work of James Elkins
(2007). Elkins evaluates the theoretical status of visual literacy and, due to his own
training as an art historian, asks the question of what impact it will have on the tradi-
tional field of art history in his edited volume Visual Literacy. The volume features
essays by W. J. T. Mitchell, noted theorist on visual and verbal representation, and
Jon Simons, Peter Dallow, and Susan Shifrin on visual literacy, interdisciplinarity,
and art-centered learning in secondary schools and colleges. Elsewhere, Mitchell
(1995) has addressed the saturation of images in our twenty-first-century culture,
and stated in a 2006 interview,
Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images and Objects … 255

The notion that we live in a culture dominated by images, by spectacle, surveillance, and
visual display, is so utterly commonplace that I am sometimes astonished at the way people
announce it as if they had just discovered it. (Grønstad and Vågnes 2006)

Peter Felten (2008) calls this image proliferation a “visual explosion” that is not rel-
egated to popular culture, but includes the archival digital images hosted by estab-
lished institutions like universities, libraries, and national archives. Even National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has made a visual catalog of images
of our planet collected from space available for viewing and download—though
only the tiniest fraction of humanity has ever seen planet Earth from its orbit or
beyond, most of us are familiar with its image hovering in the blackness of space,
or rising above the moon, or details of its surface like the Pyramids of Giza or the
Grand Canyon seen from thousands of miles above. How, then, do the canonical
images of the art history survey rank among these outstanding images of Earth and,
more broadly, a cultural “visual explosion”? How can we encourage students to turn
their contemporary critical eye, honed in a daily deluge of images, to the history of
art and architecture?
Importantly, in Elkins’ edited volume the notion of visuality is discussed—that
is, a way of seeing and interpreting that is specific to one’s cultural, historical, or
geographical location. I find that it is important to communicate the idea of histori-
cal vision/visualized history to my art history students, and to note the fluidity of
visuality (Mirzoeff 2006). For example, color television was not widely available
in households until the late 1960s, and yet students’ grandparents are no less accus-
tomed to color television even though their first experience with the medium was
likely in black and white. As technology and image-viewing platforms change, so
does the visuality of the culture (or, more specifically, of individuals within that cul-
ture) that produces them. Students in secondary and higher education environments
are unfazed by the rapid transitions in image-viewing and image-sharing technol-
ogy, because they have been acculturated to them from birth.

Using Visual and Media Literacy to Recreate

the Material Object

Visual and media literacy have helped art and architectural historians to recover
something of the materiality of objects in a way that print photography cannot do.
Over the past five years, the explosion of materiality studies has presented a new
opportunity to reclaim the physical qualities of an object or monument by present-
ing it in a three-dimensional digital space rather than a two-dimensional photo-
graph. Barring a virtual reality platform, however, the three-dimensional setting is
still accessed through a screen-based viewing experience. A flurry of twenty-first-
century activity, including web-based projects like the Real Virtual catalog for art
history undergraduates at Columbia University, Stephen Murray’s aforementioned
Mapping Gothic France project, The British Library’s Turning the Pages software
for viewing manuscripts, and the interactive display of objects from Andy Warhol’s
256 J. A. Finch

Time Capsules, provide digital environments in which the instructor and students
can meet. The potential for meaningful interaction between instructors, students,
and the reproduced “digital object” is great, and can be actualized through assign-
ments and exercises that are easily accessible on their own mobile and Internet-
ready devices. The field of art and architectural history at institutions of higher
learning (and more broadly, the humanities in general) is ripe for the integration
of visual and media-based tools and resources, and, perhaps more importantly, our
students are primed for these resources from a very early age. Students embody the
digital environments through an extension of their physical bodies, and are able to
interact with objects recreated there each time the student opens a new browser on
their smartphone or laptop (Hayles 1999, 2012).
As we move from a discussion of theory into one of practice, it helps to keep
in mind the types of assessments art history students are usually tasked with in the
traditional classroom, and how those are modified in the four activities below. Often
the goal of an art history exercise or the criteria for grading an assignment is the
student’s ability to describe and/or find meaning in an image (traditionally called a
visual analysis), which also demonstrates his or her level of visual literacy. In my
own experience as an instructor at various institutions of higher education (from a
very large, state-funded university to a very small, Catholic, liberal arts college) as
well as working with museum audiences (the casual viewer), I find that exercises
that build upon visual thinking strategies (VTS) (Yenawine 2013), as well as the
“slow-art” approach (Morse 2011), are often the most successful, and are necessary
as a foundation for future visual analysis assignments. VTS is applicable in muse-
ums for first-time art audiences, and just as it can be configured for a kindergarten
classroom as well as a higher education classroom, I find that it can also be applied
to the digital reproduction. This is in part because the digital environment is both
learner-centered and egalitarian in nature—these are spaces in which students can
employ their status as citizens of the aforementioned “Wikiworld” and have greater
confidence in posting a comment in an online discussion than they might in answer-
ing a specific question about a work in the more traditional physical classroom
setting.
The “slow-art” approach is another valuable strategy that can be applied to digi-
tal reproductions. According to data presented in the journal Empirical Studies of
the Arts, museum visitors spend, on average, 17€s in front of a painting, mentally
checking historically significant paintings off of a list (Morse 2011). Slow looking
traditionally involves spending longer amounts of time in front of fewer art works
in a museum setting. Although nothing replaces the act of standing in front of the
physical artwork—a truly multisensory experience in which the viewer analyzes not
just visual content, but also the visual texture of a painting in the air-conditioned cli-
mate of the hushed gallery—students have no time restrictions when viewing a digi-
tized reproduction in the classroom or on their own outside of class. They can zoom
in to high-resolution images to study minute detail that is impossible to see in the
gallery. They can develop intimate knowledge of the painting that may even surpass
that of the artist him- or herself. The museum as a brick-and-mortar institution is
rapidly extending its reach into digital spaces, and once again, the age group of most
Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images and Objects … 257

traditional university students (18–22), can adapt to and utilize this technology with
ease. Brian Kennedy (2010), Director of the Hood Museum, addressed the transi-
tion of museums in his 2010 TEDxDartmouth talk, “Visual Literacy: Why We Need
It.” As our “traditional museum” experiences become increasingly digital, there
is no reason why survey courses of the canonical works of art history should not
embrace the possibilities presented by the visual and digital literacy of our students.

Four Activities and Assessments for Visual Literacy

in Digital Environments

In the four activities and assessments described below, I hope to demonstrate the
potential for students and teachers to meet in digital environments as a supplement
to the classroom experience of lecture and face-to-face discussion. These activities
reflect four distinct skill sets and four different aspects of the digitized art object.
The following descriptions of student assignments demonstrate the facility with
which learner differences can be accommodated in digital environments, making
them especially useful in courses that fulfill a college or university’s general educa-
tion requirement. Students are able to critically think about an image or an object
and verbalize their analysis, a skill that is applicable in many real-life scenarios.

Social Media Image Sharing

Image-sharing software such as Instagram and Flickr are familiar to students, likely
through their own personal use. One of the features of these sites is the ability to
comment on images. In this exercise, the instructor creates an account, either for a
specific class (“Art History 101, fall 2014 semester”) or for the course as it is taught
over multiple semesters, as an accumulation of student interactions and dialogues
(“Dr. Finch’s Art History 101”) and adds the initial images. From here, students
are asked to add related content and images and connect them to the original post
through hashtags, words or brief phrases preceded by the “#” symbol. Hashtags are
used on Instagram and Twitter to identify keywords and link posts that contain those
keywords. The use of the hashtag demonstrates students’ ability to find meaning in
the work, and then to boil that meaning down to a few essential words while also
creating a category for the work based on either formal content or subject matter—
a true demonstration of visual literacy. The students not only contribute to a class
study guide for the most relevant images but may even be asked by the instructor to
use an image to visually comment upon another image. For example, students may
respond to Cézanne’s The Basket with Apples (1893, physical location at The Art
Institute of Chicago), with an image of a Baroque still life by Tomás Yepes ( Two
Fruit Bowls on a Table, 1642, physical location at the Museo del Prado), or with an
Instagram photo of their own healthy snack for the day. Students can also engage
258 J. A. Finch

one another directly by tagging each other to elicit a response. The layers of infor-
mation added in comments, as well as the external links to other resources, create a
living, fluid document that demonstrates creative interpretation as well as historical
understanding of a work of art.
In order to assess this activity, the instructor may provide hashtags for students
to use based on formal qualities of a work of art: #chiaroscuro, #crosshatching,
#dynamism, etc. Students post their own responses to the word (this activity can be
easily accommodated outside of social media as well as a low-tech exercise). This
demonstrates the students’ acquisition of the vocabulary of formal analysis and their
application of the work to an image. Images can be art historical in nature, or they
can be produced by the students, adding a creative component to the assignment.

Understanding the Digitized Object

In the field of medieval studies, materiality and thingness/object-ness have emerged

as current theoretical frameworks for the discussion of texts, objects, and places.
The Material Collective blog is an example of current scholarship and intellectual
exchange on medieval objects and the relationships they form with people, places,
and other things. For manuscript studies in particular, students of art history gain
an understanding of manuscripts as complete and total material objects rather than
isolated miniatures or transcribed texts. This is an area where the digitized object far
surpasses previous modes of photographic reproduction, with the exception of the
facsimile. This holistic approach provides new insights for students as they embody
the digital space through their familiarity with the technology of the codex, mean-
ing that they understand the platform for the presentation of information: pages,
illustrations, text, and bindings, and the physical interaction required to access that
information.
Moreover, each time the students use a digitized version of a manuscript, they
are free to peruse it at their leisure in a way that is impossible in archival or library
research. They represent a new category of readers, a digital user, distinct from
the original readers—medieval patrons and users—and archival readers—limited
by the physical parameters and location of the manuscript (Finch 2015). In a way,
students are able to recapture something of the physicality of the medieval reading
and looking experience as they use software like The British Library’s Turning the
Pages, or the Bibliothèque Nationale de France’s site dedicated to the Histoire du
Saint Graal manuscripts of Arthurian legend, to manipulate the digital object. By
using a mouse or their finger to swipe/turn the digital image of the manuscript page
on an interactive screen, students better relate the complexity of the medieval book
as image-text to their own experience reading books. Many times, the software also
includes an audio component, such as an excerpt read aloud from the Latin text that
can help students to better understand the reception of a medieval manuscript by its
original intended audience.
Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images and Objects … 259

In assessing the students’ understanding of the digitized object (a demonstra-

tion of media literacy), instructors can have students do a manuscript mapping
exercise, plotting relationships between images and texts within the manuscript.
For example, students might note the frequency and location of images of black
horses in the story of the Quest for the Holy Grail, and compare it to that of white
horses in an information graphic, using software like the free interactive timelines
found at the Tiki-Toki web site. Although such an exercise might seem frivolous,
it can perhaps shed light on the making of the manuscript, the materials used, and
the number of distinct artists’ hands involved. Students can also identify and label
components of the manuscript page—miniature, historiated initial, text column, ru-
bric—and manuscript construction, such as the binding and gutter. Through these
exercises, students demonstrate that medieval painting in manuscripts did not exist
in a vacuum, but was a part of a broader bookmaking process with wide-reaching
social, economic, and cultural networks.

Understanding Digital Spaces

The same intimate awareness of a digital object or space can be achieved by having
students explore the 360 ° panoramic images of buildings in the Real Virtual archive
and Mapping Gothic France site, as well as Google Maps’ panoramic street views
of world heritage sites. Students can be asked to verbally map these spaces through
an oral description of their digital interaction or even through a fictional written
narrative that takes place in the digital space.
Projects like that of the Icons of Sound team directed by art historian Bissera V.
Pentcheva and the Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics at Stan-
ford University, which recreates a multisensory experience by adding a sound com-
ponent to Hagia Sophia (Pentcheva 2011), enable students to think conceptually
about the possibility of an audio image. The project also demonstrates to students
the fruitful interaction between two very disparate fields, Byzantine architectural
studies and contextualized psychoacoustics, in order to better understand the sci-
ence of human auditory perception in a specific, historical, architectural location.
Anecdotally, when I play a brief film about the Icons of Sound project in my art
history lectures, I have had emotional responses from students, including tears and
applause, because of the power of the reproduction of the multisensory experience
of Hagia Sophia through both visuals and sounds.
In activities involving both Mapping Gothic France and the Icons of Sound,
visual and media literacy is evaluated based upon the students’ ability to synthesize
a diagrammatic map, two-dimensional image, and three-dimensional digital object
through learning exercises that they can complete on their own media devices. Ac-
tivities can include a “scavenger hunt” in the digital space, in which students follow
directions, checking off certain markers within the virtual architecture, until they
arrive at a designated point.
260 J. A. Finch

Digital Curating

In a final demonstration of visual literacy, students use the Google Art Project or an-
other digital image database, and are challenged to curate their own impossible ex-
hibition, André Malraux’s “museum without walls” fully realized (Malraux 1996).
Malraux first coined the term more than 50 years ago to outline an approach to col-
lecting and display that was cross-cultural and cross-historical in its approach—the
opposite of the traditional gallery display with its cultural and chronological group-
ings. Connections could be made based on formal content, theme, or subject matter,
and the process of creating the collection was subjective, a visual conversation with
the individual curator. Since the advent of the Internet, it has come to be used as a
way to describe the online offerings of museums and other collections that reach a
web audience that has never set foot in one of their physical institutions.
In a semester-long assignment, students are asked to create their own version of
Malraux’s museum by choosing a universal theme (some options include death and
commemoration or the human body as frame) and bringing together objects pro-
duced in different time periods, by different cultures and individuals, and, of course,
presently residing in different physical locations, into one imagined, physically im-
possible, online gallery. This is similar to the function of Pinterest as a place to dis-
play a collection of related images. Students share their “exhibitions” in a format of
their choosing: Many choose PowerPoint or Prezi, others create a physical catalog,
and certain industrious students choose to build a three-dimensional model of their
gallery space. As they take the class through their curated objects, they explain the
personal connections that led them from one digital object to the next.

Conclusion

As an educator attempting to bring visual literacy to the forefront of my art his-

tory classroom, I find that the term “visual literacy” has a multiplicity of practi-
cal definitions and demonstrations, many of which coincide with the onset of new
technology. Working with digital objects is especially relevant to my own research
on manuscript illumination in late medieval France, where numerous “literacies”
are present: multisensory (utilizing multiple senses simultaneously) and multimodal
(activity in several different, concurrent modes, such as physical and emotional),
combining text and image and orality in subjective ways. As we train our own visual
capacity and that of our students to construct meaning from images, art historians
build upon the traditional methods of iconography, with its dictionary-like litany of
potential meanings, and visual analysis, with its synesthetic qualities. In a field for-
ever linked to the study of images, objects, and representations and reproductions of
those images and objects, art historians can and should guide a discussion of visual
literacy in digital environments and the educational, meaning-making opportunities
inherent in commonplace social media apps like Instagram and Pinterest. The digi-
Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images and Objects … 261

tal environment not only equalizes student and teacher interaction, but it provides
opportunities to collect art experiences and personalize them, all from your laptop
or smartphone in the library, dorm room, or local coffee shop.

Web Resources

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Histoire du Saint Graal

http://www.expositions.bnf.fr/arthur/livres/estoire
Site visitors click with a mouse to “grab” the page of the open text at its corner
and “turn the page.” Hovering over a page will bring up a text box with content. The
wear on the book, including dirt left by fingers at the bottom of the pages, is visible
in the high resolution photographs.

The British Library’s Turning the Pages

http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/ttpbooks.html
Users can explore the Lindisfarne Gospels, which The British Library deems
“the pinnacle of Anglo-Saxon art,” using Turning the Pages software to click or
touch and drag the page across the screen of their device. Other manuscripts include
a selection of Leonardo da Vinci’s sketches, the draft score of Handel’s Messiah,
a miscellany from 15th-century Persia, and a 17th-century illustrated manuscript
of the Indian Mewar Ramayana epic. Information about the manuscripts and their
content is available in text or audio format.

Closer to Van Eyck

http://closertovaneyck.kikirpa.be
Presents the results from Lasting Support, An Interdisciplinary Research Proj-
ect to Assess the Structural Condition of the Ghent Altarpiece (an initiative of The
Getty Foundation). Running from April 2010 through June 2011, the project con-
served the altarpiece, assessed its condition, and documented the altarpiece through
macrophotography, infrared photography, and x-radiography. Visitors to the site can
use a zooming feature to look at the polyptych at the scale of a few millimeters at a
time, due to the crisp photography in billions of pixels.

Google Art Project

https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/project/art-project
The Google Cultural Institute has partnered with hundreds of museums, cultural
institutions, and archives to host “the world’s cultural treasures” online.

Icons of Sound: Aesthetics and Acoustics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.

A Collaboration between Stanford University’s Center for Computer Research in
Music and Acoustics and Department of Art and Art History
http://iconsofsound.stanford.edu/aesthetics.html
262 J. A. Finch

This research project explores the interior of Hagia Sophia, built in the 6th cen-
tury, and employs visual, textual, musicological research along with the creation of
architectural and acoustic models to better understand the resonance of chant in the
nave of the structure.

Instagram
http://www.instagram.com
A popular image-sharing social media web site.
Mapping Gothic France
http://www.mappinggothic.org
This site represents Gothic spaces not only as architectonic volumes, but also
through the frameworks of time and narrative. Users can explore spaces in three
dimensions, but also consider geopolitical spaces and social spaces at work in the
Gothic era.

The Material Collective Blog

http://www.thematerialcollective.orgbib>
As a self-described “collaborative of art historians and students of visual cul-
ture,” Material Collective “seeks to foster a safe space for alternative ways of think-
ing about objects.” Contributors prioritize “the materiality of things, the relation-
ships between those things and the human beings experience them, and the intimacy
of past and present moments in time.”

Pinterest
http://www.pinterest.com
A visual bookmarking system or bulletin board, Pinterest allows users to collect
Pins of their favorite things from anywhere on the Web and arrange them by theme
or topic.

Prezi Presentation Software

http://www.prezi.com
Presentation software that allows users to create a three-dimensional presenta-
tion space. Connections can be visualized and narratives “zoomed through.”

Real Virtual: Representing Architectural Time and Space

http://www.learn.columbia.edu/ha/
Created as a support for undergraduate education, users can explore architectural
history through maps, plans, images, and three-dimensional models that represent
architectural time and space.

Tiki-Toki interactive timelines

http://www.tiki-toki.com
This web-based software allows you to create interactive timelines. Users can
upload images and text to the timeline and create visual categories for content.
Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images and Objects … 263

The Warhol: Time Capsule 21

http://www.warhol.org/tc21/main.html
This site allows visitors to take an in-depth look at the content of one of Andy
Warhol’s Time Capsules, cardboard boxes that Warhol filled with objects from his
daily life. Time Capsule 21 is filled with material dating from the 1950s to the early
1970s. Over 50 objects from Time Capsule 21 are available for viewers to click and
zoom in on; texts and visual and audio selections are also presented.

UNESCO World Heritage Street Views—Google Maps

https://www.google.com/maps/views/streetview/unesco-world-heritage?gl=us
This web site gathers street views produced by Google Maps for UNESCO
World Heritage Sites, from the Pyramids of Giza to the temples of Angkor Wat to
the streets of Prague.

References

American Association of Museums. (2010). Demographic transformation and the future of muse-
ums. Washington, DC: The AAM Press.
Benjamin, W. (1939). The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction. In H. Arendt (Ed.),
Illuminations: Essays and reflections. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Carlson, S. (2005). The net generation goes to college. The Chronicle of Higher Education,
52(7), A34. http://www.chronicle.com/article/The-Net-Generation-Goes-to/12307. Accessed
26 Sept 2014
Elkins, J. (Ed.) (2007). Visual literacy. New York: Routledge.
Felten, P. (2008). Resource review: Visual literacy. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning
40(6), 60–64.
Finch, J. (forthcoming, 2015). Medieval manuscripts, digital users, and the university classroom.
Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Teaching. Wichita: Wichita State University.
Gikas, J., & Grant, M. (2013). Mobile computing devices in higher education: Student perspec-
tives on learning with cellphones, smartphones, and social media. Internet and Higher Educa-
tion, 19, 18–26.
Grønstad, A., & Vågnes, Ø. (2006). What do pictures want? An interview with W.J.T. Mitchell.
Image and Narrative. Zagreb: Center for Visual Studies. http://www.visual-studies.com/inter-
views/mitchell.html. Accessed 26 Sept 2014
Kennedy, B. (26 May 2010) Brian Kennedy: Visual literacy: Why we need it? [Video file]. http://
www.dartmouth.edu/~tedx/briankennedyvideo/. Accessed 26 Sept 2014
King, A. (1993). From sage on the stage to guide on the side. College Teaching, 41(1), 30–35.
Hayles, N. K. (1999). How we became posthuman: Virtual bodies in cybernetics, literature, and
informatics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hayles, N. K. (2012). How we think: Digital media and contemporary technogenesis. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Malraux, A. (1996). Le musée imaginaire . Paris: Gallimard.
Mirzoeff, N. (2006). On visuality. Journal of Visual Culture 5(1), 53–79.
Mitchell, W. J. T. (1995). Picture theory: Essays on verbal and visual representation. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Morse, T. (2011). Slow down, you look too fast. ARTnews. http://www.artnews.com/2011/04/01/
slow-down-you-look-too-fast/. Accessed 26 Sept 2014
264 J. A. Finch

O’Neil, M. (2013) Explosion of wireless devices strains campus networks. The Chronicle
of Higher Education. http://www.chronicle.com/article/Explosion-of-Wireless-Devices/
142277. Accessed 26 Sept 2014
Pentcheva, B. (2011). Hagia Sophia and multisensory aesthetics. Gesta, 50(2), 93–111.
Pollara, P. & Broussard, K. (2011). Mobile Technology and Student Learning: What Does Current
Research Reveal? International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning 3(3), 34–22.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5).
Selwyn, N. (2009). The digital native—myth and reality. Aslib Journal of Information Manage-
ment, 61(4), 364–79.
Suoranta, J., & Vadén, T. (2012). Wikilearning as radical equality. In Pericles, P. (Ed.), Learning
the virtual life: Public pedagogy in a digital world. London: Routledge.
Yenawine, P. (2013). Visual thinking strategies: Using art to deepen learning across school disci-
plines. Cambridge: Harvard Education Press.
Zorich, D. (2012). Transitioning to a digital world: Art history, its research centers, and digital
scholarship: A report to The Samuel H. Kress Foundation and The Roy Rosenzweig Center for
History and New Media, George Mason University .

Julia A. Finch╇ Julia is assistant professor of art history in the Department of Art and Design
at Morehead State University. She received her PhD from the University of Pittsburgh in 2011.
She has been teaching art and architectural history and ways of looking at art for more than 10
years, and has worked with learners of all ages as an instructor in colleges, universities, continuing
education programs, and museums. Her research and teaching interests include visual narrative,
visual translation of images between media, medieval illuminated manuscripts and the history of
the book, and the visual culture of literacy in the later Middle Ages. Her pedagogical interests cur-
rently focus on the incorporation of digitized art objects and architectural spaces, web-based texts,
and social media into traditional survey art history and art appreciation courses at the undergradu-
ate level. She is presently working on a book project titled Hybrid Literacy: Visual Narratives and
the Medieval Reader.
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design and
Implementation, Tools, and Techniques

Elizabeth K. Anderson, Rhonda S. Robinson and Kristin Brynteson

Abstract╇ Visual literacy is emerging as a key concept in educational standards

in the twenty-first century; for example, the Association of College and Research
Libraries developed higher education competency standards for visual literacy
in 2011. Several of the Common Core State Standards emphasize visual literacy
in terms of navigating, decoding, and encoding visual information. The purpose
of this report is to discuss student experiences in a graduate-level visual lit-
eracy course that was revised to include a themed blended approach, reflective
writing, a portfolio, collaborative projects, interactive online discussions, and
several low-stakes production assignments. Due to an institutional shift towards
blended course formats, key program courses were redesigned to fit the needs of
commuting students. Another factor underlying the course redesign was the need
to address the proliferation of participatory digital media in the twenty-first cen-
tury. The course was enhanced in 2009 with a blended format, redesigned based
on student feedback and piloted in 2011, and revised and piloted once more in
2012. Data were collected through pre- and post-course student surveys, student
interviews, and student reflections. The findings of our case study indicate that
engagement and active learning occurred and that these characteristics might be
transferrable across many learning contexts. Course design concepts and exam-
ples of activities reviewed in this report are appropriate for higher education
audiences and of interest to K–12 educators.

E.€K.€Anderson€()
College of DuPage, Glen Ellyn, IL, USA
e-mail: andersoe@cod.edu
R.€S.€Robinson€· K.€Brynteson
Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA
©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 265
D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5_14
266 E. K. Anderson et al.

Introduction
This case study report examines the redesign and development of a graduate-
level, interdisciplinary course in visual literacy offered through The Department
of Educational Technology, Research, and Assessment (ETRA) at Northern Illi-
nois University, USA. The course began 30 years ago with a focus on conceptual
knowledge, research, visual production activities, and integration of visual literacy
aspects in professional practice. The course was originally organized around key
terms in the International Visual Literacy Association’s (IVLA) definition; namely,
encoding and decoding, with an emphasis on decoding. Class sessions involved
discussion of multiple readings, organized by visual media available, such as print
images, ads and posters, displays, photographs, videos, and films. Decoding ac-
tivities utilized review of design elements through print images, art, television, and
film; encoding was created with still and video cameras and even magazine images
copied and revised. As a final project, students were asked to complete a 5–10-page
review paper, highlighting information from a variety of academic resources, and
detailing how that information could be used to add to or change practices in their
professional settings (instructional design in business, K–20 classroom, health care,
and museum).
As educational learning theories and strategies changed and new technology
tools made encoding much more available, the course activities were modernized.
We have made samples of our course materials available on our website, http://
www.vislitsandbox.com, to help facilitate the description of this case. The approved
objectives of the course were not altered, but the means to their accomplishment did
evolve each time the course was offered. With the proliferation of digital (and there-
fore visual) culture, the course has evolved to reflect the changing paradigm of the
twenty-first-century classroom, to include a focus on multiliteracies as originally
defined by the New London Group (1996). Multiliteracies encompass the broad
scope of traditional, digital, and emerging communication skills that foster compe-
tency in global digital citizenship. We believe that multiliteracy concepts deserve
to be continually taught in education programs across the nation, and our course
ideas may provide an excellent example for others to adapt to a variety of learning
settings. The course, ETT 531: Visual Literacy, is offered yearly and fulfills require-
ments for multidisciplinary degrees and programs, although it is offered through the
College of Education.
ETT 531 has consistently been a popular course over the past two decades, so
when the university encouraged its departments to offer more courses in a blended
format, ETT 531 was a prime candidate. In addition, the need for encoding skills as
well as decoding skills was becoming more prevalent as access to digital collabora-
tive tools continued to spur educators’ desires to incorporate digital technology in
the classroom. Since many of our students seek practical application of visual liter-
acy, especially in terms of digital technology, we decided to shift the primary focus
of the course from research and literature review to learning by doing as proposed
by Dewey (1938). Our students enjoyed the three to four production activities in the
original course, but we saw an opportunity to expand the production aspect of the
course as a means to immersing our learners in twenty-first-century literacies, fo-
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 267

cused on visual literacy. We wanted to provide the same level of theoretical under-
standing, while adding the practical, hands-on experiences required for literacy in
the twenty-first century (Williams and Zenger 2012). Therefore, the original course
goals did not change with the redesign of course format and content presentation.
Course goals and learning objectives for ETT 531: Visual Literacy are:
Goal 1: Develop definitions related to theories and concepts of visual literacy and visual
culture within the context of 21st century literacies from historical, professional, and per-
sonal contexts.
Objective 1a: Review and analyze definitions of visual literacy.
Objective 1b: Locate, understand, and analyze professional and educational visual literacy
and multiliteracy standards.

Goal 2: Explore and identify the contextual worth of learning theories, methods, and tools
for the development of visual literacy in learning and training environments.
Objective 2a: Review and summarize visual learning research and apply it to specific proj-
ects.
Objective 2b: Develop critical viewing skills and demonstrate understanding of their ap-
plication for learning settings.

Goal 3: Explore and experiment with tools and methods to create, select, and integrate visu-
als in educational contexts and professional practice.
Objective 3a: Analyze visual communications.
Objective 3b: Identify and utilize design and production elements in various visual produc-
tion activities.
Objective 3c: Create visual media to explore visual meaning-making.
Objective 3d: Select/explain/revise learning environments/materials to incorporate con-
cepts of visual literacy into instructional technology practice to improve learning.

While we did not revise the course goals and objectives, we revised the format, de-
sign, and activities to more effectively emphasize the fluid, problem-solving nature
of learning in the twenty-first century. The emphasis shifted from traditional read-
ing, discussion, and final paper, a product-based approach, to an activity-rich cur-
riculum with the focus on adapting and transferring skills through a process-based
approach (Crockett et€al. 2011).

Case Study Report Overview

As we approached this project, our research problem was at first difficult to define.
We did not see any problems with the original course, simply a changing paradigm
of approaches to all literacies, visual included. Our research problem was formed,
therefore, in terms of what we experienced in the teaching of these literacies, under-
scoring the current scholarly literature’s focus on gaps in student perception and ef-
fective use of visual and digital media (Williams and Zenger 2012). Our experience
indicated that most of our students, whether in their early 20s or late 40s, exhibited
a lack of fluency and comfort in reading, manipulating, creating, and sharing visual,
digital media.
268 E. K. Anderson et al.

The first layer of the research problem involves a gap between student multi-
literacy skills and educator expectations. Although the research literature has long
since dispelled the myth of the digital native (Kennedy et€al. 2007, 2009; Smith et
al. 2008), in practice many teachers overestimate their students’ multiliteracy skill
sets (Margaryan et al. 2011; Kerawalla and Crook 2002). In fact, many assumptions
are made about the Net Generation, including the misconception that they come
to school with highly developed multiliteracies in place, including information lit-
eracy, digital literacy, and visual literacy (Cordes 2009). This gap between student
abilities and educator expectations can lead to frustration as well as degrade the
learning experiences of students. For example, should students understand through
basic instructions how to upload papers correctly to a learning management system
(LMS) with proper naming conventions and file formats? When students encounter
difficulties in such a mundane task, do they give up or do they problem-solve by
drawing upon visual cues, using information resources, or transferring digital skills
across applications? In our particular study, we discovered that regardless of techni-
cal, visual, or information skills experience and training, students require additional
scaffolding of learning to guide them; further, they need scaffolding to promote
higher-order, reflective thinking and transfer of skill sets, to allow them to develop
skills for communicating across modalities, purposes, and audiences.
The second layer of the problem involves clarifying the relationship among mul-
tiliteracies and determining a balanced emphasis among these skill sets in course
development. At one time, visual literacy was a term that could define most multi-
media experiences; however, in the twenty-first century, visual literacy is blended
with digital, information, media, and cultural literacies (Cordes 2009). In a digital
age, educators are faced with the convergence of multiple literacies (multilitera-
cies) across disciplines and contexts (see an excellent discussion in Avgerinou and
Pettersson 2011). Crockett et€al. (2011) have even suggested that educators reframe
their perception of literacy as “fluency”; literacy, they contend, describes the lower-
level skills, but fluency describes mastery. Educators should strive to bring students
beyond the literacy level to fluency, “the level at which these skills have become
internalized to the point of transparency, where the skills become part of the uncon-
scious process and do not stand in the way” (p.€14). Figure€1 provides an overview
of our research problem and case study overview.
We reviewed the course design, content, and delivery of the long-established
multidisciplinary graduate course, ETT 531: Visual Literacy and began to realize
that the course needed to address these converging multiliteracies. We concluded
that we might achieve this through immersing students in a dynamic, media-, and
modality-rich learning environment with low-stakes, high-challenge experiences.
As we contemplated the formidable task of creating a robust, blended, dynamic
new version of this popular course, our overarching questions guided our planning:
1.)>> Why were changes to the course necessary? We believed we needed to clarify the
purpose of learning, teaching, and practicing “visual literacy” in the twenty-first
century as one of the interrelated multiliteracies. We reviewed the literature on
visual and multiliteracies as well as Common Core Standards and twenty-first-
century skills.
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 269

Fig. 1 ╇ Visual literacy course redesign research problem

2.)>> How would we change the course? We decided to transition from the traditional
theory-based course requiring a theory-based final paper to a hands-on or learn-
ing-by-doing model in which several low-stakes activities afforded exploration
and practice to foster deeper understanding of multiliteracy theory in practice
(Kuh et€al. 2010; Svinicki 2010; Tinto 2012). Changes included:
a.)>> Delivery: from on-campus face to face to blended (hybrid) to promote interac-
tion across modalities
b.)>> Design: from regular weekly topic units to an expedition theme to encourage
exploration and provide a visual metaphor
c.)>> Instruction: from a more traditional lecture/discussion/activity format to a
more student-centered focus
d.)>> Assessment: from several traditionally graded assignments to what we came
to call a “low-stakes/high-stakes” learning expedition (low-stakes assign-
ments; high-stakes learning outcomes for real life).
We also designed research questions to guide data collection:
•)>> What elements do students identify as important for a successful blended course?
•)>> How do students engage in and perceive their experiences in reflective writing
assignments in a largely production-based course?
•)>> What are students’ perspectives on the portfolio component of the course?
•)>> What were students’ experiences with low-stakes production assignments juxta-
posed with collaboration, discussion, and reflection?
Our methods included collecting and coding artifacts from ETT 531 courses in 2011
and 2012. These artifacts included discussion posts, e-mails, journal entries, portfo-
270 E. K. Anderson et al.

lios, assignments and reflections, and enter/exit surveys. We used NVivo software
(http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo.aspx) to conduct open and axial
coding; we determined patterns through first-cycle coding. Entering the second cy-
cle of coding, we developed overarching categories and examined visual displays
of the coding landscape, such as word clouds and maps. We wrote analytical memos
on our data to summarize the findings and applied them to possible course changes.
Throughout this report, we will describe the reactions of the instructors and the
students, the co-teaching model, and the results of our investigations into student
responses to our many course changes as collected through observation, reflective
journals, and end-of-course surveys. We include our thoughts for the future based
upon these investigations.

Why Were Changes to the Course Necessary?

Visual literacy is more recognized today than ever before and is a significant addi-
tion to the twenty-first century and Common Core Standards for teachers in a ma-
jority of states in the USA (Partnership for 21st Century Skills 2010; Illinois State
Board of Education 2011, 2014). These standards add goals in communication,
multiliteracies, and critical thinking to the traditional literacy goals. Visual literacy
development is vital to the multiliteracies, as described by the Partnership for the
21st Century, which leverage visual literacy development with information literacy,
digital technology literacy, and media literacies along with critical thinking.
Advancing literacy in the classroom or workplace requires educators to engage
learners in critical thinking strategies for producing, interpreting, and assessing vi-
sual and multimodal texts. Traditional literacy goals of text comprehension and
analysis must not be ignored, but rather enhanced through the integration of mul-
tiliteracy curriculum strategies. The Partnership for Twenty-First Century Skills
(2004) has provided a framework delineating the skill sets that will prepare learners
for success. Among the skill sets, the partnership identified media literacy, which it
defines as analyzing and creating media. Comprehending, assessing, and utilizing
visual information is an important component of these “new” literacies; in fact, “…
visual literacy is not only one of the most important literacies but also a basic skill
for other twenty-first century literacies” (Aberšek 2008, p.€11).
Today’s students need to develop skills in these multiliteracies, which include
improving skills in areas such as information literacy, visual literacy, digital media
literacy, and others as well as reading and writing skills (Koltay 2011; McKenzie
2009; Ohler 2008; Valmont 2003). It is essential for learners in the twenty-first cen-
tury to develop communication and literacy skills that include the ability to locate,
evaluate, understand, and critically think about information found through different
media as well as the ability to interpret and create both visual and written artis-
tic forms of expression (McKenzie 2009; Ohler 2008; Valmont 2003; Moore et€al.
1999; Illinois State Board of Education 2014). Developing student proficiency in
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 271

these new literacies helps students improve their ability to communicate in today’s
world of global and digital communication.
This challenge faced by educational professionals at all levels is addressed
through the carefully planned readings, activities, applications, and reflections on
how to facilitate meaningful learning experiences that deeply engage the learner in
visual literacy. An example for teachers and curriculum developers in K–12 schools
is incorporating these new literacies into the classroom in a way that engages and
motivates students to continue to develop their reading and writing skills for learn-
ing (Serafini 2011). The use of visual literacy ideas and strategies to enhance verbal
learning has been examined for over 45 years (Braden 1996). For trainers and de-
sign professionals, an example is learning how visual literacy theory informs design
and helping learners become analytical consumers of visual data. An example for
faculty involves engaging students in reflective construction of meaningful projects
across a variety of curriculum that will enhance students’ critical thinking skills in
both encoding and decoding of highly visual culture our students have grown up in
(Martin and Madigan 2006).
For over 30 years, helping educators understand and integrate visual literacy
development with technology has been the main goal of our graduate-level visual
literacy course. The course originally had a traditional emphasis on reading and
discussion with three to four production activities and a final research paper. The
redesign of this visual literacy class for our graduate program took place over a
3-year span of class offerings and was based on course evaluations and class sur-
veys; further, the redesign has been continued in 2014 as the course is being adapted
for a fully online format. The recommendations from those student surveys and
reflections suggested a need to incorporate the importance of the new literacies with
technology skills development. The changes were also based upon literature in the
new literacies and standards and the annual student feedback on course expecta-
tions, projects, and their meeting new Common Core State Standards.

How Did We Change the Course?

The course format was redesigned to offer a blending of face to-face and virtual
class time. The course site offered robust materials and activities for distance learn-
ing and connected these to face-to-face meetings. The virtual sessions were not
considered less demanding or different from the face-to-face meetings; rather, the
same rigor and dynamic participation was expected. The course was restructured
as a reflective expedition through which students explored visual literacy in his-
torical, professional, and personal contexts. Students were challenged to reenvision
the psychology of learning in terms of what Nicholas Mirzoeff (1999) calls “the
paradox of visual culture” or the ubiquitous yet overlooked nature of visuals in the
twenty-first century.
272 E. K. Anderson et al.

Delivery: Working Toward Blended Flow

Blended learning, also called hybrid learning, refers to a course format that
“enable[s] students to travel to campus for some activities, while using the network
for others, taking advantage of both environments” (Johnson et€al. 2014, p.€10). The
NMC Horizon Report of 2014 listed “Integration of Online, Hybrid, and Collabora-
tive Learning” as one of the fast trends in educational technology or “driving chang-
es in higher education over the next one to two years” (p.€10). Further, a 2007 Sloan
Consortium survey report indicated that “Consumer preference for and openness
to online and blended delivery far exceeds consumer experience of these delivery
modes. This suggests that the market for online/blended delivery has a lot of room
for growth” (p. 21) (Allen et al. 2007). The Horizon Report (2014) also suggested
that as new digital tools continue improving communication among students, their
peers, and their instructors, the quality of blended learning will continue to improve
“community and interaction” in the blended or hybrid learning environment (p.€10).
As such, we saw an opportunity to explore blended learning in a course focused on
active visual critical thinking and problem solving. Adding the online component
to the course would provide opportunities for learners to engage in visual literacy
practice independently, digitally, and collaboratively.
We created a blended course that provides interactive experiences where the
students cocreate the learning along with the instructors. We wanted to immerse
students in visual learning, applying theory and concepts within the experience. For
all three pilot courses, we met face to face approximately every 2 weeks with one
virtual class in between. Some virtual meetings were synchronous, taking place in
an online virtual world. For example, learners gathered in the virtual world of Sec-
ond Life and used avatars to conduct virtual field trips, discuss course concepts, and
present learning experiences. Our goal was to create a truly blended model of deliv-
ery in which student communication, participation, and activity seamlessly flowed
regardless of delivery modality. We believe our blended approach was successful
based on student feedback, such as this response to our end-of-course survey:
I have taken a number of blended courses and feel that this course has used blended format
better than any of the blended courses I have previously taken. I think that the professor and
instructor dedicated time, energy, and effort in an effective manner to bridge the face-to-
face classes with the virtual class sessions. I think that the professor and instructor designed
the class activities, discussions, and presentations in a way that the face-to-face classes and
virtual class sessions felt extremely connected. I have taken a number of blended courses
here where the face-to-face class sessions feel like a completely separate entity from the
virtual class sessions but in this course felt truly blended.

Achieving this blend was accomplished through careful planning. We ensured that
all virtual class session topics and activities clearly linked to the previous and up-
coming face-to-face sessions, thus establishing what we call blended flow, or con-
tinuity of structure, rhythm, and pace. A virtual session should not be different in
flow from a face-to-face session. Providing this continuity of blended flow allowed
students to feel comfortable in virtual sessions, but more important, students also
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 273

felt that participation expectations were the same regardless of the meeting space.
Virtual weeks were neither easier nor more difficult than face-to-face meetings.
Readings, videos, and web resources were assigned for examination prior to the
class session whether or not the class met face to face. For face-to-face meetings
(approximately 3€h), an introduction to a key concept from the readings was intro-
duced and discussion was facilitated. Students were then led through a hands-on
tutorial to apply the concepts with an activity, and then were given time to work
in small groups on specific projects. These “in-class activities” were low stakes,
meaning that students were graded on participation rather than product. These ac-
tivities were presented as learning opportunities and risk taking was encouraged.
The activities were also warm-ups for official assignments that would follow the
practice activities and which students would complete outside of class. Another
benefit of these low-stakes activities is the large array of tools and skills provided
for student exploration. Students were given freedom to choose appropriate tools,
and these experimental activities provided opportunities to test and try them.
For asynchronous virtual class meetings, the same structure was followed except
that students could choose to work in groups or on their own, discussions were
posted to a discussion board, and instructor guidance was provided through virtual
modes. Synchronous virtual class sessions were treated as field trips. For example,
students visited educational “lands” in the virtual world of Second Life. Students
were given a guide and asked to select at least three spaces in the virtual world that
represented education centers, visual literacy examples, discourse communities, or
events such as performances, concerts, or festivals. An example of a visual literacy
space that was popular with students was the reproductive system tour created by
Oregon State University’s medical college. In this tour, student avatars rode in a
small vehicle through a giant human reproductive system. Within the tour, there
was narrative, text (in the form of informational cards), and multimedia. Students
traveled through the tour in groups of four and were able to discuss the experiences
as they occurred. Other virtual field trips included an ancient Rome simulation,
Genome Island (an interactive science experience), the Globe Theatre, and a Peter
Pan simulation. Small groups explored various destinations and events, and later
reported their experiences to the class through photo stories and reflections.
The structure of each meeting, whether virtual or face to face, included:
•)>> A visual, usually digital-based example of a principle from the week’s readings,
used as a discussion starter.
•)>> One or two in-class activities, experimenting with digital and other tools, to prac-
tice the related principles of multiliteracies.
•)>> A reflective writing activity and/or in-class discussion board through which stu-
dents shared results of their in-class activities and discussed the concepts further.
•)>> A wrap-up of the week and a preview for the coming week.
274 E. K. Anderson et al.

Sample Meeting Structure

1.)>> Introduction to a key concept from the week’s readings via video, brief activity,
or reflective question. For face-to-face meetings, this was done usually with an
overhead projector. For virtual meetings, students followed embedded media and
text in the course site. For both modalities, all materials were arranged in order
of use in the week’s folder, and all materials were available from the beginning
of the course. Figure€2 provides a glimpse of a weekly folder’s materials.
2.)>> Discussion stemming from opening activity. In both virtual and face-to-face
meetings, discussions were continued on the discussion boards.
3.)>> One to three in-class activities, which earned participation points and so were
“low stakes,” examples are as follows:
a.)>> Practice Digital Story: Students were given a brief hands-on tutorial before
practicing digital storytelling in small groups. We began with a familiar tool,
PowerPoint, as later in the course other tools were introduced. (See instruc-
tions and a sample on our website).
b.)>> Brief Comic: After success with the PowerPoint story, we asked students to
try a new tool, Pixton Comics. The stories they began in the practice ses-
sion developed into full examples later. (See instructions and samples on our
website).
4.)>> Reflection immediately following activities:
a.)>> Use of discussion board during class: Students posted their stories to the class
discussion board. In class, we reviewed and discussed them, now using these
as concrete examples for the principles learned in the week’s readings, lec-
ture, and discussion.
b.)>> Journal prompt: Reflect on what you have learned concerning effective sto-
rytelling from our readings, activities, and discussions. How have these class
experiences influenced your attitude toward the importance of storytelling as
a teaching and learning tool? How might you use this tool in the future?
c.)>> The graded discussion board asked students to reflect on appropriated art and
image manipulation. (See sample on our website).
Another method we used to ensure blended flow was by using the discussion board
course tools of the LMS in nontraditional ways. Course discussions extended be-
yond the “read and summarize” model with some discussion board postings occur-
ring during and after face-to-face in-class activities. Our students were accustomed
to discussion board tools used as virtual session participation. We asked students to
post projects and examples during our face-to-face time and to respond to each other
online during class. At times, we would use the liquid crystal display (LCD) projec-
tor to display portions of a particularly interesting discussion. Using the discussion
board tools in the face-to-face classes accomplished two important goals: Students
came to see discussion boards as a vital form of communication and became effec-
tive at continuing class discussions outside of class time, and students helped each
other learn the technology skills needed to include pictures and videos in their posts
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 275

(a)

Fig. 2 ╇ Sample of lesson content

276 E. K. Anderson et al.

(b)

Fig. 2 ╇ (continued)

as well as techniques to organize and sort posts. Discussions were linked directly
to activities and readings, requiring students to reflect on their learning and engage
in discussions about the purpose of specific activities. In order to make the online
discussions just as meaningful as face-to-face interactions, we combined formal
graded discussions with in-class sharing and reflection (for participation points).
The graded discussions included a clear rubric (see website for rubric) that encour-
aged timely and frequent participation.
The graded discussion prompts challenged students to view or create a visual
communication and then discuss it in terms of the course readings (see samples on
our website). In this manner, we were able to incorporate theory and conceptual ma-
terial that was linked to learner experience. While creating such deeply integrated
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 277

discussion opportunities required much planning, the results were quite positive, as
shown in these student comments from our survey:
•)>> I liked that during our face-to-face class sessions some time was provided for us
to extend our online discussions with classmates.
•)>> The class provided different activities and discussions, which I was actually in-
volved in, and enabled me to reflect upon my own visual learning. In fact, I have
started thinking about what I am learning, and how to adopt visual learning in my
teaching strategies in the future.
•)>> The online discussions were a great way to connect with others.
•)>> Many times I learned as much or more in the discussions than I did from the
readings.

Design: Leading Students on An Expedition

We created a themed course to model visual teaching and learning. We wanted stu-
dents to be able to make mental maps of the course design and visualize the course
metaphorically rather than as a document repository. We modified a blackboard
teaching style structure (“expedition based”) and created an expedition theme. The
course began on the announcements page, while a left-hand-side menu provided
course navigation. The menu items reflected the expedition theme and required stu-
dents to explore and learn the course layout, as we did not use the typical vocabu-
lary for the course links. After Announcements, the menu was divided into four
�sections. The first section contained informational content that students might re-
quire at a glance. We provided a navigation overview, the syllabus, and an overview
of due dates and points. The next section contained the course content areas; after
that came resources and instructor contact information, and finally the course tools.
Figure€3 provides an overview of the course design. All hypertext markup language
(HTML) pages in the course site were provided as portable document format (PDF)
downloads for students, and all pages were compatible with most mobile devices.
We included specific questions about course structure and navigation in our
end-of-course survey. We were initially concerned that our prolific announcements
might annoy rather than help; however, the survey results were positive. Students
overwhelmingly appreciated the announcements (94↜% of respondents over two
courses):
•)>> I feel like the use of announcements helped create a good bridge between the
face-to-face meetings and the virtual class sessions.
•)>> They were like tweets and feel they were very useful.
Another concern we had as we built the course revolved around our desire to make
available all course materials from the start, similar to an online course. While prep-
aration was a bit arduous, we were able to organize at a detailed level that allowed
students to manage their time and prepare when it was convenient to them. To this
end, the syllabus link contained instructions listing which important documents to
278 E. K. Anderson et al.

1. The Announcements page served as the course landing

We sent announcements, which were also pushed through
student e-mail, several times throughout the course:
Session wrap-ups to reinforce concepts and clarify
next steps
Weekly reminders, tips, and resources
Encouragement
Optional challenges (e. g. , participating in a photo
story challenge)

2. The second section offered information at-a-glance.

Course navigation guide that explained layout and
course flow
Syllabus: official syllabus and all important
documents
At-a-glance due dates and points: This section was
vital for our learners, every one of whom worked and
had personal responsibilities outside of class. This
was a single page providing an at-a-glance due date
calendar and points schedule for the whole course.
Student feedback suggested that this was one of the
most useful, visual features that helped student
mentally map their excursion through the course

3. The third section offered course content areas including:

Weekly Adventure Packs: weekly content such as
videos, lectures, readings, samples, etc.
Campfire: discussion boards
Expedition Journal: private journals for biweekly
reflections
Expedition Assignments: graded activities that built
upon several smaller, low-stakes practice activities
Expedition Portfolios: individual student portfolios
displaying selected projects

4. The fourth section linked to supplemental resources that

students could refer to throughout the course and use for
their final project. The instructor contact information was
also here

5. The final section contained the tools our students are

accustomed to seeing in this LMS

Fig. 3 ╇ Course navigation menu for ETT 531 Fall 2012. The menu reflects the expedition theme
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 279

Fig. 4 ╇ Screen capture of “Due Dates & Points” tab in course. Included was an at-a-glance view of
important due dates and a handout of checklists to help students organize themselves

download and refer to throughout the course including the official syllabus, the
course agenda, the complete packet of graded and nongraded activities and assign-
ments with rubrics, and the journal prompts. We also included a packet of checklists
that broke down activities by type, since our face-to-face and online sessions were
integrated and activity oriented. For example, we offered checklists that showed
each assignment, journal entry, discussion board, and in-class activity by date along
with the point values. We found that providing organization tools helped students
relax and become more comfortable with the learning-by-doing format and, at the
same time, we were promoting visual organization. The survey question asking stu-
dents about the at-a-glance due dates section for both 2011 and 2012 earned a 100↜%
positive response. Figure€4 is a screen capture of the due dates “at-a-glance” tab.
Student comments on the supports for staying organized and managing time
were very encouraging:
•)>> I loved seeing all of the due dates in one place. In other courses, I have become
confused with all of the dates for projects and discussion boards, especially when
they are hidden inside of the project descriptions.
280 E. K. Anderson et al.

to the
Course"
•Class Welcome & Overview
3 Weeks •Defining 21st Century Literacy

•Picturing Words
•Telling Stories: Storybooks, Graphic Texts, and Digital
2: A Picture is worth..
Storytelling
4 Weeks
•Composing Visually in the 21st Century
•What’s in an Ad? Visual Literacy
3: Visually •
n •Video Games & Visual Literacy
5 weeks • Metaphors
•

4: Travelogue •Final Project Workshop

2 weeks •Final Project Showcase

Fig. 5 ╇ Course content structure. Instead of units, we organized the course into four expeditions,
each one exploring various facets of visual and multiliteracies

•)>> It is inconvenient to click into project descriptions every time you need a re-
minder of a due date (describing the typical class structure). This, for me, was
the best class I have ever taken in terms of clarity and convenience of due date
communication.
•)>> I found it useful and reassuring to know that I was staying on top of things, espe-
cially while keeping up with projects for another course as well.
The course topics were divided into four expeditions, each one with a different
exploration theme. Each expedition explored various facets of visual and multi-
literacies and provided several opportunities for practice and discussion of these
skills. Throughout the first three expeditions, we also discussed the final project,
which was an opportunity for students to demonstrate their understanding of visual
and multiliteracies by designing materials appropriate for their professional setting.
Along with providing the final project details from the first week and forward, we
also provided several examples of successful student projects. These samples be-
came one of the discussion prompts on the discussion board, and allowed students
to consider their own final project choices thoughtfully. The final project deliver-
ables included an implementation plan description, at least one artifact, and a poster
presentation. Our goal was to connect the final project to learning that occurred
throughout the course, and we encouraged students to discuss and consider final
project topics from the very first expedition. Figure€5 shows the four expeditions
in the course.
Perhaps the most significant change we made to the course design was our ap-
proach to assignments and grading. We used a low-stakes/high-stakes approach,
with multiple activities and experiences earning participation points (low-stakes
assignments) and opportunities to choose culminating assignment topics to use in
real-life contexts (high-stakes learning). The low-stakes activities, such as creating
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 281

a brief animation, analyzing a visual, or creating a comic strip, allowed students to

experiment with visual learning concepts and tools without fear of grade impact if
their experiment failed. The high-stakes learning challenges occurred organically
with expedition (unit) assignments as students discovered interests and personally
relevant applications of visual and multiliteracies in the low-stakes activities and
applied these to larger projects of their choice. On both 2011 and 2012 course sur-
veys, students expressed a 100↜% satisfaction with this unusual, participation-based
approach:
•)>> I think having a range of small assignments is important to this visual literacy
class, because I get to now leave here with experience in a diverse range of ap-
plications, and many of which I would not have realized, could be so useful for
me, had I not needed to experiment with them. Only having one or two major
assignments I think would prevent us from learning a variety of valuable skills.
•)>> I enjoyed seeing how easily I could integrate visual literacy skills into a number
of different class topics.
•)>> I am thankful for having the opportunity to get the exposure [to] many different
tools that I can use in class. Thank you for a great Expedition!

Instruction and Assessment

Another significant change to the course involved instruction method and style.
We wanted to continue to move away from the traditional content-centered style of
teaching and adopt a learner-centered approach. Our instruction was informal, we
provided casual and immediate feedback in class, and we created our own examples
along with the students as the class experimented with various tools and techniques.
We kept repeating, “Just try it out.” Students earned full credit in the form of par-
ticipation points for attempting the application of multiliteracy skills even if the
attempt was not perfect or was incomplete. The points were earned through an open
and adventurous attitude and brief written reflections on each experience indicating
that learning had occurred.
We also decided the course would be most effective if co-taught, especially since
we included multiple hands-on learning activities and team projects. Our face-to-
face sessions were bustling with activity, and having two instructors invested in the
course proved beneficial. While a teaching assistant or lab assistant might be help-
ful, having two instructors to provide guidance seemed important to the students.
The student survey comments on the effectiveness of co-teaching in the course in-
cluded the balance of styles between the two facilitators, different perspectives of
the two facilitators, and the added availability that comes from having two facilita-
tors. Our co-teaching also helped model collaboration, which we included as a main
feature of the course. For example, students created visual definitions of visual and
multiliteracy terms for a shared class visual dictionary. Almost all in-class activities
were completed in small groups.
282 E. K. Anderson et al.

Having two instructors also eased the burden of providing timely student feed-
back on the multitude of activities students completed or experimented. We focused
on qualitative feedback and used Socratic questioning to guide student learning in
personally relevant directions. We also placed less value on due dates and more
on reflection. Although we provided due dates as guidelines, we were more inter-
ested in students exploring the learning experiences and so did not deduct points for
nominally late assignments.
The specific tools used in the course are much less important than the freedom to
experiment and share knowledge. For activities that involved digital tools, we made
samples and job aids for one or two selected tools but offered many other options
so students had choices. We showcased tools we personally found to be easy to use
and easy to adapt to a variety of learning situations. The most popular tools and
techniques, based on our survey results, included:
•)>> Weebly: a free, easy-to-use website creation and hosting tool that we used for
student portfolios and collaborative projects; students also were thrilled with
their finished portfolios showcasing their work (samples are available on our
website).
•)>> Pixton: a comic maker.
•)>> Digital storytelling in multiple formats including Animoto, GoAnimate, and
Photopeach.
•)>> Assessment of visuals and elements of visual messages.
In a typical graduate-level course, reading is assigned, lectures are given, discus-
sions take place, and learning is assessed through an exam or project. In this tradi-
tional model, students might experience periods of time when no learning occurs.
One reason the visual literacy course was quite popular stemmed from the nontra-
ditional approach and the successful combining of hands-on activities and theory.
Over the years, the authors added to the course and had offered students multiple
opportunities to expand their literacy skill set.
As educational technology professionals, we recognized in our students the
swiftly converging skill sets emanating from the many new and ever-changing
Web 2.0 tools, mobile devices, and virtual spaces. Our students were adept, but not
broadly so and not with transferability. For example, we noticed that while many
students could communicate well through their mobile devices, they experienced
difficulties with basic LMS functions and often seemed helpless to problem solve.
We were nonplussed at the multiple times we assisted students with simple online
tasks only to discover that many students could not “read” the visual landscape of
our LMS, Blackboard. Additionally, our curiosity was piqued through some casual
observations and discussions with students about how they were engaging with dig-
ital information; for example, many students would bring laptops to class, but the
main activities were note-taking and checking e-mail. They were not even visiting
Facebook, using visual organizers, or using the visual tools in the word processing
programs to enhance their notes! Why was this so? With so much visual and digital
power at their fingertips, it simply did not make sense that our learners, many of
whom were educators themselves, remained passive and peripheral practitioners of
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 283

the multiliteracies. Later, a 2-year study on student use of technology confirmed our
observations on a much larger scale (La Roche and Flanigan 2012).
From these observations, and from the literature, our ideas began to develop
and expand. The visual literacy course was the perfect environment to continue
fostering empowered learners with fearless and enthusiastic multiliteracy sensi-
bilities. The seeds were already there: A senior faculty member had been teaching
multiliteracies for years with video making, image manipulation, content curation,
and more. A course revision incorporating multimodal skills across a range of task-
based and higher-order thinking activities became our priority.
We wanted our students to learn and move beyond their comfort zones in every
class session. Therefore, we designed low-stakes activities that students completed
in class with a minimum of instruction but plenty of samples. Students were given
ample time to experiment, work in groups, and complete experimental projects that
might or might not lead to a larger project. Each expedition also had a “Learning
Extension,” which was a more formal assignment; however, the Learning Exten-
sions altogether were equal to the participation points, which helped alleviate stress
and encouraged students to take risks. The Learning Extensions were all available
in a single packet as well as individually in each expedition folder and included
instructions, a grading rubric, and sample completed projects. Multiple samples
were necessary because the assignments gave students freedom to select topics and
content, while also providing specific guidelines and requirements. In each expedi-
tion, students experimented with low-stakes activities, reflected on their learning
in journals, participated in online discussions, and created a Learning Extension
project. All activities related to each other to enhance learning. Figure€6 shows an
example of how 1 week’s activities related.

and Image
Students reviewed samples,
paper
selected their own sample and analyzed it, and
shapes and no words or drawn enhancements
created n

2:
A Picture is Worth. . .

Journal: Prompt--"What new insights have you

gained into composing visual messages? How do
these insights relate to decoding visual messages?
among Learning Extension: Students created a hand-
drawn picture book or a digital story
graphic
more)? How might you apply this knowledge in
your chosen career?

Fig. 6 ╇ Example of related activities

284 E. K. Anderson et al.

Discussion

Most students expressed high satisfaction with the course; interestingly, the heavy
workload in the course did not impede satisfaction. While the course had a com-
bination of 38 reflective assignments and in-class activities, the majority of these
were “low stakes” in terms of points. Students earned points by reflecting on their
experiences each week. Students felt that they spent a great amount of time on work
for this course, but this seems to have added to their satisfaction, especially con-
cerning what they learned. For example, one student said, “Overall, I really enjoyed
this class, even though it did take up more time than other classes, the activities we
did were worth the time. I gained a lot and am happy to have had the experience!”
Another student commented:
I thought this class was exceptional. There was a lot more work than in other classes but,
honestly, I appreciated it as other grad courses have not seemed like grad courses. It was
helpful to learn a little about many programs so we can then choose which to explore fur-
ther. I appreciated your flexibility in recognizing that it was more important to meet the
content skills rather than having an assignment in by a given deadline.

While students expressed satisfaction with the hands-on activities, they were less
favorable toward the traditional work of reading critical essays. One student sum-
marized these feelings:
I really enjoyed the whole of the class. My favorite part of it was actually using the tools
that we talked about instead of just knowing that they were out there. The only change I
might make is cutting down some of the readings, I did not learn as much from them as
I did from the other activities in class and they did take a lot of time to read. If we could,
including even more tools would be fun.

Some students also saw the course format as enabling collaborative learning and en-
couraging open-mindedness. Many students mentioned changing their own teach-
ing behaviors: “This class has expanded my understanding of a critical competency
that all teachers must master to be effective in the classroom. Personally, I am much
more open-minded about incorporating new techniques into my classroom.”
Students also indicated that the multiple low-stakes assignments helped them
master concepts and skills they initially found difficult. One student expressed these
thoughts like this:
Some terms, such as scale and depth, and value, hue, and saturation are very similar in
meaning and, as a person with a non-artistic background, it was difficult for me to under-
stand the nuances that differentiated the meaning of the terms. This is an example where
repeated exposure to the terms and having the ability to complete exercises that compared/
contrasted or sorted images into correct categories was very helpful.

The hands-on application of visual literacy seemed to be a source of satisfaction for

students. Also, the blended model seemed to help students pace the steady work-
flow and give them time to digest new information, ideas, and skills. Students en-
joyed working theory into practice during the course:
Honestly, my favorite part of the class were the sessions where we were able to create
things. That’s not something that I get to do normally, so when we worked in groups and
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 285

created the Photopeach video and made the fairytale storyboards using visual literacy prin-
ciples, and other activities like these were one of my more favorite parts of the semester.
Not only was it fun to actually create something, but the act of “doing” really drove home
whichever topic we were covering at the time. This reason is one that I feel the blended
version of the course is the best. Meeting in person allows us to meet and work with our
classmates as well as get one-on-one instruction. The virtual weeks then were good to allow
us to explore on our own some of the tools we were working with.

While students seemed to enjoy the experience of using tools in the classroom, they
appeared to be most enthusiastic about the application of these tools and visual lit-
eracy theory in their professions. Students mentioned being able to apply what they
have learned to their other coursework as well as their job; some envisioned using
these tools in future careers, too. As one student said, “The chance to learn and work
with Web 2.0 tools was very interesting for me. I hadn’t heard of any of the tools we
had used in class and I really enjoyed receiving instruction in how to use them, but
then how they can also be used to encourage visual literacy as well. I can definitely
see myself utilizing some of the tools in my professional future.”
The one aspect of our course we did not discuss in detail yet involves the amount
of student reflective writing we included. Every activity and assignment included a
brief reflective writing, and each student kept a private, digital journal. The primary
goal in our revision of this class was, of course, enhancing student learning. We
also wanted to experiment with a flexible yet robust task list, low-stakes point scale,
and reflective writing for learning. Adding the reflective component was important
since we did not expect students to master all the encoding skills we practiced.
Students were asked to reflect on over 20 assignments and provide an overall reflec-
tion in a portfolio of their work. They were also given an open-ended survey at the
beginning of the course and at the end asking about their experiences with reflection
(and other items). Student comments were very encouraging:
Reflection is a new idea for me since beginning graduate study in education. I like the
reflection model because it gives me a chance to show how much I have actually learned
rather than go through the anxiety of studying for a test where I have to hope that what I am
memorizing matches what the professor is going to ask.

At the beginning of the course, some students appeared to have negative ideas about
reflection. One student noted, “I really don’t see any value in reflection no matter
the area. I do not look forward to the reflection piece required for this course be-
cause it is not helpful to me and is not something I will ever use.” However, students
seemed to value reflection towards the end of the course, mentioning how reflection
was appropriate for graduate-level work. Another student pointed out “At first, I
didn’t see much value in this, but as time went on, I realized that reflection helped
me to form more concrete ideas and opinions on what we were studying and how we
were studying it. It also helped to reinforce my learning.” One especially insightful
student’s comment related storytelling and reflection to deep learning: “For me, at
least, memories are fixed by stories. Making a story of learning anything, reflect-
ing on how it happened and what is learned, is what creates a lasting memory. It is
reflection that transfers ownership of knowledge.”
286 E. K. Anderson et al.

For effective learning, ownership of one’s learning process is important. The

learning process can be deeply personal, and it is therefore important for learners
to have autonomy in learning. This concept is one we take for granted in the USA.
One international student said:
It is too sad for me to say that I have been a teacher for twelve years (1997–2009) and I have
never used reflection in my teaching process. I believe that the undemocratic life which I
used to live in [another country], did not allow me to use reflection in my teaching process.
I believe that reflection is part of democracy. Now, I feel [I am] a lucky person who started
to use democracy through reflection.

How fascinating that reflection and freedom might be related! Meaningful reflec-
tion can foster new identities and new possibilities. One student hinted at personal
transformation: “As I gaze back down a jagged and circuitous path, I am comforted
that I have observed and assimilated more than it may have appeared at first blush.
The most important lesson was trying to rip down preconceptions and walls of stub-
bornness.”
While reflection can be time-consuming, students might benefit from extensive
practice with this skill. In order to make a personal transformation, the learner must
analyze his or her possibilities. Reflection can help students build narratives and
meanings from their learning experiences that can transform their self-perception
and identity. In the typical classroom, we often do not plan for adequate reflec-
tive writing, nor do we attach it directly to “disorienting experiences” (Mezirow
2009, p.€19) that cause adult learners to work outside of their comfort zones. The
discomfort of plentiful hands-on, digital, and other visual activities gave students
an opportunity to leave behind their accepted identities (e. g., “I am not an artist;
I am a science teacher”) and gain new perspectives. While the heavy workload of
creative activities forced students out of their comfort zones, the bountiful reflective
writing opportunities helped them own their experiences and forge new perceptions
of themselves.

Implications Across Educational Settings and

Recommendations

The results of our study were encouraging and have inspired us to continue our own
expedition in teaching and learning visual literacy in the twenty-first century. Our
design changes in delivery, design, instruction, and assessment helped our learners
grow as independent explorers of the visual world in which we live. Along with our
students, we also learned valuable lessons, and we have decided that this course will
continue to be a work in progress as long as our visual world continues to expand.
Current concerns involve the digital landscape of a fluid, mobile, instant-access
world. What will tomorrow bring to our visual literacy course—immersive virtual
reality?—big data?—↜3-D printing? What will tomorrow bring for our colleagues in
K-12 settings?
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 287

We hope that lessons learned through our study will inspire educators of all levels
to embrace an explorer’s approach to visual literacy in their curriculum. Concerning
delivery methods, we learned that students enjoy blended spaces when instructions
are clear, and the virtual sessions follow a similar structure to the face-to-face ses-
sions. Feedback from students indicated that clarity is an important feature of an ef-
fective course; future research might focus on student perceptions and expectations
of effective virtual class sessions. While K-12 settings might not yet be blended,
the communication between home and school is beginning to bridge that gap in the
form of digital communication systems such as family or parent portals with access
to daily classwork and message boards. Based on our findings, we recommend that
K-12 educators make lesson plans and overall learning goals available to parents
through these media.
Concerning the design aspect of our project, we learned that the themed approach
helped students mentally organize their learning and map their semester. Metaphors
are powerful communicators, and visual metaphors can enhance the learner’s in-
depth learning by providing connections. In this area, we feel that K-12 settings are
already strong. However, our study results demonstrate the importance of engaging
students through the process of their learning experience. Providing an appropriate
metaphor over the entire semester provided continuity in the student experience that
could be further explored in both K-12 and higher education settings.
Our study also demonstrated that traditional methods of instructional delivery
such as reading/lecture/discussion can be adapted to a more student-centered focus.
Providing all learning materials at the beginning of the course allows students to
have control of their learning path. Providing multiple low-stakes activities allows
students to explore and practice the application of concepts in a safe environment,
while preparing them for more formal assessment. Again, in this area, we feel that
K-12 educators have already made great strides toward student-centered learning;
for example, learning stations would be a K-12 application of what we attempted
with our graduate students.
Finally, the most radical departure from traditional structure appeared in the
points system we used (and are still perfecting). In removing the pressure of perfor-
mance for a grade in the majority of activities, we freed our students to take risks,
explore outside of their comfort zones, and think creatively. For graduate-level stu-
dents, this system requires an adjustment in expectations; at first, the students are
very concerned about each activity and are focused on the product rather than the
learning experience. However, each time we have taught the course in this format,
we have found that by the third week students stop asking about grades and begin
asking perceptive questions and offering new ideas and suggestions. Grading ru-
brics that clearly emphasize the importance of reflection over final product (for the
low-stakes activities) seem to help assuage students’ concerns. One other benefit to
including several low-stakes activities is the reduction in time-consuming grading.
Feedback is usually given immediately and in person or through quick and thought-
ful digital messages. We feel certain that this approach would be helpful in K-12
settings as well.
288 E. K. Anderson et al.

Conclusion

Ultimately, our wish for our students was that they take ownership of their learning,
learn to enjoy the process of becoming visually literate, and deepen their practice
of critical reflection. The changes we made and continue to make in our teaching
of visual literacy will focus on empowering learners to take risks and inspire them
to become lifelong learners, undaunted by changes in technology, media, and com-
munications. One student reflected at the end of the course, “It was great to spend
time thinking about what visual literacy is and what makes it work. I feel like I have
barely scratched the surface, and I hope to continue to educate myself on my own.”

References

Aberšek, M. K. (2008). Visual literacy—One of 21st century literacies for science teaching and
learning. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 5, 9–17.
Allen, I. E., Seaman, J., & Garrett, R. (2007). Blending in: The extent and promise of blended
education in the United States. Needham: The Sloan Consortium.
Avgerinou, M. D., & Pettersson, R. (2011). Toward a cohesive theory of visual literacy. Journal of
Visual Literacy, 30(2), 1–19.
Braden, R. A. (1996). Visual literacy. In Handbook of research for educational communications
and technology (pp.€491–520) New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan.
Cordes, S. (2009). Broad horizons: The role of multimodal literacy in 21st century library instruc-
tion. In World library and information congress: 75th IFLA general conference and council.
Crockett, L., Jukes, I., & Churches, A. (2011). The 21st century fluencies series: Literacy is not
enough: 21st century fluencies for the digital age. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan.
Illinois State Board of Education. (2011). The new Illinois learning standards incorporating the
common core [PDF]. http://www.isbe.state.il.us/common_core/default.htm. Accessed August
18, 2014
Illinois State Board of Education. (2014). Illinois State Standards: Introduction. http://www.isbe.
state.il.us/ils/pdf/ils_introduction.pdf.
Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Estrada, V., & Freeman, A. (2014). NMC horizon report: 2014
higher education edition. Austin: The New Media Consortium.
Kennedy, G., Dalgarno, B., Gray, K., Judd, T., Waycott, J., Bennett, S., Maton, K., Krause, K.-L.,
Bishop, A., Chang, R., & Churchward, A. (2007). The net generation are not big users of Web
2. 0 technologies: Preliminary findings. In R. J. Atkinson, C. McBeath, S. K. A. Soong, & C.
Cheers (Eds.), ICT: Providing choices for learners and learning. Proceedings of ASCILITE
2007 Conference. Centre for Educational Development, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore. http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/singapore07/procs/kennedy.pdf. Accessed
July 12, 2014
Kennedy, G., Dalgarno, B., Bennett, S., Gray, K., Waycott, J., Judd, T., Bishop, A., Maton, K.,
Krause, K., & Chang, R. (2009). Educating the net generation—A handbook of findings for
practice and policy. Australian Learning and Teaching Council. http://www.netgen.unimelb.
edu.au/downloads/handbook/NetGenHandbookAll.pdf. Accessed July 12, 2014
Kerawalla, L., & Crook, C. (2002). Children’s computer use at home and at school: Context and
continuity. British Educational Research Journal, 28(6), 751–771. doi:10.1080/01411920220
00019044.
Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design … 289

Koltay, T. (2011). The media and the literacies: Media literacy, information literacy, digital lit-
eracy. Media, Culture & Society, 33(2), 211–221.
Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J. S., & Whitt, E. J. (2010). Student success in college: Creating
conditions that matter. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
La Roche, C. R., & Flanigan, M. A. (2012). Student use of technology in class: Engaged or un-
plugged? Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC), 10(1), 47–54.
Margaryan, A., Littlejohn, A., & Vojt, G. (2011). Are digital natives a myth or reality? University
students’ use of digital technologies. Computers & Education, 56(2), 429–440. doi:10.1016/j.
compedu.2010.09.004.
Martin, A., & Madigan, D. (2006). Preface. In A. Martin & D. Madigan (Eds.), Digital literacies
for learning (pp.€xxv–xxviii). London: Facet.
McKenzie, J. (March 2009). Reading across a dozen literacies. From now on: The Educational
Technology Journal, 18(4). http://www.fno.org/mar09/dozen.html. Accessed May 20, 2014
Mezirow, J. (2009). Transformative learning theory. In J. Mezirow & E. W. Taylor (Eds.), Trans-
formative learning in practice: Insights from community, workplace, and higher education
(pp.€18–31). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mirzoeff, N. (1999). An introduction to visual culture. Chicago: Psychology Press.
Moore, D. W., Bean, T. W., Birdyshaw, D., & Rycik, J. A. (1999). Adolescent literacy: A position
statement for the commission on adolescent literacy for the international Reading Association.
http://www.reading.org/Libraries/Position_Statements_and_Resolutions/ps1036_adolescent.
sflb.ashx. Accessed July 9, 2014
New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard
Educational Review, 66(1), 60–92.
Ohler, J. (2008). Digital storytelling in the classroom: New media pathways to literacy, learning
and creativity. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2004). Skills framework. In Media literacy. http://www.p21.
org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=349&Itemid=120. Accessed August 18,
2014
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2 June 2010). Statement by Ken Kay, President of P21,
on the Common Core State Standards Initiative [Press release]. http://www.p21.org/index.
php?option=com_content&task=view&id=941&Itemid=64. Accessed August 18, 2014
Serafini, F. (2011). Expanding perspectives for comprehending visual images in multimodal texts.
Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(5), 342–350. doi:10.1598/JAAL.54.5.4.
Smith, S. D., Salaway, G., & Caruso, J. B. (2008). The ECAR study of undergraduate students and
information technology, 2009 (Research Report Vol.€6). Boulder, C0: EDUCAUSE.
Svinicki, M. D. (2010). Learning and motivation in the postsecondary classroom. In S. A. Am-
brose, M. W. Bridges, M. DiPietro, M. C. Lovett, & M. K. Norman (Eds.), How learning
works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching (pp.€70–79). San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
Tinto, V. (2012). Completing college: Rethinking institutional action . Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press.
Valmont, W. J. (2003). Technology for literacy teaching and learning. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Williams, B. T., & Zenger, A. A. (2012). New media literacies and participatory popular culture
across borders. New York: Routledge.

Elizabeth K. Anderson╇ Elizabeth teaches English at College of DuPage in Glen Ellyn, Illinois.
Anderson is completing a doctorate in instructional technology at Northern Illinois University with
an emphasis on digital rhetoric, immersive games, and gamification.

Rhonda S. Robinson╇ Rhonda is a Distinguished Teaching Professor Emeritus in Educational

Technology, Research, and Assessment at Northern Illinois University, where she continues to
teach courses in technology integration, and visual/media literacy. Her research interests focus
290 E. K. Anderson et al.

on improving twenty-first-Century literacies and their integration through technology in PK-20

education, and in qualitative research methods for the field. She is active in the International Visual
Literacy Association, and serves as a member of the Editorial Board of the Journal of Visual Lit-
eracy. She is also active in the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, and
has myriad presentations and publications in her areas of interest. She earned her MS in English
Education and her PhD in Curriculum and Instruction (Educational Communications and Technol-
ogy) from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Kristin Brynteson╇ Kristin is the Assistant Director of Northern Illinois University’s Center for
P-20 Engagement. Through the P-20 Center she is involved in state- and university-wide initia-
tives, partnerships, and projects working to advance education from preschool (P) to the graduate
level (20). As an instructor, she has developed, taught, and collaborated on a variety of courses
and workshops about new technologies in the classroom to support the development of twenty-
first-century skills and to address the Common Core State Standards. Creativity and visual literacy
remain at the core of her teaching and research. Kristin is an avid social media user and enjoys
teaching others how to develop personalized learning networks using social media tools. In 2012,
her EdTech Pinterest board was named by Edudemic as one of the top 20 Educational Technology
Pinterest boards to follow. She can also be found on Facebook as Hot Pink Tech, where she shares
resources and ideas for integrating technology, creativity, and Visual Literacy into the classroom.
Index

A Digital stories, 32, 33, 40

Active learning, 14, 25, 188, 199 Digital storytelling, 32
Activity, 34, 107, 112, 123, 125, 207 Digital texts, 122, 148, 149
design, 30, 31, 32
Animation, 122, 178, 179, 193, 207, 225 E
Archives, 178, 179, 237, 238, 245 English language arts, 28, 134, 148
Art and architectural history, 252, 256 Equilibrium, 192
Art history, 6, 246, 251, 254, 260 Evidence-based teaching practices, 189
Association of College and Research Libraries
(ACRL), 122, 148, 159, 170, 238, 240 F
Fan fiction, 42
B Formal analysis, 252, 258
Biology, 115, 191, 194, 225
application in, 193 G
Graphic design, 3, 4, 8, 9, 13, 24
C Graphic organizer, 22, 155, 203, 206, 229
Chemistry, 7, 188 Graphing, 189, 199
application in, 191
Comic books, 32, 36, 43 H
Common Core State Standards (CCSS), 43, Higher education, 3, 166, 197, 256
116, 141
Concept map, 204, 206–208, 211, 213, 225
software, 207 I
Concept mapping, 204, 206, 221, 233 Inspiration, 138, 207, 210, 212
Critical media literacy, 100, 101, 113, 115 Instagram, 99, 134, 138
Instructional strategies, 27, 30, 220, 225, 230
Interactive video, 179
D Iteration, 16, 21, 153, 245, 248
Deep viewing, 123, 124, 132
Democratic, 115, 252
Design activities, 30, 31, 42, 43 K
Digital, 7 Kinematic, 189
presentations, 12 Knowledge maps, 220, 221, 224, 226, 233
Digital and visual storytelling, 152 Knowledge Vee, 223, 227, 234
Digital citizenship, 120, 140
standard, 140 L
Digital knowledge mapping, 220, 224, 227, Learners with disabilities, 41, 177
230, 234 Library and Information Sciences, 237, 240
Digital reproduction, 253, 256

©Â€Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 291

D. M. Baylen, A. D’Alba (eds.), Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual
and Media Literacy, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5
292 Index

M Reflective, 29, 41, 43

Maps, 122, 204, 207, 210, 213, 214 Remix video, 178, 179
Media education, 100, 101 Representation, 30, 98, 187, 210, 225
Media literacy, 6, 7, 28, 29, 100, 186, 187, graphical, 188
198, 237 visual, 6, 42
Media production, 32, 238, 244, 245, 247
Micro videos, 135, 139 S
Moving image, 100, 120, 191, 238, 242, 245 Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Multiliteracies, 28 Mathematics (STEM), 186, 187, 197, 198,
Multi-modal composition, 152–154, 160 241
Scientific literacy, 188, 241
N Scientific storytelling, 196
Narrative storyboards, 120 Scientific visualization, 186, 189, 197, 199
National Association for Media Literacy Selfies, 109, 134, 136
Education (NAMLE), 29, 123, 148, 159, Social media, 12, 29, 99, 109, 120, 135, 141,
186, 195 258
Neuroscience
application in, 195 T
cognitive, 13 Teacher education, 31, 105, 106, 109, 157
Novice to expert, 187 Technological literacy, 241, 244, 247
Typography, 6, 7, 8, 109
O
Online video rubric, 174, 180 V
Vectors, 187, 190
P Video blog, 168, 176
Pedagogy, 42, 101, 140, 227 Video creation, 168, 171
Photography, 13, 97–100, 102, 104, 111, 113, youtube, 174
116 Video curation, 170, 171
techniques of, 106, 107 Video production, 121, 165, 177, 180
Physics, 224 Video projects, 166, 173, 179
application in, 189, 190 Vine videos, 138, 139
PicLit, 120, 131, 138 Visual, 6, 7, 10, 12, 20, 36
Picture-text integration, 4, 6, 8, 16, 18 analysis, 220, 256, 260
Playlist lesson, 171, 173, 174 communication, 3, 12, 13, 14
PowerPoint, 14, 17, 103, 155, 177, 254 composition, 120, 126, 131, 132
Practitioners, 13, 199 drafts, 16
Principles of visual composition, 126, 131, hierarchy, 16
136 learning, 25, 203, 205
Problem-solving, 186 literacy, 7
Projectile motion, 243 Visuality, 255
Visually literate, 28, 123, 241
R Visual thinking strategies (VTS), 256
Reading literacy, 28, 44
Redesign, 42 Y
Reflection, 33, 159, 247 YouTube, 40, 41, 155, 165–168, 170, 173, 186