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The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the following who contributed to the completion
of the original and revised manual:
This material was prepared with the support of the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection and
the U.S. Department of Energy. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed herein
are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the DEP or the USDOE.
Reference to or identification of any product or manufacturer is merely for general information purposes only.
No endorsement by the United States Department of Energy or the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Protection is expressed or implied by this reference.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreward......................................................................................................................... ii
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
Solar Cooling................................................................................................................ 36
Daylighting ................................................................................................................... 63
Solar Potential............................................................................................................... 69
Resources...................................................................................................................... 77
i
FOREWORD
by Scott Sklar, President, The Stella Group, Ltd.
One hundred and five years after the lighting systems, water pumping and irrigation
introduction of the first commercial solar water units, vaccine refrigeration and battery charging
heater in the United States and over 46 years services.
after the first commercial application of
photovoltaics (solar electric cells), it is hard to Not only are “high tech” jobs created in the U.S.
imagine that in the United States today there in manufacturing the modules and electronic
are over 125 national manufacturers and control equipment; jobs are also created
component suppliers selling over $5 billion in overseas in assembling the mounting hardware,
solar equipment per year. installation and service.
While the United States is the world technical In the United States, the broad array of solar
leader in all forms of solar technology, the only technologies could employ nearly 300,000
way solar energy devices and generators will people over the next 20 years -- an amount
become more common place is if domestic equal to the employment of our nation’s largest
markets expand so that industry can attract automobile manufacturer! And it is time for the
private capital to scale-up manufacturing and United States to position itself to cash in on the
lower costs. Therefore, it is up to the general billions of dollars of research and development
public, private businesses and state to reap the hundreds of millions in profits and
government to create the climate for the hundreds of thousands of jobs.
transition to clean, domestic forms of energy. The Pennsylvania Solar Manual attempts to
Part of this equation involves an initial put into pragmatic perspective the potential of
willingness to look at your personal long-term energy efficiency in both solar thermal and solar
investment. Most people seem daunted in electric technologies and applications. This
buying an energy-efficient automobile, manual’s first printing was a bold and innovative
appliance or solar water heater. But that initial first step toward educating the people of this
investment pays for itself over a few years and state in harnessing the resources they
then the energy and maintenance costs drop -- inherited, while protecting the environment and
leaving money in your pocket. Americans are creating new jobs. With the second updated
always characterized as short-term investors release and the newly-adopted federal tax
while our international competitors in Japan and credits for residences and businesses available
elsewhere have a long-term view. For in 2006 and 2007, consumers should save
example, the United States has nearly 1 million more money and have more reliable energy
buildings with solar water heating; the City of and more stable energy costs. As the early
Tokyo (Japan) has over 1.5 million buildings saying goes “Seize the Time.” I urge you to
with solar water heating. Tokyo accomplished take advantage of the sun, within the
this in half the time that it took the entire United constraints of your pocketbook, so we can
States to do so. leave a world for our children that is cleaner
than we found it.
New technologies create new jobs, not only in
the United States, but worldwide. Over
65 percent of U.S. photovoltaics are exported to
both industrialized and Third World countries
every year to power communications and
ii
INTRODUCTION
Solar Energy Works, even in Pennsylvania
The sun is our ultimate source of energy. Our Solar hot water has been produced since the
food, our fuel, and our climate all originate in first dark colored pan was set in the sun. The
the power of sunlight. first commercial solar water heater was
patented in 1891. By 1897, 30 percent of
Ninety-three million miles away, a Pasadena, California, homes had one installed.
thermonuclear fusion reaction transforms Hundreds of thousands of solar water heaters
hydrogen into helium, releasing energy in the have been installed in the past 100 years for
process. This energy is created in the center of domestic hot water, swimming pool heating,
the sun and carried outward by convective and other applications.
currents. Solar radiation emanates from the
surface and makes its way to the Earth in the Solar electric systems in their current form were
form of light. Enough solar radiation reaches first developed in 1954, by accident, when
the Earth’s surface in a year to supply 1,000 some Bell Telephone researchers discovered
times more energy than was produced by the the sensitivity of a silicon cell to sunlight.
burning of all fossil fuels during that same year. Research has continued through the space
All that is left to do is for us to take advantage program and has resulted in practical
of it. applications today such as calculators,
emergency roadway signs, remote electrical
Solar energy has delivered heat to buildings power, and both residential and commercial
and warmed water for centuries. Over 3,000 systems.
years ago in Greece, Socrates described the
basic principles of passive solar design. Cliff During the past century the popularity of solar
dwellers in what is now the southwestern energy systems has waxed and waned with
United States lived in lodgings that were solar conventional fuel prices, government support
heated in winter, yet naturally cool in summer. and public interest. In the first half of this
The Romans added glass to further improve century and again in the 1970s and early ‘80s,
solar collection and storage. New England solar enjoyed tremendous popularity. Over the
saltbox houses, with two stories of windows past 30 years solar technology has continued to
facing south and the back roof sloped to advance in efficiency and affordability. These
deflect cold north winds, are an indigenous recent advances, continued tension in the
Middle East, and an increasing emphasis on
passive solar design.
the quality of our environment have combined
to make solar energy a practical alternative to
conventional sources of energy in many
situations.
The primary driving force behind the last
resurgence in the use of solar energy was the
energy crisis of the 1970s. Energy shortages
and rapidly rising prices compelled us to search
for alternative sources of energy. We realized
that fossil fuels are finite resources that would
not last forever and we began to look for
renewable forms of energy.
1
Solar energy fit the bill perfectly; it was readily distributed more equitably than nonrenewable
available, environmentally benign, and the energy sources. Its use can be sustained
energy costs were free. Thousands of solar indefinitely.
projects were installed all across the country. It
was a good way to reduce our reliance on Solar and other sources of renewable energy
imported sources of energy and shield us from offer the promise of a clean, reliable, and
rising energy prices. homegrown energy supply that can benefit our
economy and the environment. Solar energy is
Many of these lessons, however, appear to versatile. It can provide heat, light, cooling, and
have been forgotten following the end of the electricity. Solar energy can also be utilized
solar tax credits in 1985. The conflict in the indirectly to grow plants that can be converted
Persian Gulf during the early 1990s and the war to fuel.
in Iraq in the 2000s reminded us of our
dependence on foreign sources of oil and the Improvements in solar technologies and the
implications for our national security. continued rise in energy costs have made the
application of solar energy practical today. This
In 2005 the United States imported 56 percent manual presents general information on the
of its oil supplies and the percentage is ways we can utilize solar energy and highlights
expected to rise in the future. This figure is many existing solar projects from around the
much higher than at anytime during the oil crisis commonwealth. The manual is separated into
of the 1970s. Much of this energy originates in chapters on the importance of energy
unstable parts of the world. Trillions of dollars efficiency, solar fundamentals, space heating,
have been spent on imported energy supplies. hot water, cooling, electricity, and the long-term
This outflow of capital accounts for the largest potential for solar energy. The final section lists
share of our trade deficit. resources where more information can be
obtained.
A renewed commitment to solar energy can
foster local industry and create jobs. Since Pennsylvania’s moderately temperate climate is
solar energy is a renewable and indigenous often cloudy and is not ideal for the collection
resource, money spent on it is not exported. of solar energy. However, the numerous
Jobs are created locally, and the dollars remain exciting projects displayed in this manual
in the community. The widespread application demonstrate that solar energy is a practical
of solar energy and energy efficiency could be source of energy today, not just in the future.
used to stimulate our economy. These projects represent but a small fraction of
the thousands of solar energy systems installed
In the past few decades, we have come to throughout the state. Each project clearly
realize that our continued wasteful use of fossil demonstrates that when solar applications
fuels and nonrenewable energy has a severe utilize technology appropriate to our climate,
impact on the quality of our environment. This solar energy works safely, reliably,
reliance results in a who’s who of environmental economically, and cleanly even in a sometimes
problems - from acid rain to toxic chemicals, cold and often cloudy state like Pennsylvania.
from global climate change to oil spills, and
from nuclear waste to ozone depletion. Our
continued reliance on nonrenewable energy
sources is simply not sustainable into the
future.
The environmental consequences of our current
system of energy use may give society the final
push we need to realize that we must work in
harmony with nature, not against it. Solar
energy is a resource that is plentiful and
2
THE IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY
People long for an energy source that is Using the sun’s energy is not strictly an
completely safe, clean, economical, and economic decision. Investments in solar
plentiful. Unfortunately, there is no energy energy should be weighed against similar
source that is perfectly safe and clean, nor investments in energy conservation and
abundant without limit or cost, including solar efficiency. Combining energy conservation and
energy. The bottom line is that all energy has solar energy is one way to reduce the use of
its cost. conventional energy sources. Keep in mind
that using solar energy does not compete with
The most basic collection and use of solar other options; it complements them. For
energy requires materials, labor and costs. The example, reducing a building’s heating load with
more energy that is needed, the greater the extra insulation will improve a solar system’s
size and cost of the solar energy system. Even ability to heat it.
a well-designed system requires some type of
back-up fuel that also costs money. There are many other ways to reduce energy
use, ranging from no-cost and low-cost
Therefore, it is in our best interest to reduce our measures to major investments. Consider the
energy consumption as much as possible no reduction of energy used to heat water for
matter what our source of energy. Reducing showering, as an example of the many options
energy use, or “energy conservation,” once for combining energy conservation and solar
evoked images of sacrifice. Conservation was energy. Water and energy use could be
once viewed by some as “freezing in the dark.” reduced at no cost by simply adjusting the
This is an extreme position; energy faucets and turning down the flow when
conservation can be achieved by simply showering. This is a direct and effective way to
eliminating wasteful practices with little or no reduce water use and the energy used to heat
sacrifice. it. If more flow is needed, say for rinsing hair,
Energy is also conserved when doing a job the next step might be to install a flow control
valve ($5) on the showerhead, making it easier
more efficiently. An energy efficient device
produces the same or better result while using to adjust the flow. Another option would be to
less energy. Therefore, energy consumption install a low-flow showerhead ($10-$20). In
can be reduced in two ways: 1.) by changing most cases, the cost of these two devices
would be recovered in fuel and water bill
our practices through conservation and 2.) by
using technologies that are more efficient. savings in a few months. Savings come both
from improvements in the technology (shower
This combination of energy-efficient technology head and control valve), and in reducing usage
and energy-conserving behavior has already by turning down the flow.
had a significant impact on American society.
Once flow is reduced, there are other
From 1973 to 1986 the United States energy
consumption per dollar of GNP decreased by opportunities that can further lower energy use
about 30 percent. Per capita energy for heating the water. Adding an insulating
blanket ($15-25) to a water heater reduces heat
consumption went down by 12 percent during
the same period. But as government support loss. These are readily available in do-it-
waned in the 1980s and ‘90s, further progress yourself kits. Thus far, an investment of $40 has
potentially reduced the energy used to heat
stagnated. By 1998, per capita energy use was
only 1 percent below the level in 1973. Energy water for showering by 50 percent or more.
consumption per dollar of GNP did continue to Reducing water usage enables a solar water
decrease slightly (7 percent) from 1986 to 1998. heating system to provide your hot water needs
more easily. If less hot water is required, fewer
3
solar panels and smaller storage tanks are
needed. A lower usage level means a solar
water heating system can provide a larger
portion of the hot water load. Without the initial
energy conservation measures the solar water
heating system would have been much larger
and more expensive.
4
PRINCIPLES AND FUNDAMENTALS
Figure 1 is a graph showing the average annual Figure 1 Solar radiation on a collector tilted equal to
solar radiation for a few United States the latitude for various U.S. locations.
locations. You can see that Pennsylvania is
similar to other northeastern cities, but is lower
than some western cities. We receive about 70
Solar Geometry
percent of what Tucson, Arizona, receives, but
have more of a need for heating than Tucson. In the Northern Hemisphere, the sun appears in
the southern sky (except in the early morning
and evening in the summer). Figure 2 shows
Therefore, energy savings or passive solar that the suns rays are more directly overhead in
heating can be greater in Harrisburg than in the Northern Hemisphere in the summer
5
months, and less direct in the winter. the year, while the summer solstice has the
Understanding the movement of the sun can longest. And on the equinoxes, all places on
help us decide the best location for a solar earth have 12 hours of daylight and night!
application. Another curiosity of the equinoxes is that the
sun rises due east and sets due west-
everywhere on Earth.
The sun’s position in the sky at any time can be
described by two angles, azimuth and altitude.
These angles are pictured in Figure 4. The
azimuth angle is the bearing angle of the sun
measured with true south as zero degrees. The
measurement is recorded as so many degrees
east or west of true south. The altitude angle is
the angle of the sun above the horizon. When
This relationship between the sun and the earth
the sun is setting or rising the angle would be
results in a summer sun high in the sky and a
winter sun lower in the sky. Figure 3 illustrates zero. When it is directly overhead (which it will
never be in Pennsylvania), the altitude angle is
this relationship. During the summer the sun
90 degrees.
rises in the northeast sky and sets in the
northwest. In the winter the sun rises in the
southeast and sets in the southwest.
6
40º NORTH LATITUDE
7
Siting When assessing orientation and direction with a
compass, be aware that there is a difference
Once we have a basic understanding of solar between the south indicated by a compass
geometry we can properly site a solar energy (magnetic south) and true south. This difference
system. Siting refers to the process of selecting is called magnetic declination. Figure 7 is a
a suitable location and orientation for a solar map showing the variation of declination with
application. An important question to be location in Pennsylvania. For example,
answered is whether the collectors will “get Harrisburg is about 11 degrees westerly
enough sun,” or perhaps the most sun. Other declination. This means true south is actually
important questions should be considered as eleven degrees west of magnetic south. Also
well. Where would the system look best? How keep in mind that declination changes slightly
does it best fit into the house’s design? There over time, so be sure to use the most up-to-
are many functional and attractive solar date values.
installations where the collectors or windows
do not face due south.
8
For solar water heating or photovoltaics, the This implies that most houses will have a
collector tilt should be equal to the latitude potential location for a solar water heater or
minus 10 degrees. For most of Pennsylvania, solar electric system, whether the roof faces
this amounts to a tilt of about 30 degrees. The east, south, or west, or somewhere in between.
minus 10 degrees accounts for the fact that Even passive systems can be adapted to fit into
Pennsylvania summers are sunnier than an orientation that is other than south. The
winters and, therefore, the collector should face decision to invest in solar is made after serious
more toward the summer sun. financial, aesthetic, and other personal
considerations. It should not be ruled out based
For space heating, the best tilt angle is latitude on wall or roof direction or tilt.
plus 15 degrees, or about 65 degrees in
Pennsylvania. Plus or minus 15 degrees on the Siting Tools
tilt angle, or a tilt angle of 50 to 80 degrees, has
almost no effect on performance. Several tools can aid in deciding whether there
is too much shade at a proposed solar site. A
These “best” angles do not consider other first step should be to stand at the site, face to
installation and performance factors. Angled the south, and look at the sky in front of you. If
windows are often impractical in passive solar you see a lot of large trees or other objects
applications. Angled glazing implies expensive, blocking large parts of the sky, you may need a
tilted wall construction. It is also prone to more detailed survey.
overheating in summer and is often difficult to
shade using conventional overhangs and sun The second step is to make use of the survey
screens. Because of the complications tool illustrated in Figure 9 on page 11. After
associated with angled glazing, most passive assembly, put a compass in the tool where
systems use vertical glazing (See page 13). shown. Standing at your proposed site, hold
the tool in front of your nose and look out over
For solar water heaters, an attempt to mount the front edge. All of the objects in the sky that
the collectors facing due south and exactly at a are behind the tool and out of sight are not a
tilt angle of 30 degrees may require an problem. They are below the lowest path of the
unsightly rack system. A study by Winslow sun in the sky. If there are objects above the
Fuller published in Solar Age magazine showed front edge of the tool, they represent possible
that in the northeast and in many other parts of shading problems. However, you may still have
the country, siting collectors for solar water a viable site; a more detailed analysis may be
heating does not require the ideal orientation needed.
and tilt.
A third step is to have a more detailed analysis
In Boston, for example, a collector mounted on of shading done. Contact local solar
a west facing roof can perform 83% as well as a contractors, universities or colleges. Many sites
perfectly oriented south facing collector. If the with trees and other obstructions are not as bad
roof faces south, using an awkward roof rack to as they may seem; selective pruning may solve
get the “optimum” tilt only improves the problem. After a professional consultation,
performance by 1 percent over a collector you may decide to go ahead and accept the
mounted directly to the roof. Results would be shading. If the amount of shading is very
similar for Pennsylvania. significant you may wish to consider another
site.
Other factors affecting collector siting are
shading and house layout. Considering all of
these factors can lead to a location for a solar
installation that is far from the conventional
wisdom of facing due south at some “optimum”
tilt angle.
9
10
SOLAR SPACE HEATING
The sun’s energy is easily transformed into heating is characterized by the use of the
heat. When sunlight strikes an object, some of structure itself to trap, to store, and to distribute
its energy is reflected, and some is absorbed solar energy. In a purely passive heating
and converted into heat. situation, there are no moving parts or
mechanical devices. Heat moves naturally from
A good example of this process is a car with its hot to cold. Hot air has a natural tendency to
windows rolled up, sitting in the sun. The car’s rise. These phenomena are used to move the
windows allow the short wavelength sunlight to solar heat from where it is collected to where it
pass through. Once inside, the light strikes is needed.
objects and is absorbed or reflected. Absorbed
light is converted into heat, or thermal energy. Active solar heating systems are identified by
Since thermal energy has a long wavelength it the need for some form of external power,
cannot pass through the glass as easily as the usually electricity, in order to move solar heat.
short wavelength light. Trapped solar energy A solar space heating system with roof-
causes the interior temperature to rise. This mounted collectors, storage tank, pumps and
process is referred to as the “greenhouse electric controller is an example of an active
effect.” See Figure 10. system.
11
Collection In a passive system, heat distribution usually
takes advantage of warm air rising, combined
Solar energy must first be converted from light
with thermal radiation from the sun-warmed
into heat, or collected. In an active system,
building surfaces.
collection is accomplished by collectors
mounted on the roof, walls or ground. Sunlight Control
enters the glazing and is absorbed by the plates
inside the collector where it is converted into Control of active solar systems is accomplished
heat, which is trapped by the glazing. Air or with electrical devices such as thermostats that
liquid is circulated through the collectors to pick control the movement of heat around the
up the solar heat and move it to a storage house. These controls are very similar to the
medium. controls found in most home heating systems.
In passive solar systems, collection is In a passive system, controls are built into the
accomplished by south facing windows that system. For example, roof overhangs reduce
allow the sun’s energy to strike the inside of the sunlight entering the space during the non-
building or a storage material. heating seasons. Passive system control may
also require the homeowner’s assistance, such
Storage as the opening and closing of window
coverings, or the opening and closing of
The type of storage varies depending upon the
windows and vents. Other control elements
type of heating system. Active systems can may include “active” components in a hybrid
store heat in liquid or solid materials. Liquid
system such as a differential thermostat that
systems use water or antifreeze and store the
turns a fan on and off.
heat in storage tanks. In air systems, the most
common storage medium is rock, such as river Passive systems are characterized by wider
gravel. indoor temperature ranges than those of a
conventional house or an active solar house
In passive systems, heat is absorbed by and
because the house itself is collecting and
stored in some form of thermal mass. A
storing heat. As previously mentioned, the
number of materials can serve as thermal
storage system can serve as a control
mass. Masonry floors or walls, containers of
mechanism by absorbing excess heat for use at
water, rock beds, soil, phase change salts, or
a later time.
any other material that absorbs and reradiates
heat can serve as thermal mass. With most Active Systems
passive systems, if all of the heat collected
were delivered to the house immediately, the The vast majority of solar space heating
house would overheat during the day. systems in Pennsylvania are passive or hybrid
Therefore, the heat must be stored for use systems. Active solar space heating systems
when needed. This reduces overheating and are generally more expensive and less effective
stores the solar heat for use at night and on in our heating climate. As stated earlier, solar
cloudy days. heating systems are not capable of meeting the
entire heating requirements of a building. They
Distribution typically require a back-up heating system.
Distribution is the movement of the heat from Active systems can easily be used in
where it is collected or stored to the parts of the combination with other heating systems,
house where heat is needed. In a liquid, or making them suitable for use with existing
hydronic system, this usually involves a pump, structures. They can be used in combination
piping, and some form of radiation. In an air with a hydronic system, heat pumps, off-peak
system, hot air is distributed via fans, ductwork, electrical storage systems, and many other
and registers. conventional systems.
12
There are two basic types of active space
heating systems, which vary depending upon
the circulation medium: liquid or air.
It can be fed directly to a radiator or a boiler for Proper passive design requires careful attention
hydronic heating. A hydronic coil can be used in to site planning and building materials. Design
a forced-air heating system such as a heat considerations can vary within microclimates
pump or conventional furnace. and from one site to another. New advances in
building materials, especially the advent of
Air systems operate in much the same way as high-efficiency low-e glass, has made passive
liquid systems. Heat is circulated from the solar even more effective.
collector to a storage system. A rock bed is
commonly used for storage, but masonry or Passive solar buildings can be economical to
water can also be used. Fans are used to build as well. Since the heating system is
circulate air through a series of ducts that incorporated into the structure, a savings can
connect the collector to storage and storage to be realized in this area. Furthermore, the
the distribution system. Typical systems will be higher building insulation levels can reduce the
used in combination with a conventional cost of the back-up heating system, adding to
furnace to provide heat to the building. the savings. Typical passive solar building costs
Figure 12 is a diagram of an active air heating vary from 10 percent above to 10 percent below
system. conventional construction. The extra cost will
vary depending upon the amount of heating that
Passive Systems is provided by solar.
Passive solar heating is a simple idea. South- Passive design techniques are not limited to
facing glazing and thermal mass are residential buildings. The same design
incorporated into the structural components of a principles apply to commercial buildings as well,
building. Conventional building techniques often although more emphasis is on using sunlight to
use energy to provide heat and light that are reduce electric lighting costs (daylighting). No
13
matter what the application passive solar
design is a proven technology with an
impressive track record of low energy costs.
Even simple design considerations can lower
heating costs by 30 percent or more.
Suntempering
Suntempering is one form of direct gain solar
heating. This method is essentially solar
collection without thermal mass. All houses
receive some of their heat from the sun. By windows and heavy masonry floors and/or walls
relocating non-south windows to the south side, absorb and store the sun’s heat.
and perhaps adding a few windows, the solar
contribution can be increased with little or no The use of double-pane, low-e glass or triple
extra cost. Reductions of up to 30 percent in pane windows is recommended in
heating costs are possible through this simple, Pennsylvania’s climate. The total south facing
inexpensive method. collector area should be between 7 percent (the
maximum in a suntempered system) and 12
In a conventional house the area of the south- percent of the total floor space of the building.
facing windows is equal to about 3 percent of South glass areas in excess of 12 percent of
the total floor area. In a suntempered house this floor area are likely to cause noticeable
figure can be up to 7 percent of the total floor overheating unless carefully designed and
area; anymore and overheating can become a operated. The specific amount of glazing will
problem. depend upon the amount of thermal mass used.
Figure 14 shows a direct gain system.
Another form of suntempering is the
thermosiphon air panel (see Figure 13).
Thermosiphon refers to the fact that heat rises
naturally and can cause air to flow. In this
system a dark-colored absorber, usually metal,
is placed between south-facing glazing and a
wall or the bottom of a collector. As the
temperature of the air in the collector rises, it is
vented to the space to be heated. This creates
a draw that pulls colder air into the returns at
the bottom of the system. This movement of air
forms a convective loop and the air circulates
naturally. Some type of damper on the vents is
important to allow the vents to be closed at
night or in the summer. Sunlight enters the building through the glazing,
and strikes the walls and floor where it is
Direct Gain absorbed as heat. These building components
are usually dark-colored masonry four to six
Direct gain systems are very similar to
inches thick in the floor and four to eight inches
suntempered systems. The major difference is
thick in the walls. The dark colors serve to
the addition of thermal mass. The term direct
absorb more of the solar energy into the
gain refers to the fact that the solar energy
thermal mass. The absorbed heat is then
shines directly into the building. South facing
radiated to the space as the temperature of the
14
room falls below the temperature of the mass. As the wall warms it absorbs heat and this heat
Ideally this occurs at night when the demand for gradually conducts through the wall. It reaches
heat is the greatest. the interior space late in the day and evening
when it is most needed. The warm wall
Direct gain systems typically employ an radiates heat to the interior as well as warming
overhang designed to reduce solar gain in the room air as it rises along the warm wall
summer by blocking the higher summer sun surface. The effectiveness of the thermal mass
while allowing the lower winter sun to enter the increases with the density of the material.
space. The overhang can be incorporated into
the roof overhang or installed directly above the Most masonry walls built in the 1970s
collector such as a window awning. incorporated vents in the top and bottom of the
wall to provide heat during the day by taking
An important feature of most passive solar advantage of the natural convection loop
systems in Pennsylvania, especially direct created in the air space between the wall and
gain, is moveable insulation on windows. the glazing. In theory, heated air rises in this
Moveable insulation can range from thermal space and leaves through the top vents which
drapes to insulating shutters. Without insulation creates a draw that pulls cooler room air
systems, nearly as much heat can be lost from through the bottom vents. The vents were
a window as is gained over the winter. Another equipped with back draft dampers that
use of window insulation is to control solar gain prevented the reverse flow of air at night.
when it is not needed on mild and hot days. Experience has shown, however, that these
vents are difficult to seal at night and can leak
Indirect Gain
cold air. If daytime heat is also wanted, or to
Indirect gain systems intercept the sun with a provide views, double-hung windows can be
masonry or water-filled wall immediately behind incorporated. The windows can be opened at
the glazing. The wall absorbs sunlight and top and bottom to provide some air circulation.
indirectly heats the space behind it.
The performance of a mass wall can be
The masonry wall system is shown in Figure significantly improved by using a selective
15. The wall consists of six to 24 inches of dark- surface on the wall to increase the absorption of
colored masonry; concrete, concrete block or heat by decreasing the heat loss from the wall.
brick. The wall is covered by glazing with about A selective surface is a material that is applied
a one to three inch air space in between. During like wallpaper. These materials have an affinity
the day heat builds up in the space between the for absorbing solar energy and, at the same
wall and the glazing. time, radiating very little of the heat generated.
Performance improvements up to 75 percent
are typical with a selective surface in
Pennsylvania.
Moveable insulation can be used to prevent
nighttime heat loss. The insulation can be a
curtain in the space between the wall and the
glazing or some type of exterior covering.
A variation on the mass wall is the substitution
of water for masonry thermal mass (see Figure
16). Instead of a masonry wall, containers of
water are placed between the collector and the
living space. Plastic containers are specifically
made for this purpose but any durable container
will work.
15
masonry wall between the sunspace and the
interior of the building. A sunspace requires a
sufficient amount of mass to prevent large
temperature swings.
During the day, windows or doors connecting
the sunspace to the building can be opened to
circulate heat inside. At night, they are closed
as the temperature in the sunspace drops.
Figure 17 demonstrates one type of sunspace
with several types of thermal mass.
Because water is very heavy, special care must
The floor is the most common surface for
be taken to provide adequate structural support.
locating thermal mass in a sunspace. Concrete,
The major advantage of a water wall is that it
tile or brick are good materials for this
can store about twice the heat per unit of
application. To ensure direct sunlight on the
volume as masonry. Therefore, less volume is
floor mass the bottom of the south facing
required to store an equivalent amount of heat
glazing should be no more than six inches
when water walls are used. As a general rule of
above the floor. If the glazing is higher,
thumb, about 30 pounds of water or 3.5 gallons
additional mass should be located in the rear
should be used for every square foot of glazing.
wall. If no mass is installed in the rear wall, then
Isolated Gain this wall should be insulated.
16
Movable insulation can add to the effectiveness A unique and potentially effective passive
of a sunspace. It is especially critical on sloped house design developed in the late 70s is the
glazings because summer sun can easily envelope house, sometimes called a double-
overheat the sunspace. Sloped glazings can shell house. The Pennsylvania Solar Project on
improve sunspace performance in the winter page 22 is an example. These designs include
but care must be taken to maintain comfort and a large sunspace on the south side with a
minimize heat loss. double roof and a double north wall with an air
Sunspaces require ventilation in the summer. space in between. Warm air from the sunspace
Ventilation should take advantage of the travels up and between the roofs, down the
prevailing winds during this season. Cross north wall cavity, and under the house. The
ventilation and high outlets/low inlets should be space under the house is usually filled with
incorporated into the design. The ventilation thermal mass to store the solar heat. After
openings should be a minimum of 15 percent of traveling through the mass, the air then
the south-facing glazing. Thermostatically reenters the sunspace near the floor.
controlled exhaust fans may be necessary to
assist ventilation in some cases.
Conclusion
Solar space heating systems can vary from the
Hybrid Designs simple to the complex, from the inexpensive to
Some solar houses combine multiple passive the extravagant. The one thing they share is a
systems. Some combine passive and active reduced energy cost.
features. These designs are called hybrid
According to a national study, passive solar
systems. A common example of a hybrid design
heated homes consumed 50 percent to
is a sunspace with an electric fan to circulate
75 percent less energy than conventional
heated air from the sunspace to other parts of
houses. The same study concluded that
the house or to a rock thermal storage bin.
passive solar homes are most effective in
While the system is still primarily a passive
climates with many mild winter days. Whether
design, the addition of the fan qualifies it as a
you’re building a new home or improving an
hybrid system. Passive system performance
existing building, solar energy can provide
and operation can often be improved by adding
reliable, cost-effective heating.
an active component.
The following Pennsylvania solar projects
represent a small fraction of the thousands of
solar heated buildings in the state. Each
project, and the thousands not mentioned,
demonstrate that solar space heating works,
even in Pennsylvania.
17
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Three Sisters Farm and Nursery
RD #1, Box 75C 1
Carlton, PA 16311
Contacts: Darrel Frey, Dawn Shiner
(412) 376 2797
www.bioshelter.com
Three Sisters Farm and Nursery, with the Additional sources of heat are provided by the
assistance of the Pennsylvania Energy Office, animals housed in the building, and from the
constructed a bioshelter in 1988. A bioshelter is active composting system. The heat from the
described as a self-contained ecosystem where composting process is piped to a rock storage
nutrients are exchanged and wastes recycled. area beneath the growing beds.
The Three Sisters bioshelter is a combination
passive solar greenhouse and barn containing
an aquaculture system and composting facility.
The Three Sisters bioshelter is designed to
encourage the interaction of animal and plant
production in an enclosed space. It is 105 feet
long by 40 feet wide. The main area contains
3,000 square feet of deep soil growing beds
designed for mature crop production; areas for
raising poultry and rabbits; bins for 700 cubic
feet of compost; fish tanks for aquaculture; and
additional water tanks for irrigation and thermal
mass. In addition, 13 cold frames provide
420 square feet of growing space. In the rear
of the building is a work area and storage
Image from www.bioshelter.com
space.
The “Three Sisters” in the Native American
The various components of the bioshelter are tradition are corn, beans and squash. These
incorporated in an integrated system. Waste crops were often grown together because of the
from crop production and animals is composted, shared benefits they provided to each other.
which in turn feeds the soil in the growing beds. The corn provides the trellis for the beans; the
Crops are grown organically. Beneficial insects beans fix nitrogen from the air, maintaining soil
are introduced to control pests. Natural fertility; the squash’s broad leaves and prickly
pesticides are used as a last resort. vines act as living mulch and protect the other
crops from pests.
Heat is provided to the building in a number of
ways. The primary heat source is the large
expanse of south-facing glazing. Direct solar
gain is stored in the massive growing beds, the
fish tanks, irrigation tank, numerous 55-gallon
drums, and the earth floor of the building itself.
Solar heating keeps the building at a
comfortable temperature throughout the winter.
Even on the coldest, cloudiest days the
temperature doesn’t drop below 550 F. Heat is
supplemented with a wood-fired system that is
mainly used for the comfort of people.
18
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Joseph J. Burinsky, A.I.A
Registered Architect
Registered Landscape Architect
PO Box 512
Hazleton, PA 18201
Contacts: Joseph Burinsky
(570) 454 6491
jburinsky@psu.edu
19
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Shelly Ridge Girl Scout Program Center
Greater Philadelphia Girl Scout Council
Philadelphia, PA
Architects: Bohlin Cywinski Jackson
Contact: Frank Grauman, AIA
215-790-5900
www.bcj.com
20
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Stargazers Vineyard
John and Alice Weygandt Contractor:
1024 Wheatland Drive Mesa Environmental Sciences, Inc.
Coatesville, PA 19320 5 Mesa Lane
www.stargazersvineyard.com Malvern, PA 19355
Contact: Alice Weygandt Contact: Gary Sheehan
610-486-0422 610-647-3809
askstargazers@kennett.net www.mesaenvironmental.net
Located in southeastern Pennsylvania, about an hour BP solar electric panels on the winery roof. With some
outside of Philadelphia, Stargazers Vineyard was help from the Sustainable Development Fund’s Solar
started in 1979 when John and Alice Weygandt planted PV Grant Program, the solar system was completed in
their first vinifera vines. They soon followed by building June of 2003.
a home near the vineyard in 1981 and eventually a
winery in 1996. Throughout the development of
Stargazers Vineyard and Winery, the Weygandts have
focused on sustainable growing and living. Employing
strategies such as natural fertilizers, rain water
harvesting for irrigation, and solar heating, they have
achieved some amazing results.
21
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Campbell Residence
West Moreland County
Contact: Gale Campbell
gacampbell@state.pa.us
Gale Campbell didn’t intend to use the sun to The gas furnace is still used for supplemental
heat his home when he added a sunroom to his heat, especially on cloudy days. However,
house in 2001. It almost happened by accident. Campbell finds that, for a few hours each winter
That, according to Campbell, shows just how day, his passive solar room provides enough
simple, easy and effective solar heat can be. heat for the whole house. Other energy
efficient features in the Campbell house include
Campbell had lived in his West Moreland ranch an airtight wood stove, ceiling fans to circulate
for nearly 10 years when he decided to add a the warm air, and compact fluorescent lights.
garage for his classic car. Instead of leaving
the top of the garage empty, or making it into a
porch, he decided the space would make a nice
sunroom. He designed and built the addition
himself. The room has two, six-foot wide,
insulated glass patio doors on the south side.
The doors can be opened during the summer to
allow air to circulate through and cool the
house. The east wall contains a large double-
insulated glass window, while the west wall is
primarily wood siding. This is effective because
the setting sun in the summer is very hot, while
in the winter it is not as strong. A large
overhang on the south wall also helps to shade
the room from the summer sun.
The most important feature of the passive solar
room, however, is the floor. Eight inches of
concrete absorb, store, and release the solar
heat. In addition, the underside of the floor is
insulated with polystyrene sheets. This keeps
heat in the concrete slab, rather than letting it
radiate into the garage below.
22
SOLAR HOT WATER
A common application of solar energy in requiring low-temperature hot water. The same
Pennsylvania is to heat water. Thousands of basic principles and types of systems can be
solar water heaters have been installed across used for residential as well as commercial and
the state. Solar water heating systems are an industrial purposes.
excellent application of solar energy because
hot water is needed year round, including the Types of Solar Water Heaters
summer when we receive a lot of sunlight.
General Comments
Water heating is usually the second highest All of the systems mentioned here, with the
energy need, after space heating, in homes. exception of the evacuated tube collector and
For a family of four, water heating is batch heater, utilize a flat plate collector. Flat
approximately one-quarter of the family’s plate collectors are insulated metal boxes
energy consumption. Numerous conservation containing a dark-colored absorber plate with
measures can be implemented to reduce this tubes in it for circulating a fluid. The box is
cost. Low flow showerheads, temperature covered with either glass or plastic glazing. In
reductions, tank and pipe insulation are a few of the case of swimming pool heating, the
the cost-effective energy measures which collector may be a plastic mat without glazing or
should be implemented prior to considering a a box.
solar hot water system.
Another type of collector is the evacuated tube
The concept of heating water with solar energy collector. This type of collector can be used in
is very simple. A good example of solar water place of the flat plate collector with most types
heating is a garden hose left out in the sun. The of solar water heaters. An evacuated tube
hose absorbs the sun’s energy, turns it into collector consists of glass tubes that have a
heat and transfers it to the water. Some solar vacuum between the glass and the absorber
water heaters are not much more complicated tube. The vacuum in the tube makes them more
than this simple example. efficient than the typical flat plate collector when
Solar water heating systems have four basic hotter water is needed. They are also usually
elements: collection, storage, distribution, and more expensive to purchase.
control. There are active and passive solar The first three systems mentioned are active;
water heaters. The distinction is that passive they require at least one pump and an electrical
water heaters need no pumps or electric control to activate the pumps and any valves.
controls to operate. The last three systems are passive, requiring
Solar water heating can be used to produce hot no pump or electric control.
water for a wide variety of uses. Obvious uses Closed Loop
include washing, cooking, cleaning, and any
other domestic uses of hot water around the This type of solar water heater is the one most
home. However, applications are not limited to commonly installed in Pennsylvania. In this
residential structures. Solar water heating is design (see Figure 19), an antifreeze solution or
also common for service hot water in heat transfer oil is pumped through the flat plate
commercial and institutional buildings. collectors. The collected heat is transferred to
water in a storage tank via a heat exchanger.
Another excellent application of solar water The heat exchanger can be installed inside or
heating is to heat water for residential and outside of a storage tank. A double-walled heat
institutional swimming pools. Other commercial exchanger must be used to prevent
uses for solar hot water systems include car contamination of the water supply in case of an
washes, laundries, restaurants, food processing anti-freeze leak.
plants, and numerous industrial applications
23
begins to circulate through the collectors again.
Because a valve failure can cause serious
damage to the collectors, this system type is
uncommon.
24
PROS: Slightly higher efficiency than Geyser or phase change
closed loop. These systems (see Figure 23) operate like a
No antifreeze needed. coffee percolator. Heated fluid in the collector,
Better freeze protection than drain usually alcohol, boils into a vapor. The vapor
down system. rises to the top of the collector pushing some
liquid with it and returns to a heat exchanger.
CONS: A heat exchanger is needed.
In the heat exchanger the vapor condenses into
Needs electric power and slightly a liquid, giving off its heat to water in a storage
more pump power due to open tank. The liquid then returns to the bottom of
loop. the collector.
Thermosiphon PROS: No pump or outside power required.
Excellent freeze protection.
A thermosiphon system (see Figure 22) is a
passive water heater. The storage tank is CONS: Heat exchanger needed.
placed at least one foot above the collector. Moderately efficient.
The fluid in the collector naturally rises into the
tank when heated. Colder water in the bottom
of the tank flows to the bottom of the collector
where it is warmed and continues the
thermosiphon circulation. This type of system is
prone to freezing and is not commonly used in
cold climates. To prevent freezing in a
thermosiphon system antifreeze can be
circulated in the collector to a heat exchanger in
the storage tank.
Batch
Sometimes called an integral collector system,
this simple water heater consists of a painted
tank(s) enclosed in a glazed, insulated box.
Sunlight directly strikes the batch tank heating
PROS: No pump or outside power required. the water inside. Hot water in the top of batch
tank flows to the regular water heater when hot
CONS: Heavy storage tank must be mounted
water is used in the building. To facilitate the
above collectors.
absorption of solar radiation, the batch tanks
Easy to freeze if water is circulated are painted flat black or covered with a
Antifreeze and heat exchanger selective surface (see page 18 under Indirect
needed in Pennsylvania for year- Gain). A reflective material such as aluminum
round operation. foil is used to line the box and reflect sunlight
25
on the sides of the tank not directly exposed. yourself systems are at the bottom of this
The glazing should be at least double pane. range. Professionally installed systems are at
Quite often textured and tempered low iron the top.
glass is used to prevent breakage and obscure
Savings from SDHW systems depend on water
the tank. The unit can be mounted on the
usage, system size, system design, and the
ground or on a roof. Incorporating a batch
local climate conditions. The single greatest
heater into the top of a sunspace is a popular
determinant of savings is the cost of the fuel
method of installation. Because potable water is
being displaced. The cost of operating an
used in the batch tank, precautions must be
electric water heater will range from about $200
taken to prevent freezing.
to $800 per year depending on local electric
rates. Natural gas prices are typically 25 to
50 percent less than electricity for heating
water. Since a SDHW system can provide 50 to
80 percent of a family’s annual hot water needs,
the savings can amount to several hundred
dollars a year.
For example, if a SDHW system costs $4,000
and saves $400 a year, then it takes about
10 years for the savings to “pay back” the
investment.
Other costs to consider when purchasing a
SDHW system are maintenance and system
life. Numerous studies have shown that solar
water heating systems require little
maintenance and have a long service life. The
average solar system has a service life of at
PROS: No pump or heat exchanger required. least 15 to 20 years. Some systems installed in
Can be home built. the early 1900s in California and Florida are still
Low maintenance requirements. operating. The major problems with SDHW
Inexpensive. systems typically center around controls and
pumps.
CONS: Care must be taken to prevent
freezing. A study was conducted in 1990 by Penn State
Harrisburg of 255 closed loop systems installed
Residential Water Heating in the late 1970s in Pennsylvania. The results
All of the systems discussed on the prior pages showed that over a 10-year period, they
have been used in Pennsylvania to provide required little maintenance. Eighty six percent
of the system owners were pleased with the
domestic hot water. The most common type
installed in the state is the closed loop system. performance of their system. Average annual
The excellent freeze protection is the primary maintenance cost was $13.
reason, given Pennsylvania’s climate. Below are some general rules of thumb for
most active SDHW systems in Pennsylvania.
Solar domestic hot water (SDHW) systems vary
widely in cost and savings. Batch heaters can Collector size: Use about 10 to 15 square feet
be home built for as little as $300. Because the of collector per family member.
collector area is usually smaller, they do not
Storage tank size: Use one and one half to two
provide as much hot water as larger active
gallons per square foot of collector.
systems. Commercially purchased and installed
SDHW systems for families of two to five Collector tilt: The optimum angle for an
people range from $3,000 to $5,000. Do it unshaded site is “latitude minus 10 degrees” or
26
about 30 degrees from horizontal in most of heating. Collectors made of EDPM rubber are
Pennsylvania. Angles of plus or minus popular because of their lower cost and
30 degrees, however, have little effect on resistance to corrosive pool water conditioners.
performance.
In institutional applications, solar pool heating
Collector orientation: The optimum orientation systems are also common due to the relatively
for an unshaded site is due south. A southwest low temperature requirements. Indoor pool
or southeast orientation reduces performance water temperatures range from 80° F to 85° F.
by about 5 percent. An east or west orientation These systems are usually closed loop systems
reduces annual performance by about 10 to with a heat exchanger. Solar pool heaters in
15 percent. these applications are often supplemented with
gas-fired or off-peak electric back-up systems.
For example, a family of four should have 40 to
60 square feet of flat plate collector. At 60 Outdoor pool heating collectors should be tilted
square feet of collector, the solar storage tank at an angle of 10 degrees less than the latitude,
should be 90 to 120 gallons. Collector tilt can or about 30 degrees in Pennsylvania. Indoor
be anywhere from horizontal to 60 degrees. pool heating systems used year round should
This means the collectors can be mounted flush have collectors tilted at latitude, or 40 degrees.
with the roof for aesthetic reasons if desired. As with domestic water heating, variations in tilt
Furthermore the roof can face anywhere from of plus or minus 30 degrees have little effect on
east to west. performance.
Swimming Pool Heating For an outdoor pool of standard depth, the solar
collector area should be at least equal to 50
Swimming pool heating is an excellent percent of the pool surface area. For example,
application for the use of solar hot water. Most a rectangular pool that is 20 feet by 30 feet has
pools need a water temperature of 75 °F to a surface area of 600 square feet and should
85 °F. This relatively low temperature have a collector area of at least 300 square
requirement is easily met by the sun. feet.
Residential and institutional pools can both be
cost effectively heated with solar energy. As with all solar applications, it is important to
reduce heat loss by implementing energy
In residential applications, solar collectors can conserving measures before installing a solar
effectively extend the swimming season by a pool heater. Using a pool cover when the pool
month or more for an outdoor pool in is not in use will greatly reduce heat losses.
Pennsylvania. A solar pool heater is especially They can increase the pool water temperature
helpful in late spring and early summer. With by 5 °F to 10 °F in an outdoor pool. Pool covers
the help of solar energy, pool temperatures can have the added benefit of reducing evaporation
be tolerable by mid April to early May. and, therefore, water usage. In indoor pools,
Significant energy savings can also be realized reducing evaporation can enable the exhaust
if solar is used to supplement a conventional system for the enclosure to be turned off. This
pool heater. can result in significant savings in energy and
chemicals.
Due to the low pool water temperature
requirements, a solar pool heater only needs to The simplest system design is an open loop
raise the pool make up water temperature by configuration as shown in Figure 25. The filter
10 °F to 20 °F. Most people are comfortable pump is used to circulate pool water directly
with water temperatures of about 75 °F in an through the collectors when there is useful heat
outdoor pool. Because of the lower available. When the automatic valve is not
temperatures involved, solar collectors used for directing flow to the collectors, the water drains
residential pool heating are usually not covered out of the collectors to prevent freezing. The
with any glazing. Both metal and plastic open loop design has the advantages of
collector materials have been used for pool simplicity, high collector efficiency, and lower
27
initial cost. This type of system is often used for Conclusion
residential applications. Solar water heating in Pennsylvania is a proven
Figure 26 is a diagram of a closed loop system technology with a long track record of reliable
commonly used to heat institutional pool water. service. Several thousand solar hot water
The system operates the same as an open loop systems are in use today all across the state.
system except that the collector loop and the Some of these systems are over 30 years old
pool water circulation loop meet inside a heat and still working well.
exchanger.
With the demise of the federal solar tax credit in
1985 the bottom fell out of the market for solar
Spas and Hot Tubs water heaters. In a way, the loss of the tax
Solar collectors can also be used for heating credit did a service to the solar water heating
hot tubs and spas. Because the water industry. Many companies with inferior products
temperature in a spa is in the range of 100 °F, were forced out of business. Those companies
collectors are usually comparable to glazed that survived and are still in operation are the
collectors used for domestic water heating. A ones with the best products and the firmest
rule of thumb for sizing spa collectors is to commitment to the technology. The systems on
provide a collector area that is about one and a the market today are among the best available.
half to two times the surface area of the spa.
Technological improvements in the past
For a round spa eight feet in diameter, the 20 years have increased the performance and
surface area is 50 square feet, suggesting a improved the quality of solar hot water systems.
collector area of 75 to 100 square feet. Collector efficiencies have improved from about
Since spa pumps have large flow rates, a 40 percent in the early ‘70s to about 55 percent.
separate pump is recommended to circulate System reliability has also improved through the
water through the collectors. An open loop use of brushless pumps, more efficient heat
configuration similar to that for pools is used to exchangers, and better controllers.
allow the collectors to drain when not in use.
The Pennsylvania Solar Projects on the
Spa covers are even more important than pool following pages represent a small fraction of the
covers because of the higher water thousands of solar hot water systems in the
temperatures involved. state. Each project and the thousands not
mentioned demonstrate that solar water heating
works, even in Pennsylvania.
28
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Mid-Atlantic Social Security Center
300 Spring Garden Street
Philadelphia, PA 19123
Solar System:
Thermo Technologies
5560 Sterrett Place, Suite 115
Columbia, Maryland 21044
410-997-0778
www.thermotechs.com
Contact: Fariborz Mahjouri Pictures courtesy of Thermo Technologies
Many of the commercial buildings that incorporate
thermal solar systems are one-story buildings with necessary, the boiler brings the water up to the
large roof surfaces. Installing these systems is simple required temperature.
for two reasons. First, the large flat roof provides Evacuated tubes were used because they provide
adequate space for the collectors. Second, water does excellent insulation from cool air, while allowing
not need to circulate far between the roof and the radiation from the sun to penetrate through. This is
basement, where holding tanks are usually located. especially important in the reheating system, where
This reduces pressure on the pumps and makes heat water being heated is often much warmer than the
loss during circulation negligible. outside air. The 360 evacuated tubes are split into two
The Mid-Atlantic Social Security Center faced new arrays of 180 tubes each. These two arrays serve
challenges when it decided to install a solar water different sections of the large building.
heating system at its eight-story Philadelphia location. Mid-Atlantic Social Security Center’s new solar hot
The promise of cost and energy savings, however, water system was installed in January of 2004. Since
made it worth the effort. The result was an innovative then, it has been heating the return water to an average
solution that proves solar water heating can work on tall of 5°C warmer than the supply water. This is a
buildings too. significant increase in a building with a delivered hot
The center started looking into solar water heating in water temperature of 50°C. Those involved with the
2002 because the cost of natural gas was so high. project are happy with the results, and intend to keep
They switched to oil that same year, but continued track of the system as more data is available.
investigating possible solar water technologies,
eventually choosing a system proposed by Thermo
Technologies.
A large challenge in designing the system for this tall
building was the prospect of having to install additional
piping to run from the storage tanks in the basement to
the collectors on the roof and back. Installation of this
piping would have been expensive, and it would have
been inefficient to transport heat over that long a
distance. The collectors presented challenges of their
own. Standard flat plate collectors were not adequate
for the kind of thermal gain required over such a large
loop.
The final design includes evacuated heat-pipe tubes
and a recirculation loop that made the addition of piping
and storage tanks unnecessary. The system takes
advantage of the existing hot water piping that already
runs through the entire building. As water circulates
through the building and up to the top floor, it
encounters a valve. If there is enough solar energy
available, the water will be passed through the valve to
the solar collectors. At the solar array, the water is Pictures courtesy of Thermo Technologies
reheated and returned to the circulation loop where it
runs back down to a boiler in the basement. If
29
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Solar Shine Car Wash
2015 Lincoln Way East
Chambersburg, PA 17201
Contact: Joe Wolfinger
(717) 264 9656
The system provides 100 percent of the hot The solar system has performed almost
water requirements for about six months of the flawlessly. With the exception of replacing two
year. Even in the middle of winter, it still $6 controllers, no maintenance has been
provides 20 percent of the hot water needs. performed. Joe’s philosophy regarding solar
Overall, Joe estimates the solar system energy seems to be sound: “Keep it simple,
produces in excess of 60 percent of the hot keep it cool, and keep it cheap.” It certainly
water for the six self-serve bays. works for the Solar Shine Car Wash.
30
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Balitzky Residence
Philadelphia, PA
Contractor: Energy Alternatives
6342 North 6th Street
Philadelphia, PA 19126
Contact: Jurgen Balitzky
Phone: 215-224-4546
Fax: 215-224-3306
jbalitzky@msn.com
31
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Gilbert M. Freedman, P.E.
49 Sample Bridge Road
Mechanicsburg, PA 17050
Contact: Gil Freedman
717-697-2513
32
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Adams County Adult Correctional Complex
Adams County, PA Contact: Harry Stokes
Adams County Commissioner’s Office hstokes@blazenet.net
111-117 Baltimore Street 717-495-4274
Gettysburg, PA 17325 Manufacturer: SunEarth Inc.
717-337-9820 8425 Almeria Avenue
Fontana, CA 92335
909-434-3100
www.sunearthinc.com
33
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Roger Clark Contractor: Energy Alternatives
905 Denston Drive 6342 North 6th Street
Ambler, PA 19002 Philadelphia, PA 19126
roger.e.clark@verizon.net Contact: Jurgen Balitzky
Phone: 215-224-4546
Fax: 215-224-3306
jbalitzky@msn.com
34
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Rudin Home
7217 Oak Ave., Melrose Park, PA
Contact: Andrew Rudin
215-635-5450
PV Designer: Celentano Energy Services
Contact: Ron Celentano
215-836-9958
celentanor@aol.com
Hot Water Contractor: Solar Techniques
35
SOLAR COOLING
Solar cooling -- it sounds like a contradiction in cooling systems: solar electric, absorption,
terms. How can the sun provide cooling when it desiccant, and evaporative.
gives off so much heat and light?
Solar Electric Systems
Solar energy can provide cooling in the same
A Rankine cycle system utilizes a solar
ways that conventional energy sources are
powered heat engine in combination with an
used to provide cooling. All mechanical cooling
systems operate on the same basic principle: electric air conditioner. Solar heat vaporizes a
liquid with a low boiling point. The vapor runs a
thermal energy moves from high temperature to
turbine that powers a generator to produce
low temperature, from warm to cool, from hot to
electricity. The electricity is then used to run the
cold.
compressor of a standard air conditioner.
The basic cooling cycle uses a refrigerant that
Several other types of solar electric systems
is compressed, condensed, expanded and
can be used to operate air conditioners.
evaporated in a continuous cycle. Heat in a
Photovoltaics, dish Stirling, and solar thermal
building (or a refrigerator) is drawn into the
electricity can be used. The following chapter
cycle and expelled outside. In other words, a
on solar electricity discusses each method.
cooling system cools a space by removing heat,
not adding cold. Absorption Systems
Fundamentally, all cooling systems rely on the Absorption systems were once very common
latent energy released when a material, air conditioning systems that usually ran on
changes from a vapor to a liquid. This same heat from natural gas or propane. Solar energy
principle is utilized in active solar cooling can be used instead of natural gas to provide
systems. the heat source.
Active solar cooling systems are no different In an absorption system, solar energy is used to
than those driven by other energy sources. The evaporate the refrigerant from a high pressure
major advantage of solar cooling systems is liquid solution. The separated refrigerant then
that the sun is almost always available when operates as in a conventional air-conditioner,
cooling is needed the most. Therefore, solar going through a condenser, an expansion valve
cooling has the potential to assist utilities in and then the evaporator where the cooling
reducing peak electrical loads during the times takes place. The vaporized refrigerant is then
of the day when demand is usually highest. By “absorbed” back into the liquid solution where it
reducing these peak load periods, electric is then pumped up to the higher pressure.
utilities can lower their operating costs. Because a liquid pump is used instead of a
Because Pennsylvania has primarily a heating vapor compressor, electricity uses is much
climate, solar cooling systems have not been lower in an absorption system.
widely implemented in the state. However, the A few companies market absorption cooling
growing concern about the environmental systems in this country. Both commercial and
impacts of electrical production, the cost of on- residential size units which operate on natural
peak electrical usage, and the steadily gas are currently available. They were
increasing demand for space cooling systems introduced because of the issues surrounding
may combine to stimulate the need for solar the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in
cooling systems. conventional electric systems. These systems
could be modified to run on solar energy quite
Active Solar Cooling easily.
Solar power can serve as the energy source to
operate mechanical air conditioning systems.
There are four basic types of active solar space
36
Desiccant Systems of hot air. Many components can be combined
into an effective passive cooling system.
Desiccant systems provide a part of the cooling
energy required in a building by removing the Shading
moisture contained in the air. In other words There are numerous ways to provide shading
they dehumidify the air. A desiccant is a from the direct rays of the sun. As a general
material or chemical that absorbs moisture. rule exterior shading is more effective than
Most air conditioning systems reduce the interior shading because it stops the sunlight
temperature of the air far below what is required before it enters the building. However, interior
for indoor comfort. The circulating air must be shading is better than no shading at all.
cooled below its dew point (the temperature at Blinds, drapes, awnings, reflective films,
which condensation, or dew, forms) in order to overhangs, trees, trellised vines, fences, and
remove the moisture. In Pennsylvania, moisture solar screens are all effective techniques for
removal, or dehumidification, accounts for shading windows. Different shading devices
30 percent or more of summer cooling loads. are used depending upon the window’s
Obviously, if the moisture can be reduced, orientation and tilt. East and west facing
energy can be saved because the conventional windows are exposed to a lower summer sun.
system need only cool the air. In a desiccant Therefore, awnings and overhangs are not as
system, the desiccant absorbs the moisture effective as they are on south facing windows.
contained in outdoor air. Once the desiccant is Non-vertical glazing presents another shading
saturated it must then be dried. Solar energy (or problem. It is more difficult to prevent excess
any heat source) can be used to dry the heat gain on sloped windows and skylights.
desiccant. Their use is discouraged in most passive
designs.
Evaporative Cooling
Trees are among the most effective shading
Evaporation is a cooling process. As water techniques. They not only provide shade, they
evaporates it absorbs heat from the air. In dry also provide cooling through evaporation. A
climates this natural phenomenon can provide large tree transpires 75 to 100 gallons of water
significant cooling. a day. This has the cooling capacity of five
A mist of water is sprayed into the air or on the average size air conditioners. Temperatures of
roof of a building which provides cooling. While 10 °F to 20 °F lower in the shade of a tree are
this type of evaporative cooling works well in not uncommon. Another advantage of
the southwestern United States it is not deciduous trees is that they shed their leaves in
effective in more humid regions of the country winter and can allow solar gain when it is
like Pennsylvania. beneficial.
37
Proper orientation and building design can extends above the roof. Dark colors are used
provide good ventilation. In new construction to heat the air in the top of the shaft. The
the long axis of the building should face north heated air rises and exits the top of the shaft.
and south. This minimizes the amount of east The rising air pulls cooler air from the building
and west facing windows. A porch or garage and up the chimney. This movement circulates
could be located on the east or west side of the cooler air throughout the building and provides
building to provide further protection. ventilation without electricity use.
38
One building material that has demonstrated
effectiveness in helping to keep structures cool
is high-performance glass with a low-e coating.
These windows provide benefits in summer and
winter. Low-e windows provide extra insulating
value and heat deflection without a significant
loss in winter solar gain.
Conclusion
Many of the passive cooling techniques
mentioned earlier have been used on
Pennsylvania buildings for centuries. Most are
just plain common sense. However, in our
increasing reliance on mechanical cooling
systems we tend to overlook the obvious.
Passive cooling in many ways is accomplished
by minimizing the need for mechanical cooling,
just as energy conservation minimizes the need
for mechanical heating. With an increased
awareness of the impacts of our energy usage,
the growing demand for cooling systems, and
the rise in electricity prices, solar cooling
systems will receive more attention.
Pennsylvania has a climate where heating
predominates, so active solar cooling systems
are not yet in widespread use. Because of this,
very little research and few demonstration
projects are available. The Pennsylvania Solar
Project on the following page does
demonstrate, however, that solar cooling works,
even in Pennsylvania.
39
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Monroe County Courthouse
Seventh and Monroe Streets Consultant: Vipin Goel
Stroudsburg, PA 18360 Johnson Controls, Inc.
717-730-3213
Contractor: Gershon Meckler, P.E. vipin.k.goel@jci.com
Gershon Meckler Associates
40
SOLAR ELECTRICITY
Electricity from sunlight -- it seems like see more in the future. Currently, the most
something for the very distant future. Yet, it is widespread production of solar electricity is
not only possible, but it is practical and through the use of photovoltaic cells.
economical in many situations today.
Photovoltaic Cells
There are two basic ways to produce electricity
from sunlight: photovoltaic cells and solar Photovoltaic cells produce electricity directly
thermal systems. Photovoltaic cells convert from sunlight. The word photovoltaic literally
sunlight directly to electricity, while solar means “light (photo) producing an electric
thermal systems use the sun’s heat to drive a voltage (voltaic).”
vapor power cycle much like that in coal-fired As early as 1839 it was observed that certain
power plant. There are several types of solar materials when exposed to sunlight responded
thermal systems that can be used to produce by producing electricity. In the mid-1950s, when
both heat (at very high temperatures) and searching for a power source for rural
electricity. telephone systems, researchers at Bell
Photovoltaics and solar thermal systems have Laboratories began the modern development of
their applications and limitations, but each is photovoltaic cells. Photovoltaics proved too
capable of generating electricity in a reliable expensive for this application, but a need soon
manner. The cost to produce electricity with arose in the space program. A lightweight,
solar has fallen dramatically in the last long-lasting power source for satellites was
25 years. As the cost continues to fall its use needed. Photovoltaics were perfect for this
will become more widespread. application. Many of the technological
advances in solar cells were driven by the
One major advantage of solar-generated space program in the 1960s and 1970s.
electricity is minimum environmental impact.
Fossil fuels and nuclear power-generated Photovoltaic cells are primarily composed of
electricity result in air pollution and waste silicon, the basic material that makes up sand.
disposal problems. These costs are borne by Very thin silicon wafers are arranged in layers.
society as a whole and are not included in the As the sunlight strikes the top layer an electron
price of the electricity produced. If all of these is released which flows to the layers beneath.
costs were included in the price of conventional This flow of electrons creates a direct electrical
electrical generation, utility-scale solar electric current that flows in wires embedded in the
systems could be cost competitive in the very silicon layers. Figure 29 illustrates this process.
near future.
Solar energy can sometimes be used to offset
the need for electricity. Reducing the need for
electricity is, in effect, another way of
“producing” it. A kilowatt hour saved is just the
same as a kilowatt hour produced.
Sunlight produces both heat and light. This
natural light can be used instead of artificial
lighting systems in many cases. A wide variety
of design options can be incorporated into
Figure 29
buildings to utilize daylighting to reduce
electrical consumption (See Daylighting on There are three basic types of photovoltaic cells
page 59). in widespread use. Crystalline silicon cells are
“grown” and formed into round or rectangular
Electricity from the sun is already cost shapes which are layered and interconnected.
competitive in many applications today. We will
41
Thin film amorphous silicon cells are gasified Consumer Products
and layered. Crystalline cells are more
Solar calculators and watches have been
expensive to manufacture than amorphous
available in stores for many years. Most of
cells, however, crystalline cells are more
these small applications were made possible by
efficient than amorphous. The third type is
the introduction of the thin film cells. Their low
polycrystalline, which falls in between
power requirements are easily satisfied by
crystalline and amorphous in price and
inexpensive amorphous cells. These cells also
efficiency.
respond better to fluorescent light than the
Many other materials can produce electricity crystalline cells. Other consumer products
from sunlight. There is a great deal of research include battery chargers, outdoor lighting
being conducted in this area, and systems, and ventilation fans.
improvements occur frequently. One promising
new concept utilizes organic materials that can Because photovoltaic cells produce the same
direct current (DC) generated by batteries, they
generate electricity. Significant progress has
are a natural for maintaining a trickle charge on
been made in improving solar cell efficiency.
batteries. Solar battery chargers are used
When the cell efficiency increases, power
extensively in recreational vehicles and on
output increases without increasing the size of
boats to trickle charge batteries. Some of these
the cells.
systems are built in while others are designed
Amorphous cells have an efficiency of about 6 to charge through a cigarette lighter. The
percent. That is, 6 percent of the energy striking National Guard uses solar battery chargers for
the solar cell is converted to electricity. many of its vehicles because they tend to sit
Crystalline cells have an efficiency of about idle for weeks at a time. Even household
12 percent. Advanced materials have achieved batteries can be charged by placing a solar
efficiencies of over 30 percent in the lab. battery charger in the sun for several hours.
Concentrators to focus sunlight on photovoltaic
The emergence of solar-powered outdoor
cells can also be used to increase electrical
lighting systems was possible because of the
output.
reduced cost of photovoltaic cells and the
Photovoltaics are modular so they can be development of more efficient lamps. A
designed and sized to provide the right amount photovoltaic cell charges a battery during the
of power. Individual photovoltaic cells are day and, then, the battery provides the power to
electrically interconnected and mounted on a run a light. The systems are designed with a
frame to form a panel. Panels can be sensor that turns the light on when the sun
connected together to form an array. If power goes down, and off when it rises.
requirements increase, more panels can be
Solar-powered lights eliminate the expense of
added.
an electrician, the need to run wiring through
Because photovoltaics have no moving parts, the house and possibly to trench the yard. They
require little maintenance, contain no fluids, and are ideal in applications where light is only
consume no fuel, they have proven to be very needed for a few hours each night. A popular
reliable over long periods of time. Cells installed combination is the use of a motion detector with
20 years ago are still functioning. Today’s cells solar-powered lighting (See Figure 30). When
are expected to last easily in excess of the motion sensor detects movement, it turns
25 years. on a flood light, which automatically turns off
The market for photovoltaics has grown steadily after a few minutes. This is a great security
at a rate of 20 to 25 percent annually for the measure. The fact that the light is only on for a
past 20 years. Manufacturers have found many few minutes at a time reduces the power
niche markets where photovoltaics are used in requirement, saving energy for when the light is
a cost-effective manner. Photovoltaics are needed.
used on a large scale commercially in a variety
of consumer products.
42
collection. The need in each case was for a
reliable, low-maintenance power source similar
to the needs of the space program. The savings
in maintenance and fuel supply costs, not the
cost of energy, made these photovoltaic
applications cost effective.
The military also uses photovoltaics for remote
power applications. Because they operate
quietly, do not require fuel, and produce no
smoke, they are an excellent power source for
remote military applications.
Closer to home, photovoltaics can also be used
Figure 30 to power large lighting systems like street
lighting, billboards, highway signs, and traffic
Another application of photovoltaic cells is for safety devices. These large outdoor lighting
ventilation. Attics, greenhouses, cars, and systems can be very cost-effective in places
many other enclosed spaces require ventilation where it is difficult to run power lines or where
from time to time. Ventilation is usually power lines are some distance away. This is
required on hot days when the sun shines. often the case with billboards and highway
Because PV’s only produce electricity when the signs. These systems are also cost-effective
sun shines, they are well suited for powering when replacing gasoline or diesel generators,
these fans. as is the case with traffic safety signs such as
Remote Power directional arrows and message board (See
Pennsylvania Solar Project, page 61).
Photovoltaic cells are used in many remote
power applications. The cost of running power Solar cells are used to provide power for
lines can exceed $20,000 per mile. Installing a electric fences. The low power requirements of
photovoltaic system is often more cost effective these systems are easily met with PV’s. The
than bringing conventional power to the site. solar cells charge a battery so the fence can be
PV’s can become cost competitive when the operated 24 hours a day.
distance to a power line exceeds one-half mile.
In countries without an extensive network of
electrical lines, photovoltaics are in great
demand as a power source. Water pumping
and purification, lighting, appliances,
refrigeration and communications are common
applications. About three-quarters of the
developing world’s households do not have
access to electricity. Photovoltaics have the
potential to provide small amounts of power at
prices far less than diesel generators or central
power production.
In the United States, over 15,000 solar-powered
navigational aids, buoys, and shoreline markers
Picture Courtesy of Marcus Sheffer
have been installed by the U.S. Coast Guard.
Photovoltaics have been used extensively in Another agricultural use of photovoltaics is for
the telecommunications industry for repeater water pumping (See Pennsylvania Solar
stations since the mid-1970s. The National Project, page 63). In remote locations more
Weather Service and U.S. Geologic Service than about one-half mile from a power line it is
use them for remote monitoring and data less costly to install a photovoltaic powered
43
pump than to install the power line. These it. For example, the TV, VCR, lights, computers,
systems are being used more and more in the stereo, and other home appliances can only
western United States for livestock watering. operate on electricity. Propane or extremely
energy-efficient refrigerators are used to
The electricity needed to power remote homes
minimize the load on the photovoltaic system.
can be provided by photovoltaic cells.
The typical photovoltaic system does not
Thousands of homes in the United States rely
provide space heating, cooling, or hot water
on solar energy for at least a portion of their
because these uses require too much power.
electrical needs.
Many photovoltaic systems are used in
Remote homes use an array of photovoltaic
combination with other electrical generation
cells which produce direct current (DC). DC
systems. Hybrid systems can utilize wind
electricity can be used directly to operate DC
generators to augment the photovoltaic system.
appliances and to charge a bank of storage
Quite often in remote applications gasoline or
batteries that are used when the sun is not
diesel generators are used to provide power for
shining. Some systems convert the DC power
short periods of intensive electrical use or when
from the photovoltaic cells or batteries to
the sun does not shine for an extended period
alternating current (AC) with a device called an
of time. It is also possible to add photovoltaics
inverter. With AC systems, conventional
to a building already served by utility generated
appliances can be used. It is the same power
power.
distributed in electric lines from a central power
plant. Utility Systems
Photovoltaic cells are being used more and
more in connection with central power
generation and distribution systems. They find
their greatest value in areas with expensive
electricity or utilities that are having difficulty
meeting demand.
Photovoltaic arrays can be connected to the
utility grid. The utility provides electricity when
the sun is not shining or the array is producing
less power than the building is using.
Conversely, when the array is producing more
Figure 31 power than the building is using, the extra
power is fed back into the utility grid. In some
Figure 31 is a diagram of a stand-alone remote cases where the necessary investment in
system. The size of the system can vary from a equipment has been made, the utility is
couple of panels on a remote vacation cabin to required to purchase this extra power under the
an array of dozens of panels which can provide Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA).
enough electricity to power today’s modern
household. Since photovoltaic systems are While photovoltaic grid connections were not a
modular they can easily be expanded at a later common practice until the 90s, they are
date if the electrical need increases. These becoming more widespread as utilities conduct
systems have proven to be quite reliable. Many research into the impact of photovoltaic
photovoltaic system owners report very few produced power on their distribution systems.
problems, and they often have power when Several of the Pennsylvania Solar Projects
their neighbors do not. highlighted in the pages following this chapter
have taken this approach. Figure 32 is a
Proper system sizing is critical in designing a diagram of a utility connected system.
photovoltaic system for remote home
applications. Most systems are sized to
produce electricity for those items which require
44
$0.10 per kilowatt hour ($2 per Watt) utilities,
businesses, and homeowners will begin to
seriously utilize photovoltaics for meeting peak
power demands and as an alternative to new
power plant construction.
45
power from 1982 to 1988 for the Southern Luz has also constructed an additional eight
California Edison grid. The lessons learned at plants with a total of 354 megawatts of installed
Solar One have proven very valuable in capacity. The latest two 80 megawatt plants
designing future plants. In 1996, Solar Two, a produce electricity at a very competitive price of
redesign of Solar One, began operation $0.08 per kilowatt hour.
providing 10 megawatts of power. This time,
instead of producing steam directly in the tower,
Dish Stirling Systems
molten salt is used to capture and store the This solar electric production method utilizes a
sun’s heat. The use of molten salt allows sun-tracking parabolic dish to concentrate
energy to be stored and used to produce steam sunlight on a special engine. Heat generated at
and electricity when it is most needed. the bottom of the engine is used to drive a
piston. The piston, in turn, drives an alternator
Research on various working fluids, newer
lightweight membrane heliostats, and optimum that produces electricity.
plant configuration continued throughout the These systems can be used as stand-alone
1980s and 1990s. In order for more electrical generators in remote applications or
widespread application of this technology to connected in a field of parabolic dishes to
occur, additional demonstration projects are produce electricity for central distribution.
necessary to test study results. Research on this technology has progressed
steadily over the past 20 years. A pilot project
Concentrating Collectors was undertaken in the late 1980s to test full-
Concentrating collectors work similarly to power scale commercialization.
towers, that is, they reflect and focus solar
Cummins Power Generation, in cooperation
energy onto a smaller receiving surface. The
with the U.S. Department of Energy, had
main differences are that concentrating
installed several dish Stirling systems
collectors are smaller scale, and the receiver is
throughout the country, including one in
typically attached to the reflectors. The major
Lancaster, Pennsylvania. This dish Stirling
benefit of this type of concentration is that it is a
system features two technological
modular approach to heat collection and can be
improvements. New lightweight membranes
installed in increments.
have been used for the parabolic dish. The
Concentrating collectors can be arranged in a improved Stirling engine has fewer moving
dish or trough shape that can follow or track the parts which should improve the engine’s
sun across its path in the sky. Systems are reliability and durability.
classified according to how they focus sunlight :
One major advantage of a dish Stirling system
point focus, line focus, or nontracking
is the relatively high 31 percent sunlight-to-
compound parabolic collectors.
electricity conversion efficiency. This efficiency
The most commonly used system is a line focus is higher than any other form of solar electrical
using trough collectors. In the 1970s, small production.
scale systems of this type were used for water
heating and air conditioning applications. In
1984, Luz International Ltd. built the first large
scale system in the Mojave Desert in California.
It produces 13 megawatts of power. The trough
collectors concentrate sunlight on a pipe which
circulates oil. The oil heats up and is used to
produce steam, which runs a turbine producing
electricity. Natural gas is used to maintain the
temperature of the circulating oil at night.
46
Solar Ponds
A solar pond is a basin of water that is arranged The following Pennsylvania Solar Projects
in layers. The layers vary in density or are represent a very small part of solar energy’s
otherwise separated. The top layers insulate contribution to the production of electricity.
while allowing sunlight to reach the bottom Each of these projects demonstrates that solar
layers. Heat produced (water can approach the electricity works, even in Pennsylvania.
boiling point) in the bottom layers can be used
for heating water and producing electricity. The
most common type is a salt gradient pond.
Other types are gel ponds, saltless ponds with
transparent covers or internal membranes.
Shallow ponds, which are basically large batch
type water heaters, are also used.
Several experimental ponds have been
constructed in the United States, Israel, and
Australia. A solar pond in central Ohio has
provided the heat for a municipal swimming
pool since 1978. In 1986, a 36,000-square-foot
pond was constructed near El Paso, Texas, to
provide hot water and 100 kilowatts of power for
a food processing plant. The system also
produces fresh water by evaporating salt water.
A 62-acre pond near the Dead Sea in Israel
produces up to 5 megawatts at a competitive
cost of $0.10 per kilowatt hour. Smaller 20
kilowatt systems are used for remote power in
Australia.
Additional research and development will be
required to commercialize this technology fully.
Since the thermal and electrical conversion
efficiencies are low, relatively large amounts of
land are required. Additional limitations result
because the technology required is very generic
in nature. No existing industry is actively
promoting the technology.
Conclusion
Electricity itself is not a fuel. It is merely a high
quality medium for transporting energy from
one place to another. Any heat source can be
used to produce electricity. Burning fossil fuels,
producing nuclear reactions, utilizing the heat of
the earth, and many other methods can be
harnessed to generate electricity.
As discussed in this chapter, the sun can
produce electricity as well. In some cases it
can produce electricity at competitive prices. As
further refinements to the various technologies
are made, the price will be reduced still further.
47
Pennsylvania Solar Project
COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA
Department of Environmental Protection
Commonwealth News Bureau
Room 308, Main Capitol Building
Harrisburg, PA 17120
Contact: Ana Gomez
717-787-1323
Environmental Protection Secretary Kathleen A.
McGinty unveiled a new 2.8-kilowatt solar power
system on the south roof of the Governor’s
Residence on Front Street in Harrisburg on March
30, 2005. The 16-panel photovoltaic system powers
the site with clean electricity and ensures continuity
of government services by providing at least
22 hours of backup power to critical infrastructure in
the event of a blackout.
“This first-of-its-kind project highlights the
importance of investing in renewable energy
Picture courtesy of PA DEP
technology as a tool to ensure a reliable energy
supply if the power grid ever goes down,” Secretary that the Governor has chosen to use sunlight to
McGinty said. “The project also showcases power his residence. We hope this will encourage
Pennsylvania’s national leadership on energy more Pennsylvanians to explore this extremely
issues. Diversifying our energy resources is a key versatile, clean and renewable energy option.”
piece of ensuring against economic and security
The solar panel installation was completed as part of
vulnerabilities.”
the March 14, 2001, multi-site remediation
Installation of renewable energy systems provides agreement (MSA) between DEP and BP Amoco,
another dimension to ensure that police and fire now BP Products North America Inc. The MSA
stations, hospitals and emergency centers, and established consistent standards for cleanups at
government buildings can offer consistent and various BP sites statewide and accelerated the
reliable services during blackouts. These innovative closeout of BP storage tanks throughout the
systems also provide another source of Commonwealth.
environmentally beneficial electricity. The solar
In addition, as part of the MSA, BP can ensure
system at the Governor’s Residence will generate
continued environmental improvements by donating
electricity continuously during normal daytime
funds for joint DEP- and BP-approved projects. In
operations, offsetting electric utility supply to the
2004, funding was set aside for two solar projects on
residence.
state-owned buildings --- the first at the Governor’s
MESA Environmental Sciences Inc. was in charge of Residence and the second at DEP’s Southeast
installing the solar system. The project was funded Regional Office.
by a $20,000 grant from The Reinvestment Fund
Pennsylvania is now home to one of the nation’s
(TRF), which manages the Sustainable
most progressive two-tiered energy portfolio
Development Fund (SDF) created by the state
standards, ensuring that in 15 years, 18 percent of
Public Utility Commission to promote renewable
all of the energy generated in the Commonwealth
resources, clean technologies and energy
comes from clean, efficient sources. At least
conservation. The grant came from the fund’s Solar
0.5 percent of Tier I electricity must come from solar
Photovoltaic Grant Program. BP Products North
photovoltaic cells --- a requirement that is at least
America Inc. contributed another $19,250 for the
three times more ambitious than anything any
project.
neighboring states have put in place.
“SDF’s goal is to build a renewable energy future for
all of us in Pennsylvania,” SDF Technology and
Policy Manager Roger Clark said. “We are pleased
48
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical
Welsh and McKean Roads Solar Consultants:
Spring House, PA 19477 PowerLight, Inc.
Contact: Robert Barnes, Site Manager East Coast Office
215-628-4052 P.O. Box 354
Crosswicks, NJ 08515
www.powerlight.com
Contact: Thomas Leyden, Vice President
609-291-7490
tleyden@powerlight.com
49
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Levin Furniture
124 Levin Way Solar Design/Contractor:
Monroeville, PA 15146 Solar Power Industries, Inc.
(412) 372-6880 13 Airport Road
www.levinfurniture.com Belle Vernon, PA 15012
Contact: Robert Levin www.solarpowerindustries.com
724-872-2050 Dick Rosey
rlevin@levinfurniture.com (724) 379-2001
rrosey@solarpowerindustries.com
50
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Solar Power Industries, Inc.
13 Airport Road
Belle Vernon, PA 15012
www.solarpowerindustries.com
Contact: Dick Rosey
(724)-379-2001
rrosey@solarpowerindustries.com
51
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Villanova University
College of Engineering
Tolentine Box 102
Villanova, PA 19085
Contact: William C. Koffke, P.E.
Assistant Professor Mechanical Engineering
215-645 7308
52
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Sign Lighting
Camelback Ski Area Simpler Solar Systems
3118 West Tharpe Street
Adams Outdoor Advertising Tallahassee, Florida 32303
US Route 209 850-576-5271
RR 5 Box 5197 www.simplersolar.com
East Stroudsburg, PA 18301
Contact: Steve Bickford
570-424-2329
www.adamsoutdoor.com
53
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Solar Assisted Traffic Control Signs
Protection Services, Inc.
635 Lucknow Road
Harrisburg, PA 17110
Contact: Doug Miceli
(717) 236-9307
www.protectionservices.com
54
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
286 Industrial Park Road, Ebensburg, PA PV Contractor: FIRST, Inc.
Contact: Tammy Ford-Hannah Contact: Lyle Rawlings
814-472-1904 609-466-4495
When the Department of Environmental Protection Zomeworks Track Racks. The Track Racks rotate as
began plans for their Cambria district office, it was the sun moves, keeping the PV modules oriented
important that they set high standards with the new directly towards the sun throughout the day.
building. Of course they wanted to minimize the Through a power purchase brokering agreement
impact the building project would have on the with Green Mountain Energy, the DEP Cambria
surrounding environment. However, for the DEP it building has been able to offset 28% of its energy
was equally important that they create a productive use. They sell the environmental attributes they
and healthy workspace for their employees. In order produce to Green Mountain at a premium and then
to achieve these seemingly disparate goals, the purchase green power for the building’s electric
DEP design team used an integrated process that needs.
took into account all aspects of the building’s life
cycle. Through this process, solar energy emerged
as an important component. The finished building
takes advantage of solar daylighting, heating, and
electricity to create a comfortable and productive
work environment.
A variety of daylighting strategies were applied in
order to achieve the goals set by the DEP. One
strategy was to take advantage of north-south solar
exposures by orienting the building on an east-west
axis. The design team used innovative lightshelves,
clerestories, integral roof overhangs and photocell-
activated solar shades to maximize effective
daylighting in the interior of the building. These
features allow natural light to be reflected deep into Pictures courtesy of National Renewable Energy
interior spaces. At the same time, they diffuse direct Laboratory – Photographer Robb Williamson
sunlight, which can cause sun glare and increased
The building’s performance is continually tracked
interior temperatures. Dimming fixtures were
and evaluated through the U.S. Department of
installed on interior fixtures to allow customized
Energy’s High Performance Commercial Building
lighting levels and ambient lighting. Together, these
Program. A monitoring system tracks the energy
components create a space that has superior
produced. It also collects weather and solar
lighting with decreased cooling and energy loads.
radiation data. The final report, Analysis of the
In addition to the daylighting, other solar strategies Design and Energy Performance of the
were employed in order to minimize environmental Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
impact. A 14 kW photovoltaic array, mounted on the Protection Cambria Office Building, is available
south-facing roof, contributes electricity to the online at the following link:
building. It consists of 400 BP Solarex Millenia
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/34931.pdf
modules, a Trace Technologies 15 kW inverter and
an isolation transformer. A second, smaller 0.8 kW This report contains a detailed analysis of the
PV array flanks the building’s main entrance and performance of the PV system and many other
consists of 23 BP Solarex Millenia modules and an building systems.
Advanced Energy 1 kW inverter mounted on two
55
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Jolico Farm
Arthur K. and Maxine Cook
134 Jolico Road
Somerset, PA 15501
814-445-4520
maxcook@shol.com
56
about equal to production. Supplemental electricity District Justice of District Court 16-3-03 in Somerset,
is purchased from the local windfarms and their bills PA. They figure they have probably spent about
run between $10.00 and $18.00 per month. $60,000 on their alternate energy systems over the
past 25 years and feel that their efforts have set a
The Cooks are busy professionals. Maxine manages
good example of “treading lightly upon the earth.”
a large orthopedic surgery practice and Arthur is the
Northern Power
HP3 Wind Generator Pump
3.5 kW at 120 VDC
60A Fused
Disconnect 120 VOC DPDT
Michigan Energy Works Switch
Fuse &
33 AW Inverter
Distribution
120 VOC to 120 VAC
Box
120 VOC
Fuse &
Distribution
Forty Supreme lead-acid Batteries Box
400 Ampere-hours at 120 VOC Alt.
120 VDC
Loads
Alt.
120 VDC
Loads
57
Pennsylvania Solar Project
IKEA
Green Mountain Solar at Pittsburgh Sun Power Electric Solar Consultants:
2001 Park Manor Blvd. 40 Washington Street Conservation Services Group
Robinson Town Centre Westborough, MA 01581 40 Washington Street
Pittsburgh, PA 15205 800-689-7957 Westborough, MA 01581
www.ikea.com www.sunpower.org 508-836-9500
Contact: Jim Anastos www.csgrp.com
Contact: Dan Porrazzo
58
Pennsylvania Solar Project
BJ’s Wholesale Club
300 Alan Wood Rd. Sun Power Electric Solar Consultants:
Plymouth Meeting, PA 40 Washington Street Conservation Services Group
508-651-6581 Westborough, MA 01581 40 Washington Street
www.bjs.com 800-689-7957 Westborough, MA 01581
Contact: Terry Civic www.sunpower.org 508-836-9500
tcivic@bjs.com www.csgrp.com
Contact: Dan Porrazzo
59
Pennsylvania Solar Project
PennFuture
Citizens for Pennsylvania’s Future
610 N. Third Street
Harrisburg, PA 17101
(717) 214-7920
info@pennfuture.org
60
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Rowlands Residence
760 Chambers Rock Road Contractor:
Landenberg, PA 19350 CMI Electric Inc.
Contact: Reid Rowlands 38 Albe Drive, Suite 2
302-737-7741 Newark, DE 19702
reid@marketeastplaza.com Contact: Dale Davies
302-834-8170
www.cmielectric.com
Reid Rowlands brought a lot of experience to
the table when he started building a new house
in Landenberg, PA, in 2001. After all, he does
work in construction. There was one feature,
though, that he had never had a chance to
install -- solar electric panels. His new house
provided an opportunity to finally use solar
electricity. So as the construction drew to an
end, Reid did some research on photovoltaics
and decided on a system for his new house.
Reid had been considering solar electricity for a
while, but knew that in order for the system to
pay for itself it would have to be in operation for
many years. Reid also knew that he and his
family would be living in the house for a long Picture courtesy of Ron Celentano
time, and that over the years the cost of energy providing more energy than was being used.
saved using the photovoltaic system would That energy was sold to the Energy
eventually come close to the cost of installing it Cooperative, who buys all of the electricity that
in the first place. Still, paying for the PV system the Rowlands’ system generates. As Reid and
up front would not be a money saving venture. his family move into the house, he is expecting
Reid summed up his decision to use PV the solar panels to produce between five and
anyway as an effort to, “in some degree try to 10 percent of their daily energy needs. The rest
save the world.” With that in mind, solar energy will be purchased from the Energy Cooperative.
seemed an obvious choice.
Reid is happy that he can do something for the
This focus on the environment became even environment through his support of renewable
more evident as Reid explained his additional energy. Although most of the buildings he
plans to install a solar hot water system, and all works on are commercial facilities, Reid now
of the effort he had put into finding energy- has a few clients asking questions about his PV
efficient appliances. His air conditioning unit, system. He hopes to create more interest in
with a SEER rating of 19, was another large the technology and to eventually install solar
investment that was made with energy systems on his clients’ commercial buildings as
conservation as the prime motivation. well.
The 5 kilowatt photovoltaic system on the
Rowlands’ house was manufactured by
AstroPower, and installed in 2003 by CMI
Electric. Reid received some help in paying for
the panels through funding provided by PECO
and the Million Solar Roofs Initiative. As
construction finished, the grid-tied system was
61
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Norris Square
Norris Square Civic Association Designer: Contractor:
149 Susquehanna Avenue Finley Shapiro Consulting Energy Coordinating Agency
Philadelphia, PA 19122 2021 Rodman Street 1924 Arch Street
215-426-8723 Philadelphia, PA 19146 Philadelphia, PA 19103
Contact: Henri Marcial 215-545-4364 215-988-0929
www.finleyshapiro.com www.ecasavesenergy.org
Contact: Finley Shapiro Contact: Dennis Winters
In Norris Square, a neighborhood at the heart of The Civic Association is excited about this
North Philadelphia, there are a group of eight opportunity. With the cost of electricity
affordable rental units. They are a project of becoming a large part of the expense of living,
the Norris Square Civic Association. The they see it as another way that the non-profit
townhouses were built in 1992, but have organization can help members of their
recently undergone an update. There are now community. The Norris Square Civic
four new solar panels on the roof of each home. Association was founded in 1982 as a
The panels are the result of efforts by the Norris community-based development corporation. In
Square Civic Association to incorporate solar addition to their housing programs, the Civic
electricity as a way of cutting down on Association provides educational programs,
household energy costs. Each system has a child and family services, and recreational
capacity of 1.2kW. On average, this will provide opportunities.
a quarter of the energy used in each home Funding for the new photovoltaic systems was
where the solar systems are installed. Any provided by grants from PECO Energy and the
energy that is not used will be sold back to Sustainable Development Fund. System
PECO through the utility grid. design was done by Finley Shapiro Consulting.
Installation was carried out by the Energy
Coordinating Agency of Philadelphia, who has
also provided energy services to 30,000 low-
income households in 2003. The Norris Square
solar arrays were installed in July 2004 and are
part of a growing trend towards using solar
energy to provide affordable energy to
households that will most benefit from it.
62
DAYLIGHTING
63
Figure 36 shows an example of how a light
shelf works. Use of light shelves can improve
the quality of light in the space by reducing the
amount of glare at the window, which provides
a visually better space for the occupants.
T Reed
Figure 34
64
The use of daylighting not only reduces energy
but also improves the quality of light in a space
by reducing electrical lighting and implementing
more natural light. Proper integration of
daylight and electric light is necessary to ensure
a quality space. An integrated system is the
best means to provide energy savings.
The following Pennsylvania projects represent a
very small part of the use of daylighting
strategies in buildings. Each of these projects
demonstrate that daylighting works, even in
Pennsylvania.
Figure 38
Figure 39
65
Pennsylvania Solar Project
David L. Lawrence Convention Center
1000 Fort Duquesne Boulevard Burt Hill Kosar Rittelmann Associates
Pittsburgh, PA 15222 650 Smithfield Street
412-565-6000 Suite 2600
Architects: Pittsburgh PA 15222
Rafael Viñoly Architects, P.C. 412-394-7000
50 Vandam Street www.burthill.com
New York, NY 10013
212-924-5060
www.rvapc.com
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania is home to more certified
green buildings than any other city in the United
States. This focus on environmental building has
played a large role in the city’s transformation from
an industrial economy to an innovation economy.
So it is only fitting that Pittsburgh’s newest green
building is also the largest certified green building in
the world, the David L. Lawrence Convention
Center.
Planning for the 1.5 million-square-foot convention
center began with an international design
competition held by the Southwest Pennsylvania
Convention Center Design Commission. The Pictures courtesy of the David L. Lawrence
Commission made sure that green design was an Convention Center
important part of the process from the very Use of open spaces, windows, and skylights also
beginning, and included it as part of the helps to increase natural ventilation. Air flow is a
competition’s judging criteria. The winning design natural, energy-efficient way to cool any building.
beautifully integrated environmentally responsible The sweeping form of the roof of the convention
design with the functional requirements of an urban center helps to pull air through the building and up to
public space. Innovative technology, computer vents at the peak, where it exits. The combination of
modeling, and a holistic design approach all played natural lighting and natural ventilation in the
major roles in achieving this goal. Yet, one of the convention center is expected to save 35% of the
simplest and most effective strategies was to energy used in a typical building of its size.
maximize the building’s use of daylight.
The David L. Lawrence Convention Center design is
The finished convention center utilizes clerestory not just about improving the outdoor environment.
windows to open up the space and maximize natural Many of the strategies also contribute to a much
lighting where the roof and walls meet. The roof is improved indoor environment. The constant supply
scored with 6-foot-wide ribbon skylights running the of fresh air and sunlight create a productive, healthy
entire length. In fact, 10 percent of the roof surface space to work or visit. The large open spaces that
is made up of skylights. The main exhibition hall can allow daylight to penetrate into the center of the hall
be lit entirely using natural light from the roof also allow unobstructed views for occupants.
skylights and windows. Seventy-five percent of the Additional efforts were made to use nontoxic
rest of the convention center is lit the same way. materials that would not emit chemicals into the air,
Architects and engineers paid special attention to and a carbon dioxide monitoring system keeps track
the layout of the building in order to maximize this of air quality. Other environmental features include
effect. Computer models were used to minimize light sensors, a gray water system that reduces
glare, hot spots, and shadowy spaces. potable water use by half, reflective roofing materials
to cut down on heat island effects, and indigenous
landscaping.
66
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Clearview Elementary School, Hanover School District
100 Clearview Road, Hanover, PA Green Consultants: 7group,
Contact: Josephine Bookwalter, Principal LLC Contact: Marcus Sheffer
717-637-9000 717-292-2636
Architect: L. Robert Kimball & Associates
Contact: John Boecker
717-221-0770
67
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Robert L. Preger Intelligent Workplace
Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics
415 Margaret Morrison Hall Architects:
Carnegie Mellon University Bohlin Cywinski Jackson
Pittsburgh PA 15213 307 Fourth Avenue
Contact: Stephen Lee, AIA Suite 1300
412-268-2350 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15222
http://www.arc.cmu.edu/cbpd 412-765-3890
www.bcj.com
Pierre Zoelly and Associates
Pierre Zoelly, AIA
In 1988 Carnegie Mellon’s Center for Building
Performance and Diagnostics (CBPD) created a
partnership with members of industry and government
to create the Advanced Building Systems Integration
Consortium (ABSIC). The focus of this partnership was
to advance research of building technology and system
integration concepts in order to improve building
performance. The Robert L. Preger Intelligent
Workplace, built in 1997, is a result of this collaboration
between educators, students, industry, and
government. The goals of the Workplace are to
provide user comfort and satisfaction, while working to http://www.arc.cmu.edu/cbpd
improve organizational flexibility, technological
adaptability, and environmental sustainability. With all of the sunlight shining into the Workplace, it is
no surprise that the space also benefits from passive
Anyone involved with the Intelligent Workplace, will solar heat. To take advantage of cooling effects during
refer to it as a “living” and “lived in” laboratory. It is the summer as well as heating ability in the winter, the
“living” because each element was designed to be fully center has installed an inventive set of shading louvers.
reconfigurable. The layout of the furniture, walls, The reflective louvers are mounted outside the
HVAC, lighting, and wiring are all extremely flexible to windows and rotate based on the position of the sun.
allow for experimentation. Even the components During the summer, they reflect sunlight away form the
themselves are modular in design and can be switched windows, keeping occupants cool. During the winter,
for different pieces, or entirely new systems. The they turn to let the warm light in, creating a passive
Workplace is “lived in” by faculty, staff, graduates heating effect. However, since a majority of the center
students who work at CBPD and, in effect, act as test is built with steel, there is not much thermal mass to
subjects. store heat. The Center is investigating ways to solve
When designing the space itself, the architects and this problem.
engineers paid close attention to the number and Another way that the Workplace is experimenting with
location of windows. Extensive computer modeling windows and sunlight is by integrating PV systems
allowed them to optimize window location and within the shell of the building itself. While this idea is
orientation. As part of the “living” experiment, the still in the experimental stage, the finished product
Workplace uses two different types of glass in their would be a system of photovoltaic panels laminated
windows. The first, PPG’s Azuria, is tinted blue. The within the windows. Installing PV within the window
blue absorbs much of the solar infrared, or heat accomplishes two goals at the same time. The panels
component, of sunlight while allowing visible light to simultaneously provide shade and generate electricity.
pass through. This means that the benefits of natural
daylight are maximized, while unwanted heat is kept The Robert L. Preger Intelligent Workplace has
out. The second glass, made by Viracon, is a double- received numerous awards including the American
paned, insulating glass with a low-e coating on both Institute of Steel Construction’s 2001 I.D.E.A.S. Merit
sides. This combination of coating and insulation Award, a Business Week/Architectural Record Award,
accomplishes a similar effect. Light is let in, but heat is an AIA Honor Award for Architecture and Design, and
kept out. It also helps to keep heat in during the winter, the 1996 Three Rivers Environmental Award in the
lowering energy use and heating costs. Higher Education category.
68
SOLAR POTENTIAL
69
fuels. These subsidies take the form of tax regulations relating to the Clean Air Act,
breaks, research and development, housing loan programs, environmental
environmental cleanup, health costs, and protection, tax credits, utilities, international
military expenditures to ensure energy supplies. development, federal facilities, research and
These costs do not show up in the price we pay development, and transportation could all be
for energy, but we pay for them just the same. modified to promote greater use of solar
If these hidden costs, often referred to as energy. Renewable energy research and
“externalities,” were included in the price we development funds, for example, were reduced
pay for energy, then solar energy would be in a by about 75 percent in the 1980s. Restoring this
far better position to compete with conventional funding level would go a long way toward
fuels. While no one disputes that these costs stabilizing the solar industry.
exist, quantifying them is more difficult. How On the state and local levels, increased solar
does one place a value on clean air, for energy use could be encouraged in housing,
example? transportation, land-use planning, building
Governments and institutions have been codes, utility regulation, and many other areas.
attempting to add up some of the easier to Current utility regulation encourages the
quantify external costs. Using very conservative centralized production of electricity using
assumptions, it has been estimated that the conventional fuels. More of the resources
price of oil would exceed $100 per barrel if devoted to energy production by utilities could
these external costs were included. At this be diverted to solar energy. Utility regulations
price, solar energy is a bargain. have been modified in other states to
Another way to include these costs in the price encourage independent power production and
we pay is to tax energy sources that contribute some states even add an estimated
to these societal costs. Gasoline, carbon, “environmental” cost on conventional fuels in
emissions, and other energy taxes have been bidding systems. Regulatory changes are also
discussed as a way to pay for the external costs needed on the demand side to encourage
associated with conventional fuels. energy efficiency and renewable energy use.
Energy use affects almost every aspect of our Additionally, our present energy supply
society. Promoting solar energy use as a policy structure includes billions of dollars in sunk
will require the commitment of policymakers costs for present day technologies. The oil,
from the President of the United States to the coal, gas, and nuclear industries have
local zoning board. Numerous policies and substantial investments (and millions of
regulations in many areas could be undertaken investors) in technologies that can’t be
to provide incentives for solar energy. The abandoned overnight, even if they are not
Alternative Energy Portfolio Standard in sustainable over the long haul. For solar
Pennsylvania is an example of what can be energy use to expand, it will be necessary to
done. have an ongoing dialogue with the investors in
present day energy systems and with those in
Establishing national goals to reduce government who can support and implement
greenhouse gases while meeting energy needs the needed changes to initiate the transition to
economically and with minimal environmental sustainable energy.
damage will spur solar energy use. Federal
70
Increase Public Education In the future we are likely to realize significant
Obviously, the general public will need solid, improvements in existing solar energy
unbiased information on the benefits, as well as technologies, as well as the emergence of other
the costs, of solar energy delivered in a routine solar technologies.
and consistent manner. Equally important is Photovoltaics have dramatically improved in
information on what works. How to build a mass both efficiency and cost over the past 40 years.
wall, where to buy solar-powered lights, which New materials and manufacturing techniques
solar water heaters perform best, and many will continue to lower cost and increase
other technical questions will have to be efficiency. Gallium compounds, liquid cells,
addressed. silicon bead cells, indium phosphide cells, and
In addition to the general public, the next concentrators all hold the promise of increasing
generation of builders, architects, engineers, cell efficiency or lowering the manufacturing
utility staff, and other professionals will need to cost.
be trained on the new technologies. One of the more promising technologies for the
Policymakers will also need to be educated on future involves using solar energy to produce
the benefits to society of utilizing solar hydrogen. Hydrogen is the ultimate in clean
technologies. burning fuels. When hydrogen is burned in an
engine or used to produce electricity, the
Achieve Economies of Scale
resulting emission is water vapor as the
The current industrial capabilities of the solar hydrogen combines with atmospheric oxygen.
industry could not possibly provide a major The use of hydrogen as a fuel would not
share of our energy use in the near term. For contribute to air pollution like the fossil fuels we
example, the total world capacity for burn today.
photovoltaic energy in 2005, 800 megawatts,
was less than the power output of a single Hydrogen can be produced in several ways.
electric generating plant. The majority of the hydrogen in use today is
produced by stripping the carbon molecule from
As the industrial capability of the solar industry natural gas. The problem with this method is
increases, the cost to deliver solar energy will that it requires more energy to produce the
decrease. The more photovoltaic panels and hydrogen than the hydrogen contains. But
solar water heaters that are produced, the lower hydrogen can also be produced from water.
the per unit cost of these technologies. The
In the future, solar-generated electricity from
more widespread the use of solar energy, the
lower the initial cost and the more attractive photovoltaics, solar thermal, wind, and hydro
solar becomes as an investment. systems could be used to electrolyze water
(separate the hydrogen from the oxygen).
Solar technologies are not commonly used in Large hydrogen generating plants could be
many applications for the reasons explained established in the sunnier regions of the country
above. While many solar technologies are cost and the hydrogen could be piped through the
effective today, continued improvements in their existing natural gas pipeline system with some
cost effectiveness will lead to increased usage. modifications.
71
However, a hydrogen-based energy system is • Do it for our children.
still several decades into the future. While most
of us could not afford to buy a fuel cell, many of It is the children who will be paying most of the
us could more fully utilize the solar technologies environmental cleanup costs associated with
that exist today. These sustainable our 20th century energy habits. It is they who
technologies will improve in the future, but there will inherit a planet with far fewer depletable
are many good reasons to use solar energy energy resources than it has today. Our
today. children’s children have as much of a right as
we do to the resources of the planet.
Why Go Solar? • Do it for long-term economic and
If you have read this far, chances are that you energy security.
have more than a casual interest in solar
The solar energy industry is very labor
energy. So now what? Should you go solar?
intensive. Studies have shown that investments
Yes. Here are some reasons why.
in energy efficiency and solar technologies
• Do it for our common future. created twice as many jobs as those in
traditional energy industries. The past 20 years
We have a rapidly growing global population
have also demonstrated just how volatile and
and a rapidly depleting resource base.
uncertain energy prices can be. There is little
Efficiency and conservation of fossil fuels won’t
likelihood that they will be lower 20 years from
solve the problem forever. The use of
now. The best investments are those made for
renewable, and more environmentally-benign
the long run.
energy sources need to be developed. At
present, solar-derived energy is the only • Do it because solar works, even in
sustainable resource that can be utilized. Pennsylvania.
• Do it to be a leader. While the elimination of federal tax credits was
lamented at the time, it actually helped to weed
It takes some vision and imagination and a
out the companies that were giving solar energy
willingness to depart from the ordinary if you
a bad name. Over the past 15 years, solar
are going to use more solar energy in your
energy industries have matured. The products
home. Some have to lead so that many others
available on the market today have proven
will follow. On a national scale, it is important to
themselves over time to be reliable and
remain at the forefront of promising new
effective.
technologies like solar. Today, we lead the
world in solar technology. Whether or not the Conclusion
United States implements policies to promote
Wider implementation of solar technologies will
the use of solar energy, other countries will.
require changes in many aspects of society.
• Do it as a declaration of independence. Arguments for change are going to have to be
more than environmental. We will have to
As we grow more and more dependent on
make the case for economic benefit, for
foreign supplies of energy, we become more
national security, for technological readiness
vulnerable to a supply disruption. We also
and reliability, and, most importantly, for social
become vulnerable to energy cartel price
utility.
manipulations that keep the costs of these
resources just low enough to discourage a We already know that solar houses are reliable
switch to alternatives. Sovereign nations and affordable. We have to find ways to make
cannot afford to be in that position forever. solar cars and solar factories just as reliable
and affordable. And we have to think about
ways of bringing about the transition to a
sustainable society. We also have to go beyond
the environment vs. economy dialogue
72
characteristic of past environmental debates.
They can both benefit from increased use of
sustainable energy technologies. That means
we involve our entire society in the quest for
sustainability. Not just the ecologists, not just
the traditional energy producers, but the
bankers and the business leaders and the cities
and the farms and the rich and the poor and
those in the middle ... everybody needs a place
at the table if we are to have any realistic
chance of success.
In the mean time, we have to put solar in every
niche where it can possibly fit. That includes
passive solar buildings, solar hot water, solar
bioshelter greenhouses, solar swimming pools,
solar remote site power, solar small appliances.
And most of all, we need the visionaries, the
risk takers, the every day innovators among us,
to lead by example. The solar pioneers
represented by all of the Pennsylvania Solar
Projects contained in this manual are among
those visionaries. They are to be commended
for their commitment.
The two projects that follow this chapter are
excellent examples of a holistic approach to
building techniques and technologies that will
help bring about the transition to a more
sustainable future. They are living proof that
solar energy works, even in Pennsylvania.
Sometimes solar is more expensive and less
convenient than the energy source it displaces.
Those who buy solar now in spite of its
limitations help us all to reexamine our values
and to recognize that cost and convenience are
of secondary concern when the investment is
really in our future and that of our children.
73
Pennsylvania Solar Project
The ALTER Project
Slippery Rock University Architect: Contractors:
Slippery Rock, PA 16057 Robert J. Kobet Photovoltaic System
Contact: Dale Stewart 412-661-5410 Springhouse Energy Systems
724-738-2593 rkobet@sustainaissance.net 724-225 8685
dale.stewart@sru.edu Clivus Multrum
Bio-Sun Systems
1-800-847-8840
74
An attached 520-square-foot greenhouse
provides an indoor growing space and
contributes heat to the building in the winter. A
gray water treatment system was originally
installed in 1994 and was recently replaced by
a “Living Machine.” The new system has been
designed for flexible adaptation to future
experimentation, ease of use and maintenance,
and flexibility in cell orientation. All aerators
and pumps in the system run on energy from
PV panels. Gray water is now being treated
through a Constructed Wetland, which was
installed as one of 17 prototypes throughout
Pennsylvania to provide on-site gray water
treatment.
The 83 acres of property surrounding the house
are under observation by Slippery Rock
University ecological and environmental groups
because of the restorative projects that are
naturally occurring there. Old fields are
returning to old-growth forests in parts, while
other parts are being repaired from damage
done by various campus and community
construction projects.
The Homestead fosters research conducted by
graduate students in the Master of Science in
Sustainable Systems program. It also provides
an environment in which experimentation and
proven process can be used for community-
wide education. The program is the first of its
kind in the United States.
75
Pennsylvania Solar Project
Audubon Society of Western Pennsylvania
Beechwood Farms Architect:
614 Dorseyville Road The Design Alliance Architects
Pittsburgh, PA 15238 5 PPG Place
Contact: Jim Bonner, Executive Director Pittsburgh, PA 15222
(412) 963 6100 Contact: Jules Labarthe, A.I.A.
(412) 261 0660
76
RESOURCES
77
Interstate Renewable Council Solar Components Corporation
P.O. Box 1156 121 Valley Street
Latham, NY 12110-1156 Manchester, NH 03103
(518) 458-6059 (603) 668-8187 (603) 668-1783 fax
Solar products
Links to state incentives
www.irecusa.org www.solar-components.com
78
Sandia National Laboratories State Government
National Solar Thermal Test Facility
Mail Stop 1127 Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Albuquerque, NM 87185 Protection
(505) 844-1806 (505) 845-3366 fax Office of Energy & Technology Deployment
Solar research and information 16th Floor Rachel Carson State Office Bldg.
www.sandia.gov/Renewable_Energy/renewable P.O. Box 2063
.htm Harrisburg, PA 17105-2063
(717) 783-0541 (717) 783-0546 fax
National Center for Appropriate Technology Grants, research, information
(NCAT) http://www.depweb.state.pa.us/energy/cwp/vi
PO Box 3838 ew.asp?a=3&q=482723
Butte, MT 59702
(800) ASK NCAT Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission
www.ncat.org 400 North Street
Keystone Bldg
U.S. Department of Energy Harrisburg, PA 17120
1000 Independence Avenue S.W. (717) 783-1740
Washington, D.C 20585 Issues affecting the electric and gas utilities
1-800 Dial DOE (202) 586-4403 fax www.puc.state.pa.us
www.energy.gov
79
Southcentral Regional Office The following are five organizations promoting
904 Elmerton Avenue and funding the use of sustainable energy
Harrisburg, PA 17110-8200 products and businesses. These programs
(717) 705-4797 (717)705-4760 fax were created by the Pennsylvania Public Utility
Adams, Bedford, Berks, Blair, Cumberland, Commission.
Dauphin, Franklin, Fulton, Huntingdon,
Sustainable Energy Funds of Central
Juniata, Lancaster, Lebanon, Mifflin, Perry,
Pennsylvania
and York. Sovereign Building 609 Hamilton Mall
Allentown, PA 18101-21111
Southeast Regional Office (610) 740-3182 (610) 740-9511 fax
2 East Main Street www.sustainableenergyfund.org
Norristown, PA 19401
(484) 250-5816 (484) 250-5943 fax West Penn Power Sustainable Energy Fund,
Bucks, Chester, Delaware, Montgomery, and Inc.
Philadelphia. Mr. Joel L. Morrison
The Pennsylvania State University
Southwest Regional Office The Energy Institute
400 Water Front Drive WPPSEF Program Administrator
Pittsburgh, Pa 15222-4745 C-211 CUL
(412) 442-4137 (412) 442-4194 fax University Park, PA 16802-2323
Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Cambria, (814) 865-4802 (814) 863-7432 fax
Fayette, Greene, Indiana, Somerset, www.wppsef.org
Washington, and Westmoreland.
Metropolitan Edison PA Electric Company
Sustainable Energy Funds
Million Solar Roofs (Pennsylvania)
116 Market Street Suite 4
List of personnel and products for information
Johnstown, PA 15901
about PA’s Million Solar Roofs Partners.
(814) 536-7741 (814) 536-5859 fax
http://www.pasolar.org/ www.cfalleghenies.org
80
Tax Incentives
Interstate Renewable Council
P.O. Box 1156
Latham, NY 12110-1156
(518) 458-6059
Links to state incentives
www.irecusa.org
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7000-MN-DEP4075 1/2008