Personality and Individual Differences xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

How is time perspective related to burnout and job satisfaction? A

conservation of resources perspective☆
Umit Akirmaka, , Pinar Aylab
⁎

a
Department of Psychology, Istanbul Bilgi University, Eski Silahtaraga Elektrik Santrali Kazim Karabekir Cad. No: 2/13 34060 Eyupsultan/Istanbul, Turkey
b
Industrial and Organizational Psychology MA Program, Istanbul Bilgi University, Eski Silahtaraga Elektrik Santrali Kazim Karabekir Cad. No: 2/13 34060 Eyupsultan/
Istanbul, Turkey

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Research on time perspective has not been reliably applied to organizational settings primarily because there
Time perspective have not been attempts to empirically and theoretically link time perspective to job attitudes. We utilized the
Conservation of resources framework of conservation of resources theory (COR) and assumed that time perspective is a valuable personal
Job satisfaction resource that buffers the adverse effects of burnout leading to more favorable job appraisals. Measures of time
Core self-evaluations
perspective, core self-evaluations, burnout and job satisfaction were collected from 135 bank employees. We
Job burnout
Healthy organizations
replicated the indirect effect of core self-evaluations on job satisfaction through burnout and further showed that
participants with a more balanced time perspective had lower burnout leading to higher job satisfaction. These
results suggest the importance of time perspective in job attitudes and provide insights into enhancing human
strengths from a positive psychology perspective. We argued for a connection between the COR and time per-
spective theories based on motivation and goal attainment processes and further discussed the implications of
our findings.

1. Conservation of resources theory
Positive psychology has become an increasingly important area of
research with its emphasis on human strengths, virtues, and growth
(Seligman, 2002). In this vein, positive organizational behavior focuses
on enhancing individual strengths rather than managing weaknesses.
These strengths are personal resources that function to increase resi-
lience to the challenges of personal and work life, leading to healthy
people and organizations (Di Fabio et al., 2016). An index of being
healthy at work is job satisfaction, because of its positive association
with subjective well-being (Bowling et al., 2010) and negative asso-
ciation with anxiety and occupational stress (Judge & Kammeyer–-
Mueller, 2012). Previous research frequently utilized the conservation
of resources (COR) theory to explore the antecedents and outcomes of
stress and job burnout in organizations (Hobfoll, Halbesleben, Neveu, &
Westman, 2018). Job burnout is a psychological response to work re-
lated stress. It is characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonali-
zation, and reduced personal accomplishment and has adverse con-
sequences for the individual, such as high anxiety and depression and
low self-esteem (Maslach et al., 2001) and the organizations, such as
high absenteeism and turnover, and low productivity and employee
morale (Swider & Zimmerman, 2010).
COR theory is relevant to both healthy organizations and positive
psychology perspective because of its emphasis on personal resources
such as conscientiousness, emotional stability, core-self evaluations,
self-esteem, social support, and emotional stability in promoting health
in organizations (Hobfoll et al. 2018). The purpose of the present re-
search was to build on the dispositional determinants of job attitudes
and extend COR theory by examining the role of time perspective as a
personal resource that helps alleviate the effects of job burnout. Time
perspective (TP) is a fundamental cognitive process affecting attitudes,
decisions, and behavior (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) and related to both
eudemonic and hedonic well-being (Zhang, Howell, & Stolarski, 2013).
Despite the TP's link with subjective well-being, personality traits
(Zhang & Howell, 2011), locus of control (Shipp, Edwards, & Lambert,
1999), anxiety, and basic psychological needs (Akirmak, Tuncer, Ak-
dogan, Erkat, 2019), research in organizational settings is scarce.
COR is a “motivational theory that explains much of human beha-
vior based on the evolutionary need to acquire and conserve resources
for survival” (Hobfoll, Halbesleben, Neveu & Westman, 2018; p.104).

This paper is based on an original empirical study conducted by Pınar Ayla in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MA in Industrial and
☆

Organizational Psychology.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: umit.akirmak@bilgi.edu.tr (U. Akirmak).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109667
Received 31 December 2018; Received in revised form 26 September 2019; Accepted 9 October 2019
0191-8869/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Umit Akirmak and Pinar Ayla, Personality and Individual Differences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109667
U. Akirmak and P. Ayla
Objects, personal characteristics, job conditions, and energies are ex-
amples of resources and they are means to an end enabling successful
goal pursuit and attainment (Halbesleben, Neveu, Paustian-Underdahl
& Westman, 2014). People strive to avoid loss of resources and to ob-
tain and keep what they fundamentally value. From this perspective,
stress occurs when the valued resources are lost or under threat of being
lost. Individuals with greater personal resources are less susceptible to
resource loss and are more likely to gain additional resources during
stressful situations.
In accordance with the COR theory, core self-evaluations (CSE) can
be viewed as a dispositional personal resource buffering the effects of
occupational stress. CSE involves appraisals of one's worthiness, cap-
ability, and effectiveness and is composed of self-esteem, locus of
control, generalized self-efficacy, and neuroticism traits (Judge, Locke
& Durham, 1997). Individuals with higher core evaluations perceive
fewer threats in the workplace (Judge & Kammeyer–Mueller, 2011) and
cope better with stressors as they have higher optimism (Chang, Ferris,
Johnson, Rosen & Tan, 2012) and lower job burnout (Best, Stapleton &
Downey, 2005). CSE is related to both job and life satisfaction (Judge &
Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012).
2. Time perspective
In the present research, we assumed that TP is a valuable personal
resource and individuals with a more balanced TP are better able to
conserve resources, prevent resource loss, and, thus, are better able to
cope with stress, leading to more favorable job appraisals.
According to Lewin, 1951 (p.75), TP is "the totality of the in-
dividual's views of his psychological future and psychological past ex-
isting at a given time". Temporal perspectives are stable dispositions
that develop through family upbringing and culture (Akirmak et al.,
2019) and influence attitudes and behavior. Zimbardo Time Perspective
Inventory (ZTPI; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) has five dimensions: Past
Positive (PP), Past Negative (PN), Present Hedonistic (PH), Present
Fatalistic (PF) and Future (F). PP reflects a nostalgic warm attitude
towards the past, and is associated positively with self-esteem and ne-
gatively with depression. PN reflects a pessimistic view of the past, and
is associated positively with depression and negatively with self-esteem.
PH reflects an orientation toward immediate pleasure with little con-
cern for the future consequences of actions. PF reflects a pessimistic and
hopeless attitude towards life. Both PH and PF are associated positively
with depression and novelty seeking and negatively with emotional
stability and impulse control. Finally, F involves setting future goals
and a capability to resist temptations, and is associated positively with
conscientiousness and impulse control and negatively with anxiety and
depression (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).
Balanced TP characterizes the ability to switch flexibly between
past, present, and future perspectives depending on situational de-
mands, leading to an optimal TP (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Balanced
TP is positively related to subjective well-being (Zhang, Howell &
Stolarski, 2013), positive mood states (Stolarski, Matthews, Postek,
Zimbardo & Bitner, 2014), lower trait anxiety, and higher psychological
need satisfaction (Akirmak et al., 2019).
Although the exact mechanisms are unclear, evidence suggest that
TP has robust associations with motivation, goal selection, and goal
pursuit (Husman & Lens, 1999). Perception of time affects the selection
and pursuit of goals in social situations (Carstensen, Isaacowitz &
Charles, 1999). Older adults prefer emotionally meaningful goals while
younger adults prefer instrumental or knowledge related goals (Lang &
Carstensen, 2002). Compared to younger adults, older adults perceive
their future as being more limited. Furthermore, academic achievement
is associated positively with F but negatively with PF (Worrell &
Mello, 2007).
2
Personality and Individual Differences xxx (xxxx) xxxx
3. Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction (JS) is a positive affective state resulting from ap-
praisal of one's job (Judge & Bono, 2001). JS is related to job perfor-
mance, organizational commitment, and employee turnover (Judge &
Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). As an index of well-being at work, JS is
derived from situational factors, dispositional factors, or an interaction
between the two (Judge, Weiss, Kammeyer-Mueller & Hulin, 2017).
According to dispositional theories, the same individual characteristics
influence affective and cognitive appraisals in both job and non-job
related contexts. Prior research demonstrated robust associations of JS
with individual characteristics, including CSE, personality traits, and
positive and negative affectivity (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012).
4. The current study
Based on previous research and TP theory, we predicted that job
satisfaction would be associated positively with balanced TP and po-
sitive time perspectives (PP, PH, F), and negatively with PN and PF. In
contrast, a reverse pattern of associations was expected between job
burnout and TP dimensions.
A previous study found that the association of CSE and JS was
mediated by job burnout (Best et al., 2005). We tested the same med-
iation model in our sample to replicate this original finding, con-
tributing to the cross-cultural validity of the COR theory. Furthermore,
in accordance with the COR theory, a series of mediation analyses as-
sessed the role of TP in buffering the adverse effects of job burnout and
leading to JS. Specifically, five dimensions of the ZTPI and balanced TP
were utilized as predictors and their indirect effects on job satisfaction
through job burnout were evaluated.
There are empirical and theoretical reasons supporting this ap-
proach. First, according to the TP theory, TP is an automatic cognitive
process that develops through learning experiences involving culture
and family, is utilized continuously in evaluation of life events, and
affects motivations, attitudes, and behavior (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).
Second, according to the COR theory, for a variable to qualify as a
personal resource, it should enable goal achievement
(Halbesleben et al., 2014). A review of the TP literature suggests that
such is the case. For example, balanced TP is related to executive
control processes (Zajenkowski, Stolarski, Witowska, Maciantowicz &
Lowicki, 2016), which is linked to achievement goal pursuit
(Avery, Smillie & de Fockert, 2013). Third, TP, and specifically ba-
lanced TP, is strongly associated with subjective well-being. It is likely
that positive life experiences spill over to work experiences leading to
similar appraisals of job and life satisfaction (Judge & Kammeyer-
Mueller, 2012). In accordance with the dispositional views, individuals
with a balanced TP were expected to have higher job satisfaction but
lower job burnout. We expected balanced TP and positive TPs (PP, PH,
F) to lead to lower job burnout and higher job satisfaction but negative
TPs (PN and PF) to lead to higher job burnout and lower job satisfac-
tion. Finally, we assessed the unique contributions of CSE and balanced
TP to job satisfaction through job burnout in a path model. According to
the COR theory, there may be multiple resources and pathways to
achieve goals, this model evaluated the relative importance of balanced
TP and CSE in predicting job satisfaction.
5. Method
5.1. Participants and procedure
The sample consisted of 135 (77% females) full-time employees of
five private banks in Turkey, recruited through convenience and
snowball sampling methods. The mean age of the sample was 38.66
years (SD = 5.71). Participants had been employed in their current
organization on average for 16.09 years (SD = 6.14), majority were
managers (64%) and had a university degree (72%). Data was collected
U. Akirmak and P. Ayla Personality and Individual Differences xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Table 1
Correlations among measured variables.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Past Positive —
2. Past Negative −0.02 —
3. Future 0.22* 0.04 —
4. Present Hedonistic 0.25** 0.04 −0.26** —
5. Present Fatalistic −0.03 0.39*** −0.36*** 0.23** —
6. DBTP −0.46*** 0.66*** −0.32*** −0.12 0.72*** —
7. Job Satisfaction 0.22* −0.30*** 0.25** 0.21* −0.24** −0.40*** —
8. CSE 0.15 −0.55*** 0.20* 0.09 −0.44*** −0.57*** 0.49*** —
9. Job Burnout −0.20* 0.31*** −0.18* −0.04 0.29*** 0.40*** −0.48*** −0.35*** —
Mean 3.75 2.77 3.80 3.41 2.67 1.96 3.60 3.53 4.19
SD 0.41 .56 .38 .48 .46 .53 .47 .44 1.23

Note. DBTP = deviation from balanced time perspective, CSE = core self-evaluations.
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

through an online questionnaire (n = 86) distributed through a re- 6. Statistical analyses

cruitment email to the potential participants, and, through paper and
pencil method (n = 49). Different methods of data collection were
utilized to increase the response rate. All scales were administered in
Turkish and are presented in the appendix.
5.2. Materials
5.2.1. Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI)
The ZTPI (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) has 56 items rated on a scale
ranging from 1 “very uncharacteristic” to 5 “very characteristic”, and
yields five subscale scores: Past Positive, Past Negative, Present Hedo-
nistic, Present Fatalistic, and Future. In the current study, Cronbach's
alpha estimates were 0.61, 0.78, 0.70, 0.81, and 0.61 respectively for
PP, PN, F, PH, PF.
The balanced TP was operationalized as a deviation score derived
from the ZTPI factor scores, namely, deviation from balanced TP
(DBTP, Stolarski, Bitner & Zimbardo, 2011). Higher DBTP scores in-
dicate greater deviations from the optimal TP.
5.2.2. Minnesota Job Satisfaction Scale (MJSQ)
The short version of the Minnesota Job Satisfaction scale
(Weiss, Dawis & England, 1967) was used to assess the general job
satisfaction levels of the participants. This measure has 20 items rated
on a scale ranging from 1 “very dissatisfied” to 5 “very satisfied”, with
higher scores indicating higher job satisfaction. In the current study,
Cronbach alpha was 0.87.
5.2.3. Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)
The original version is rated on a 7-point Likert scale (Maslach &
Jackson, 1981), but the Turkish version is rated on a scale ranging from
1 “never” to 5 “always”. The Turkish version has 22 items and is worded
for use in various professions including the finance sector. MBI yields
three subscale scores: Emotional Exhaustion (EE), Depersonalization
(DP), and Personal Accomplishment. In order to make our results
comparable with a prior study utilizing the same conceptual framework
(Best et al., 2005), the average of the sum of EE and DP scores was used
as an indicator of job burnout with higher scores implying greater job
burnout. Cronbach's alpha estimate was 0.87.
5.2.4. Core Self Evaluations Scale (CSES)
This measure has 12 items rated on a scale ranging from 1 “strongly
disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”, and measures the following traits: neu-
roticism, generalized self-efficacy, self-esteem and locus of control
(Judge, Erez, Bono & Thoresen, 2003). High CSES scores indicate high
self-esteem, low neuroticism, high general self-efficacy, and high in-
ternal locus of control. In the current study, Cronbach's alpha estimate
of the CSES was 0.80.
Missing data (< 0.002) were deleted list-wise from the analyses.
The associations among the measured variables were examined by
Pearson correlation. Bootstrapping method was utilized for the med-
iation analyses (Hayes, 2017). 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals
of the direct and indirect effects were calculated on 1000 bootstrap
samples using R statistical software (R Development Core Team, 2019)
and lavaan package (Rosseel, 2012). Simple mediation models eval-
uated the indirect effects of CSE, DBTP, PP, PN, PH, PN, and F on job
satisfaction (outcome variable) via job burnout (mediator). A path
model utilized CSE and DBTP as predictors, assessing the direct and
indirect effects of DBTP and CSE.
7. Results
7.1. Descriptive analysis
Means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients for all of
the measured variables are displayed in Table 1. JS was positively
correlated with PP, PH, and F, but negatively correlated with PN, PF,
and DBTP. The magnitude of these correlations was small except for the
medium effect size for the correlation between JS and DBTP. CSE had a
small positive correlation with F, large negative correlations with PN
and DBTP, and medium negative correlation with PF. Job burnout
correlated positively with PN, PF, and DBTP, but negatively with PP, F,
JS, and CSE. The effect sizes were medium except for the associations
with PP and F where the effect sizes were small. Job burnout correlated
negatively with CSE and JS. CSE correlated positively with JS. These
correlations were in the range of medium effect size.
7.2. Mediation analyses
As shown in Table 2, the confidence intervals of the indirect effects
of CSE and DBTP did not include zero and the effect sizes ranged from
small to medium. Participants with higher CSE scores tended to have
lower job burnout, which led to higher job satisfaction. Similarly, em-
ployees with lower DBTP scores had lower job burnout and higher job
satisfaction. Among the ZTPI factors, only the indirect effects of PN and
PF were statistically significant and the effect sizes were small. Finally,
a path model assessed the indirect effects of CSE and DBTP on job sa-
tisfaction via job burnout. Fig. 1 shows the resulting estimates. The
indirect effects of both CSE (0.09 with 95% CI [.009, 0.22]) and DBTP
(−0.08 with 95% CI [−0.003, −0.20]) were statistically significant
but were small, and the lower bounds of the 95% CI were close to zero.
Overall, the results showed that CSE and balanced TP had comparable
indirect effects on job satisfaction via job burnout. The indirect effect of
DBTP was mainly driven by PF and PN while the contributions of PP,
PH, and F were not reliable.

3
U. Akirmak and P. Ayla Personality and Individual Differences xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Table 2
Results of Mediation Analyses for the Relationship of CSE and Time Perspective with Job Satisfaction through Job Burnout.
Indirect Direct Total

Predictor B SE 95% CI B SE 95% CI B SE 95% CI

CSE 0.15 .07 0.03 to 0.30 .36 .12 0.16 to 0.61 .51 .10 .32 to 0.70
DBTP −0.14 .07 −0.28 to −0.04 −0.23 .10 −0.46 to −0.05 −0.37 .09 −0.56 to −0.20
PP .08 .06 −0.01 to −0.22 .18 .10 −0.01 to 0.37 .26 .11 .03 to 0.49
PN −0.12 .06 −0.24 to −0.03 −0.13 .07 −0.29 to 0.01 −0.25 .08 −0.42 to −0.11
PH 0.03 .05 −0.07 to 0.14 .17 .08 0.01 to 0.33 .20 .10 −0.01 to 0.39
PF −0.13 .07 −0.29 to −0.02 −0.11 .10 −0.36 to 0.06 −0.24 .10 −0.45 to −0.07
F 0.09 .07 −0.03 to 0.23 .22 .13 −0.02 to 0.50 .31 .14 .04 to 0.59

Note. Significant mediation models and their indirect effects are printed in bold type.

8. Discussion
According to the time perspective (TP) theory, temporal cognitions
are stable dispositions that influence evaluations of life experiences
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Although balanced TP, has robust associa-
tions with subjective well-being, it has not gained attention in the or-
ganizational psychology literature. We utilized the framework of COR
theory, assumed that TP is a valuable personal resource, and showed
that TP is associated with burnout and job attitudes.
Although all ZTPI factors were associated with JS, only PN showed a
meaningful association (r ≥ 0.30), indicating that the dissatisfaction of
employees in their current job increases as a function of pessimism
toward the past. All ZTPI factors except for the PH were correlated with
burnout with the highest correlations shown by PN and PF. Individuals
with more positive core evaluations tended to have lower pessimism
towards the past (PN) and the present (PF). PN and PF reflect the
presence of negative affect and unhappiness (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).
Finally, greater deviations from balanced TP was associated with higher
burnout, but lower job satisfaction and CSE. Overall, these findings are
consistent with our predictions but the correlation coefficients were
larger for the deviations from balanced TP scores compared to the
factors of the ZTPI.
Several mediation models assessed the indirect effects of CSE and TP
on job satisfaction through burnout, within the framework of the COR
theory. Findings showed that the association of balanced TP with job
satisfaction was through burnout and was still present when both CSE
and balanced TP were entered into the analysis, suggesting that they
influence burnout and job satisfaction similarly albeit measure different
individual dispositions. Although balanced TP has a small indirect ef-
fect, it is comparable to that of CSE. In a previous study the indirect
effect of CSE on job satisfaction via burnout was reported to be 0.14
(Best et al., 2005) and in our sample we found a similar effect, 0.15,
suggesting that the effects of CSE on burnout is not sensitive to cultural
differences. Together, these results indicate that favorable core eva-
luations and balanced TP lower burnout and increase job satisfaction
consistent with the dispositional views of job attitudes. To entangle
which factors derive the mediation effect, the indirect effects of the
ZTPI factors on JS via burnout were further assessed. Results showed
that PN and PF had robust indirect effects but the indirect effects of PP,
PH, and F were not statistically significant. Among the ZTPI dimen-
sions, PP, PN, and PF include the most affect-loaded items
(Akirmak, 2019). It is likely that negative affect is partly responsible for
this pattern of results and should be further examined.
Individuals with a balanced TP benefit from higher executive con-
trol (Zajenkowski et al., 2016) and lower trait anxiety (Akirmak et al.,
2019), lower stress (Wills, Sandy & Yaeger, 2001), and lower job
burnout (present study), use effective coping strategies (Stolarski et al.,
2011) have a generally positive attitude towards life (Zhang et al.,
2013), and are likely to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
While the present study fails to pinpoint the exact mechanisms in-
volved, the findings promise to lead to future areas of research.
Despite the difficulties and issues in deciding what constitutes a
resource (Halbesleben et al., 2014), we believe that TP qualifies as a
personal resource mainly because both COR and TP theories are moti-
vational theories. According to the COR theory, motivation, goal
achievement, and need satisfaction are important aspects of resources.
According to the TP theory, temporal perspective is functional in setting
goals and generating expectations for the future (Zimbardo &
Boyd, 1999), which in turn shape what we currently value
(Shipp, Edwards & Lambert, 2009). Balanced TP is positively associated
with psychological need fulfillment (Akirmak et al., 2019), which is
crucial for intrinsic motivation. Thus, temporal evaluations are con-
nected to motivations and the type of goals pursued.
The present study extends the COR theory by replicating previous
findings on the indirect association of CSE on job satisfaction through
job burnout (Best et al., 2005) in a Turkish sample of bank employees.
Our findings contribute to the cross-cultural generalizability of the COR
and CSE theories and supported further utilization of the same con-
ceptual framework in examining the usefulness of TP in organizational
settings. Although time has been considered as a resource within the
COR framework, it was limited to the sense of time and did not include
subjective temporal evaluations (Hobfoll et al., 2018). Theoretical and

Fig. 1. Path model showing the effects of CSE and DBTP on Job Satisfaction via Job Burnout. Total effect coefficients are displayed in brackets.

4
U. Akirmak and P. Ayla
empirical links between temporal perspectives and job attitudes are
established for the first time in the current research. Balanced TP is
directly and indirectly associated with job satisfaction, suggesting that
it is a valuable personal resource that is functional in buffering the
effects of burnout. Because it is possible to change one's perspective of
time to be more harmonious (Sword, Sword, Brunskill & Zimbardo,
2014), examining the role of TP in organizations is a fruitful avenue of
research to promote positive psychology in organizations that has roots
in human strengths. Organizations can benefit from considering the TP
of employees in coaching, training, and job redesigns for defining de-
velopment areas (Boniwell, Osin & Sircova, 2014). As a managerial
implication, we recommend the assessment and training of balanced
TP, which is likely to have a positive impact on the health of both the
individual and the organization.
Our study has several limitations. The majority of the sample were
women, limiting the generalizability of the results. The indirect effects
were small and the lower bounds of the confidence intervals were close
to zero, suggesting the need to replicate these findings in a larger
sample. Potential problems related with survey research (response bias,
common method variance, etc.) also applies to the current research.
Reliability coefficients of the PP and PF subscales of the ZTPI were low
(<0.70) and might have attenuated the associations. However, because
our findings are consistent with the TP theory and our inferences were
mainly based on the balanced TP, we believe that this is not a major
threat to the validity of our results. The mediation models were based
on the COR theory but, because a cross sectional design was employed,
causal conclusions are not justified. We suggest the use of a longitudinal
design to have a better idea about the nature of relationships among
these variables. There may be multiple mechanisms connecting TP to
job attitudes but the present study fails to identify them. Future studies
can extend the current findings by investigating theoretical mechan-
isms, mediators, and moderators of these associations.
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109667.
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