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 ADDITIONAL TOPICS UNDER CELLULAR COMMUNICATION

GSM is an acronym for Global System for Mobile Communication. CDMA refers to Code Division
Multiple Access. The working of GSM and CDMA is very different. But the end result, after the
implementation of the two technologies, is highly similar and matching in many ways. This
article will try to highlight the subtle differences between the two technologies.
Concepts of GSM and CDMA:
GSM is a standard and CDMA is a technology, but GSM has attained some technology status
over the years. GSM is a 'cellular' technology, that is, the entire coverage area is divided into
various hexagonal shaped cells (hence the popular name 'cell phones'). Every cell has a
corresponding network tower, which serves the mobile phones in that cellular area.
CDMA: As the name suggests (Code Division Multiple Access), there are many devices which
use the same spread spectrum (hence multiple access). There is one physical channel, and a
special code for every device in the coverage network. Using this code, the signal of the device
is multiplexed, and the same physical channel is used to send the signal (the codes may or may
not change).
GSM vs CDMA Comparison
Call Quality: This is an area where CDMA scores substantially over GSM. Statistics are hugely
in favor of CDMA. Various factors such as echoes, call dropping, or voice distortion are almost
non-existent in CDMA, whereas in GSM, there is a high probability of errors.

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Carriers: GSM is one up on CDMA as far as carriers are concerned. The law requires CDMA
carriers to provide handsets to users, for which the users cannot change their carriers.
Whereas, GSM users can change their carriers whenever they want.
Coverage: GSM and CDMA, both have similar network coverage areas. They are present almost
everywhere. The service providers of both technologies are striving hard to cover whatever
inches that are left.
Speed: Both GSM and CDMA are rapidly improving their capabilities in this regard. Both have
introduced 3G mobile phones in their fold. Both are competing to gain space in this area.
Building Penetration: Again, in initial days, both technologies couldn't find building
penetration, but after research in signaling systems, and through experience, service providers
of both technologies have been able to give decent service to the mobile phones in buildings.
Both have their good qualities and bad qualities. GSM has some limitations where call quality is
concerned, but GSM can be easily implemented and easily integrated into existing technology.
Whereas, CDMA is little difficult to implement. But, by estimation, GSM has an upper hand.

Advantages of GSM:
 GSM is already used worldwide with over 450 million subscribers.
 International roaming permits subscribers to use one phone throughout Western Europe.
CDMA will work in Asia, but not France, Germany, the U.K. and other popular European
destinations.
 GSM is mature, having started in the mid-80s. This maturity means a more stable network
with robust features. CDMA is still building its network.
 GSM's maturity means engineers cut their teeth on the technology, creating an unconscious
preference.
 The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules, which are smart cards that provide secure
data encryption give GSM m-commerce advantages.
In brief, GSM is a "more elegant way to upgrade to 3G,"
Disadvantages of GSM:
 Lack of access to burgeoning world market and especially American market.

Advantages of CDMA:
 Increased cellular communications security.
 Simultaneous conversations.
 Increased efficiency, meaning that the carrier can serve more subscribers.
 Smaller phones.
 Low power requirements and little cell-to-cell coordination needed by operators.
 Extended reach - beneficial to rural users situated far from cells.

Disadvantages of CDMA include:

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 Due to its proprietary nature, all of CDMA's flaws are not known to the engineering
community.
 CDMA is relatively new, and the network is not as mature as GSM.
 CDMA cannot offer international roaming, a large GSM advantage.

Conclusion
Today, the battle between CDMA and GSM is muddled. Where at one point Europe clearly
favored GSM and North America, CDMA, the distinct advantage of one over the other has
blurred as major carriers like AT&T Wireless begin to support GSM, and recent trials even
showed compatibility between the two technologies.
GSM still holds the upper hand however. There's the numerical advantage for one thing: 456 million
GSM users versus CDMA's 82 million.

GSM System Block Diagram

To transform the speach that enters the headset into the radio waves that are transmitted to the base
station, GSM performs the following operations.

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To decode the message, all of the above stages must be undone. These stages are not shown in the
diagram.

Speech Coding

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GSM is a digital communications standard, but voice is analog, and therefore it must be converted
to a digital bit stream. GSM uses Pulse Coded Modulation (64kbps) to digitize voice, and then uses
the Full-Rate speech codec to remove the redundancy in the signal and achieve a bit rate of 13 kbps
Channel Coding
Once the voice signal has been coded into a digital bit stream. extra bits are added to the bit stream
so that the receiver can recognize and correct errors in the bit stream which could have occurred
during transmission. GSM uses a technique called convolutional coding.

Interleaving

Interleaving is the processes of rearranging the bits. Interleaving allows the error correction
algorithms to correct more of the errors that could have occured during transmission. By
interleaving the code, there is less possibility that a whole chuck of code can be lost.
Authentication - Whenever a Mobile Subscribeer requests access to a network, the network must
authenticate the MS. Authentication verifies the identity and validity of the SIM card to the network
and ensures that the subscriber is authorized access to the network.
Encryption - In GSM, encryption refers to the process of creating authentication and ciphering
crypto-variables using a special key and an encryption algorithm
Multiple Access

GSM allows many users to use their cellphones at the same time. GSM uses a combination of Time-
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency-Division Multiple Acess (FDMA) to share the
limited bandwith that is provided by regulators to the service providers. Page 3
FDMA divides the spectrum into small slices, and then each frequency slice is seperated in time
into many blocks by TDMA. An individual using GSM receives a block every several blocks.
The transmission of the voice signal is no longer continious because of the division of the the
frequency slice in time, but the data is transmitted in bursts. The burst assembly operation takes
the final encoded data and groups it into bursts.

Ciphering

Ciphering is used to encrypt the data so that no one can overhear the conversation of another user.

In GSM the two parties involved in encrypting and decrypting the data are the Authentication
Center (AuC) and the SIM card in the mobile phone. Each SIM card holds a unique secret key, which
is known by the AuC. The SIM card and AuC then, follow a couple algorithms to first authenticate
the user, and then encryt and decrypt the data.

For authentication, the AuC sends a 128-bit random number to the mobile phone. The SIM card
uses it's secret key and the A3 algorithm to perform a function on the random number and sends
back the 32-bit result. Since the AuC knows the SIM card's secret key, it performs the same

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function, and checks that the result obtained from the mobile phone matches the result it obtained.
If it does, the mobile user is authenticated.
Once authentication has been performed, the random number and the secret key are used in the A8
algorithm to obtain a 64-bit ciphering key . This ciphering key is used with the TDMA frame
number in the A5 algorithm to generate a 114 bit sequence.
The 114 bit sequence is XORed with the two 57 bit blocks in a TDMA burst. The only user that can
decrypt the data is the mobile phone or the AuC since they are the only ones that have access to the
secret key, which is needed to generate the ciphering key, and the 114 bit sequence.

Modulation

The original analog voice signal, has been digitized, interleaved, grouped, and encoded, and the
digital data is ready to be transmitted. The digital bit stream must be encoded in a pulse and
transmitted over radio frequencies.
Modulation changes the '1' and '0's in a digital representation to another representation that is
more suitable for transmission over airwaves.

ARFCN: Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Numbers

Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Numbers (ARFCN) is a channel numbering scheme used to
identify specific RF channels in a GSM radio system. Within the spectrum allocated for cellular
mobile communications, the radio channels are identified by ARFCN. If the system is operating in
FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) mode then the channel number is associated with both the
uplink and downlink radio channels. Within the GSM900 spectrum ARFCN 1 to 124 are used. In
GSM1800, ARFCN 512 to 885 are used and in GSM1900 ARFCN 512 to 810 are used.

In GSM cellular networks, an absolute radio-frequency channel number (ARFCN) is a code that
specifies a pair of physical radio carriers and channels used for transmission and reception on the Um
interface, one for the uplink signal and one for the downlink signal. ARFCNs are defined in GSM
Specification 05.05 Section 2.

Each ARFCN has a bandwidth of 270.833 kHz. ARFCNs use a channel spacing of 200 kHz in any given
GSM band. Uplink-downlink spacing is typically 45 or 50 MHz.

Different frequencies (ARFCNs) are used for the frequency-based component of GSMs multiple access
scheme (FDMA — frequency-division multiple access). Together with the time-based component
(TDMA — time division multiple access) the physical channel is defined by selecting a certain ARFCN
and a certain time slot.

Note not to confuse this physical channel with the logical channels (e.g. BCH — Broadcast Control
Channel) that are time-multiplexed onto it under the rules of GSM Specification 05.03.
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GSM Bands

The following diagram illustrates an ARFCN with paired uplink and downlink frequencies for
ARFCN 1 in the GSM 900 band.

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 GSM900 ARFCN 1

IMEI - International Mobile Equipment Identity

The International Mobile Equipment Identity is a unique identifier allocated to each ME (Mobile Equipment). It
consists of a TAC (Type Approval Code), a FAC (Final Assembly Code), SNR (Serial Number) and a Spare Digit.

What is an IMEI?
The IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) is a unique 17 or 15 digit code used to
identify an individual mobile station to a GSM or UMTS network. The IMEI number provides an
important function; it uniquely identifies a specific mobile phone being used on a mobile network.
The IMEI is a useful tool to prevent a stolen handset from accessing a network and being used to
place calls. Mobile phone owners who have their phones stolen can contact their mobile network
provider and ask them disable a phone using its IMEI number. With an IMEI number, the phone
can be blocked from the network quickly and easily.
It is important to note that swapping a SIM card will not stop a phone from being banned. IMEI
numbers are stored in the phones themselves, not on the SIM cards. An IMEI is only used to identify
the device and does not relate to a specific individual or organization. Other numbers such as the
ESN (Electronic Serial Numbers) and MEID (Mobile Equipment Identifiers) can link an individual to
a phone. Usually, an IMSI number stored on a SIM card can identify the subscriber on a network.
There are several ways with which mobile phone’s IMEI number can be found . The IMEI can
usually be found on the handset, beneath the battery, sometimes printed on a small white label.
Another way to easily locate your IMEI phone is to dial the following sequence of numbers into the
handset: *#06#. If you have a Sony Ericsson mobile phone, you can retrieve the IMEI by pressing
the following key sequence: right,*, left, left,*, left, *, left.

The Structure of an IMEI Number

IMEI numbers either come in a 17 digit or 15 digit sequences of numbers. The IMEI format
currently utilized is AA-BBBBBB-CCCCCC-D:

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 AA: These two digits are for the Reporting Body Identifier, indicating the GSMA approved group
that allocated the TAC (Type Allocation Code).
 BBBBBB: The remainder of the TAC
 CCCCCC: Serial sequence of the Model
 D: Luhn check digit of the entire model or 0 (This is an algorithm that validates the ID number)

Central Equipment Identity Register (CEIR)

If a mobile handset is lost or stolen, the owner of the device can contact the CEIR (Central Equipment Identity
Register) which will blacklist the device in all currently operating switches. This makes the lost or stolen handset
unusable. The action of blacklisting stolen mobile handsets is seen as a deterrent to crime. It is possible, however, to
change an IMEI with special tools and there are certain mobile networks that do not automatically blacklist handsets
registered with the CEIR.

Authentication
The GSM network authenticates the identity of the subscriber through the use of a challenge-response
mechanism. A 128-bit random number (RAND) is sent to the MS. The MS computes the 32-bit signed
response (SRES) based on the encryption of the random number (RAND) with the authentication
algorithm (A3) using the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki). Upon receiving the signed
response (SRES) from the subscriber, the GSM network repeats the calculation to verify the identity of
the subscriber. Note that the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never transmitted over the
radio channel. It is present in the subscriber's SIM, as well as the AUC, HLR, and VLR databases as
previously described. If the received SRES agrees with the calculated value, the MS has been
successfully authenticated and may continue. If the values do not match, the connection is terminated
and an authentication failure indicated to the MS. Fig. shown below illustrates the authentication
mechanism. The calculation of the signed response is processed within the SIM. This provides enhanced
security, because the confidential subscriber information such as the IMSI or the individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki) is never released from the SIM during the authentication process.
Encrypted voice and data communications between the MS and the network is accomplished through
use of the ciphering algorithm A5. Encrypted communication is initiated by a ciphering mode request
command from the GSM network. Upon receipt of this command, the mobile station begins encryption
and decryption of data using the ciphering algorithm (A5) and the ciphering key (Kc). Figure 7 below
demonstrates the encryption mechanism.

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 Fig. GSM Authentication Mechanism

Fig. Ciphering Mode Initiation Mechanism

Block Diagram of a Mobile Phone

The typical hardware block diagram of a GSM mobile phone is shown in fig. The heart of this is the
baseband processor module. Generally, two processors are used for this module: one MCU unit normally
an ARM (advanced RISC machine) processor is used for the protocol related processing and one DSP
processor is used for layer-1 information and speech/audio signal processing. All the other modules are
connected to this baseband module via different interfaces. For high-end phones one more application
processor is used to drive the other applications.
Fig. Block diagram of a Cellular hand set.

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FDMA and TDMA

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Fig 1.2 FDMA in GSM 900

Fig 1.3 TDMA in GSM 900

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 Fig. Evolution of CDMA
Types of CDMA
Three are two types of CDMA:1.3.3.1 and Frequency-Hopping:

FIG 1.5 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum

1.3.5 Architecture of CDMA 1X network: It has focused on the components that are added to the CDMA
system
Fig shows the CDMA network architecture

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Architecture of GSM Mobile Communication Technology

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) is a member of the class of cellular mobile
communication networks that use operating frequencies of around 900 MHz and 1800 MHz. The GSM
network is hierarchically structured, as shown in the diagram below.

Technical Components of Mobile Communication

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The added components of the GSM architecture include the functions of the databases and messaging systems:
 Home Location Register (HLR)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Authentication Center (AuC)
 SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
 Gateway MSC (GMSC)
 Chargeback Center (CBC)
 Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)

GSM network areas:

In a GSM network, the following areas are defined:
 Cell: Cell is the basic service area: one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell Global
Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
 Location Area: A group of cells form a Location Area. This is the area that is paged when a
subscriber gets an incoming call. Each Location Area is assigned a Location Area Identity (LAI).
Each Location Area is served by one or more BSCs.
 MSC/VLR Service Area: The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR service area.
 PLMN: The area covered by one network operator is called PLMN. A PLMN can contain one or
more MSCs.

Code division turned out to be a more powerful and flexible technology, so "3G GSM" is actually a CDMA
technology, called WCDMA (wideband CDMA) or UMTS (Universal Mobile Telephone System). WCDMA
requires wider channels than older CDMA systems, as the name implies, but it has more data capacity. 3G
should be capable of handling around 2 Megabits per second. 4G – The speed and standards of this
technology of wireless needs to be at least 100 Megabits per second and up to 1 Gigabit per second to

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pass as 4G. G is somewhat vague, but it refers to fourth generation wireless data speeds faster than 3G,
which in turn is faster than 2G. ... LTE or Long Term Evolution is the 4Gwireless data format currently
favored by most wireless carriers.VoLTE stands for voice over LTE and it's more or less exactly what it says.
It's voice calls over a 4G LTE network, rather than the 2G or 3G connections which are usually used.

What is the difference between 2g and 3g and 4g?

G in 2G, 3G and 4G sta ds for the Ge eratio of the obile network. Today, mobile operators have
started offering 4G services in the country. A higher number before the 'G' means more power to send out
and receive more information and therefore the ability to achieve a higher efficiency through the wireless
network.
Presentation on 1G/2G/3G/4G/5G/Cellular & Wireless Technologies. 1. ... LOGO1G TECHNOLOGY 1G refers
to the first generation of wireless telephonetechnology, mobile telecommunications which was first
introduced in 1980s and completed in early 1990s. It's Speed was upto 2.4kbps. It allows the voice calls in 1
country.
Questio s f o p evious yea s’ uestio pape s
1. Explain the terms Base stationand MTSO used in mobile communication system
2. Write a note on Frequency reuse technique and its need.
3. Explain the terms PSTN with respect to cellular communication system
4. Write notes on Roaming Hand off process in cellular communication system
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5. Compare GSM and CDMA w.r.t. Cellular Communication System
6. Explain Wi-Fi and Wi-Max.
7. Explain the 7 layer OSI model for networking system (occurred in 90% of previous papers)
8. Draw the block diagram of cellular phone handset.

* * *

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