GLOBAL ACADEMY OF

TECHNOLOGY
RR Nagar, Bangalore

Department of Management Studies

ASSIGNMENT
Research Methodology
 Unit 1: Introduction to Business Research
3 Marks
1. Define Research?
Research is broadly defined as systematic gathering of data and information and its analysis for
advancement of knowledge in any subject.
It refers to the systematic method of consisting of articulating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data and reaching certain conclusions either in form of
solutions towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical
formulation.

2. Mention the objectives of research?

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
To describe accurately the characteristics of particular individual, situation or a group.
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else.
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.

3. What is Applied research?

It refers to the study that helps to solve practical problems using scientific methods and they
mainly focus on analysing and solving real-life problems.
This research plays an important role in solving issues that impact the overall well being of
humans.
Ex: - Finding up of a specific cure for a disease.

4. What is meant by Conceptual Research?

It is a research related to some abstract ideas or theory generally used by philosophers,
researchers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to re interpret existing ones.

5. What is meant by Empirical research?

It is a data based research, which analyses coming up with conclusions, which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment.
It also relies on experience or involves observation alone often without due regard for system
and theory.

6. What is meant by Quantitative Research?

It is a structured way of collecting data and analysing it to draw conclusions and it is all about
numbers.
It uses a computational, statistical and similar method to collect and analyse data.

7. What do you understand by and Qualitative Research?

It is a process that is about inquiry or investigation.
It is a non statistical research method.
The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10 people in a sample.

8. Define a research Problem?

It is the foundation of any research method and experimental design. It is one of the 1 st

statements made in any research paper as well as defining the research area.
 7 Marks: -
1. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in business?
“Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods”. It may be broadly defined as
systematic gathering of data and information and its analysis for advancement of knowledge in
any subject.
Significances of research: -
 Research is systematic in approach.
 Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
 The data that is derived is in real time and pertains to actual observations.
 An in-depth analysis of all the data collected from research is conducted.
 Research is analytical in nature and creates a path for generating new questions.

2. Formulate the basic steps in research process?

Steps in research process: -
 Formulating the research problem: This task of formulating or defining a research problem is
a step of greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must
be defined clearly.
 Extensive literature survey: once the problem is formulated a brief summary of it should be
written down and an extensive literature survey connected with the problem should be
conducted.
 Development of working hypothesis: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state
in clear terms the working hypothesis. It is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and
test its logical or empirical consequences.
 Preparing the research design: After formulating the research problem, next stage is to prepare
the research design. It is a blue print on how to conduct research.
 Determining sample design: Sample design indicates the selection of sample. A sample design
is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population.
 Data collection: Data collection is very crucial in research. There are two types of data: -
Primary data and secondary data.
 Data Analysis: The collected raw data has to be edited, tabulated and coded before subjecting it
to through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences using appropriate statistical
tools and software.

3. Formulate the basic steps in research process?

Based on the information obtained through the different business research methods, companies
whether new or established can undertake some essential business decisions such as the
following: -
 Possibility of the business to survive and succeed in a new geographical region.
 Assessment about competitors.
 Adopting a suitable market approach for a product.
 The purpose of the research should be clearly defined.
 The research method should be defined in a clearly with sufficient detail.
 The research should confine the conclusions to those justified by the data.

4. Briefly describe the formulation of research problem statement?

Management Problem: This refers to the issues that are required to be diagnosed as the root
cause of incidents that are posing a hindrance to the normal working of an organization.
Research methods are used to determine the appropriate resolution steps that needs to be taken
 to ensure that the resolutions are implemented safely and effectively in accordance with change
management and management policies and procedures.
Defining a research problem: Defining a research problem is the foundation of any research
method and experimental design. It is one of the first statement made in any research paper as
well as defining the research area.
Operational Definition of a Research problem: Operationalization indicates the exact definitions
of the variables and the type of scientific measurements used.

5. Distinguish between research methods and research methodology?

Research Methods: -
 it implies the methods employed by the researcher to conduct research.
 Research method indicates a behaviour or an instrument used in the selection and construction
of the research techniques.
 Research method involves carrying out experiment, test, surveys and so on.
Research Methodology: -
 it signifies way to efficiently solving research problems.
 Research methodology is a science of understanding how research is performed methodically.
 Research methodology involves study of different techniques which can be utilized in the
performance of experiment, test, survey etc.

10 Marks

1. Explain the various types of research?

Types of Research: -
 Applied versus Fundamental (Basic) Research: Applied research focuses on analysing and
solving real life problems. This type of research refers to the study that helps all practical
problems using scientific methods.
For examples: finding a specific cure for a disease.
 Basic Research: It is mostly conducted to enhance knowledge and covers fundamental aspects
of research. The main motivation of this research is knowledge expansion and is a non-
commercial research.
For example: an experiment is a good example of basic research.
 Descriptive Research: it includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kinds. It tries
to discover answers to the questions who, what, when and sometimes how.
For example: Revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following
could be the probable causes: there is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no
advertising, economic conditions etc.
 Analytical research: the researcher analyses the available data or facts to critically evaluate the
problem. It is an attempt to discover cause and therefore compare. In analytical research, the
researcher has no control over variables.
 Qualitative Research: it is a process that is about inquiry or investigation. This is a non-
statistical research method. This research is heavily dependent on the experience of the
researchers and the questions used to probe the sample.
 Quantitative Research: This research involves a larger population as more number of people
means fata to be analysed to obtain accurate results. This research method uses a computational,
statistical and similar method to collect and analyse data.
 Conceptual research: it is related to some abstract ideas or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers, researchers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
 Empirical Research: the empirical research relies on experience or involves observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory. It is a data based research, with analyses coming
up with conclusions, which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.

2. Describe the steps involved in developing a research proposal?

Steps in developing a research proposal: -
 Introduction: This is the first step which starts with the identification of problem/issues that
needs to be researched. The introduction should be designed to create interest in the reader about
the topic and proposal. This section should indicate the need for the study, research design and
the hypothesis thus formulated.
 Review of literature: Review of literature or preliminary collection of literature involves
looking for relevant literature in the secondary sources of data like journals, magazines,
websites, etc. to help in developing an initials understanding of the problems and the
identification of relationship amongst variables, the research gaps in the existing literature.
 Aims and objectives: the research purpose (goal or aim) gives a board indication of what the
researcher wishes to achieve in the research. The hypothesis to be tested can be the aim of the
study. The objectives related to parameters or tools used to achieve the aim are generally
categorized as primary and secondary objectives.
 Research design and Research Methodology: The objective is to select a research design that
will appropriately address the research problem within the framework of the specific aims of the
study. Here the researcher identifies how the study will be conducted by specifying the methods
and sources used to conduct the research must be discussed.
 Data collection and analysis: Data can be collected through variety of means that includes
telephonic interviews, personally administered questionnaire, mail questionnaires, face to face
interview, and observation. The methodology should be tested for its validity.
 Ethical considerations: Researchers need to provide adequate information in the form of
obtaining informed consent, protection of the participants rights and approval of the institutional
review process have to maintained in order to ensure ethical standards.
 Budget: When the researcher prepares a research budget, he should predict the expenditure
involved from all aspects of the research study and then add an additional allowance for
unpredictable disasters, delays and rising costs.
 Appendices: Documents that support the proposal and application. The appendices will be
specific for each proposal but documents that are usually required include informed consent
form, supporting documents, questionnaires, measurement tools.

3. Discuss the criteria for a good research study?

Criteria for good research study are: -
 The purpose of the research should be clearly defined.
 The research method should be defined in a clearly with sufficient detail.
 Any limitations and assumptions made by the researcher during the course of the study should
be clearly highlighted in the research.
 The research design should be objective in nature so that it provides an easy understanding
about the findings of the research.
 There should be sufficient data to investigate the research topic and it should be reliable valid.
 The researcher should confine the conclusions to those justified by the data.
 A good research depends a great deal on the integrity and commitment of the researcher.

4. Discuss the research process in detail?

Steps in research process: -
 Formulating the research problem: This task of formulating or defining a research problem is
a step of greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must
 be defined clearly. The formulation of a research problem constitutes the first step in a scientific
enquiry.
 Extensive literature survey: once the problem is formulated a brief summary of it should be
written down and an extensive literature survey connected with the problem should be
conducted. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies have to be undertaken. In this process, it should be remembered that one source
will lead to another.
 Development of working hypothesis: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state
in clear terms the working hypothesis. It is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and
test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypothesis are
developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research.
 Preparing the research design: After formulating the research problem, next stage is to prepare
the research design. It is a blue print on how to conduct research. The conceptual structure has to
be developed in order to facilitate the research in a systematic manner. A suitable research
design will minimize bias and maximize the reliability of the data collected and analyses.
 Determining sample design: Sample design indicates the selection of sample. A sample design
is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population. Samples can be either probability samples are those based on simples random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling and Non-probability
samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling
techniques.
 Data collection: Data collection is very crucial in research. There are two types of data: -
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey using questionnaires
and interview methods. Secondary data can be sourced from journals, magazines, books, etc.
 Data Analysis: The collected raw data has to be edited, tabulated and coded before subjecting it
to through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences using appropriate statistical
tools and software.
 Testing of the hypothesis: This step indicates to the researchers whether to accept the null
hypothesis or to reject the null hypothesis so formulated at the beginning of the research process.
Hypotheses testing will result in either accepting the null hypotheses or in rejecting it.
 Generalizations and Interpretations: if a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. The process of
interpretation may quite trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
 Preparation of the report: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report on the research that
has been conducted. The layout of the report should be as follows: - the main text and the end
matter.
 Unit 2: Research Design
3 Marks
1. What do you understand by the term ‘Research Design’?
A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the research project. It is the set of
methods and procedures used in collecting and analysing measures of the variables specified in
the research problem.

2. What is the meaning of Quasi experimental design?

A quasi experimental design is similar to experimental research but not exactly, the difference is
that in this an independent variable is manipulated before calculating the dependent variable.

3. What is the meaning of statistical experimental design?

Experimental design data for statistical studies are obtained by conducting either experiments or
surveys. It is a branch of statistics that deals with the design and analysis of experiments.

4. List out the types of business research design?

Descriptive
Correlational
Causal
Experimental

7 Marks
1. Explain the significance of a good Research Design?
Research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answer to research questions and to control variance.
Research design is significant because it offers the researcher an opportunity to carry out different
research operations efficiently. The following points justify the significance of research design;
➢ It reduces inaccuracy.
 Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability.
 Eliminates bias and marginal errors.
 Minimizes wastage of time.
 Helpful for collecting research materials.
 Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower, time and
efforts.
 Guides the research in the right direction.

2. write short notes on;

a. Exploratory Research design
A research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a
better understanding of the existing problem, but will not
Provide conclusive results.
Significance:
 It is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in depth, especially if it hasn’t been done
before.
 The goal of such a research is to explore the problem and enable a researcher to set a strong
foundation for exploring his ideas, choosing the right research design and finding variables that
actually are important for the analysis and not actually derive a conclusion from it.
 Primary method:
 Interviews: it belongs to qualitative research method. An interview with a
subject matter expert can be carried out in person or on telephone which have open-ended
questions to get meaningful information about the topic.
 Focus group: it is yet another widely used method in exploratory research. In such a method a
group of people is chosen and are allowed to express their insights on the topic that is being
studied. This group member should have a common background and comparable experiences.
 Observations: is a type of qualitative observation which is done to observe a person and draw
the finding from their reaction to certain parameters.
In such a research, there is no direct interaction with the subject.
Secondary research method: gathering information from sources likes case studies, magazines,
newspapers, books etc.
 Online research: A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the researcher can
download it whenever he needs it. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the
genuineness and authenticity of the source websites that the researcher is gathering the
information form.
 Literature research: is one of the most inexpensive method used for discovering a hypothesis.
There is tremendous amount of information available in libraries, online sources, or even
commercial databases. It includes newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from
government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature, annual reports, published
statistics from research organizations and so on.
 Case study research: it can help a researcher with finding more information through carefully
analysing existing cases which have gone through a similar problem. Such analysis is very
important and critical especially in today’s business world.
b. Descriptive Research Design: descriptive research takes up the bulk of survey research and
is considered conclusive in nature due to its quantitative nature. It covers the characteristics of
people, materials, Scio-economics characteristics such as their age, education, marital status and
income etc. The main idea behind using this type of research is to define an opinion, attitude or
behaviour held by a group of people on a given subject over time.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information to be used for
statistical analysis of the population sample.
 It is a very popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the
demographic segment.
 In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way.
 Is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are
studied.
 The data collected and analysed from descriptive research can then be further researched using
different research techniques.
c. Causal Research Design: is quantitative in nature as well as pre planned and structured in
design. It is also considered conclusive research. Differs in its attempt to explain the cause and
effect relationship between variables. This is opposed to the observational style of descriptive
research, because it attempts to decipher whether a relationship is causal through
experimentation.
Also known as Diagnostic Research Design.
2 OBJECTIVES:
 To understand which variable are the cause and which variables are
the effect.
 To determine the nature of the relationship between the casual variable and the effect to be
predicted
 d. Experimental Research Design: is the one where the researchers have complete control
over the extraneous variables and can predict confidently that the observed effect on the
dependable variable is only due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
ADVANTAGES:
 Researches have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.
 Subjected or industry is not a criterion for experimental research due to which any industry
can
implement it for research purposes.
 Results are extremely specific.
 Once the results are analyzed, they can be applied to various other similar aspects.
 Cause and effect of a hypothesis can be derived so that researchers can analyze greater details.
 Experimental research can be used in association with other research methods.

3.Write a brief note on the classification of experimental research design.

Is the one where the researchers have complete control over the extraneous variables and can
predict confidently that the observed effect on the dependable variable is only due to the
manipulation of the independent variable.
Based on the classification of various conditions and groups, there are three primary types of
experimental research design:
• Pre-experimental research design
• True experimental research design
• Quasi-experimental research design
 Pre-experimental research design: this is the simplest form of experimental research design.
A
group or various groups, are kept under observation after factors are considered for cause and
effect. It is usually conducted to understand whether further investigation needs to be carried out

on the target group’s due to which it is considered to be cost-effective.

 True experimental research design: true experimental research is the most accurate form of
experimental research design as it relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis.
It is the only type of experimental design that can establish a cause effect relationship with in a
group’s.
 Quasi-experimental research design: the word quasi indicates resemblance. A quasi-
experimental research design is similar to experimental research but is not exactly that. The
difference between the two is the assignment of a control group. In this research design an
independent
variable. Quasi research is used in field settings where random is either irrelevant or not
required.

4. Write short notes on how exploratory research design differs for descriptive research
design.
Exploratory research design Descriptive research
design
➢ The research is conducted for ➢ The research describes and explains an
formulating a problem for more individual, group or a situation on the basis
clear of
investigation. some numerical quantity.
➢ One which aims at providing insights ➢ It aims at describing something,
mainly
into the understanding of the functions and characteristics.
problem
faced by the researcher.
 ➢ The objective is to discover the ➢ The objective is to describe characteristics
ideas and
and thoughts. functions.
➢ very flexible so that it provides an ➢ Very rigid which protects against bias and
opportunity to consider various also
aspects maximize reliability.
of the problem.
➢ The research process is unstructured ➢ The research process is structured

➢ Non- probability sampling ➢ Probability sampling techniques are used.

techniques
are used probability sampling.
➢ There is no pre-planned ➢ The statistical design for analysis is pre
statistical planned.
design for analysis.

➢ The following methods are used for ➢ It uses methods like quantitative analysis of
conducting exploratory research secondary data, survey, panels,
survey observations,
of concerning literature interviews, questionnaires, etc.
experience
survey.
Analysis of insights stimulation.
10
marks
:

1. Is a single research design suitable in all research studies. Discuss.

Experimental/Single research is any research conducted with a scientific approach, where a set of
variables are kept constant while the other set of variables are being measured as the subject of
experiment. A true experimental research is considered to be successful only when the researcher
establishes cause and effect of a phenomenon and confirms that a change in the dependent variable is
solely due to the manipulation of the independent
variable.
Based on the classification of various conditions and groups, there are three primary types of
experimental research design:
 Pre-experimental research design
 True experimental research design
 Quasi-experimental research design
a. Pre-Experimental Research Design: This is the simplest form of experimental research design.
A group or various groups, are kept under observation after factors are considered for cause and
effect. It is usually conducted to understand whether further investigation needs to be carried out on
the target group/s, due to which it is considered to be cost-effective.
b. True Experimental Research Design: True experimental research is the most accurate form of
experimental research design as it relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis. It is
the only type of Experimental Design that can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group/s.
c. Quasi-Experimental Research Design: The word "Quasi" indicates resemblance. A quasi-
experimental research design is similar to experimental research but is not exactly that. The
difference between the two is the assignment of a control group. In this research design, an
independent variable is manipulated before calculating the dependent variable. Quasi-research is
used in field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.
ADVANTAGES OF SINGLE/EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH:
 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.
 Subject or industry is not a criterion for experimental research due to which any industry
can
implement it for research purposes.
 Results are extremely specific.
 Once the results are analysed, they can be applied to various other similar aspects.
 Cause and effect of a hypothesis can be derived so that researchers can analyse greater
details.  Experimental research can be used in association with other research methods.

2. Discuss the various Exploratory Research methods employed in business management.

The following methods are used for conducting exploratory research:
a. Interviews: An interview belongs to qualitative research method. An interview with a subject
matter expert can be carried out in person or on telephone which have open-ended questions to get
meaningful information about the topic.
b. Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory
research. In such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to express their insights on
the topic that is being studied. However, when choosing the focus group, it should be ensured that
the focus group members should have a common background and have comparable experiences.
c. Observations: Observation research is a type of qualitative observation which is done to observe a
person and draw the finding from their reaction to certain parameters. In such a research, there is no
direct interaction with the subject.
Secondary research methods:
Secondary research is gathering information from sources likes case studies, magazines, newspapers,
books, etc.
a. Online research: In today's world, this is one of the fastest ways to gather information on any
topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the researcher can download it whenever
he needs it. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the genuineness and authenticity
of the source websites that the researcher is gathering the information from.
b. Literature research: Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method used for
discovering a hypothesis. There is tremendous amount of information available in libraries, online
sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can include newspapers, magazines, books from
library, documents from government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature, Annual
reports, published statistics from research organisations and so on.
c. Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher with finding more information
through carefully analysing existing cases which have gone through a similar problem. Such analysis
is very important and critical especially in today's business world. The researcher just needs to make
sure he analyses the case carefully in regards to all the variables present in the previous case against
his own case. It is very commonly used by business organisations or social sciences sector or even in
the health sector.
 Unit 3: Sampling
3 Marks
1. Explain the concept of sampling?
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for
the purpose of determining the characteristics of the whole population.

2. Name the two types of sampling?

Probability.
Non probability.

3. What do you understand by ‘Sampling Error’?

It is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that represents the
entire population of data and the results found in the sample do not represent the results that
would be obtained from the entire population.

4. What do you mean by ‘Sample Design’?

It is a blueprint or roadmap that serves as the basis for the selection of a survey sample and
affects many other important aspects of survey as well.

5. What is probability sampling design?

It is a technique in which sample from a larger population are chosen using a method based on
probability. Probability sampling uses statistical theory to select randomly a small group of
people from an existing large population and then predict that all their responses together will
match the overall population.

6. What is non-probability sampling design?

It is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the
individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.

7. What is the concept of convenience sampling?

It is probably the most common of all sampling techniques. With this the samples are selected
because they are accessible to the researcher. Subjects are chosen because they are easy to
recruit. This technique is considered earliest, cheapest and least time consuming.

7 Marks
1. What are the steps in sampling design?
Steps in Sampling Process
An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:

1. Defining the target population.

2. Specifying the sampling frame.
3. Specifying the sampling unit.
4. Selection of the sampling method.
5. Determination of sample size.
6. Specifying the sampling plan.
7. Selecting the sample.
1. Defining the Target Population:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in sampling process. In
general, target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The
definition should be in line with the objectives of the research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances
firm wants to conduct a survey to ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the
population as ‘all women above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few men cook)’.
However, this definition is too broad and will include every household in the country, in the
population that is to be covered by the survey. Therefore, the definition can be further refined and
defined at the sampling unit level, that, all women above the age 20, who cook and whose monthly
household income exceeds Rs. 20,000. This reduces the target population size and makes the
research more focused. The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from
where the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.

A well-defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents who do not fit the
research objective of the company. For ex, if the population is defined as all women above the age
of 20, the researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large number of women who cannot
afford to buy a micro oven.

2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the sampling frame. A
sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be drawn. Continuing with the
micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a database that contains all the households that
have a monthly income above Rs. 20,000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive
sampling frame that exactly fits the requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers
use easily available sampling frames like telephone directories and lists of credit card and mobile
phone users. Various private players provide databases developed along various demographic and
economic variables. Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling frames.
Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame is one that entire population and lists the names
of its elements only once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately represent the total
population or when some elements of the population are missing another drawback in the sampling
frame is over —representation. A telephone directory can be over represented by names/household
that have two or more connections.

3.Specifying the Sampling Unit:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of the
population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit and all women above
the age of 20 years living in that particular house become the sampling elements. If it is possible to
identify the exact target audience of the business research, every individual element would be a
sampling unit. This would present a case of primary sampling unit. However, a convenient and
better means of sampling would be to select households as the sampling unit and interview all
females above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case of secondary sampling unit.

4. Selection of the Sampling Method:

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected. The choice of
the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business research, availability of
financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be investigated. All sampling
methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-probability sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways of classifying
the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those hold primary importance and
are worth mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and
whether its logic is based on traditional or Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling
procedures, the allocation of budget, thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed,
importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of analysis, incidence rates, and completion
rates play a major role in sample size determination. In the case of probability sampling, however,
formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and level of
confidence are specified. The details of the various techniques used to determine the sample size
will be explained at the end of the chapter.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the research process
are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the households are the sampling
elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of the sampling plan in identifying houses based
on specified characteristics. It includes issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic
sample of the houses. What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the re
contact procedure for respondents who were unavailable? All these and many other questions need
to be answered for the smooth functioning of the research process. These are guide lines that would
help the researcher in every step of the process. As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on
field duty of most of the time, a proper specification of the sampling plans would make their work
easy and they would not have to revert to their seniors when faced with operational problems.

7. Selecting the Sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample elements is
carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules outlined for the
smooth implementation of the business research. This step involves implementing the sampling
plan to select the sampling plan to select a sample required for the survey.

2. How would you state the difference between a sample survey and a census survey?
Basis for comparison Census survey Sample survey
Sampling refers to a
Meaning A systematic method
that collects and portion of the
records the data about population selected
the members of the to
population represent the entire
group, in all its
characteristics
Enumeration Complete Only a handful of units
Partial
Study of Each and every unit of of the population
the population
Time required It is a time It is a fast
consuming process
process
 Cost Expensive method Economical method
Results Reliable and accurate Less reliable and
accurate, due to the
margin of error in
the
data collected
Population of
Appropriate for Population of
homogeneous nature
heterogeneous
nature
3.
Differentiate between:
a. quota sampling and simple random sampling
Quota sampling: It is non probability sampling technique wherein the researcher ensures equal
proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is considered as basis of quota.
Simple random sampling: This is common method to arrange or classify by gender, age, ethnicity
and similar ways. It involves a method where a larger population can be divided into smaller
mutually exclusive groups, that usually don’t overlap but represent the entire population together and
then using this to choose members from groups.

b. stratified sampling and cluster sampling

Factors for Cluster Sampling Stratified

Comparison
Sampling
Members of this sample are chosen from Members of this sample
naturally divided groups called clusters, are
Definition
by randomly selecting elements to be a randomly chosen from
part of the sample. non-
Enhanced precision
Purpose Cost reduction and increased efficiency. overlapping,
and
homogeneous
population depiction.
strata.
Selection of the sample is done by Selection of the sample is done
Sample randomly selected clusters and by randomly selecting
selection including all the members from these members from various formed
clusters. strata.
Selection of elements Conjointly Distinctively
that form a Sample

Di

vision type Naturally formed Depends on the researcher

Heterogeneity Internally, with the clusters Externally, between
various
strata
Homogeneity Externally, between various clusters Internally, with the strata

4. Write short notes on:

a. Multi-stage sampling
Multi-stage sampling (also known as multi-stage cluster sampling) is a more complex form
of cluster sampling which contains two or more stages in sample selection. In simple terms, in
multi-stage sampling large clusters of population are divided into smaller clusters in several stages
in order to make primary data collection more manageable. It has to be acknowledged that multi-
stage sampling is not as effective as true random sampling; however, it addresses certain
 disadvantages associated with true random sampling such as being overly expensive and time-
consuming.
b. Purposive sampling
Purposive sampling (also known as judgment, selective or subjective sampling) is a sampling
technique in which researcher relies on his or her own judgment when systematic error choosing
members of population to participate in the study.
Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method and it occurs when “elements selected for
the sample are chosen by the judgment of the researcher. Researchers often believe that they can
obtain a representative sample by using a sound judgment, which will result in saving time and
money”.

5. ‘’A systematic Bias results from the errors in the sampling procedures”. What do you
mean by systematic bias?
It is the inherent tendency of a process to support particular outcomes. The term generally refers to
human systems such as institutions; the equivalent bias in non-human systems (such as
measurement instruments or mathematical model used to estimate physical quantities) is often
called systematic bias, and leads to in measurements or estimates. The issues of systemic bias are
dealt with extensively in the field of industrial organization economics.

6.Identify the attributes of sampling error.

The Attributes of sampling error are:
 Sample design: It is a blueprint or a framework, or roadmap that serves as the basis for the
selection of a survey sample and affects many other important aspects of a survey as well.
 Sample frame: A sampling frame is the source material or device from which a sample is drawn.
One must define a sampling frame that represents the population of interest, from which a sample
is to be drawn. The sampling frame may be identical to the population.
 Sample unit: A sampling unit can refer to any single person, animal, plant, product or ‘thing’
being researched. In the context of market research, a sampling unit is an individual person. The
term sampling unit refers to a singular value within sample database.

7. List out the features of a good sample design?

 The sample design should yield a truly representative sample;
The sample design should be such that it results in small sampling error;
The sample design should be viable in the context of budgetary constraints of the research study;
The sample design should be such that the systematic bias can be controlled; and
The sample must be such that the results of the sample study would be applicable, in general, to
the universe at a reasonable level of confidence.

8.Construct a sampling plan?

Stage 1: Clearly Define Target Population

The first stage in the sampling process is to clearly define target population. Population is
commonly related to the number of people living in a particular country.

Stage2: Select Sampling Frame

A sampling frame is a list of the actual cases from which sample will be drawn. The sampling
frame must be representative of the population.

Stage 3: Choose Sampling Technique

Prior to examining the various types of sampling method, it is worth noting what is meant by
sampling, along with reasons why researchers are likely to select a sample. Taking a subset from
chosen sampling frame or entire population is called sampling. Sampling can be used to make
inference about a population or to make generalization in relation to existing theory. In essence,
 this depends on choice of sampling technique.
 Probability or random sampling
 Non probability or non-random sampling.

Stage 4: Determine Sample Size

In order to generalize from a random sample and avoid sampling errors or biases, a random
sample needs to be of adequate size. What is adequate depends on several issues which often
confuse people doing surveys for the first time. This is because what is important here is not the
proportion of the research population that gets sampled, but the absolute size of the sample selected
relative to the complexity of the population, the aims of the researcher and the kinds of statistical
manipulation that will be used in data analysis. While the larger the sample the lesser the likelihood
that findings will be biased does hold, diminishing returns can quickly set in when samples get over
a specific size which need to be balanced against the researcher’s resource. To put it bluntly, larger
sample sizes reduce sampling error but at a decreasing rate.

Stage 5: Collect Data

Once target population, sampling frame, sampling technique and sample size have been
established, the next step is to collect data.

Stage 6: Assess Response Rate

Response rate is the number of cases agreeing to take part in the study. These cases are taken from
original sample. In reality, most researchers never achieve a 100 percent response rate.
Reasons for this might include refusal to respond, ineligibility to respond, inability to respond, or
the respondent has been located but researchers are unable to make contact. In sum, response rate
is important because each non response is liable to bias the final sample. Clearly defining
sample, employing the right sampling technique and generating large sample, in some respects can
help to reduce the likelihood of sample bias.

10 marks

1. Discuss the main steps considered in preparing a sample design?

Defining the universe or population of interest is the first step in any sample design. The accuracy
of the results in any study depends on how clearly the universe or population of interest is defined.
The universe can be finite or infinite, depending on the number of items it contains.
Defining the sampling unit within the population of interest is the second step in the sample design
process. The sampling unit can be anything that exists within the population of interest. For
example, sampling unit may be a geographical unit, or a construction unit or it may be an
individual unit.
Preparing the list of all the items within the population of interest is the next step in the sample
design process. It is from this list, which is also called as source list or sampling frame, that we
draw our sample. It is important to note that our sampling frame should be highly representative of
the population of interest.
Determination of sample size is the next step to follow. This is the most critical stage of the sample
design process because the sample size should not be excessively large nor it should be too small. It
is desired that the sample size should be optimum and it should be representative of the population
and should give reliable results. Population variance, population size, parameters of interest, and
budgetary constraints are some of the factors that impact the sample size.
Deciding about the technique of sampling is the next step in sample design. There are many
sampling techniques out of which the researchers have to choose the one which gives lowest
sampling error, given the sample size and budgetary constraints.
2 Discuss the different types of the probability and non-probability sampling techniques.
Probability sampling techniques:
Simple random sampling is a completely random method of selecting subjects. These can include
assigning numbers to all subjects and then using a random number generator to choose random
numbers. Classic ball and urn experiments are another example of this process (assuming the balls
are sufficiently mixed). The members whose numbers are chosen are included in the sample.
Stratified Random Sampling involves splitting subjects into mutually exclusive groups and then
using simple random sampling to choose members from groups.
Systematic Sampling means that you choose every “nth” participant from a complete list. For
example, you could choose every 10th person listed.
Cluster Random Sampling is a way to randomly select participants from a list that is too large for
simple random sampling. For example, if you wanted to choose 1000 participants from the entire
population of the U.S., it is likely impossible to get a complete list of everyone. Instead, the
researcher randomly selects areas (i.e. cities or counties) and randomly selects from within those
boundaries.
Multi-Stage Random sampling uses a combination of techniques.

Non probability sample techniques:

Convenience Sampling: as the name suggests, this involves collecting a sample from somewhere
convenient to you: the mall, your local school, your church. Sometimes called accidental sampling,
opportunity sampling or grab sampling.
Haphazard Sampling: where a researcher chooses items haphazardly, trying to simulate
randomness. However, the result may not be random at all and is often tainted by selection bias.
Purposive Sampling: where the researcher chooses a sample based on their knowledge about the
population and the study itself. The study participants are chosen based on the study’s purpose.
There are several types of purposive sampling. For a full list, advantages and disadvantages of the
method, see the article: Purposive Sampling.
Expert Sampling: in this method, the researcher draws the sample from a list of experts in the field.
Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling: a type of sampling where you deliberately choose
members so that all views are represented. However, those views may or may not be represented
proportionally.
Modal Instance Sampling: The most “typical” members are chosen from a set.
Quota Sampling: where the groups (i.e. men and women) in the sample are proportional to the
groups in the population.
Snowball Sampling: where research participants recruit other members for the study. This method
is particularly useful when participants might be hard to find. For example, a study on working
prostitutes or current heroin users.
 Unit 4: Data Collection and Measurement scales
3 Marks
1. What is Primary data?
The data that is collected by a researcher from 1 hand sources using methods like surveys,
st

interviews or experiments.

2. State the Sources of secondary data?

It is a type of data that had already been published in books, newspapers, magazines, journals,
online portals etc. There is an abundance of data available in these sources about any area of
research selected.

3. What is a questionnaire?
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions (or other types of
prompts) for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was
invented by the statistical society of London in 1838.

4. What do you understand by the term ‘Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)’?

MDS can be characterized as a set of procedures for portraying perceptual or affective
dimensions of substantive interest.

7 Marks
1. Discuss the methods of primary data collection?
The methods of primary data collection are:
 Quantitative data: The method describe and measure the level of occurrence on the basis of
numbers and calculations. These are the data that are based on mathematical calculations in
various formats like quantities
Methods of Quantitative data collection and analysis:
a. INTERVIEWS
Face to face: It have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with
potential participants and therefor gain their cooperation.
Telephone interview: The less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has ready
access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the response rate is
not as high as the face to face
b. COMPUTER ASSISTED PERAONAL INTERVIEWING (CAPI) It is a form of personal
interviewing but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or
hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database. However, this type of
data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviews have computer
and typing skills.
c. QUESTIONNAIRE is often make use of checklist and rating scales. These devices help
simplify and quantify people’s behaviour, characteristics or other entities that the researcher is
looking for is developed in the questionnaire
Paper-pencil-questionnaires: it can be sent to large number of people and saves the researcher
time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the responses are anonymous
Web based questionnaire: A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of internet
based research using a secure web-site to ill in a questionnaire. This type of research is often
quicker and less detailed
 Qualitative data: these data, on the other hand, do not involve numbers or mathematical
calculations rather they are descriptive in nature. Qualitative research is closely associated with
words, sounds, feeling, emotions, colours, and other elements that are non-quantifiable,
qualitative studies aim to ensure greater level of depth of understanding and unlike.
Methods of Quantitative data collection and analysis:
a. Paper surveys: Questionnaire often utilize a structure comprised of short questions and, in the
case of qualitative questionnaires, they are usually open-ended with the respondents asked to
provide detailed answers, in their own words.
b. Focus group method: This method is basically an interview method done in a group discussion
format. The object of the data is analysing behaviour and attitudes particularly in social
situations. Ideally, the focus group should have at least 3 people and a moderator to around 10 to
13 people max, plus a moderator. Resources for one on one interviews are limited therefore.
c. Observations: This method to get reliable information and valid data, the researcher involves
himself with his respondents and generally taking a look at everything while taking down notes.
Apart from the note-taking, other documentation methods may be used here,
d. Longitude studies: This is a data collection method is gathered by taking a close look and in
depth analysis to a “case study” or “case studies” – the unit or units of research that may be an
individual, a group of individuals, or an entire organization.
e. Case studies: In this qualitative method, data is gathered by taking a close look and an in depth
analysis of a case study. This goal is to find correlation through an empirical or observational
study of subjects with a common trait or characteristic.

2. What are the sources of secondary data?

The sources of secondary data are as follows:
 Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary
organizations
 Various publications of the central, state are local government
 Technical and trade journals
 Books magazines and news papers
 Reports and publication of various association connected with business and industry, banks
stock exchanges etc….
 reports prepared by research scholars universities, economists, etc… in different fields
 public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information

3. Mention the qualitative techniques of data collection

The qualitative techniques of data collection as follows
 Interviews: interviews can be conducted in person or over the telephone and it can be done
formally and informally and mainly qualitative in nature
 Questionnaires and surveys: it can be analysing with quantitative methods by assigning
numerical values and generally easy to analysis
 Observations: it follows for the study of the dynamics to the situation, frequent counts of
target behaviours or other behaviour and it can produce qualitative and quantitative data
 Focus groups: A facilitated group interview with individuals that have something in common and
mainly gathers information about combine perspective and opinion
 Ethnographies: it involves studying a single phenomenon and examines peoples in their natural
settings and uses the combination of techniques such as observations, interviews
 Documents and records: it consists of examining existing data in the form of data basis meeting
minutes, reports, attendance, logs, financial records new letters etc….
 4. Differentiate between primary and secondary data

Basis of comparison Primary data Secondary

It refers to the first data
It is a data collected
Meaning hand data gathered by by someone else earlier
the
Data researcher him data
Real time self Past data
Process Very involved Quick and easy
Sources Surveys, observations,
Government
experiments, questionnaire
publications
interviews etc….
websites,
books, journals
articles
Cost effectiveness expensive May or may not be
Economical
Collection time Long specific
Shortto the researcher
Specific Always specify to the need
Available in Crude formneed
researchers Refined form
Accuracy and More Relatively less
reliability

5. Examine
the
merits and demerits of the observation method of data collection
Advantages
 It is economical. It safes efforts and expensive
 It is time saving
 It helps to make primary data collection most specific since with help of secondary data, we are
able to make out what are the gaps and deficiencies and what additional information needs to be
collected
 It helps to improve the understanding of the problem
 It provides a basis for comparison for the data that is collected by the researcher
Disadvantages
 Secondary data is something that seldom fits in the framework of the marketing research factors
 Accuracy of secondary data is not known
 Data may be outdated

6. Write short notes

a. Thematic Apperception test
The Thematic Apperception Test is a type of projective test that involves describing ambiguous
scenes. It was developed by psychologist Henry. A Murray and artist and lay psyche analyst. It
also known as TAT, involves showing respondents ambiguous pictures of people and asking
them to come up with subjects are asked to tell the story explaining what is happening in the
scene, what each of the characters is thinking or feeling, and what happens next.
b. Depth interviews
It is a qualitative research technique which is used to conduct intensive individual interviews
where numbers of respondents are less and research is focused on a specific product, technique,
situation or objective and while some experts in qualitative research avoid the topic of “how
many interview are enough” there is indeed variability in what is suggested as a minimum.

7. Write a note on the four types of measurement scales?

Nominal this scale is the placement to data into categories without order. This, the crudest of
measurement scales, classifies individuals, companies, products, brands or other entities into
 categories where no order is implied. Hence it is often referred to as a categorical scale. It is a
system of classification that involves a simple count of the numbers assigned to label each
category.
Ordinal it is a classification that implies an order is described as an ordinal scale. Ordinal scale
involves the ranking of individuals, attitudes or items along the continuum of the characteristic
being scaled. This is a simple market research tools indicating the respondents’ preference among
a list of items.
Interval scale it is a developed when a survey respondent is asked to provide feedback on justify
merchandise or service. It is only with an interval scale data that researchers can justify the use of
measurement, thus making it possible to interpreting only the order of scale scores but also the
distance between them.it deals with continues data and hence also called cardinal scale
Ratio scale it is the highest level of measurement is a ratio scale and this has the properties of an
interval scale together with a fixed origin a zero point. Examples of variables which are ratio
scaled include weights, lengths and times. Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare both
differences weights in scores and the relative magnitude of scores. For instance, the difference
between 5 and 10 minutes is the same as that between 10 and 15 minute, and 10 minutes is twice
as long as 5 minutes.

10 Marks

1. Compare the advantage and disadvantage of primary data collection methods.

Advantages
 Resolve specific research issues: Performing your own research allows you to address and
resolve issues specific to your own business situation. The collected information is the exact
information that the researcher wants to know and the reports.
 Better accuracy: primary data is much more accurate because it is directly collected from a
given population.
 Higher level of control: The marketer can control easily the research design and method. In
addition, you a higher level of control over how the information
 Up to date information: The primary market research is a great source of latest and up to date
information as you collect it directly.
 You are the owner of the information: Information collected by the researcher is their own
and is typically not shared with others.
Disadvantages
 More expensive: It could be very expensive to obtain primary data collection because the
marketer or the research team has to start
 Time consuming: It could be very expensive to obtain primary data collection because the
marketer or the research team to the end
 Can have a lot of limits: Primary data is limited to the specific time, place or number of time
needed.
 Can have a lot of limits: Primary data is limited to the specific time, place or number of the
participants.

2. Compare the advantage and disadvantage of secondary data collection methods

Advantages
 Ease of access: The second data sources are very easy to access. The internet world changed
how to secondary research exist.
 Low cost or free: The majority of secondary sources are absolutely free for use or at very low
costs. It saves not only your money but your efforts. In comparison with primary research where
you have design
 Time saving: As the above advantage suggests, you can perform a secondary research in no
time.
 Generating new insights and understanding from previous analysis: Re analysing old data
can bring unexpected new understanding and point of views.
 Larger sample size: Big datasets often use a large sample than those can be gathered by
primary data collection.
 Anyone can collect the data: Secondary data research can be performed by people that aren’t
familiar with the different types of quantitative.
Disadvantages
 Not specific to your needs: Here is the main differences with the primary method. Secondary
data is not specific to the researcher’s need due to the fact that it was collected in the past for
another reason.
 Lack of control over data quality: You have no control of the data quality at all. In
comparison, with primary methods which are largely controlled by the marketer.
 Biasness: As the secondary data is collected by someone else than you, typical data is biased in
favour of the person
 Not timely: Secondary data is collected in the past which means it might be out of date.
 Not proprietary information: Generally, secondary data is not collected specifically or your
company. Instead, it is available to many companies and people either for free or for a little free.

3. Design a questionnaire consisting of 20 questions for a pharmaceutical company which is

planning to launch a new vaccine for flu
Flu Vaccination survey
a. Name(Optional):_____________

b. Age
< 

c. Gender

1
 25 years 1
25 to 35
years2
35 to 50
years3
50 years
4
Male 1 d.
Female Education
2
h
 Below
Graduation e. Occupation
Graduate 2
Post graduate
3
Others 4
 Professional(Doctor/CA)
1
Manager 2
Supervisory level 3
Clerical 4
Businessman/industrialist
5
Businessmen/industrialists
6
f. Marital status
Married 1

Not 2
married
g. Is
your household
Single 1
income
household
Double 2
income
h. household
Please chose the city where you are currently living in
Mumbai 1
Delhi 2
Bangalore 3
Chennai 4
Hyderabad 5
Kolkata 6
Pune 7
Ahmedaba 8
d
others 9

i. Are you aware of the2-disagree

flu vaccine? 3-neutral 4-agree 5-strongly
Yes 1 agree
No 2

j. Did you get a flu vaccine?

Yes 1
No 2

k. Specify any other reason you have for hesitating to get a flu vaccine
The boxes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 indicating the following
1-
Strongly

l. I disagree
hesitate
to get a flu shot because
Sl no. Flu vaccine- opinion and
details Cod
e
1 The flu is not a 1 2 3 4 5
serious
illness
2 I got a flu last year so
I
don’t need it this
year
3 I am afraid f the side
affects
4 I feel the vaccine will make
me sick with the flu
5 I don’t have time
6 I prefer alternative
medicines to vaccine
7 I don’t believe in vaccines
8 I am afraid of needles
 Unit 5: Hypothesis Testing
3 Marks
1. what is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect
will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypothesis sometimes it is also designed to be
exploratory

2. Identify the different types of hypothesis?

Null hypothesis.
Alternative hypothesis.

3. What do you understand by the term ‘Level of Significance, how is it represented?

The level of significance is defined as the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis by the test
when it is really true, which is denoted by α. That is P (type l error) = α.

4. What is degree of freedom?

Degree of freedom are the number of independent values that a statistical analysis can estimate.
Degrees of freedom is a combination of how much data you have and how many parameters you
need to estimate. It indicates how much independent information goes into a parameter estimate.

5. What is Chi-square test? Explain it significance in statistical analysis?

It is one of the form of simplest form of statistical analysis. It involves analysis of two variables
for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them.

6. What is the significant difference between Parametric and Non-parametric tests?

A parametric statistical test is one that make assumptions about the parameters of the population
distribution from which one’s data are drawn.
Non parametric test refers to a statistical method in which the data is not required to fit a normal
distribution.

7 marks
1. What is a t-test? When it is used? Explain with an example.
A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant difference between

the means of two groups, which may be related in certain feature. It is mostly used when the data
sets, like the data set recorded as the outcome from flipping a coin 100 times, would follow a
normal
distribution and may have unknown variances.
It Takeaways are
 It is one of many tests used for the purpose of hypothesis testing in statistics
 It includes the difference between the mean values from each other data set

2. Distinguish between ‘Null hypothesis’ and ‘Alternative hypothesis’?

Null hypothesis it exists when a researcher believes there is no relationship between the two
variables, or there is a lack of information to state a scientific hypothesis. The null hypothesis states
that a population parameter (such as the mean, the standard deviation, and so on) is equal to a
hypothesized value. The null hypothesis is often an initial claim that is based on previous analyses
or specialized knowledge. The null hypothesis is expressed as Ho.
 Alternative Hypothesis it is a method A is considered superior to method B , or vice versa, then
such a statement and then the attempt to disprove a hypothesis, researchers will seek to discover an
alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesized value in the null hypothesis. The alternative
hypothesis is expressed as H3.

3. Compare one tailed test and two tailed test?

One tailed test is a statistical test in which the critical area of a distribution is one side so that it is
either greater than or less than a certain value, but not both. If the sample being tested falls into the
one sided critical area, the alternative hypothesis will be accepted instead of the null hypothesis.
Example: let see a say analysis wants to provide that a portfolio manager outperformed the S&P
500 index in a given year by 16.91%. He may set up the null(Ho) and alternative (Ha)

Two tailed test is a method in which the critical area of a distribution is two sided and tests whether
a sample is greater than or less than a certain range of values. It is used in null-hypothesis testing
and testing for statistical significance. If the sample being tested falls into either of the critical
areas, the alternative hypothesis. The two tailed tests get its name room testing the area under both
tails of a normal.

4. What do you understand by the ’acceptance region’ and ‘Rejection region’?

Acceptance region: The region is basically the complement of the rejection region; if your result
does mean not fall into the rejection region, it must fall into the acceptance region. Therefore, it’s
important to understanding what a rejection region this short video. The interval within the
sampling
distribution of the test statistic that is consistent with the null hypothesis.

Rejection region: The main purpose of statistic is to test theories or results from experiments. Ex:
you might have invented a new fertilizer that you think makes plants grow 50% faster. In order to
prove your theory is true, your experiment and which type of test is determined by null hypothesis
statement and is the average of you only interested in one tailed test, because you make this test
also want to know the differences and make it follow.

5. Write a note on Type I error and Type II error?

There are 2 types of errors normally committed while testing hypothesis. They are:

 Type 1 error: If the null hypothesis is rejected when it’s true, then the error committed is
known as type 1 error. The probability of making a type 1 error is alpha, which is the level of
significance you set for your hypothesis test.
0.05 indicates that willing of acceptance is 5% chance that you are wrong when you reject the null
hypothesis. To lower the risk lowers the value of alpha.
Using a lower value for alpha means less likely to detect a true difference if one exists.

 Type 2 error: when the null hypothesis is false and you fail to reject it, then type 2 error is
committed. The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis.
It depends on the power of test. It can be decreased by ensuring the test has enough power. This can
be done by ensuring large sample size is large to detect a practical difference.

Examples of type 1 and 2 errors are:

Null hypothesis- the 2 medications are equally effective.
Alternative hypothesis- the 2 medications are not equally effective.
 Type 1 error occurs if researchers rejects the null hypothesis and concludes 2 medications are
different when they are not.
If the medications have the same effectiveness, the researchers may not consider this error because
the same level of effectiveness regardless of which medicine they take.
However, if type 2 errors occur, the researchers fail to reject the null hypothesis when it should be
rejected. The researcher concludes that medications are the same when, they are different.
The error is potential life threatening if the less effective medication is sold to the public instead of
the more effective one

6. What are the characteristics of hypothesis?

A hypothesis should have the following characteristic features they are:
 It must be precise and clear for interferences to be drawn.
 A hypothesis must be capable of being put to test.
 It must state the relationship between 2 variables, in the case of relational hypotheses.
 It must be specific, stated in simple language and limited in scope.
 It must be consistent and derived from the most known and significant body of established facts.
 It must be agreeable to testing within a stipulated or reasonable period of time.
 A researcher by using the hypothesis and other known and accepted generalizations must be able
to derive the original problem condition.
 Therefore, a hypothesis should explain what it actually wants to explain, and for this, it should
also have an empirical reference.

10 Marks
1. Examine the procedure for Hypothesis Testing?
 Set up a hypothesis: State the Research Hypothesis in order to establish the hypothesis to be
tested. The statistical hypothesis is an assumption about the value of some unknown parameter and
the hypothesis provides some numerical value or range of values for the parameter. Construct a
Null hypothesis denoted and Alternative hypothesis.
Formulate the Null hypothesis: The Null Hypothesis denoted by H0 asserts that there is no true
difference between the sample of data and the population parameter and that the difference is
accidental which is caused due to the fluctuations in sampling. The alternative hypothesis denoted
by H1 is the other hypothesis about the population, which stands true if the null hypothesis is
rejected. Thus, if we reject H0 then the alternative hypothesis H1 gets accepted.
 Set up a Suitable Significance Level: Once the hypothesis about the population is constructed, the
researcher has to state the level of significance by choosing a significance level, which is the most
commonly used significance level, i.e. a confidence level with which the null hypothesis is
accepted or rejected. The significance level is usually defined before the samples are drawn such
that results obtained do not influence the choice. In practice, we either take 5% level of significance
is taken, it means that there are five chances out of 100 that we will reject the null hypothesis when
it should have been accepted, i.e. we are about 95% confident that we have made the right decision.
Similarly, if the 1% level of significance is taken, it should have been accepted, and we are about
99% confident that the decision made is correct.
 Determining a Suitable Test Statistic: After the hypothesis are constructed and the Suitable
significance level is decided upon. The next step is to determine the required sample size and the
criteria for a suitable test statistic and its distribution. Most of the statistic tests assume the
following form.
 Determining the Critical Region: Before the samples are drawn it must be decided that which
values to the test statistic will lead to the acceptance of H0 and which will lead to its rejection. The
values that lead to rejection of H0 is called the critical region.
 Performing Computation: Once the critical region is identified and values are computed, apply
the formula of the test statistic as shown in shown in step to check whether the sample results falls
in the acceptance region or the rejection region.
 The conditions to test are also checked. Whether it’s a one tailed or a two tailed or right tailed or
left tailed test by choosing from the following alternative hypotheses; o The population mean is less
than target. o The population mean is greater than target. o The population mean differs from the
target.
 Decision-making: Once all the steps are performed, we compare the calculated test statistic with
the tabulated values.
The statistical conclusions can be drawn and the management can take decisions. The decision
involves either accepting the null hypothesis or rejecting it. The decision that the null hypothesis is
accepted or rejected depends on whether the computed value falls in the acceptance region or the
rejection region.

2. Explain the meaning of ANOVA. Describe briefly the technique of analysis of variance
for one way and two way classifications?

➢ Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is an analysis tool used in statistics that splits an observed
aggregate variability found inside a data set into two parts: systematic factors and random factors.
The systematic factors have a statistical influence on the given data set, while the random factors
do not.
Analysts use the ANOVA test to determine the influence that independent variables have on
the dependent variable in a regression study, the t and z test methods developed in the 20th
century were used for statistical analysis until 1918, ANOVA is also called the Fisher analysts
of variance because Ronald Fisher created the analysis of variance method and it is the
extension of the t- and z tests.
F=MSE/MST, where: F=ANOVA coefficient MST=Mean sum of squares
treatment MST=Mean of square due to error
The ANOVA test is the initial step in analysing factors that affect a given data set. The ANOVA
test allows a comparison of more than two groups at the same time to determine whether a
relationship exists between them. The result of the ANOVA, the F statistic (also called the F-
ratio), allows for the analysis of multiple groups of data to determine the variability between
samples and within the samples.
Advantages
Analysis of variance, or ANOVA, is a statistical method that separates observed variance data into
different components to use for additional tests. A one-way ANOVA is used for three or more
groups
of data, to gain information about the relationship between the dependent and independent variables.

If no true variance exists between the groups, the ANOVA's F-ratio should equal close to 1.

Example of How to Use ANOVA

A researcher might, for example, test students from multiple colleges to see if students from one
of the colleges consistently outperform students from the other colleges. In a business application,
an R&D researcher might test two different processes of creating a product to see if one process
is better than the other in terms of cost efficiency.
The type of ANOVA test used depends on a number of factors. It is applied when data needs to be
experimental.
ANOVA is helpful for testing three or more variables. It is similar to multiple two-sample t- tests.
However, it results in fewer type I errors and is appropriate for a range of issues. ANOVA groups
differences by comparing the means of each group and includes spreading out the variance into
diverse sources. It is employed with subjects, test groups, between groups and within groups.
One-Way ANOVA Versus Two-Way ANOVA

There are two types of ANOVA: one-way (or unidirectional) and two-way. One-way or two- way
refers to the number of independent variables in your analysis of variance test. A one- way
ANOVA evaluates the impact of a sole factor on a sole response variable. It determines whether
all the samples are the same. The one-way ANOVA is used to determine whether there are any
statistically significant differences between the means of three or more independent (unrelated)
groups.
A two-way ANOVA is an extension of the one-way ANOVA. With a one-way, you have one
independent variable affecting a dependent variable. With a two-way ANOVA, there are two
independents. For example, a two-way ANOVA allows a company to compare worker
productivity based on two independent variables, such as salary and skill set. It is utilized to
observe the interaction between the two factor and tests the effect of two factors at the same time.
 Unit 6: Data Analysis and Report writing
3 Marks
1. What is Data Analysis?
Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modelling data with the
goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision making.
The survey data collected from the field should be processed and analysed as indicated in the
research plan.

2. What do you understand by the term ‘Documentation’?

It is a material that provides official information or evidence that serves as a record and it is also
the process of classifying and annotating texts, pictures etc.,

7 Marks

1.Explain the steps in data presentation.?

 A presentation should have a predefined sequence of arguments being made to support the study.
Start with stating the Aim of study and the objectives required to reach the aim.
 Break the objectives in multiple parts and make a list of data to be collected. Noting down the
sources of data, form in which data exist and needs to be obtained. Also conducting a primary
survey for information which does not exist.
 Form and explain the methodology adapted to carry out a study.
 Data collection through primary survey needs to have well thought of sampling methods. This
will help in reducing the efforts and increasing efficiency. Sample size should be given
importance
and correct sampling technique should be applied.
 Present only the required information and skip the background research to make your point
clearer.

 Do not forget to give credits and references in the end and where ever required

2. ‘Interpretation is a fundamental component of research process’, Explain.

Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of research findings
lie in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic component of research process because
of the following reasons:
1. It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle that
works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of other studies,
having the same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the concrete world of events.
Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the continuity in research can be
maintained.
2. Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for
future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest
for more knowledge.
3. Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they are
and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings.
4.The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into hypotheses for
experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the transition from exploratory to
experimental research. Since an exploratory study does not have a hypothesis to start with, the
findings of such a study have to be interpreted on a post-factum basis in which case the
interpretation is technically described as ‘post factum’ interpretation.
 3. Explain the task of data interpretation in the context of research methodology?
Data interpretation refers to the implementation of processes through which data is reviewed for the
purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. The interpretation of data assigns a meaning to the
information analyzed and determines its signification and implications.

The importance of data interpretation is evident and this is why it needs to be done properly. Data is
very likely to arrive from multiple sources and has a tendency to enter the analysis process with
haphazard ordering. Data analysis tends to be extremely subjective. That is to say, the nature and
goal of interpretation will vary from business to business, likely correlating to the type of data being
analyzed. While there are several different types of processes that are implemented based on
individual data nature, the two broadest and most common categories are “quantitative analysis” and
“qualitative analysis”.

4. Describe in brief the layout of a research report?

The Research report layout must necessarily be conveyed enough about the study so that he can
place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods and thus form an opinion
of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this purpose, there is the need of proper layout of
the report. The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. A
comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise preliminary pages, the main text and
the end matter. Let us deal with them separately.
Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in
the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of
tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can
easily locate the required information in the report.
Main Text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of the
research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the other
details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the
report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the following sections:

 Introduction
 Statement of findings and recommendations
 The results
 The implications drawn from the results; and
 The summary.

Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It
should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should be
given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating. A brief
summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that
context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in the
study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report.
The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The scientific reader
would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried out? What was its basic
design? If the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations? If
the data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were
asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)? If measurements
were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the observers? Regarding the
sample used in the study the reader should be told: Who were the subjects? How many were there?
How were they selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of
generalizability of the findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In
 addition to all this, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated.
The various limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.
Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must
contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be
easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should
be put in the summarised form.
Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the
report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters. The
result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather
than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily
identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report. But how one is to decide
about what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes primarily from the
research problem and from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned. But
ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline of his report.
“Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly the problem with which he was concerned,
the procedure by which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which he arrived, and the
bases for his conclusions.
Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the
results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the
human behaviour. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:
A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in
similar circumstances.
The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the
inferences drawn from the study.
The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with
suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them. It is considered a good
practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarises and recapitulates the main
points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly related to the
hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time, a forecast of the probable
future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research which needs to be done in that
particular field is useful and desirable.
Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary,
resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major
conclusions drawn from the research results.
End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of
sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics
along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed)
should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works
as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.

5. What are the characteristics of a good research report?

 The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
 The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to
repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.
 The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
  The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their

effects upon the findings.

 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of
analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those
for which the data provide an adequate basis.
 Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation
in research and is a person of integrity.

6. Write a note on Bibliography and its importance in research report?

A bibliography is a list of books, scholarly articles, speeches, private records, diaries, interviews,
laws, letters, websites, and other sources you use when researching a topic and writing a paper. The
bibliography appears at the end.
It is important for research report as it acts as an evidence, bibliography contain the below contents
The author’s name: In every citation format, the author’s name is listed first in the bibliography.
The bibliography is also ordered by author’s last name and in alphabetical order. The only
exception to this is in footnotes, for Turban format, the author’s first name is listed first. This style
presents bibliographic information in footnotes or endnotes.
The title of the resource: The title identifies the specific resource used. The title is generally the
creative element of the piece; the title of the book, article, news, advertisement gives a hint of its
character and lets the reader know what to expect.
The publisher who published the source. The name and place of publication is important for
verification of the type of source material. For example, if a book is published by McMillan
Publishers, it is trusted to be a valid, verified resource and you can count on the facts being true.
Each publishing houses have editors that fact check and no book would be published by a
trustworthy publisher that contained non-verified information.
The date of publication: The date of publication is included in the work to let the reader know
when the information was published. Remember in today’s world, each data has its life. The date is
important in your thesis because the reference which you present should not be out of date. The
data collected and presented by you also has its life. It’s therefore advisable to conclude your
research in record time

10MARKS

1.Discuss the significance of research report and narrate the various steps in writing a
Report.
Report
The meaning and significance of research report is considered a major component of the
Research study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or
written. A report is a written document on a particular topic, which conveys information and ideas
and may also make recommendations. Reports often form the basis of
Crucial decision making.
Research report is the final stage of every research in which research procedure, analysis, findings
and so forth aspects of research endeavours are presented in organized and systematic way. It is the
process of scientific and professional communication regarding research findings.

Criteria for a good report

A good report can be written by keeping the following features in mind -
1. All points in the report should be clear to the intended reader.
2. The report should be concise with information kept to a necessary minimum and
Arranged logically under various headings and sub-headings.
3. All information should be correct and supported by evidence.
 4. All relevant material should be included in a complete report.

Layout of the research report

A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise preliminary pages, the main
Text and the end matter.
1. Preliminary pages:
In its preliminary pages the report should include the following;
The cover page should include - the title of the research study, name of the Researcher, name of the

institution and the date of submission. The consequent pages should be followed by certificates,
acknowledgements, Preface' or 'foreword', a table of contents followed by list of tables and
Illustrations with mandatorily specifying the page numbers and brief synopsis Also known by the
name an executive summary or an abstract which should state In brief the purpose of doing a
particular study, the methodology adopted along with the justification of the sample design in brief

and the tentative results in not more than 150 -200 words with 3-5 keywords.

2. The main text:

The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. The title
of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the
other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section
of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the following
sections:
 Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers.

It should contain a clear statement of the problem, its research objectives of research i.e., enough
background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth
investigating.
 A background information on the organisation where the study was conducted and why it was
chosen.
 A conceptual note which should include the definitions of the major concepts employed in the
study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report.
 Review of literature indicates a brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so
that the present study can be seen in that context
 A full explanation on research methodology should give the methodology adopted in conducting
the study must be fully explained by giving the reasons for selecting a particular research design
and formulating the hypothesis. The methods of data collection, the tools used has to be specified.
 The data analysis follows the research methodology where a detailed description of all the
statistical tools used for analysing the data has to be Mentioned by justifying whether the research
supported the formulated Hypotheses or not.
 The statement of findings and recommendations gives a detailed analysis of results in relation
to the research questions and hypothesis and the implications drawn thereof.
 A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables
and charts together with validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the report.
 Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results of his research
clearly and precisely and draw implications. A statement of the inferences drawn from the
present study which may be expected to apply in similar circumstances. The relevant questions
that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with suggestions for the
kind of research that would provide answers for them.
 Conclusion: It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which
summarises and summarizes the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study
should be clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the
same time, a forecast of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of
research which needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable.
 Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary,
resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major
conclusions drawn from the research results. The scientific reader would like to know in detail
about such thing:
How was the study carried out?
 What was its basic design?
If the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations?
If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions
were asked (the questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)?
Its measurements were based on observation; then what instructions were given to the observers?
Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told:
Who were the subjects?
How many were there?
How were they selected?
All these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the
findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the
scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various limitations,
under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.

3. End matter: bibliography of sources consulted has to include at the end of the report,
appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as questionnaires, sample
information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of
The pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should
Invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it
Works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.

Contents of a research report

Section 1: Preliminary part which includes title page/cover sheet, certificates,

Acknowledgement, table of contents, list of tables and figures
Section 2: Synopsis/executive summary (a basic summary of the report, including sample,
Treatment, design, results, and implications) (s 150 words)
Section 3: Introduction (8-10 pages)
 Basic introduction to the topic of study
 Conceptual explanation and its relation to the study
 Company background
 Supportive statistics (can be from periodicals)
 Statement of purpose
 Statement of significance
 Tentative outcome
 Timeline
 Chapterisation
Section 4: Research question(s) or hypotheses
 An overall research question (optional)
 A quantitative-based (hypotheses)
 A qualitative-based (research questions)
Section 5: Review of literature
 Should be organized by subheadings
 Should adequately support your study using supporting, related, and/or refuting evidence
 Should always be a synthesis, not a collection of individual summaries
 Should be able to identify the research gap
Section 6: Research Methodology
 Procedure: Describe data collection
 Sample: Describe the sample or dataset, including basic demographics
 Instrument: describe, in detail, how you implemented the instrument; describe the reliability and
validity associated with the instrument
 Data analysis: describe type of procedure (t-test, interviews, etc.) And software
Section 7: Results
Restate research question 1 (quantitative) and describe results
Restate research question 2 (qualitative) and describe results
Section 8: Discussion
 Restate overall research question, describe how the results, when taken together, answer the
overall question.
 Describe how the results confirm or contrast the literature you reviewed
Section 9: Suggestions and Implications for future research
Section 10: Limitations
 discuss, in several sentences, the limitations of this study.
 research design (overall, then info about the limitations of each separately)
 Sample
 Instrument/s
 Other limitations
Section 11: Conclusion (a brief closing summary)
Section 12: Bibliography and references (APA format)

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