Defence Technology 15 (2019) 636e644

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Defence Technology
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Electroless nickel fabrication on surface modified magnesium

substrates
Ayushi Thakur a, Swaroop Gharde b, Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian b, *
a
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Hazratbal, Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, 190006, India
b
Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, DIAT (DU), Ministry of Defence, Girinagar, Pune, 411025, Maharashtra, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent years, magnesium (Mg) has evolved as a salient material, in affiliation with electroless nickel
Received 15 November 2018 (Ni) coating, which have found applications in automobiles, aerospace and confederate fields attributing
Received in revised form to its excellent inherent weight sensitive properties. However, being acknowledged for its remarkable
14 January 2019
auxiliary properties like flexible machining, appreciable weight sensitivity and ability to be patently die-
Accepted 9 April 2019
Available online 12 April 2019
cast into mesh constructs, magnesium is prejudiced by aeronautical standards predominantly for its
inferior corrosion resistance properties. In this sense, electroless nickel plating on magnesium and its
alloys has been suggested to extricate it from corrosion problem and make it more competitive in in-
Keywords:
Electroless nickel plating
dustrial and defence applications. Autocatalytic fixation of metal ions onto respective substrates accrues
Magnesium and alters their mechanical, electrochemical and tribological properties, destitute of any electric current
Magnesium alloys aid. This proficiently identified technique is prosecuted with the assistance of a series of sequenced
Corrosion-resistance operations involving a prior pretreatment, which corresponds to the chemical cleaning of the substrate
Micro arc oxidation (MAO) surface; electroless coating; and a later activation process which is a mild etching of the electroless
coated surface. The susceptibility of magnesium to this methodology has advanced and propagated its
exercise and applicability in aircraft, satellites and allied aeronautical fields. Contemporarily, researchers
have proposed various eco-friendly and modified duplex and composite coatings which have transmuted
properties of these appendages by tailoring alloy compositions and reagents employed. This review
article systematically colligates various considerations and evaluations on electroless nickel applications
of magnesium and its alloys and explicates how it anchors its practice in the respective domains.
Furthermore, a comprehensive analysis is devised based on the pre-existing treatment methods for
accomplishing the same.
© 2019 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China Ordnance Society. This is
an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/
4.0/).

1. Introduction consumption and weight reduction of vehicles, which is a great

Magnesium has evolved and established its importance way
back since World War II, where it was employed as an important
metal construct for Germany's military aircraft, attributing to its
exceptional inherent properties [1,2]. It exhibit competent strength
to weight ratio and qualified density, for its increasing demand and
applicability in the automobiles, aeronautics, and confederate
fields, having a density of 1.74 g,cm
3 [3,4], 65% less than
aluminium (Al) [5], it replaces metals like ferrous (Fe) and Al, which
are stipulated edifice materials for aerospace engineering applica-
tions. Being lighter, it unfolds the complications in curtailing fuel
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: meetkbs@gmail.com (B. Kandasubramanian).
Peer review under responsibility of China Ordnance Society
concern in the contemporary world [6,7]. Yet, in defiance of its
numerous acknowledged properties, Mg is prejudiced for its
vulnerability to environmental corrosion, flammability, poor creep
resistance, poor wear resistance and high affinity for reactive so-
lutions [5,8e10].
Contemporarily, poor corrosion resistance is the predominant
concern which arises due to its high electronegativity and the ox-
ide/hydroxide layer that negligently protects the concealed metal,
circumscribing its applicability to a large extent (E0 ¼
2.37 V)
[8,11]. Moreover, the situation becomes more afflictive for alloys
incorporating cerium, lanthanum, aluminium, zinc, yttrium etc.
because of reduced homogeneity in the microstructure and phase
across the substrate surface, resulting in the development of po-
tential gradient, initiating the consequent corrosive action [12e14].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.04.006
2214-9147/© 2019 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China Ordnance Society. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 A. Thakur et al. / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 636e644
Fig. 1. Corrosion mechanism on magnesium substrate surface (Acidic media).
The corrosion phenomena in Mg, distinctive to those of conven-
tional metals corresponds to Ref. [15] the hydrogenation of Mg on
being exploited by the vicinal hydronium ions, resulting in the
generation of divalent Mg ions which have high affinity for reactive
media (Fig. 1). Moreover, the evolution of hydrogen in acidic media
(equation (1)) and alkalization (equation (2)) in neutral or basic
media determines the pH on the surface [15].
Mg þ 2Hþ / Mg2þ þ H2 (in acidic solution)
Mg þ 2H2O / Mg2þ þ 2OH
þ H2 (in basic or neutral solution)(2)
Therefore, to obviate these detrimental corrosive actions on
magnesium, many protection strategies have been proposed which
involve alloying, refining microstructure [8] and most noteworthy,
encrusting the substrate with systematized metallic, non-metallic,
organic [16] or composite coatings [8,13,17,18].
With the advent of neoteric fabrication techniques, thin metallic
[19,20] coatings have enticed much recognition over past decade as
they facilitate wider domains attributing to their applicability and
economic efficiency. Fixation of metal ions onto any substrate via
aqueous solutions can be achieved by electrolytic and electroless
techniques [21] as shown in Fig. 2. The latter was formulated by A.
Brenner and G. E. Riddell in 1946 [22], for fabricating metal ions
onto specific substrates by autocatalytic reduction method, devoid
the aid of electric current. In contrast with electroplated ones,
electroless deposits have remarkable throwing power and validate
uniformity even on the most intricate surfaces [11,23,24] yielding
an appreciable thickness and imparting conductance, corrosion
resistance, hardness, and other paramount properties to the sub-
strate material, that too without using the expensive electric power
assistance. Electroless plating has been demonstrated evidently on
a wide range of materials like metals, alloys, polymers, ceramics,
composites etc. [25e29], accruing their electrochemical, micro-
structural and tribological properties. The metals, primarily
Fig. 2. Electroless deposit on magnesium substrate.
637
employed in this methodology are nickel, copper, cobalt, gold,
palladium and others selective of the regime of requisite properties
[30].
Attributing to the success of this competent methodology,
electroless nickel deposition has acquired substantial recognition in
academic and industrial domains owing to its excellent coating
properties, like fast plating rate [24], uniform deposition, corrosion
resistance, solderability, unbeatable surface finish [24], wear char-
acteristics and enhanced tribological properties [31]. Furthermore,
this technique has been advantageously practiced on several metal-
based alloys, involving steel [32e35], aluminum [36], magnesium
etc. [24], in addition to composites [37], ceramics and fibers
[38e44]. Contemplating magnesium, one of the salient materials
evolved due to its commendable inherent properties, electroless Ni
coating has manifested its role in stimulating its applicability and
exercise especially as per the aeronautical standards. Hence, elec-
troless Ni deposition methods are extensively utilized, as they
impede and barricade the substrate surfaces from pernicious at-
mosphere extending their life and endurance.
This has also been achieved on alloyed substrates like Mg/Ni
hybrid foams [45] and Mg-Li alloys. Mg-Li alloys have been
considerably favored as they are known to reduce the aircraft
weight to approximately 25%, but they are more vulnerable to
(1) environmental corrosion than conventional Mg alloys [46]. There-
fore, in assistance with the advanced electroless plating techniques
and selective collaboration with heavy metal impurity alloys like Fe,
Ni, Cu, the impact of corrosion may be annihilated [47]. The coating
properties may be reoriented and refined by customizing alloy
compositions and since the electrochemical potential of Ni is
considerably higher than that of Mg, this combination fits perfectly
under the category of cathodic plating on the anodic substrate [48].
Integrating other worthy elements into nickel plating such as
Phosphorus [48,49], Boron [50], Copper [51], Carbon [52], Cobalt
[53] etc., electroless co-deposits have proved to enhance their
caliber and applicability in association with Mg substrates [24].
Predominantly Ni-P [48,54] binary alloy deposits have gained
consideration over other coatings attributing to their superior
corrosion resistive properties. Besides, Ni-B [50] binary coatings
and developed duplex and ternary coatings like Ni-P-B, Ni-Co-P, Ni-
Cu-P have also been formulated and attentively considered for the
Mg substrates to have superior corrosion resistant, microstructural
and tribological properties. However, sometimes in order to bestow
superior structural properties to the substrates, in addition to the
primary electroless Ni film, a Micro Arc Oxidation (MAO) interlayer
is introduced and sandwiched between the substrate and the
coating surfaces [43e47]. The following flowchart (Fig. 3) sum-
marizes the variety of electroless nickel coatings, beneficially
experimented on magnesium substrates [24,55].
Therefore, in affiliation with electroless metal deposition tech-
nique, the surfaces of Mg substrates can be profoundly fabricated
638 A. Thakur et al. / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 636e644

Fig. 3. Electroless nickel coatings on magnesium substrates.

and engineered to augment their usability and exercise by many
folds [8]. This review aims at highlighting the fundamental aspects
of electroless Ni deposition on various Mg substrates and their
impact in extensively reinforcing their anticorrosive and tribolog-
ical properties. The innovative formulations and strategies from
various researchers have been cataloged describing their role in
making Mg components outlast in the most stringent environ-
mental conditions in airborne and space applications. Alongside,
the specifications and implementations of the technique have been
briefly enumerated, the pre-existing abstruse procedures have
been described in the review.
2. Technical standards and specifications
Since electroless deposits physically barricade the substrate
surface from the attacking environment, they have to be uniform,
intact and fairly adhesive which makes them more convenient and
favorable than electroplated deposits. Chemically reduced Ni ions
are deposited onto the catalytic Mg substrate surface after a series
of pretreatment steps and the necessity of these arises due to high
affinity of Mg to form oxide/hydroxide layers, sensitivity towards
belligerent attack of electrolytic components of the soaking me-
dium, in addition to the low surface chemical homogeneity because
of the presence of alloying elements thereby creating a phase dif-
ference and consequently, a potential gradient across the substrate
surface [12,56].
Hence, before immersing the substrate an electroless bath, it is
exposed to a series of pretreatment steps, exfoliating the substrate
surface which requires to be cleansed of all impurities including
dirt, grease and subsisting oxide/hydroxide layers, which may
obstructively interfere with the coating process, creating problems
in adhesion, compaction and uniformity of the coating, causing
prior failure of the coating and subsequently the concealed metal.
The generic pretreatment process of electroless Ni deposition is
illustrated in Fig. 4 [13,56,57], and the electroless Ni bath formu-
lations have been extensively revised expediently over the years by
the configurational identified reagents.
2.1. Pretreatment processes
Mg substrate surface is furnished with coveted properties prior
to electroless nickel deposition, which can be achieved by

Fig. 4. Schematic depiction of the electroless pretreatment process.

 A. Thakur et al. / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 636e644
mechanical brushing, abrading, grinding or polishing followed by
chemical cleaning and pickling, primarily employed for scraping off
the oxide/hydroxide grease, or any other despicable impurity [58].
Mechanical pretreatment: This is chiefly undertaken for
removing oxide/hydroxide, dirt or unwanted deposits by simply
polishing, grinding, brushing or abrading in order to obtain the
desired surface finish on the candidate surface before exposing it to
the chemical treatments. SiC emery papers of grit size 1000, 2000,
5000 or Al2O3 of mesh size 60e400 [56] are employed for various
investigations in order to scrap off the undesired layer.
Sensitization: Subsequent to the prevenient mechanical
coverage the substrate is exposed to alkaline sink wherein it is
extricated of the greasy, oily and organic impurities, encouraged by
the alkalis like NaOH, Na3PO4 etc. [25]
Pickling/Acid etching: The oxides/hydroxides which survive
the alkaline cleaning treatment are eliminated by the virtue of acid
etching which entails either acidic or neutral pH conditions. This
step helps in increasing surface roughness within certain limits
which is important for smooth, uniform and compact adhesion of
the coating, in addition, to increase in plating rate, causing better
interlocking between the two films [56].
Activation: An important step for the substrates having het-
erogeneity in surface phase. Fluoride activation fixates a MgF2
equipotentialised temporary layer which serves as the base for
further coatings [56]. It is an important step, although the Hydro-
fluoric acid employed for the motive has a tendency to root pro-
fessional hazards. However, A.A. Zuleta et al. [54] activated a
commercial purity Mg sample using NH4HF2 which equally toxic to
HF but can be somehow comparatively controlled.
2.2. Undercoating
The undercoating is an obligatory attempt to aid smooth and
uniform fabrication of the subsequent electroless coating [56]
which can primarily be achieved via two routes; zinc immersion,
which may be followed up by either electroplating or electroless
plating, and secondly direct Ni electroless plating which may be a
prior step to an electroplating deposition [59]. Sometimes,
Changdong Gu et al. [3] for the very first time experimented direct
electroless Ni plating after fluoride activation on AZ91D Mg alloy
and studied the nucleation mechanisms on Ni-P deposits. On the
other hand zinc immersion, although not specifically recom-
mended for magnesium alloys having high aluminum content, is a
mutual operation for electroless as well as electroplating [56] and is
condemned as it needs to be controlled precisely. In assistance with
ultrasonic agitation, the zincating treatment can also multiply the
nucleation sites which refines the coating layer adhesion [60,61].
Sometimes conversion layers may also be employed for under-
coating purpose which later dissolves as immersed in electroless
media paving way for Ni ions to fixate. A Mg2P2O7 pretreatment
layer was formulated by Shao et al. on AZ91D Mg substrate, which
resulted in a consistent and smooth electroless Ni deposition sub-
sequently [62].
Several challenges may be encountered by the subsequently
deposited layer, in case if the undercoating has high porosity and
non-uniformity, which is more exigent when magnesium sub-
strates are concerned. Copper immersion as another process which
could not prosper mainly because of its inconsistency in thickness
as it was electrodeposited [13,56] thus, operating a cyanide bath, a
dormant Cu layer can be deposited on zinc coating to facilitate
successive electroless plating on the substrate.
2.3. Electroless nickel bath characteristics
An electroless nickel bath comprises a certain set of chemicals,
639
each having a specific function to perform as tabulated in Table 1
[24,50,55,63]. Moreover the controlled compositions of these
chemicals regulate the fundamental bath characteristics and ulti-
mately the comprehensive properties of the electroless coats.
2.4. Selectivity and preference of reducing agent
Reducing agents are the fundamental sources of electrons
warranted by the standard specifications of the electroless baths, to
carry out the reduction mechanism by getting oxidized themselves.
Miscellaneous reducing agents have been employed for assembling
an electroless nickel bath depending upon the type and demand of
coating required, some of which, syndicated with magnesium al-
loys have been enlisted in Table 2 [24,55]. Sodium hypophosphite is
the most coveted and illustrious reducing chemical especially on a
commercial scale, ascribing to its economic efficiency, exceptional
corrosion resistance, and uncomplicated bath management [24,55].
On the other hand, hydrazine reduced coatings show very less in-
dustrial applicability due to high expenses and complexity in bath
controlling [55].
3. Nickel phosphorus deposits
The primeval hypophosphite reduced electroless nickel deposits
have been extensively researched and commercialized over the
years on account of their exceptional anti-corrosive and tribological
properties in addition to favorable adhesion, hardness, solderabil-
ity, plating rate, and thickness consistency. Availability of wide-
ranging literature and study on Ni-P binary alloy deposits in asso-
ciation with magnesium alloys explains their scope and effectuality
as per industrial, automotive and aerospace standards.
The preparation and formulation methods may involve either
acidic or alkaline baths [55] corresponding to 5 wt%-14 wt% P and
1 wt%-4wt% P content, respectively [56]. Evidently, the content of
phosphorus in the deposit determines the structure and conse-
quently other aforementioned properties of the coating, thereby
governing its strength and performance. The EDX and SEM mag-
nifications have validated crystalline and amorphous microstruc-
tures for low and high P contents respectively, and also amorphous
and crystalline for mid P content samples. The morphological
evaluations of the amorphous Ni-P deposit on Mg substrate sur-
faces yield a nodular microstructure resembling a cauliflower,
which offers superior hardness corrosion resistance and mechani-
cal properties in comparing with crystalline forms [59,67,68].
It has also been noted that the coating rate is directly propor-
tional to the temperature until a certain threshold is surpassed [66].
Moreover, the most compatible and beneficial Ni-P coatings are
achieved usually at low pH values around 6.5 [69] and indeed once
the sample is sensitized and prepared, the electroless films should
be immediately deposited so as to avoid the formation of oxide/
hydroxide layer on the Mg substrate which may cause problems in
adhesion [54].
3.1. Corrosion resistance
Rather than offering a sacrificial action, electroless Ni deposits
barricade the Mg substrate surface from the external environment
and protect them from consequent corrosion. The corrosion pro-
tecting potentials of these deposits can be measured by salt spray or
immersion tests most commonly using 3.5 wt% and 5 wt% NaCl
solution [49,68,70] and artificial sweat solutions (pH4.8-5.8) [71]
and thereafter evaluating the potentiodynamic curves obtained.
W.J. Cheong et al. [72] reported the dependence of corrosive
action on morphological aspects rather than microstructural
properties, by employing Maleic acid (MA) and Thiourea (TU)
640 A. Thakur et al. / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 636e644
Table 1
The constituent chemicals comprising an electroless nickel bath and their functionality.
Component Chemical
Nickel ions Nickel hypophosphite
Reducing source
Buffers Sodium carbonate and sodium phosphate [64]
Stabilizer Succinic acid [54]
Surfactants Ammonium Lauryl Sulfate [65]
Complexing Agent Tetrasodium pyrophosphate and ammonium citrate [66]
Ethylenediamine [55]
Accelerators/Exultant
Table 2
Reducing agents for corresponding deposits.
Reducing agent Ni coating
Hydrazine (NH 2 NH2) Ni
Sodium Hypophosphite (NaH2PO2) Ni-P
Sodium Borohydride (NaBH4) Ni-B
Aminoboranes Ni-B
DMAB (Dimethylamine borane) Ni-B
stabilizers in the electroless system. The thermal treatments which
are undertaken in order to accrue the hardness values of the de-
posits sometimes evince to be detrimental in terms of corrosion
protection due to the microcrack formation during the process [73].
3.2. Mechanical and tribological properties
Manifold and miscellaneous conveniences of hypophosphite
which reduced Ni deposits on magnesium substrates have made
them more extensive and widespread, in fact in order to achieve a
higher level of perfections, these have also been modified into
composite and multilayer systems which will be comprehended in
later sections. The coating layer thickness which increases with the
application time [74] must be consistent and compact with tensile
strength more than 12 MPa, for favorable and fine adhesion [61].
Thermal treatments are suggested to enhance the hardness and
mechanical performances of the Ni-P coatings along with the
addition of hard particles like Al2O3, diamond and SiC [65] and
smooth uniform microstructure at 6.5 pH [69]. Improved hardness
values 660 VHN [3], 763 HV [48], 915 HV [67] have been recorded
along with the appreciable coefficient of friction as low as 0.14 [69]
for varied magnesium alloys.
4. Nickel boron deposits
Although a large number of literature is available on hypo-
phosphite reduced Ni-P coating systems, Scientists have also
developed borohydride and aminoborane reduced Ni-B coatings
which resemble the former except for some few exceptional
distinctive properties. Ni-B deposits, being more costly than Ni-P
ones have enticed some attention in the past decade due to their
superior abrasion and wear resistance properties in addition to
good brazing, solderability, and ultrasonic bonding attributes.
The formulations and specifications of acidic or alkaline elec-
troless bath determine the boron content in the coating, varying
0.1%e4% in acidic DMAB or DEAB bath [55], 0.2%e4% in amino-
borane, 4%e7% in sodium borohydride [55], and exposure to ther-
mal treatment yields precipitated Ni, NI3B, Ni2B, and Ni4B3 [64]
compounds as a result of amorphous to crystalline phase transition.
Simultaneously undergoing reactions release hydrogen and the
following reaction [64] has been recorded during high Ni ion con-
centration condition in the electroless bath (equation (3)).
Performance
Source of the metal deposit
Electron source
pH regulation
Stabilizes the solution
Lower surface tension; increase wettability
Prevent precipitation of Ni salts;
Form complexes with metals
Reducing agent activation
4Ni2þ þ 8BH
4 þ18H2O / 2Ni2B þ 6H3BO3 þ 25H2 [ (high Ni ion
conc.) (3)
Although they exhibit a lower level of corrosion resistance as
compared to Ni-P deposits, they are well suited and recommended
for their high hardness, abrasion resistance, and anti-wear perfor-
mances. These nickel-boron deposits have been intrinsically
investigated on substrates like glass, plastics, steels, aluminum, and
so on, to comprehend their tribological and hardness performances
and indeed have witnessed a hardness as high as 1000hk100 Al on
knoop scale [50]. For magnesium since corrosion is the predomi-
nant concern, very few standardized applications necessitate Ni-B
coatings, hence these are either directly being plated or duplexed
with Ni-P films.
Correa et al. [75] witnessed increased anti-wear and hardness
performances of Ni-B coatings on pure commercial Mg and AZ91D
Alloys procuring a consistent coating thickness ranging between
13-16 mm and 12e15 mm respectively, with boron content
approximating 5 wt%. The hardness value of Ni-B plated AZ91D Mg
alloy was 616 HK0.05, considerably more than 563 HK0.05, obtained
on commercial purity Mg. Optimum concentrations of sodium
borohydride a nickel acetate have begotten more firm, compact and
uniform deposited films with faster rates, although unmatched
with Ni-P deposits; Also the measured increase in boron content
has stimulated enhancement in hardness performance unlike in
the case of Ni-P coatings [76].
5. Nickel-phosphorus/Nickel-boron duplex deposits
Individually fabricated electroless protective layers on magne-
sium and other substrates are widely identified and accepted
accrediting to their beneficial characteristics. Nevertheless, scien-
tists have innovatively approached and engineered duplex layering
systems on such substrates and selectively utilized the qualitative
attributes of these in order to procure amplifying results. One of
such approaches has been successively embraced by assembling Ni-
P/Ni-B duplex deposits on magnesium substrates which have
yielded appreciable results in terms of corrosion and tribological
properties [77].
Ni-P/Ni-B duplex coatings are deliberately performed on mag-
nesium alloys for integrating adequate corrosion resistance with
appreciable wear resistance. Generally, the duplex systems are
prepared by employing dual electroless baths comprising acidic
hypophosphite and alkaline borohydride respectively. Ni-P and Ni-
B layer can be allocated either interiorly or posteriorly depending
upon the requisite attributes. The coating layer exposed to the
environment dominates its principle trait over the other as illus-
trated in Fig. 5. W.X Zhang et al. [77] fabricated a duplex Ni-P-B
layer on AZ91D Mg alloy substrate, having interior Ni-P film
20 mm and the exterior Ni-B film 15 mm thick, and confirmed the
improved anti-corrosive and hardness utilities when compared
with the base substrate and individual coatings.
 A. Thakur et al. / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 636e644
Fig. 5. Preferential duplex Ni-P/Ni-B system.
Furthermore, these duplex systems have also been transformed
into complex coatings by the virtue of incorporating metals like
Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum etc. [78] and have been commissioned
for various naval and hydrodynamic applications [79].
6. Advanced electroless Ni deposits
6.1. Composite coatings
Composite based coatings incorporations in the electroless de-
posits have been developed and are advanced, preferred attributing
to their elevated performance and standards via integrated inter
metallic entities into the electroless Ni-P matrix. Scientists have
demonstrated this objective by devising ternary coatings such as
Ni-W-P [80], Ni-Cu-P [81], Ni-Co-P along with quaternary Ni-W-
Cu-P [82] ones and moreover intermittently emphasizing on wear
resistance, materials like SiC, Al2O3, WC, B4C or even diamond, PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene) [24,55], nylon lycra textiles [83] have also
been considered as incorporate. However, due to the strenuous
deposition mechanism on magnesium alloys, these composite
coatings haven't been extensively explored on Mg substrates and
are therefore being researched and proffered. The ternary and poly
alloy coatings on Mg have enhanced their hardness, wear resistance
and anti-corrosion properties to outstanding folds thereby making
them more convenient and practical than the basic nickel or binary
alloy electroless coatings.
Transition metal tungsten has been suggested as a third element
for Ni-P deposits on account of convenient and imperative prop-
erties such as superior hardness, frictional behavior, favorable wear
and corrosion resistance in addition to its highest melting point
imparting beneficial thermal stability [81,84]. Comprehensively, Ni-
W-P deposits have been achieved by appending sodium tungstate
or tungsten as the source of metal ions into the electroless bath,
albeit Shibli et al. [85] used electroless Ni-P plated tungsten powder
as the source of tungsten in the coating for mild steel. Considering
Mg substrates, the restricted availability of literature confirms how
much it needs to discourse. Zhang et al. [80] deposited electroless
Ni-W-P on AZ91D Mg substrate, reaffirmed an increase in hardness
values and a significant drop in corrosion current density from
411.8 mA,cm
2 to 7.809 mA,cm
2 along with a dense non-porous
nodular structure. Alongside icorr value approximating
0.55 mA,cm
2 was also reported by V. Ezhil Selvi et al. [86] for a
641
passivated and heat treated AZ31B Mg alloy sample by duplexing
Ni-P with composite Ni-W-P electroless deposit. Double layering of
Ni-P with Ni-P-ZrO2 [87], Ni-Zn-Cu [88], Ni-Sn-P [89] or gradient
SiC deposits [90], along with introducing Carbon into Ni coatings
[52] or Ni-P-C nanotube coatings [91] or nano-composite Ni-P-ZnO
[92], Ni-P-TiO2 [93] coatings, are some of the being investigated
methodologies which have till date proven to have improved the
attributes of traditional accretions with respect to Mg substrates.
Moreover, Copper [94] and Cobalt [53] composites have also
been experimented on Mg substrates which shows improved and
enhanced characteristics, especially in nickel/metal hydride
batteries.
6.2. Sub-structuring interlayer
Sandwiching Interlayers in between the substrate and electro-
less systems has been progressively researched and performed
accounting to their excellent insulating properties. Recent progress
in organic interlayers [59], Anodized [58] and Micro Arc Oxidation
films [95] are being developed and their fabrication has promised
better results as per applicable standards.
Anodizing is an oxidizing mechanism which according to Sal-
man et al. [58] was patented by Bengough in 1923, which facilitates
electrolytically transforming a metallic surface into a mask of ad-
vantageous characteristics. Shuo Sun et al. [96] ameliorated the
corrosive properties of AZ91D Mg alloy of electroless Ni plating
along with catalytic TiB2 powder on the pre-anodized substrate
surface by employing Dow's 17 technique. Also, the adhesion, wear
characteristics, frictional and other requisite improvements in
respective properties have been yielded by employing various
anodizing techniques familiarized as HAE process, named after the
innovator Harry A. Evangelides [58], Tagnite [97], Anomag pro-
cesses [98] and various other.
On the other hand, Micro Arc Oxidation (MAO) also known as
Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) is an altered version of anod-
izing which layers the Mg substrates with oxide films, engaging
elevated potentials comparatively. SEM images have manifested
the unvaried porous morphology due to agglomerated particulate
oxides and inconsistency in the layer thickness which can be
selectively controlled by electrolyte composition, power voltage
and PH regulation [95]. The process demonstrates initial dissolu-
tion of the metal substrate and then eventually increase in
642 A. Thakur et al. / Defence Technology 15 (2019) 636e644
deposited mass with time, subsequently final termination into a
more uniform fabricated finish [99]. The structural components like
MgO, MgAl2O3, MgSiO3 [100], MgSiO4 [101] have been reported. V.
Ezhilselvi et al. [102] constructed double MAO/Ni-P and MAO/Ni-P/
Ni-W-P deposits on AZ31B Mg alloy and noted the remarkable drop
in corrosion current density because of the MAO layer with
increased corrosion resistance. However, MAO layer has also been
reported to have been affected by the corrosive action of the sub-
sequent electroless layer [103].
7. Applications
Ever since the successful demonstration of Mg components in
the military combating aircraft during World War II, magnesium
has enticed much attention and acknowledgment persistently
through the epoch. This universally recognized metal, for its light
weight and authentic strength to density ratio, has established it-
self as the most recommended metal in the field of automotive,
electronics, and aerospace. However, eventually, it was overtaken
by other metals like Aluminum and steels on account of its frailties,
chiefly the vulnerability to corrosion; until the innovative fabrica-
tion methods were formulated which not only reinforced its
properties but also broadened the spectrum of their applicability.
Imparting good throwing power, hardness, leveled plating thick-
ness, improved solderability along with wear and corrosion resis-
tance, Electro-less Ni plating technique on Mg substrates has
advanced its applicability and exercise in the automobile, elec-
tronics, aerospace, and confederate fields.
Mg was first employed in automobile industries in 1919 in
Germany [58] and ever since has been extensively exercised on
account of curtailment in vehicle weight and the concomitant
lowering in fuel consumption and Carbon Dioxide emission [13]. In
alliance with modern electroless Ni coating technique, Mg auto-
mobile industries have recruited Mg for critical assembling com-
ponents such as steering, interior door frames, seat cases, hind door
panels, fuel storages etc. [58]
Mg components remain handy, lightweight and decent sized as
per the standards of electronics industries, therefore their demand
in the market stays purposefully beneficial [58]. Many manufac-
turers of leading brands use Mg components in their products such
as cameras, laptops, mobile phone handsets, audio players etc.
[56,58]. Furthermore, Mg-based hydrogen storage alloys, Ni/metal
hydride batteries [53] have also been formulated and fabricated
with the assistance of electroless nickel deposits which has opti-
mized and enhanced their performance.
Concerning aerospace applications, Sharma et al. [11] authen-
ticated thermal stability, solderability, thermal cycling and optical
properties of electroless nickel plated magnesium substrate,
attributing to satellite operations and obtained satisfactory char-
acteristics. No change in optical properties ranging from 0.37 to
0.38 (solar absorbtance) and 0.10e0.12 (infrared emittance) were
seen, demonstrating the perfect environmental stability in space
also. Electro-less Ni plating being inorganic exhibits very less out-
going, hence the percent values of (total mass loss) TML and CVCM
(collected volatile condensable material) were observed to be 0.05%
and 0.01% which were much lower than the discrete limits.
Therefore, fabricated Mg serves as an important structural
constituent for standard air vehicles and spacecraft involving parts
such as gearboxes, oil pumps, fuel tanks, wheels, doorways, seats,
antenna for radars, and skins constructs on wings and various other
parts. Moreover, magnesium based collector, base plate, and radi-
ator of TWT (traveling wave tube) of the communication satellite,
fabricated with electroless Ni-P have been captured by Sharma
et al. [11] at ISRO center.
Forbye, Ni/Au deposits on magnesium substrates for aerospace
applications have also been witnessed recently [56], and Ni elec-
troless deposits have also been serviceable on engine cranksets,
fuel pump cover and shell components in aeronautical applications
[61].
8. Conclusion
In the present review, we reported research advancements for
improving the performance of magnesium, an advocated metal, by
the virtue of fixating thin shielding electroless nickel films on its
surfaces. The compositional standards and variations of the elec-
troless and the controlling systems and their influence on the de-
posit characteristics have been overviewed. From the past decade,
refining and evolution of electroless Ni coating systems on mag-
nesium substrates has been a trend of interest for researchers and
manufacturers, chiefly on account of its inherent weight sensitive
properties. Hence, continuous developments in this strategy have
led to the rapid propagation of Mg and its alloys in the electronics,
automobile, avionics, and aeronautical domains, making it the most
suited and competent candidate in the market.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Dr. C. P. Ramanarayanan, Vice-
Chancellor, DIAT, Pune for their constant encouragement and sup-
port. Mr. Ramdayal Yadav and Mr. Prakash Gore are also acknowl-
edged for technical assistance and support.
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