Certificate No.

AJA19-0226

Name: Mia Pearl R. Rapatan Course: MAED – EE Student No.: 13-34657

READING
Principles of Vocabulary

As for principles of teaching vocabulary, an account for what vocabulary forms need to
teach and the principles of how they are taught is crucial. Firstly, though teaching vocabulary is
obliged to be in line with teaching objective and students’ needs, teaching the depth and breadth
of vocabulary are suggested. To accomplish them, Nation (2001) proposed nine aspects in
vocabulary need to teach to language learners, namely spoken form, written form, parts of word
that have meaning, concept a word has and items it may associate, association of the word,
grammar of the word, collocation of the word, register and frequency of the word.

Table 4. Nine Vocabulary Aspects to Teach

Aspect Part Definition
Form and Meaning Is the word a loan word in the L1?
Concept and Referents Is there an L1 word with roughly the same meaning?
Meaning
Associations Does the word fit into the same sets as an L1 word of
similar meaning?
Spoken Form Can the learners repeat the word accurately if they
hear it?
Form Written Form Can the learners write the word correctly if they hear
it?
Word Parts Can the learners identify known affixes in the word?
Grammatical Functions Does the word fit into predictable grammar patterns?
Collocations Does the word have the same collocations as an L1
Use word of similar meaning?
Constraints on Use Does the word have the same restrictions on its use as
an L1 word of similar meaning?

Secondly, the principles of teaching vocabulary. There are many theories about teaching
vocabulary guidelines and principles. Amongst of them, two writers are thought to be plausible.
 Nation (2005) six principles in the teaching vocabulary which should be met are
(1) keeping teaching simple and clear without any complicated explanations
(2) relating present teaching to past knowledge by showing a pattern or analogies,
(3) using both oral and written presentation
(4) giving most attention to words that are already partly known
(5) telling learners if it is a high frequency word that is worth noting for future
attention
(6) not bringing in other unknown or poorly known related words like near
synonyms, opposites, or members of the same lexical set.
  Graves (2006), providing rich and varied language experiences, teaching
individual words, teaching word-learning strategies, and building consciousness
in readers and writers are frameworks for successful vocabulary programs.

Principles of Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is a complex process that is still imperfectly understood. But it is

still possible to lay out general principles of good teaching practice based on what we know,
writes Maureen McLaughlin in a recent issue of The Reading Teacher.
McLaughlin provides principles based on the nature of reading comprehension as well as
on the roles of teachers and students in the comprehension process.
Below are principles you can use in the classroom to improve student comprehension:

Think Social Constructivism

In current thinking, reading comprehension is the construction of meaning by a student,
who is the interpreter of the text. The content of that meaning is influenced by the student’s prior
knowledge and experience and, in fact, consists of the student’s thinking processes and
intentional problem solving.
This means that learning takes place when new information is merged with what the
student already knows. The more prior knowledge and experience readers have with a particular
topic, the easier it will be for them to make connections between what they are learning and what
they know, writes McLaughlin.
Class discussion plays an important role in reading comprehension, according to the
social constructivist perspective. Readers refine their understanding by negotiating meaning with
others, i.e. through class discussion.
“Engaging students in such discussion promotes active engagement in constructing
meaning from a text,” McLaughlin writes.

The Good Reader as Model

Much of the research on comprehension is based on studies of good readers. Good readers
actively participate in reading, have clear goals and constantly monitor progress toward their
goals as they read. They naturally and spontaneously pose questions throughout the reading
process and are problem solvers who have the ability to discover new information on their own.
Students who are good readers use a repertoire of comprehension strategies to help them
construct meaning. They become metacognitive readers who can think about and monitor their
own thinking while reading.
“When comprehension breaks down because of a lack of background information,
difficulty of words, or unfamiliar text structure, good readers know and use a variety of “fix up”
strategies,” the researcher writes. “These include rereading, changing the pace of reading, using
context clues, and cross-checking cueing systems.”

Foster Vocabulary Development

Vocabulary development and instruction have strong ties to reading comprehension. Teacher
read-aloud and exposing students to a variety of texts enhances their vocabulary development.
 McLaughlin writes that teachers should balance explicit instruction of vocabulary with
learning from context. The instruction should include words from students’ reading and help
students develop a variety of strategies for determining the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Some suggestions for effective vocabulary development are:
 Create an environment that encourages word consciousness, the awareness of and
interest in learning and using new words and becoming more skillful and precise in
word usage.
 Provide vocabulary instruction throughout the day and across subject areas.
 Give students many ongoing opportunities to use highlighted words
 Strengthen students’ word-learning strategies by teaching them about roots and
affixes
 Use technology to make vocabulary more rewarding
 Develop word consciousness by introducing categories or related words

Embed Formative Assessments

Formative assessment does not occur after learning but rather within the process of teaching
and learning, McLaughlin writes. In other words, it is not an add-on, but rather one component of
teaching and learning.
Formative assessments allow the teacher to capture students’ emerging abilities and can be
used even in instructional situations where students are receiving teacher support. But one of the
most important features of formative assessment is that it gives teachers a continuous stream of
information to differentiate and modify instruction.
Examples of formative assessments include teacher observation of student reading and
discussion, informal written responses and strategies such as the Bookmark Technique, the
Concept of Definition Map and the K-W-L graphical organizer designed to help in learning. The
letters KWL are an acronym for “what we know”, “what we want to know,” and “what we
learned.”
In the Bookmark Technique, students create bookmarks during their reading for discussion.
The Concept of Definition Map is an exercise that helps children understand what a word means
by considering what category it belongs to, its properties and some examples and illustrations.

Teach Students to Comprehend at Deeper Levels

Teachers should help students move beyond passively accepting the text’s message to
questioning, examining and disputing it. In critical literacy, readers ponder the power
relationship between author and reader. They critically examine what the author wants them to
believe and focus on the problem posed by the author in all its complexity.
“Reading from a critical perspective involves thinking beyond the text to understand such
issues as why the author wrote about a particular topic, why he or she wrote from a particular
perspective, and why some ideas about the topic were included and others were not,” the
researcher writes.
The teacher should model reading from a critical stance and introduce students to a variety of
texts that represent or invite critical literacy.
Essentials of Reading Comprehension

For many students, reading comprehension skills can be challenging. Teachers may hear
students read with fluency and accuracy and assume they're doing well in reading. But if asked
questions about what they read; those same students may struggle.
Reading comprehension is comprised of several levels:
 Literal
 Interpretive
 Critical
 Creative

When students read, they need to be able to understand text on all of these levels.
Sometimes they're reading for literal information, such as a recipe or directions. Other times,
they may need to get deeper than surface area knowledge and ask questions about what the
author may mean, using interpretive skills. They may also need to read with a critical eye, fact-
checking information. Finally, some reading calls for students to be creative in their
understanding and make judgments about their thinking in relation to the author's writing. Let's
take a closer look at each of these strands.

Literal Comprehension
Jimmy is at the very beginning stage of understanding what he reads. If he picks up a book
with a dog and cat on the cover, he can understand the book will be about a dog and cat. If he
reads, 'The dog runs,' Jimmy knows that means the dog runs. He is able to read and understand
text on a literal level, understanding what the words mean in a very basic way. Students at this
level understand the words on the page as they are written.
At this basic level, students can answer basic, fact-related questions. Jimmy's teacher may
ask him about a fact from the book, such as who the characters are or the setting of the story. In
nonfiction, Jimmy may be able to understand concepts such as sequence, or the order of steps in
directions. This level of comprehension relies on a student's ability to recall facts and figures
from what is read and is a low-level thinking skill.

Interpretive Comprehension
At the interpretive level, students are able to read beyond the literal words on the page and
find understanding. They use an important skill called inferring. When students infer, they go
beyond the text to find meaning. The information they understand isn't found in the text, which
requires them to imagine what a character is feeling or what the author means by words or
actions.
Skills used in the interpretive level include:
 Identifying the main idea
 Understanding the author's purpose
 Determining point-of-view
 Predicting or summarizing events

Another student, Mary, is working on her interpretive skills in comprehension. She's

reading the book The Outsiders with some other students. Their teacher asks questions to
improve their understanding, such as 'Why do you think Ponyboy ran away?' and 'What point of
view is this section taking?' These and other questions help students read between the lines and
develop a deeper understanding of text.

Critical Comprehension
When students read at the critical level of comprehension, they are moving further beyond
the text and making judgments as they read. Students at this level make decisions, such as
whether the text or author is accurate and reliable, or discern if a statement is a fact or opinion.
If reading an article about climate change, students may take part in a discussion and use
skills on the critical level. They will need to be able to determine if the facts given are true and
accurate or read information and decide if it is based on data or the opinion of the author. This
requires high-level thinking skills, such as the ability to analyze or evaluate.

Creative Comprehension
Finally, the creative comprehension requires students to use the highest level of skills. They
will read, think, and make decisions in relation to text. After determining the accuracy on the
climate change article, students may then debate what steps to take using the information given.
Should the government intervene? Who is responsible for making changes? How can this be
accomplished? At this level, students use their understanding of a topic and think about how to
use and apply information to their lives or the real world.

Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension

Barrett has developed ‘Cognitive and Affective Taxonomy of reading comprehension’ to

eliminate these misconceptions and to demonstrate controllable and understandable process of
teaching. According to Yıldırım, Barrett benefited from the work of Bloom (1956), Sanders
(1966), Letton (1958) and Guszak'ın (1965) etc. in the process of developing their taxonomy
(2012, p. 46). This taxonomy of reading comprehension is divided in five different categories.
They are: (1) literal comprehension, (2) reorganization, (3) inferential comprehension, (4)
evaluation and (5) appreciation. In this taxonomy are ordered from easy to difficult according to
each category contained and covered based the difficulty of competence (Clymer, 1968; Pearson,
2009 cited in Yıldırım, 2012 and Barrett Taxonomy.

Literal Comprehension
Two ideas are brought up here which is recognition and also recall. This level identifies the
clear part of reading comprehension. Recognition is a bit direct while recall requires details
information.

Reorganization
It deals with the organization of ideas. As the root word is organize, the sequence of order is
very essential. As a student, they have to analyze and classify the information they get. Students
must be familiar with classifying, outlining, summarizing and synthesizing.

Inferential Comprehension
Students must make inference based on their prior knowledge. This is because, the students
have to make hypothesis. This can be used to support main idea and supporting details.
 Evaluation
In making evaluation, we have to come up with a decision. There are items to follow so that
we are on the right track. We can check on reality or fantasy, facts or opinion and judge based on
that. Usually, this is where students have to make decision.

Appreciation
Students are expected to be emotionally sensitive with the text given. We can express our
thought and feelings on what the passage discussed in class.

Competencies in Reading

Legislation requires the reading competencies to include an understanding of phonemic

awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, the appropriate use of assessments,
differentiated instruction, the selection of appropriate instructional materials, and the application
of research-‐based instruction.

Learning Objectives in Reading

Course Objectives for Reading and Vocabulary
The student’s will develop ability to
·         skim for main idea(s)
·         scan for details
·         use graphic organizers to better understand a text
·         develop reading speed
·         build academic vocabulary
·         make use of contextual clues to infer meanings of unfamiliar words from context
·         summarize and paraphrase information in a text
·         distinguish main ideas from specific details
·         distinguish facts from opinions
·         make inferences and predictions based on comprehension of a text
·         identify author’s purpose and tone
·         discuss and respond to content of the text orally and in writing
·         utilize digital literacy tools to develop reading and vocabulary skills
·         reflect on and evaluate learning and performance, and set goals for progress
·         demonstrate behavior and attitudes appropriate to a university environment (work
collaboratively, manage time, be prepared, comply with academic integrity rules)
 
Student Learning Outcomes:
Given an academic reading passage, the student will be able to:
·         identify the main idea(s) in the text;
·         identify specific details;
·         distinguish main idea(s) from supporting detail;
·         distinguish fact from opinion;
·         make inferences and predictions based on information in the text;
 ·         infer meanings of unfamiliar words;
·         identify author’s purpose and tone;
·         transfer information in the text into a graphic organizer;
·         produce academic vocabulary appropriately orally and in writing; and
·         summarize/paraphrase information in a text.

Reading Strategies

For Lower Grades

1. Project Words
To help students develop automaticity with word recognition, flash one word at a time on the
board or wall by quickly turning a projector on and off. Have students orally read each word as it
comes up.

2. Repeat and Speak

When asking students to write letters, words, or sentences, use the following process to engage
multiple language skills at the same time: Say the letter, word, or sentence twice. Have students
repeat it back twice. Have them write it once. Finally, have them read it aloud once.

3. Allow Think Time

When asking a question, allow enough “think time” for students to generate an answer.

4. Sort Words
Have students sort words from a story into parts of speech.

5. Follow Along
When students are “following along” as you read out loud, randomly stop in different places and
ask the students to chorally complete each sentence.

6. Teach Phonics
When teaching subject area words, don’t neglect phonics. For example, when introducing the
word “atmosphere,” don’t begin by writing the word. Instead, pronounce the word, break it into
spoken syllables, and then write it one syllable at a time. Finally, discuss the meanings of parts of
the word (i.e., “atmos” is Greek for “vapor, steam,” and “sphere” is Greek for “globe, ball”).

7. Cue the "ABCs"

Have students use each letter of the alphabet to begin a word that relates to a specific topic. For
example, if the topic is weather, students may choose the word “arid” for the letter A, the word
“barometer” for letter B, and so forth.

8. Use Nonsense Words

Use nonsense words to assess students' knowledge of the alphabetic principle.

9. Employ the 3-2-1 Strategy

Use the 3-2-1 strategy to measure student engagement. After students read a passage, have them
write 3 things they learned, 2 things that are interesting, and 1 question they may have about
what they read.

10. Inference
To teach inference, gather a suitcase full of objects, and have students describe what the owner
of the suitcase must be like based on inferences made from the items in the suitcase. Relate the
activity to clues that the author gives in a story or passage from which students can draw
inferences.

For Higher Grades

Instructional Aid 1.1: Seven Strategies of Highly Effective Readers

Strategy Definition Strategy Definition
"Priming the cognitive pump" in order to recall relevant prior
Activating knowledge and experiences from long-term memory in order to extract
and construct meaning from text
Bringing together what is spoken (written) in the text, what is
Inferring unspoken (unwritten) in the text, and what is already known by the
reader in order to extract and construct meaning from the text
Thinking about how and what one is reading, both during and after the
Monitoring-
act of reading, for purposes of determining if one is comprehending the
Clarifying
text combined with the ability to clarify and fix up any mix-ups
Engaging in learning dialogues with text (authors), peers, and teachers
Questioning
through self-questioning, question generation, and question answering
Searching a variety of sources in order to select appropriate
Searching-Selecting information to answer questions, define words and terms, clarify
misunderstandings, solve problems, or gather information
Restating the meaning of text in one's own words — different words
Summarizing
from those used in the original text
Visualizing- Constructing a mental image or graphic organizer for the purpose of
Organizing extracting and constructing meaning from the text