This is a catalogue of many of the equations that you could be expected

to know for the Edexcel Chemistry syllabus A 1530.

You need to have learned the formulae of the ions and the rules for
forming covalent compounds before you can understand equations
properly.

The reactions are listed in syllabus order. For some (for example the
displacement reactions of halide ions by more reactive halogens) I have
given an example that can easily be extended to the other reactions
necessary.
 
There are some categories that could have thousands of examples –
exothermic reactions or redox reactions, say – so I have given enough
to enable the principles to be shown.

In most cases state symbols are included. However for some reactions
or half-reactions this is difficult – thus the half-equations for the
electrolysis of aluminium oxide in molten cryolite do not lend
themselves to state symbols.

The only way to learn the reactions is to write them out from memory –
if you do so you will not only understand your Chemistry much better
since patterns will emerge, but you will also score significantly higher
marks!

 
 
Alkali metals, group 1.
 
 
Reaction with water: all the group 1 metals behave similarly.

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

 
The reactivity increases down the group, with increasing atomic size.
The solution produced is alkaline.

 
 
The halogens, group 7.
 
 
Halogens react directly with many metals on heating to give the metal  
halide. In most cases the reactions are similar for chlorine, bromine or
iodine.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g)  2NaCl(s)

Mg(s)  + Cl2(g)  MgCl2(s)

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g)  2FeCl3(s)

 
Hydrogen burns in halogens to give the hydrogen halide; the reaction is
important in producing hydrogen chloride and hence, by dissolving this
in water, hydrochloric acid:
 
H2(g) + Cl2(g)   2HCl(g)
 
The halogens are oxidising agents; chlorine is stronger than bromine
which is stronger than iodine. Chlorine is used commercially to extract
bromine by oxidation of bromide ions in seawater:

2Br – (aq) + Cl2(g)  Br2(aq) + 2Cl – (aq)

 
Both chlorine and bromine will oxidise iodide ions to iodine:

2I – (aq)  + Cl2(g)   I2(aq) + 2Cl – (aq)

2I – (aq) + Br2(aq)  I2(aq) + 2Br – (aq)

 

 
 
Transition metals
 
 
Transition metals or their compounds are used as catalysts for some
important industrial processes:

      Iron in the Haber process for the manufacture of ammonia:

N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)

 
      Vanadium pentoxide in the Contact Process for the
manufacture of sulphur trioxide and hence sulphuric acid:

2SO2(g) + O2(g)  2SO3(g)

 

 
 
Chemicals from salt
 
 
Electrolysis of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution is used to  
manufacture chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide.

The solution contains the ions Na+, H+, Cl – , OH – .

At the anode chloride ions are discharged in preference to hydroxide

ions, and chlorine is liberated:

2Cl – (aq) + 2 e –    Cl2(g)

At the cathode hydrogen ions are discharged in preference to sodium

ions, and hydrogen is liberated:

2H+(aq) + 2e –   H2(g)

The sodium and hydroxide ions remain in solution.

 
 
Chemicals from calcium carbonate
 
 
Calcium oxide decomposes on strong heating:

CaCO3(s)   CaO(s)  +  CO2(g)

This reaction is important in cement manufacture and in the blast

furnace.

Calcium oxide reacts exothermically with water; steam will be evolved:  

CaO(s)  +  H2O(l)   Co(OH)2 (aq)

The solution produced is limewater.

Both calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide are bases and being
relatively cheap are used to neutralise soil acidity.

 
 
Extraction and uses of metals.
 
 
The reaction of a substance with oxygen is obviously oxidation:  

2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)

CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)  6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

Reduction can be seen as the inverse process where oxygen is removed:

 CuO(s) + H2(g)  Cu(s) + H2O(g) on heating

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)  2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g) in blast furnace

 
Extraction of aluminium:
 
 
At the anode of the electrolytic cell, oxide ions are oxidised to oxygen
which immediately reacts with the graphite anode, this having to be
replaced from time to time:
 
2O2 –   O2 + 4e –

C + O2  CO2
 
Aluminium ions are reduced to molten aluminium at the cathode:
 
Al3+ +  3 e –   Al
 
Reduction of ores using carbon monoxide or
carbon: making metals useful  
 
A wide variety of oxides of less reactive metals can be reduced by
carbon or carbon monoxide:

Fe2O3 + 3C  2Fe + 3CO

 
Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2

CuO + C  Cu + CO

CuO + CO  Cu + CO2
 
For production of iron:

Coke is added to produce heat and the reducing agent, CO; these
reactions occur near the air inlet.
 
C + O2  CO2     + heat; an exothermic reaction.

CO2 + C  2CO   an endothermic reaction

 
CO reduces the iron ore; there is also some reduction with unburnt  
carbon higher up the furnace. The reaction with CO is endothermic and
uses about half the energy in the furnace:

Fe2O3 +  3CO   2Fe  +  3CO2

 Fe2O3 +  3C   2Fe  +  3CO
 
The main impurity in the ore is silica, SiO2. This is acidic and reacts
with CaO (a base) to give molten slag CaSiO3. CaO is produced from
limestone in an endothermic reaction by heating :
 
CaCO3   CaO  + CO2

CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3

 

 
 
Useful products from crude oil
 
 
Combustion of alkanes:

CH4(g)  +  2O2(g)    CO2(g)  +  2H2O(g)  +  heat

 
C8H18(l)  +  12½ O2(g)    8CO2(g)  +  9H2O(g)  +  heat
 
Incomplete combustion in limited oxygen always gives several
reactions; some carbon dioxide is always formed, together with carbon
monoxide and possibly carbon:
 
CH4(g)  +  1 ½ O2(g)    CO(g)  +  2H2O(g)

CH4(g)  +  O2(g)   C(s) + 2H2O(g)

 
Note in all cases the water is shown as (g) because initially that is what
it will be. The hydrocarbon is shown in its normal state at r.t., though in
 
fact it is only the vapour of the hydrocarbon that burns.
 
Test for CO2: forms a white precipitate with limewater.
 
CO2(aq)  +  Ca(OH)2(aq)    CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
 
Cracking alkanes gives alkenes and smaller alkanes; in the lab
aluminium oxide can be used as the catalyst, though the products are
rather random. In industry conditions are chosen to give the products
desired. A possible reaction is:  

C12H26(g)   C8H18(g) + 2 CH2=CH2 (g)

 
Alkenes react with bromine water to give a colour change from orange
to colourless (NOT clear!):
 
CH2=CH2 (g)  +  Br2(aq)    BrCH2CH2Br (l)
 
Alkenes can polymerise to give poly(alkenes) with very long carbon
chains – 10,000 or more carbon atoms.
 
n CH2=CH2   (CH2=CH2)n
 

 
 
Energy transfers accompanying reactions
 
 
Exothermic reactions give out heat; most reactions are exothermic. The
examples can be extended indefinitely!

CH4(g)  +  2O2(g)    CO2(g)  +  2H2O(g)  +  heat

C8H18(l)  +  12½ O2(g)    8CO2(g)  +  9H2O(g)  +  heat  

C6H12O6  +  6O2   6CO2 + 6H2O  (respiration)

N2(g)  +  3H2(g)    2NH3(g)  (Haber process)

 
Endothermic reactions take in heat:

N2(g) + O2(g)   2NO(g)  (in internal combustion engines)

 
6CO2 + 6H2O    C6H12O6  +  6O2 (photosynthesis)

Photosynthesis is an endergonic process – it takes in light rather than

heat as its energy source, and it isn’t a single reaction so is a process. 

 
 
Changing materials – the environment
 
 
Haber process:
 
N2(g)  +  3H2(g)    2NH3(g) 
 
Production of ammonium nitrate fertiliser:
 
NH3(aq)  +  HNO3(aq)    NH4NO3(aq)
 

 
 
Preparing and analysing
 
 
Insoluble salts can be made using precipitation reactions – these also  
form the basis for qualitative analysis (below). The common insoluble
salts are:

Chlorides: silver and lead

Ag+(aq)  +  Cl – (aq)   AgCl(s)

Pb2+(aq)  +  2Cl – (aq)   PbCl2(s)

Sulphates: lead, barium and calcium:

Pb2+(aq)  +  SO42 – (aq)   PbSO4(s)

Ba2+(aq)  +  SO42 – (aq)   BaSO4(s)

Ca2+(aq)  +  SO42 – (aq)   CaSO4(s)

Since CaSO4 is not totally insoluble (hard water contains it) the latter
reaction requires concentrated solutions.

Carbonates and hydroxides: all of these are insoluble apart from

compounds of ammonium and group 1 cations. The examples given are
of one specific reaction for each and a general reaction for each:

Ca2+(aq)  +  CO32 – (aq)    CaCO3(s)

M2+(aq)  +  CO32 – (aq)    MCO3(s)

Cu2+(aq)  +  2OH – (aq)    Cu(OH)2(s)

Mx+(aq)  +  xOH – (aq)    M(OH)x(s)

 

 
 
Tests for gases
 
 
H2 If lit burns with a squeaky pop if mixed with air, which it usually
is when tested in the lab:
 
2H2(g) + O2(g)    2H2O(g)
 
O2 Relights a glowing splint – a good example of the effect of
concentration on reaction rate.  
 
CO2 Gives a white precipitate when bubbled through limewater;  
prolonged bubbling causes the precipitate to disappear:

CO2(aq)  +  Ca(OH)2(aq)   CaCO3(s)  +  H2O(l)

CaCO3(s)  +  CO2(aq)  +  H2O(l)   Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

  
HCl       Turns moist blue litmus red;

      gives a white precipitate if a drop of silver nitrate

solution is held in the gas:

AgNO3(aq)  +  HCl(aq)    AgCl(s)  +  HNO3(aq)

 
      forms a white smoke if an open bottle of conc ammonia
is held near to it:

NH3(g)  +  HCl(g)    NH4Cl(s)

 
NH3       Turns moist red litmus blue – it is the only common
alkaline gas.
 
      Forms a white smoke if an open bottle of conc HCl is
held near to it – see above.
 
SO2 If moist orange potassium dichromate paper is held in SO2 the
paper turns green. Alternatively the gas may be bubbled through  
a solution of potassium dichromate(VI)

 
 
Tests for ions
 
 
The tests need to have simple visual results – they work because the
number of ions that you analyse is quite small. As the number of
 
possible ions increases, so do the complexity of the tests.
 
H+(aq):

      turns blue litmus red

      gives CO2 (test with limewater) with sodium carbonate or

 
sodium hydrogen carbonate

      liberates hydrogen from magnesium ribbon

 
Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Cu2+ all give colours to a flame:
 
  Na+ yellow or orange
  K+ lilac  
2+
  Ca brick red or orange-red
  Cu2+ green with blue centre
 
The tests do not involve chemical reactions so there are no equations for 
them.
 
Sodium hydroxide solution reacts with solutions of ions as follows:
 
Al3+(aq) +  3OH – (aq)   white ppt which dissolves in
Al3+
Al(OH)3(s) excess NaOH
2+ –
Ca (aq) +  2OH (aq)   white ppt insoluble in excess
Ca2+
Ca(OH)2(s) NaOH
2+ –
Cu (aq) +  2OH (aq)  
Cu2+ blue ppt  
Cu(OH)2(s)
Fe2+(aq) +  2OH – (aq)  
Fe2+ dirty green ppt
Fe(OH)2(s)
Fe3+(aq) +  3OH – (aq)  
Fe3+ foxy-red ppt
Fe(OH)3(s)
NH4+ (aq) + OH – (aq)   NH3(g)  on warming evolves a gas that
NH4+
+  H2O(l) turns red litmus blue
   
Carbonates give CO2 with dilute hydrochloric acid and fizz vigorously:
 
CO32 – (aq)  +  2H+(aq)   CO2(g)  +  H2O(l)
 
Sulphites give SO2 on warming with dilute hydrochloric acid; the SO2
turns orange potassium dichromate(VI) paper green.
 
SO32 – (aq)  +  2H+(aq)   SO2(g)  +  H2O(l)
 
Sulphates give a white precipitate of barium sulphate with barium
chloride or barium nitrate solution:
 
2+ 2–
Ba (aq)  +  SO4 (aq)    BaSO4(s)
 
Halide (chloride, bromide or iodide) gives a precipitate with silver
nitrate solution, which may or may not dissolve in ammonia solution:

                                                                      Ag+(aq)  +  X – (aq)   

AgX(s)

Ag+(aq)  +  Cl – (aq)    white ppt soluble in dilute

Cl –
AgCl(s) ammonia  
 
   
Ag+(aq)  +  Br – (aq)    cream ppt soluble in conc but not
Br –
  AgBr(s) dilute ammonia
   
I– + –
Ag (aq)  +  I (aq)    AgI(s) yellow ppt insoluble in ammonia
 
   
Hydroxide, OH –  ions can be tested for using any of the reactions
above as well as turning red litmus blue. Note that these tests only show
 
the presence of hydroxide ions, not that the substance is a hydroxide.
Any alkaline solution will do the same thing, e.g. a carbonate.
  
 
Hard water  
   
2+ 2+
Hardness in water is due to the presence of Ca and Mg ions. They
almost always occur together – in the equations that follow magnesium
 
could equally well be used instead of calcium.
 
Soap is the sodium salt of various long-chain organic acids, e.g. stearic
acid gives sodium stearate, C17H35COONa.  Scum is formed by
precipitation of the insoluble calcium salts of these acids:
 
2C17H35COO – (aq)  +  Ca2+(aq)    (C17H35COO)2Ca (s)
 
Hardness is of two varieties – usually hard water has both:

      Temporary: formed by reaction between carbon dioxide

dissolved in rainwater and limestone, chalk or marble, i.e. calcium
carbonate, giving calcium hydrogen carbonate in solution:

CO2(aq) + H2O(l) + CaCO3(s)   Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

      This reaction is reversed when the water is boiled, giving a

 
precipitate of  calcium carbonate as fur or scale:

   Ca(HCO3)2(aq)      CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaCO3(s) 

      Permanently hard water is caused by water dissolving the

sparingly-soluble rock gypsum, which is calcium sulphate:

CaSO4(s)  +  aq    Ca2+(aq)  +  SO42 – m(aq)

 
Water can be softened

      By reacting it with sodium carbonate which precipitates the

calcium ions as calcium carbonate:

Ca2+(aq)  +  CO32 – (aq)      CaCO3(s)

 
      By reacting it with an ion exchange resin, which exchanges
sodium ions on its surface for calcium ions in solution:

2 resin-Na+(s)  +  Ca2+(aq)    (resin)2-Ca2+(s)  +  Na+(aq)

      By distillation – this is too expensive for large-scale use.

 

 
 
Sulphuric acid  
   
Sulphuric acid is made from sulphur or sulphide ores; firstly sulphur
dioxide is obtained by burning liquid sulphur

S(l)  +  O2(g)    SO2(g)

 
or by roasting an ore such as iron pyrites FeS2 in air:

4FeS2(s)  + 11 O2(g)   2 Fe2O3(s)  +  8 SO2(g)

 
Sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphur dioxide using a temp of around
430oC and a catalyst of vanadium(V) oxide:
 
SO2(g)  + ½ O2(g)    SO3(g)
 
Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in 98% sulphuric acid and reacts with the
water to make a more concentrated acid which is then diluted: the net
effect is
 
SO3(g) +  H2O(l)    H2SO4(l)
 

 
 
Organic chemistry
 
 
Ethanol is produced by fermentation; the overall process from glucose
is:
 
C6H12O6   2CH3CH2OH +  2CO2
 
Ethanol for solvent use is produced by hydration of ethane at 67atm,
350oC, and a catalyst of H3PO4:
 
CH2=CH2(g)  +  H2O(g)    CH3CH2OH(g)
 
Ethanol is used as a fuel:
 
CH3CH2OH(l)  +  3 O2(g)    2CO2(g)  +  3H2O(l)  +  heat
 
Ethanol slowly oxidises in air to give ethanoic acid – this reaction spoils
wine. All the states are (aq) since this reaction happens in aqueous
solution/
 
CH3CH2OH(aq)  +  O2(aq)    CH3COOH(aq) +  H2O(l)
 
Ethanoic acid is a typical acid although since it is only about 1%  
dissociated at room temperature its reactions are much slower than
those of, say, hydrochloric acid of the same concentration.

      With reactive metals:

Mg(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)  Mg(CH3COOH)2 (aq)  +  H2(g)

      With carbonates:

Na2CO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq)  2CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

      With sodium hydroxide:

NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)    CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

 
Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to give an ester, ethyl ethanoate:
 
CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH   CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
 
Homologous series: the names and structures of…..
 
 
….the first four  
  alkanes:    
 
  methane CH4  
  ethane CH3CH3  
  propane CH3CH2CH3  
  butane CH3CH2CH2CH3  
       
….the first four
  alkenes:    
 
  ethene CH2=CH2  
  propene CH2=CHCH3  
  but-1-ene CH2=CHCH2CH3  
  pent-1-ene CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3  
       
…the first four
  (primary) alcohols:    
 
  methanol CH3OH  
  ethanol CH3CH2OH  
  propan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2OH  
  butan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2CH2OH  
       
…the first four
  carboxylic acids:    
 
  methanoic acid HCOOH  
  ethanoic acid CH3COOH  
  propanoic acid CH3CH2COOH  
  butanoic acid CH3CH2CH2COOH  

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Dr Rod Beavon   17 Dean's Yard   London SW1P 3PB

email: rod.beavon@westminster.org.uk