Coordinates: 36°N 138°E

Japan

Japan (/dʒəˈpæn/; Japanese: 日 本 , Nippon [ɲippoꜜɴ]

( listen) or Nihon [ɲihoꜜɴ] ( listen))[b] is an island country
Japan
located off the eastern coast of the Asian continent. It is 日本国 (Japanese)
bordered by the Sea of Japan to the west and the Pacific Ocean Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku
to the east, and extends more than 3,000 kilometers (1,900
miles) from the Sea of Okhotsk in the northeast to the East
China Sea in the southwest. Part of the Pacific Ring of Fire,
Japan encompasses a stratovolcanic archipelago of 6,852
islands; five main islands (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu,
Shikoku, and Okinawa) comprise 97% of the country's land
area of 377,975 square kilometers (145,937 sq mi) and more Flag Imperial Seal
than 99% of its population. Anthem: "Kimigayo" (君が代)
(English: "His Imperial Majesty's
Japan is officially divided into 47 prefectures and traditionally Reign")[1]
into eight regions. About three-fourths of the country's terrain
is mountainous, with much of the remainder made up by low- 0:00 / 0:00
lying coastal plains. As a result, Japan is among the most
densely populated and urbanized countries in the world, with
more than 90% of its population living in urban areas. The Government Seal of Japan
largest of these is the Greater Tokyo Area centered on the
capital city of Tokyo, which is the most populous metropolitan
area in the world and home to more than 38 million people.
Japan is the eleventh most populous country in the world with
a population of 126.2 million, of which 97.8% are ethnically 5-7 Paulownia (五七桐, go-shichi kiri)
Japanese.

The kanji (or "Chinese characters") that make up the name of

Japan in the Japanese language mean "sun origin"; in the
Western world, the country is sometimes known by the
sobriquet "Land of the Rising Sun". Periods of influence from
other regions, primarily China, followed by periods of
isolation, particularly from Western Europe, have characterized
the history of Japan.

While archaeological evidence indicates that Japan was

inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first
written mentions of the country appear in Chinese texts from
the first century AD. Between the fourth and ninth centuries, Japanese territory in dark green; claimed
but uncontrolled territory in light green
the kingdoms of Japan became gradually unified under an
Emperor and imperial court based in Heian-kyō (modern Capital Tokyo
and largest city 35°41′N 139°46′E
Kyoto). Beginning in the twelfth century, however, political
power came to be held by a succession of military dictators National language Japanese
(shōgun), feudal lords (daimyō), and a class of warrior nobility Ethnic groups 97.8%
(samurai). After a century-long period of civil war, the country (2019)[2] Japanese[a]
was reunified in 1603 under the Tokugawa shogunate, which
0.6% Chinese
enacted a policy of foreign isolationism. This period ended in
1854 when a United States fleet forced Japan to open to the 0.4% Korean
West, leading to the fall of the shogunate and the restoration of 1.2% other
imperial power in 1868. In the resulting Meiji period, Japan
Demonym(s) Japanese
adopted a Western-style government and pursued a program of
industrialization and modernization, which transformed the Government Unitary
feudal society into a great power. By 1920, Japan had parliamentary
established a colonial empire in East Asia after decisive constitutional
monarchy
victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese
War. In 1937, the Empire of Japan invaded China, beginning • Emperor Naruhito
the Second Sino-Japanese War; in 1940, it signed the Tripartite • Prime Minister Shinzō Abe
Pact and entered World War II the following year on the side Legislature National Diet
of the Axis powers. After suffering major defeats in the Pacific • Upper house House of
and the atomic bombings of the cities of Hiroshima and Councillors
Nagasaki, Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945, coming • Lower house House of
under a seven-year occupation and adopting a post-war Representatives
constitution. Japan has since maintained a unitary Formation
parliamentary constitutional monarchy with the Emperor as the • National February 11,
head of state and an elected legislature known as the National Foundation Day 660 BC
Diet. • Meiji Constitution November 29,
1890
Today, Japan is a member of numerous international • Current constitution May 3, 1947
institutions, including the United Nations, the OECD, the G7, • Treaty of San April 28, 1952
and the G20. Though it has officially renounced its right to Francisco
declare war, Japan maintains a modern military for Area
peacekeeping and self-defense, which has been ranked as the • Total 377,975 km2
world's fourth most powerful. Following World War II, Japan (145,937 sq mi)[3]
experienced record economic growth, becoming the world's (61st)
second-largest economy by 1980. As of 2019, Japan's Population
economy is the world's third-largest by nominal GDP and • 2019 estimate 126,150,000[4]
fourth-largest by purchasing power parity; it is also the fourth- (11th)
largest importer and exporter and an international leader in the • 2015 census 127,094,745[5]
automotive and electronics industries. Japan is categorized as • Density 334/km2
"very high" on the Human Development Index, and its (865.1/sq mi)
population enjoys high levels of tertiary education and the (24th)
highest life expectancy in the world, though it is currently is GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate
experiencing a projected decline due to aging and low birth • Total $5.888
rates. Culturally, Japan is renowned around the world for its trillion[6] (4th)
art, cuisine, cinema, music, and popular culture, including its • Per capita $46,827 (28th)
prominent comics, animation, and video game industries.
GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate
• Total $5.413
trillion[6] (3rd)
Contents • Per capita $43,043 (22nd)
Gini (2015) 33.9[7]
Etymology medium · 78th
History
HDI (2018) 0.915[8]
Prehistoric to classical history very high · 19th
Feudal era
Currency Japanese yen (¥)
Modern era (JPY)
Geography Time zone UTC+09:00 (JST)
Climate
Driving side left
Biodiversity
 Environment Calling code +81

Politics ISO 3166 code JP

Administrative divisions Internet TLD .jp
Foreign relations
Military Japan
Domestic law enforcement Japanese name
Economy Kanji 日本国
Agriculture and fishery
Hiragana にっぽんこく
Industry にほんこく
Services
Katakana ニッポンコク
Tourism
ニホンコク
Science and technology
Infrastructure
Transportation
Energy
Water supply and sanitation
Demographics
Religion
Languages
Education
Health
Culture
Art and architecture
Literature and philosophy
Performing arts
Etiquette
Cuisine
Holidays and festivals
Media
Sports
See also
Notes
References
External links

Etymology
The Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nihon or Nippon. The character nichi (日) means
"sun" or "day"; hon (本) means "base" or "origin".[9] The compound therefore means "origin of the sun" and
is the source of the popular Western epithet "Land of the Rising Sun".[10]

The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese Old Book of Tang. Prior to the adoption of
Nihon, other terms such as Yamato (大和, or "Great Wa") and Wakoku (倭国) were used. The term Wa (和)
is a homophone of Wo 倭 (pronounced "Wa" by the Japanese), which has been used by the Chinese as a
designation for the Japanese as early as the third century Three
Kingdoms period. However, the Japanese disliked some connotation
of Wa 倭 (which has been associated in China with concepts like
"dwarf" or "pygmy"), and it was therefore replaced with the
substitute character Wa ( 和 ), meaning "togetherness,
harmony".[11][12]
The "King of Na gold seal", said to
The English word Japan possibly derives from the historical Chinese
have been granted to Na king of Wa
pronunciation of 日 本 . Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as
(Japan) by Emperor Guangwu of
Cipangu.[13] The old Malay word for Japan, Japun or Japang, was Han in 57 CE. The seal reads "漢委
borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect[14] and was 奴國王". Tokyo National Museum
encountered by Portuguese traders in Southeast Asia in the 16th
century.[15] These Early Portuguese traders then brought the word to
Europe.[16] The first record of this name in English is in a book published in 1577 and spelled Giapan, in a
translation of a 1565 letter written by Portuguese Jesuit Luís Fróis.[17][18]

History

Prehistoric to classical history

A Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known

habitation of the Japanese archipelago. This was followed from
around 14,000 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to
Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture characterized by pit
dwelling and rudimentary agriculture.[22] Jōmon pottery and
decorated clay vessels from this period are some of the oldest
surviving examples of pottery in the world.[23][24] Around 300 BC,
the Yayoi people began to enter the Japanese islands, intermingling
with the Jōmon.[25] The Yayoi period, starting around 500 BC, saw
the introduction of practices like wet-rice farming,[26] a new style of
pottery[27] and metallurgy, introduced from China and Korea.[28]

Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese Book of Han.[29]

According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms, the most powerful
kingdom on the archipelago during the third century was called
Yamataikoku. Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Baekje,
Korea and was promoted by Prince Shōtoku, but the subsequent
Emperor Jimmu (神武天皇, Jinmu- development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by
tennō), the first Emperor of Japan China.[30] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the
dated as 660 BCE.[19][20][21] In ruling class and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the
modern Japan his accession is
Asuka period (592–710).[31]
marked as National Foundation Day
on February 11. After defeat in the Battle of Baekgang by the Chinese Tang empire,
the Japanese government devised and implemented the far-reaching
Taika Reforms. It nationalized all land in Japan, to be distributed
equally among cultivators, and ordered the compilation of a household registry as the basis for a new system
of taxation.[32] The Jinshin War of 672, a bloody conflict between Prince Ōama and his nephew Prince
Ōtomo, became a major catalyst for further administrative reforms.[33] These reforms culminated with the
promulgation of the Taihō Code, which consolidated existing statutes and established the structure of the
central and subordinate local governments.[32] These legal reforms created the ritsuryō state, a system of
Chinese-style centralized government that remained in place for half a millennium.[33]

The Nara period (710–784) marked an emergence of the Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court in
Heijō-kyō (modern Nara) and is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literature as well as the
development of Buddhist-inspired art and architecture.[34] The smallpox epidemic of 735–737 is believed to
have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.[35] In 784, Emperor Kanmu moved the capital from
Nara to Nagaoka-kyō, then to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto) in 794. This marked the beginning of the Heian
period (794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged. Murasaki Shikibu's The
Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem "Kimigayo" were written during this time.[36]

Feudal era

Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and

dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185,
following the defeat of the Taira clan in the Genpei War, samurai
Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed shōgun by Emperor Go-Toba.
In 1192, the shōgun Yoritomo and the Minamoto clan established a
feudal military government in Kamakura.[37] After Yoritomo's death, Samurai warriors facing Mongols
the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the shōguns. The Zen during the Mongol invasions of
school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura Japan; Suenaga, 1293
period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai
class.[38] The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in
1274 and 1281, but was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo was himself defeated by
Ashikaga Takauji in 1336. Ashikaga Takauji established the Ashikaga shogunate in Muromachi, beginning
the Muromachi period (1336–1573). The culture based on Zen Buddhism (the art of Miyabi) evolved to
Higashiyama Culture. However, the Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyōs) and
a civil war (the Ōnin War) began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period ("Warring States").[39]

During the 16th century, Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries reached Japan for the first time,
initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. This allowed Oda
Nobunaga to obtain European technology and firearms, which he used to conquer many other daimyōs. His
consolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603). After
Nobunaga was assassinated in 1582 by Akechi Mitsuhide, his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the
nation in 1590 and launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597.

Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son and used his position to gain political and military
support. When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.
Tokugawa Ieyasu was appointed shōgun by Emperor Go-Yōzei in 1603 and established the Tokugawa
shogunate in Edo (modern Tokyo).[40] The shogunate enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code
of conduct to control the autonomous daimyōs,[41] and in 1639 the isolationist sakoku ("closed country")
policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–
1868).[42] Modern Japan's economic growth began in this period, resulting in roads and water transportation
routes, as well as financial instruments such as futures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka rice
brokers.[43] The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued through contact with the Dutch
enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku ("national studies"), the study of
Japan by the Japanese.[44]

Modern era

Emperor Meiji (1868–1912),
in whose name imperial rule
was restored at the end of
the Tokugawa shogunate
On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of
the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world
with the Convention of Kanagawa. Similar treaties with Western countries in
the Bakumatsu period brought economic and political crises. The resignation
of the shōgun led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized
state nominally unified under the Emperor (the Meiji Restoration).[45] Japan
adopted Western political, judicial and military institutions and Western
cultural influences. The Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the
Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial Diet. During the Meiji
period, Japan expanded economically with the embrace of the market
economy, and emerged as the most developed nation in Asia during a period
of growth that lasted until the Great Depression.[46][47][48] Although France
and Britain showed some interest, the European powers largely ignored
Japan and instead concentrated on the much greater attractions of China.[49]
After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-
Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea and the
southern half of Sakhalin.[50] Japan's population grew from 35 million in
1873 to 70 million by 1935.[51]

The early 20th century saw a period of Taishō democracy (1912–1926) accompanied by expansionism and
militarization. In World War I, Japan joined the Allies and captured German possessions, and made
advances into China. The 1920s saw a political shift towards statism, the passing of laws against political
dissent and a series of attempted coups. This process accelerated during the 1930s, spawning a number of
new Radical Nationalist groups that shared a hostility to liberal democracy and a dedication to expansion in
Asia. In 1931 Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria and following international condemnation of this
occupation, it quit the League of Nations in 1933. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with
Germany and the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis Powers.

The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937,

precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). The
Imperial Japanese Army swiftly captured the capital Nanjing and
conducted the Nanjing Massacre.[52] In 1940, the Empire invaded
French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil
embargo on Japan.[53] On December 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces
carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, British forces in
Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong and declared war on the United
States and the British Empire, beginning World War II in the Pacific.
After Allied victories during the next four years, which culminated
in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional
surrender.[54] The war cost Japan, its colonies, China and the war's
other combatants tens of millions of lives and left much of Japan's Japanese officials surrendering to the
industry and infrastructure destroyed. The Allies (led by the United Allies on September 2, 1945, in
States) repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from colonies and Tokyo Bay, ending World War II
military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating the Japanese
empire and its influence over its conquered territories.[55] The Allies
also convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East to prosecute some senior generals for war
crimes.

In 1947, during the post-war Shōwa period, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal
democratic practices. The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952[56] and Japan
was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Japan later achieved rapid growth to become the
second-largest economy in the world. The period of overall real economic growth from the 1960s to the
1980s has been called the Japanese post-war economic miracle: it averaged 7.5 percent in the 1960s and
1970s, and 3.2 percent in the 1980s and early 1990s.[57] This ended in the mid-1990s during the "Lost
Decade" due to after-effects of the Japanese asset price bubble and government policies intended to wring
speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Efforts to revive economic growth were
unsuccessful and further hampered by the global slowdown in 2000.[58] In the early 21st century, positive
growth has signaled a gradual economic recovery.[59] On March 11, 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest
earthquakes in its recorded history; this triggered the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, one of the worst
disasters in the history of nuclear power.[60] On May 1, 2019, after the historic abdication of Emperor
Akihito, his son Naruhito became the new Emperor, ending the Heisei Imperial Era and beginning the Reiwa
Era.[61]

Geography
Japan comprises 6,852 islands extending along the Pacific coast. It
stretches over 3,000 km (1,900 mi) from the Sea of Okhotsk to the
Philippine Sea in the Pacific Ocean.[62] The five main islands, from
north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and
Okinawa.[63] The Ryukyu Islands, which include Okinawa, are a
chain to the south of Kyushu. The Nanpō Islands are south and east
of the main islands of Japan. Together they are often known as the
Japanese archipelago.[64] As of 2019, Japan's territory is
377,975.24 km2 (145,937.06 sq mi).[3] Japan has the sixth longest
coastline in the world (29,751 km (18,486 mi)). Due to its many far-
flung outlying islands, Japan has the eighth largest Exclusive
Economic Zone in the world covering 4,470,000 km2
(1,730,000 sq mi).[65]

About 73 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous and unsuitable

for agricultural, industrial or residential use.[58][66] As a result, the The Japanese archipelago as seen
habitable zones, mainly located in coastal areas, have extremely high from satellite
population densities. Japan is one of the most densely populated
countries in the world.[67] Approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area
is reclaimed land (umetatechi). Late 20th and early 21st century projects include artificial islands such as
Chubu Centrair International Airport in Ise Bay, Kansai International Airport in the middle of Osaka Bay,
Yokohama Hakkeijima Sea Paradise and Wakayama Marina City.[68]

The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on the Pacific

Ring of Fire. They are primarily the result of large oceanic
movements occurring from the mid-Silurian to the Pleistocene as a
result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the
continental Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate to the south, and
subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Okhotsk Plate to the north.
Japan was originally attached to the eastern coast of the Eurasian
continent; the subducting plates pulled Japan eastward, opening the
Sea of Japan around 15 million years ago.[69] Japan has 108 active
Sakurajima is the most active
volcanoes. During the twentieth century several new volcanoes volcano in Japan
emerged, including Shōwa-shinzan on Hokkaido and Myōjin-shō off
the Bayonnaise Rocks in the Pacific. Destructive earthquakes, often
resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century.[70] The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000
people.[71] More recent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku
earthquake, which triggered a large tsunami.[60] Japan is substantially prone to earthquakes, tsunami and
volcanoes due to its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire.[72] It has the 15th highest natural disaster risk as
measured in the 2013 World Risk Index.[73]

Climate

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly

from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six
principal climatic zones: Hokkaido, Sea of Japan, Central Highland,
Seto Inland Sea, Pacific Ocean, and Ryukyu Islands. The
northernmost zone, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate with
long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers. Precipitation is
not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the
winter.[74] In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshu's west coast,
Autumn maple leaves (momiji) at
northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall. In the summer, the
Kongōbu-ji on Mount Kōya, a
region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes
UNESCO World Heritage Site
experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the foehn. The
Central Highland has a typical inland humid continental climate,
with large temperature differences between summer and winter
seasons, as well as large diurnal variation; precipitation is light, though winters are usually snowy. The
mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing
mild weather year-round.[74] The Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climate that experiences milder
winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The
Ryukyu and Nanpō Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is
very heavy, especially during the rainy season.[74]

The average winter temperature in Japan is 5.1 °C (41.2 °F) and the average summer temperature is 25.2 °C
(77.4 °F).[75] The highest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.1 °C (106.0 °F), was recorded on July 23,
2018.[76] The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north
until reaching Hokkaido in late July. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.[75]

Biodiversity

Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and
geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist
broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands, to temperate
broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main
islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions
of the northern islands.[77] Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife,
including the brown bear, the Japanese macaque, the Japanese
raccoon dog, the large Japanese field mouse, and the Japanese giant
salamander.[78] A large network of national parks has been
The Japanese macaques at
Jigokudani hot spring
established to protect important areas of flora and fauna as well as
thirty-seven Ramsar wetland sites.[79][80] Four sites have been
inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding
natural value.[81]

Environment
In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the
government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s
and 1960s. Responding to rising concern about the problem, the government introduced several
environmental protection laws in 1970.[82] The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy
because of Japan's lack of natural resources.[83]

As of 2015, more than 40 coal-fired power plants are planned or under construction in Japan, following the
switching-off of Japan's nuclear fleet following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster. Prior to this incident,
Japan's emissions had been on the decline, largely due to nuclear power plants creating no emissions. Japan
ranks 20th in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index, which measures a nation's commitment to
environmental sustainability.[84] As the host and signatory of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, Japan is under treaty
obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.[85] Current
environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste
management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and
international co-operation for conservation.[86]

Politics
Japan is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state whereby the Emperor is a ceremonial figurehead.
Executive power is wielded chiefly by the Prime Minister and his cabinet, while sovereignty is vested in the
Japanese people.[87] The Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947, is the oldest unamended constitution in the
world.[88]

Japan's legislative body is the National Diet, a bicameral body

comprising the lower House of Representatives with 465 seats,
elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved; and the
upper House of Councillors with 242 seats, whose popularly elected
members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for those
over 18 years of age,[89] with a secret ballot for all elected
offices.[87] The Diet is currently dominated by the conservative
Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), with the largest opposition party
being the social-liberal Constitutional Democratic Party (CDP). The The National Diet Building, seat of
LDP has enjoyed near-continuous electoral success since 1955. As both houses of the National Diet of
of July 2019, it holds 285 seats in the lower house and 113 seats in Japan.
the upper house. The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of
government and is appointed by the Emperor after being designated
by the Diet from among its members. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet, and appoints and
dismisses the Ministers of State. Following the LDP's victory in the 2012 general election, Shinzō Abe
replaced Yoshihiko Noda as the Prime Minister on December 26, 2012.[90]

Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo
period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.[91] However, since the late 19th century the judicial
system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. For example, in 1896, the
Japanese government established a civil code based on a draft of the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, with
the code remaining in effect with post–World War II modifications.[92] Statutory law originates in Japan's
legislature and has the rubber stamp of the Emperor. Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the
Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.[93] The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the
Six Codes.[94]

Administrative divisions
Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative
bureaucracy.[95] Each prefecture is further divided into cities, towns and villages.[96]

Foreign relations

A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has served
as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 20 years.
It is one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the
Security Council.[97] Japan is a member of the G7, APEC, and
"ASEAN Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit.
Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March 2007[98] and
with India in October 2008.[99] It is the world's fifth largest donor of
official development assistance, donating US$9.2 billion in
Japan is a member of both the G7
2014.[100] In 2017, Japan had the fifth largest diplomatic network in and the G20
the world.[101]
Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States; the US-Japan security alliance acts
as the cornerstone of the nation's foreign policy.[102] The United States is a major market for Japanese
exports and the primary source of Japanese imports, and is committed to defending the country, having
military bases in Japan for partially that purpose.[103]

Japan's relationship with South Korea has been strained due to Japan's treatment of Koreans during Japanese
colonial rule, particularly over the issue of comfort women.[104] In December 2015, Japan agreed to settle
the comfort women dispute with South Korea by issuing a formal apology and paying money to the
surviving comfort women. Today, South Korea and Japan have a stronger and more economically-driven
relationship. Since the 1990s, the Korean Wave has created a large fanbase in East Asia: Japan is the number
one importer of Korean music (K-pop), television (K-dramas), and films.[105] Most recently, South Korean
President Moon Jae-in met with Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe at the 2017 G20 Summit to discuss the
future of their relationship and specifically how to cooperate on finding solutions for North Korean
aggression in the region.[106]

Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors. Japan contests Russia's control of the
Southern Kuril Islands, which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945.[107] South Korea's control of the
Liancourt Rocks is acknowledged but not accepted as they are claimed by Japan.[108] Japan has strained
relations with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands[109] and the status of Okinotorishima.

Military

Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets of any country in

the world.[110] The country's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces
– JSDF) is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution,
which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in
international disputes. Japan is the highest-ranked Asian country in
the Global Peace Index.[111]

The military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily

JMSDF Kongō class destroyer
consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan
Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF), and the Japan Air Self-
Defense Force (JASDF). The JMSDF is a regular participant in
RIMPAC maritime exercises. [112] The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations; the
deployment of troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II.[113] The
Japan Business Federation has called on the government to lift the ban on arms exports so that Japan can
join multinational projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter.[114]

The Government of Japan has been making changes to its security policy which include: the establishment
of the National Security Council (NSC), the adoption of the National Security Strategy (NSS), and the
National Defense Program Guidelines (NDPG).[115] In May 2014, Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said Japan
wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War II and take more responsibility
for regional security.[116] Recent tensions, particularly with North Korea,[117] have reignited the debate over
the status of the JSDF and its relation to Japanese society.[118] New military guidelines, announced in 2010,
will direct the JSDF away from its Cold War focus on the former Soviet Union to China.[119]

Domestic law enforcement

Domestic security in Japan is provided mainly by the prefectural
police departments, under the oversight of the National Police
Agency,[120] and supervised by the Criminal Affairs Bureau of the
National Police Agency.[121] As the central coordinating body for
the Prefectural Police Departments, the National Police Agency is
administered by the National Public Safety Commission.[122] The
Special Assault Team comprises national-level counter-terrorism
tactical units that cooperate with territorial-level Anti-Firearms
Squads and Counter-NBC Terrorism Squads.[123]

Additionally, there is the Japan Coast Guard which guards territorial

waters. The coast guard patrols the sea surrounding Japan and uses
surveillance and control countermeasures against smuggling, marine
environmental crime, poaching, piracy, spy ships, unauthorized
foreign fishing vessels, and illegal immigration.[124] Map of the division of jurisdiction
between the 11 Coast Guard regions
The Firearm and Sword Possession Control Law strictly regulates
the civilian ownership of guns, swords and other weaponry.[125][126]
According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, among the member states of the UN that report
statistics, the incidence rate of violent crimes such as murder, abduction, forced sexual intercourse and
robbery is very low in Japan.[127][128][129][130][131]

Economy
Japan is the third largest national economy in the world, after the
United States and China, in terms of nominal GDP,[133] and the
fourth largest national economy in the world, after the United States,
China and India, in terms of purchasing power parity. As of 2016,
Japan's public debt was estimated at more than 230 percent of its
annual gross domestic product, the largest of any nation in the
world.[134] The service sector accounts for three quarters of the
gross domestic product.[135]

As of 2016, Japan's labor force consisted of some 65.9 million

workers.[58] Japan has a low unemployment rate of around four
percent. Some 20 million people, around 17 percent of the
population, were below the poverty line in 2007.[136] Housing in
Japan is characterized by limited land supply in urban areas.[137]

Japan's exports amounted to US$4,210 per capita in 2005. As of

2014, Japan's main export markets were the United States (20.2
percent), China (17.5 percent), South Korea (7.1 percent), Hong The Tokyo Stock Exchange, one of
Kong (5.6 percent) and Thailand (4.5 percent). Its main exports are the largest stock exchanges in
transportation equipment, motor vehicles, iron and steel products, Asia[132]
semiconductors and auto parts.[58] Japan's main import markets as of
2015 were China (24.8 percent), the United States (10.5 percent),
Australia (5.4 percent) and South Korea (4.1 percent).[58] Japan's main imports are machinery and
equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its
industries. By market share measures, domestic markets are the least open of any OECD country.[138]
Junichirō Koizumi's administration began some pro-competition reforms, and foreign investment in Japan
has soared.[139]
Japan ranks 34th of 190 countries in the 2018 ease of doing business index and has one of the smallest tax
revenues of the developed world. The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu
enterprises are influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are relatively
common in the Japanese work environment.[138][140] Japanese companies are known for management
methods like "The Toyota Way", and shareholder activism is rare.[141] Japan also has a large cooperative
sector, with three of the ten largest cooperatives in the world located in Japan, including the largest
consumer cooperative and the largest agricultural cooperative in the world.[142]

Today, Japan ranks highly for competitiveness and economic freedom. It is ranked sixth in the Global
Competitiveness Report for 2015–2016.[143][144]

Agriculture and fishery

The Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.4% of the total
country's GDP.[145] Only 12% of Japan's land is suitable for
cultivation.[146][147] Due to this lack of arable land, a system of
terraces is used to farm in small areas.[148] This results in one of the
world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an overall
agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% on fewer than 56,000
square kilometers (14,000,000 acres) cultivated. Japan's small
agricultural sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected,
with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation
A rice paddy in Aizu, Fukushima
instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America.[146] Prefecture
Rice, the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of
777.7%.[147][149] There has been a growing concern about farming
as the current farmers are aging with a difficult time finding successors.[150] Japan is the second-largest
agricultural product importer in the world.

In 1996, Japan ranked fourth in the world in tonnage of fish caught.[151] Japan captured 4,074,580 metric
tons of fish in 2005, down from 4,987,703 tons in 2000.[152] In 2003, the total aquaculture production was
predicted at 1,301,437 tonnes.[153] In 2010, Japan's total fisheries production was 4,762,469 fish.[154] Japan
maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch,[155]
prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna.[156] Japan has
also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial whaling.[157]

Industry

Japan has a large industrial capacity, and is home to some of the

largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor
vehicles, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical
substances, textiles, and processed foods. Japan's industrial sector
makes up approximately 27.5% of its GDP.[159] Some major
Japanese industrial companies include Canon Inc., Toshiba and
A plug-in hybrid car manufactured by
Nippon Steel.[159][160]
Toyota, one of the world's largest
carmakers – Japan is the third-
Japan is the third largest automobile producer in the world, and is
largest maker of automobiles in the
home to Toyota, the world's largest automobile company.[158][161]
world.[158]
Despite facing competition from South Korea and China, the
Japanese shipbuilding industry is expected to remain strong due to
an increased focus on specialized, high-tech designs.[162]
Services

Japan's service sector accounts for about three-quarters of its total economic output.[145] Banking, insurance,
real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries, with companies such
as Mitsubishi UFJ, Mizuho, NTT, TEPCO, Nomura, Mitsubishi Estate, ÆON, Mitsui Sumitomo, Softbank,
JR East, Seven & I, KDDI and Japan Airlines listed as some of the largest in the world.[163][164] Four of the
five most circulated newspapers in the world are Japanese newspapers.[165] The six major keiretsus are the
Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa Groups.[166]

Tourism

Japan attracted 19.73 million international tourists in 2015[167] and increased by 21.8% to attract 24.03
million international tourists in 2016.[168][169][170] In 2008, the Japanese government has set up Japan
Tourism Agency and set the initial goal to increase foreign visitors to 20 million in 2020. In 2016, having
met the 20 million target, the government has revised up its target to 40 million by 2020 and to 60 million
by 2030.[171][172] For inbound tourism, Japan was ranked 16th in the world in 2015.[173] Japan is one of the
least visited countries in the OECD on a per capita basis,[174] and it was by far the least visited country in
the G7 until 2014.[175]

Science and technology

Japan is a leading nation in scientific research, particularly in fields

related to the natural sciences and engineering. The country ranks
second among the most innovative countries in the Bloomberg
Innovation Index.[176][177] Nearly 700,000 researchers share a
US$130 billion research and development budget,[178] which
relative to gross domestic product is the third highest budget in the
world.[179] The country is a world leader in fundamental scientific
research, having produced twenty-two Nobel laureates in either
The Japanese Experiment Module
physics, chemistry or medicine[180] and three Fields medalists.[181] (Kibō) at the International Space
Station
Japanese scientists and engineers have contributed to the
advancement of agricultural sciences, electronics, industrial robotics,
optics, chemicals, semiconductors, life sciences and various fields of engineering. Japan leads the world in
robotics production and use, possessing more than 20% (300,000 of 1.3 million) of the world's industrial
robots as of 2013.[182] Japan boasts the third highest number of scientists, technicians, and engineers per
capita in the world with 83 scientists, technicians and engineers per 10,000 employees.[183][184][185]

The Japanese consumer electronics industry, once considered the strongest in the world, is currently in a
state of decline as competition arises in countries like South Korea, the United States and China.[186][187]
However, video gaming in Japan remains a major industry. Japan became a major exporter of video games
during the golden age of arcade video games, an era that began with the release of Taito's Space Invaders in
1978 and ended around the mid-1980s.[188][189][190] Japanese-made video game consoles have been popular
since the 1980s,[191] and it dominated the industry until Microsoft's Xbox consoles began challenging Sony
and Nintendo in the 2000s.[192][193][194] As of 2009, $6 billion of Japan's $20 billion gaming market is
generated from arcades, which represent the largest sector of the Japanese video game market, followed by
home console games and mobile games at $3.5 billion and $2 billion, respectively.[195] In the present day,
Japan is the world's largest market for mobile games;[196] in 2014, Japan's consumer video game market
grossed $9.6 billion, with $5.8 billion coming from mobile gaming.[197]
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's national space agency; it conducts space,
planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the
International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō) was added to the station during Space
Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.[198] The space probe Akatsuki was launched May 20, 2010, and achieved
orbit around Venus on December 9, 2015. Japan's plans in space exploration include: developing the
Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in 2018;[199] and building a moon base by 2030.[200] On
September 14, 2007, it launched lunar explorer SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) from
Tanegashima Space Center. The largest lunar mission since the Apollo program, its purpose was to gather
data on the moon's origin and evolution. It entered a lunar orbit on October 4, 2007,[201][202] and was
deliberately crashed into the Moon on June 11, 2009.[203]

Infrastructure

Transportation

Japan's road spending has been extensive.[204] Its 1.2 million

kilometers (0.75 million miles) of paved road are the main means of
transportation.[205] As of 2012, Japan has approximately 1,215,000
kilometers (755,000 miles) of roads made up of 1,022,000
kilometers (635,000 miles) of city, town and village roads, 129,000
kilometers (80,000 miles) of prefectural roads, 55,000 kilometers
(34,000 miles) of general national highways and 8,050 kilometers
(5,000 miles) of national expressways.[206][207] A single network of
Japan Airlines, the flag carrier of
high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities
Japan
on Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu (Hokkaido has a separate
network). New and used cars are inexpensive; car ownership fees
and fuel levies are used to promote energy efficiency. However, at just 50 percent of all distance traveled,
car usage is the lowest of all G8 countries.[208]

Since privatization in 1987, dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger
transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu, Seibu Railway and Keio
Corporation. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities and Japanese trains are known for
their safety and punctuality.[209][210] A new Maglev line called the Chūō Shinkansen is being constructed
between Tokyo and Nagoya. It is due to be completed in 2027.[211]

There are 175 airports in Japan;[58] the largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport in Tokyo, is Asia's second-
busiest airport.[212] The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport, Kansai International
Airport and Chūbu Centrair International Airport.[213] Nagoya Port is the country's largest and busiest port,
accounting for 10 percent of Japan's trade value.[214]

Energy

As of 2011, 46.1% of energy in Japan was produced from petroleum, 21.3% from coal, 21.4% from natural
gas, 4.0% from nuclear power and 3.3% from hydropower. Nuclear power produced 9.2 percent of Japan's
electricity, as of 2011, down from 24.9 percent the previous year.[215] However, by May 2012 all of the
country's nuclear power plants had been taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway
public opinion in favor of returning at least some of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors to service.[216] Reactors at
Sendai restarted in 2015.[217] Japan lacks significant domestic
reserves and so has a heavy dependence on imported energy.[218]
Japan has therefore aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high
levels of energy efficiency.[219]

Water supply and sanitation

The government took responsibility for regulating the water and

sanitation sector is shared between the Ministry of Health, Labor and
The Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear
Welfare in charge of water supply for domestic use; the Ministry of
Power Plant, a nuclear plant with
Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in charge of water
seven units, is the largest single
resources development as well as sanitation; the Ministry of the nuclear power station in the world.
Environment in charge of ambient water quality and environmental
preservation; and the Ministry of Internal Affairs and
Communications in charge of performance benchmarking of utilities.[220]

Access to an improved water source is universal in Japan. 97% of the population receives piped water
supply from public utilities and 3% receive water from their own wells or unregulated small systems, mainly
in rural areas.[221]

Demographics
Japan has a population of 126.3 million,[222] of which 124.8 million
are Japanese nationals (2019).[223] Honshū is the world's second
most populous island and has 80% of Japan's population. In 2010,
90.7% of the total Japanese population lived in cities.[224] The
capital city Tokyo has a population of 13.8 million (2018).[225] It is
part of the Greater Tokyo Area, the biggest metropolitan area in the
world with 38,140,000 people (2016).[226][227]
The Greater Tokyo Area is ranked as
the most populous metropolitan area Japanese society is linguistically, ethnically and culturally
in the world. homogeneous,[228][229] composed of 98.1% ethnic Japanese,[58]
with small populations of foreign workers.[228] The most dominant
native ethnic group is the Yamato people; primary minority groups
include the indigenous Ainu [230] and Ryukyuan people, as well as social minority groups like the
burakumin. [231] Zainichi Koreans, [232] Chinese, Filipinos, Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent,[233]
Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent and Americans are among the small minority groups in Japan.[234] In
2003, there were about 134,700 non-Latin American Western (not including more than 33,000 American
military personnel and their dependents stationed throughout the country) and 345,500 Latin American
expatriates, 274,700 of whom were Brazilians,[233] the largest community of Westerners.[235]

Japan has the second longest overall life expectancy at birth of any country in the world: 83.5 years for
persons born in the period 2010–2015.[236][237] The Japanese population is rapidly aging as a result of a
post–World War II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates. In 2012, about 24.1 percent of the
population was over 65, and the proportion is projected to rise to almost 40 percent by 2050.[238] On
September 15, 2018, for the first time, one in five Japanese residents was aged 70 or older. 26.18 million
people are 70 or older and accounted for 20.7 percent of the population. Elderly women crossed the 20
million line at 20.12 million, substantially outnumbering the nation's 15.45 million elderly men.[239] The
changes in demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in
workforce population and increase in the cost of social security benefits such as the public pension plan.[240]
A growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remain childless.[241] Japan's population is
expected to drop to 95 million by 2050.[238][242]

Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to
support the nation's aging population.[243][244] Japan accepts an average flow of 9,500 new Japanese citizens
by naturalization per year.[245] According to the UNHCR, in 2012 Japan accepted just 18 refugees for
resettlement,[246] while the United States took in 76,000.[247] On April 1, 2019, Japan's revised immigration
law was enacted, protecting the rights of foreign workers to help reduce labor shortages in certain sectors.
The reform changes the status of foreign workers to regular employees.[248]

Religion

Japan has full religious freedom based on its constitution. Upper

estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population
subscribe to Shinto as its indigenous religion (50% to 80% of which
considering degrees of syncretism with Buddhism, shinbutsu-
shūgō).[249][250] However, these estimates are based on people
affiliated with a temple, rather than the number of true believers.
Many Japanese people practice both Shinto and Buddhism;[251] they
can either identify with both religions or describe themselves as non-
The torii of Itsukushima Shinto
religious or spiritual,[252] despite participating in religious
Shrine near Hiroshima, one of the
Three Views of Japan and a
ceremonies as a cultural tradition. As a result, religious statistics are
UNESCO World Heritage Site often under-reported in Japan. Other studies have suggested that
only 30 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging
to a religion.[253] Nevertheless, the level of participation remains
high, especially during festivals and occasions such as the first shrine visit of the New Year. Taoism and
Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.[254]

Christianity was first introduced into Japan by Jesuit missions starting in 1549.[255] Today, fewer than
1%[256][257][258] to 2.3% are Christians,[c] most of them living in the western part of the country. As of
2007, there were 32,036 Christian priests and pastors in Japan.[260] Throughout the latest century, some
Western customs originally related to Christianity (including Western style weddings, Valentine's Day and
Christmas) have become popular as secular customs among many Japanese.[261]

Islam in Japan is estimated to constitute about 80–90% of foreign born migrants and their children,
primarily from Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Iran.[262] Many of the ethnic Japanese Muslims are
those who convert upon marrying immigrant Muslims.[263] The Pew Research Center estimated that there
were 185,000 Muslims in Japan in 2010.[264]

Other minority religions include Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Bahá'í Faith;[265] since the mid-19th
century numerous new religious movements have emerged in Japan.[266]

Languages

More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.[58] Japanese writing uses
kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on cursive script and radical of kanji), as
well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.[267] Public and private schools generally require students to
take Japanese language classes as well as English language
courses.[268]

Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami, Kunigami,

Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni), also part of the Japonic
language family, are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain. Few
children learn these languages,[269] but in recent years the local
governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditional
languages. The Okinawan Japanese dialect is also spoken in the
Kanji and Hiragana signs
region. The Ainu language is moribund, with only a few elderly
native speakers remaining in Hokkaido.[270]

Education

Primary schools, secondary schools and universities were introduced

in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.[271] Since 1947,
compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and junior
high school, which together last for nine years (from age 6 to age
15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year
senior high school. The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the
University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.[272]

Japan's education system played a central part in the country's

Students celebrating after the
recovery after World War II when the Fundamental Law of
announcement of the results of the
Education and the School Education Law were enacted. The latter
entrance examinations to the
law defined the standard school system. Starting in April 2016,
University of Tokyo
various schools began the academic year with elementary school and
junior high school integrated into one nine-year compulsory
schooling program; MEXT plans for this approach to be adopted
nationwide.[273]

The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall
knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as the third best in the world.[274] Japan is one of the top-
performing OECD countries in reading literacy, math and sciences with the average student scoring 529 and
has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries.[275][274][276] In 2015, Japan's
public spending on education amounted to just 4.1 percent of its GDP, below the OECD average of 5.0
percent.[277] The country's large pool of highly educated and skilled individuals is largely responsible for
ushering Japan's post-war economic growth.[278] In 2017, the country ranked third for the percentage of 25
to 64 year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 51 percent.[278] In addition, 60.4 percent Japanese
aged 25 to 34 have some form of tertiary education qualification and bachelor's degrees are held by 30.4
percent of Japanese aged 25 to 64, the second most in the OECD after South Korea.[278]

Health

In Japan, health care is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services
is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set
by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national
health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been
covered by government-sponsored insurance.[279] Patients are free to select the physicians or facilities of
their choice.[280]
Japan has a high suicide rate;[281][282] suicide is the leading cause of death for people under 30.[283] Another
significant public health issue is smoking. Japan has the lowest rate of heart disease in the OECD, and the
lowest level of dementia in the developed world.[284]

Culture
Contemporary Japanese culture combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America.[285] Traditional
Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls; performances of
bunraku, kabuki, noh, dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts,
calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for the protection and
promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.[286] Twenty-two sites
have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, eighteen of which are of cultural significance.[81]

Art and architecture

Japanese sculpture, largely of wood, and Japanese

painting are among the oldest of the Japanese arts,
with early figurative paintings dating back to at least
300 BC. The history of Japanese painting exhibits
synthesis and competition between native Japanese
esthetics and adaptation of imported ideas.[287] The 19th-century ukiyo-e Ritsurin Garden, one of
interaction between Japanese and European art has woodblock print The the most famous strolling
been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which Great Wave off gardens in Japan
began to be exported in the 19th century in the Kanagawa
movement known as Japonism, had a significant
influence on the development of modern art in the
West, most notably on post-Impressionism.[287] Japanese manga developed in the 20th century and have
become popular worldwide.[288]

Japanese architecture is a combination between local and other influences. It has traditionally been typified
by wooden structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs. The Shrines of Ise have
been celebrated as the prototype of Japanese architecture.[289] Largely of wood, traditional housing and
many temple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between
rooms and indoor and outdoor space.[290] Since the 19th century, however, Japan has incorporated much of
Western, modern, and post-modern architecture into construction and design. Architects returning from
study with western architects introduced the International Style of modernism into Japan. However, it was
not until after World War II that Japanese architects made an impression on the international scene, firstly
with the work of architects like Kenzō Tange and then with movements like Metabolism.

Literature and philosophy

The earliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man'yōshū
poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters.[291][292] In the early Heian
period, the system of phonograms known as kana (hiragana and katakana) was developed. The Tale of the
Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[293] An account of court life is given in The
Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's
first novel.[294][295]
During the Edo period, the chōnin ("townspeople") overtook the
samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The
popularity of the works of Saikaku, for example, reveals this change
in readership and authorship, while Bashō revivified the poetic
tradition of the Kokinshū with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the
poetic travelogue Oku no Hosomichi.[296] The Meiji era saw the
decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated 12th-century illustrated handscroll of
Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first The Tale of Genji, a National
"modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Treasure
Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki
Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors – Yasunari
Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburō Ōe (1994).[293]

Japanese philosophy has historically been a fusion of both foreign, particularly Chinese and Western, and
uniquely Japanese elements. In its literary forms, Japanese philosophy began about fourteen centuries ago.
Confucian ideals are still evident today in the Japanese concept of society and the self, and in the
organization of the government and the structure of society.[297] Buddhism has profoundly impacted
Japanese psychology, metaphysics, and esthetics.[298]

Performing arts

Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments, such as

the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The popular
folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, dates from the sixteenth
century.[299] Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th
century, now forms an integral part of Japanese culture. The imperial
court ensemble Gagaku has influenced the work of some modern
Western composers.[300] Notable classical composers from Japan
include Toru Takemitsu and Rentarō Taki. Popular music in post-war
Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European
Noh performance at a Shinto shrine
trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop, or Japanese popular
music.[301] Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity in
Japan.[302]

The four traditional theaters from Japan are noh, kyōgen, kabuki, and bunraku. Noh and kyōgen theater
traditions are among the oldest continuous theater traditions in the world.

Etiquette

The code of etiquette in Japan governs the expectations of social behavior. Honne and tatemae (本音と建
前) contrasts a person's true feelings and desires and the behavior and opinions one displays in public.[303]
Yamato-damashii ( 大 和 魂 ) describes the indigenous Japanese 'spirit' or cultural values as opposed to
cultural values of foreign nations. Wa (和) is a Japanese cultural concept that implies a peaceful unity and
conformity within a social group, in which members prefer the continuation of a harmonious community
over their personal interests.[304][305] Ishin-denshin (以心伝心) is a Japanese idiom which denotes a form of
interpersonal communication through unspoken mutual understanding.[306] Isagiyosa (潔さ) is a virtue of
the capability of accepting death with composure and equanimity. Cherry blossoms are a symbol of
isagiyosa in the sense of embracing the transience of the world.[307] Hansei ( 反 省 ) is a central idea in
Japanese culture, meaning to acknowledge one's own mistake and to pledge improvement. Kotodama (言霊)
refers to the Japanese belief that mystical powers dwell in words and names.
Japan is regarded by sociologists as a high-context culture. People
are more observant of hierarchical differences and communicate less
explicitly and verbosely.[308] High context cultures such as Japan are
more focused upon in-groups while low context cultures are focused
upon individuals. Face-saving (to avoid being disgraced or
humiliated) is generally considered as more important in Japan's
high context culture than in low-context ones such as the United
States or Germany.[309]

Cuisine

Japanese cuisine is known for its emphasis on seasonality of

food,[310] quality of ingredients and presentation. Japanese cuisine
offers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes
and local ingredients.

Seafood and Japanese rice or noodles are traditional staple of

Japanese cuisine, typically seasoned with a combination of dashi, In Japan, it is considered
soy sauce, mirin, vinegar, sugar, and salt. Dishes inspired by foreign disrespectful to fail to remove shoes
food—in particular Chinese food—like ramen and gyōza, as well as before entering a home.
foods like spaghetti, curry, and hamburgers have become adopted
with variants for Japanese tastes and ingredients. Japanese curry,
since its introduction to Japan from British India, is so widely
consumed that it can be called a national dish.[311] Traditional
Japanese sweets are known as wagashi.[312] Ingredients such as red
bean paste and mochi are used. More modern-day tastes includes
green tea ice cream.[313]

Popular Japanese beverages include sake, which is a brewed rice

beverage that, typically, contains 14–17% alcohol and is made by
multiple fermentation of rice.[314] Beer has been brewed in Japan A plate of nigiri-zushi
since the late 1800s.[315] Green tea is produced in Japan and
prepared in various forms such as matcha, the tea used in the
Japanese tea ceremony.[316]

Holidays and festivals

Officially, Japan has 16 national, government-recognized holidays.

Public holidays in Japan are regulated by the Public Holiday Law
( 国 民 の 祝 日 に 関 す る 法 律 , Kokumin no Shukujitsu ni Kansuru
Hōritsu) of 1948.[317] Beginning in 2000, Japan implemented the
Happy Monday System, which moved a number of national holidays
to Monday in order to obtain a long weekend. The national holidays
in Japan are New Year's Day on January 1, Coming of Age Day on
Second Monday of January, National Foundation Day on February Young ladies celebrate Coming of
11, The Emperor's Birthday on February 23, Vernal Equinox Day on Age Day (成人の日, Seijin no Hi) in
March 20 or 21, Shōwa Day on April 29, Constitution Memorial Harajuku, Tokyo
Day on May 3, Greenery Day on May 4, Children's Day on May 5,
Marine Day on Third Monday of July, Mountain Day on August 11,
Respect for the Aged Day on Third Monday of September, Autumnal Equinox on September 23 or 24,
Health and Sports Day on Second Monday of October, Culture Day on November 3, and Labor
Thanksgiving Day on November 23.[318]

There are many annual festivals in Japan, which are called in Japanese matsuri (祭). There are no specific
festival days for all of Japan; dates vary from area to area, and even within a specific area, but festival days
do tend to cluster around traditional holidays such as Setsubun or Obon. Festivals are often based around
one event, with food stalls, entertainment, and carnival games.

Media

Television and newspapers take an important role in Japanese mass

media, though radio and magazines also take a part.[319][320] Over
the 1990s, television surpassed newspapers as Japan's main
information and entertainment medium.[321]

There are six nationwide television networks: NHK (public

broadcasting), Nippon Television (NTV), Tokyo Broadcasting
System (TBS), Fuji Network System (FNS), TV Asahi (EX) and TV
Fuji TV headquarters in Tokyo
Tokyo Network (TXN).[320] Television networks were mostly
established based on capital investments by existing radio networks.
Variety shows, serial dramas, and news constitute a large percentage
of Japanese television shows. According to the 2015 NHK survey on television viewing in Japan, 79 percent
of Japanese watch television daily.[322]

Japanese readers have a choice of approximately 120 daily newspapers, with an average subscription rate of
1.13 newspapers per household.[323] The main newspapers are the Yomiuri Shimbun, Asahi Shimbun,
Mainichi Shimbun, Nikkei Shimbun and Sankei Shimbun. According to a survey conducted by the Japanese
Newspaper Association in 1999, 85.4 per cent of men and 75 per cent of women read a newspaper every
day.[321]

Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world; movies have been produced in Japan
since 1897.[324] Ishirō Honda's Godzilla became an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire
subgenre of kaiju films, as well as the longest-running film franchise in history. Japan has won the Academy
Award for the Best Foreign Language Film four times, more than any other Asian country.

Japanese animated films and television series, known as anime, were largely influenced by Japanese manga
and have been extensively popular in the West. Japan is a world-renowned powerhouse of animation.[325]

Sports

Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport.[326] Japanese martial arts such as judo, karate and
kendo are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many
Western sports were introduced.[327] Baseball is currently the most popular spectator sport in the country.
Japan's top professional league, now known as Nippon Professional Baseball, was established in 1936[328]
and is widely considered to be the highest level of professional baseball in the world outside of the North
American Major Leagues. Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992,
association football has also gained a wide following.[329] Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup
from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.[330] Japan has one of the
most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times,[331] and the FIFA Women's
World Cup in 2011.[332] Golf is also popular in Japan.[333]

Sumo wrestlers form around the
referee during the ring-entering
ceremony
Japan and the Indy Japan 300.
Japan has significant involvement in motorsport. Japanese
automotive manufacturers have been successful in multiple different
categories, with titles and victories in series such as Formula One,
MotoGP, IndyCar, World Rally Championship, World Endurance
Championship, World Touring Car Championship, British Touring
Car Championship and the IMSA SportsCar
Championship. [334][335][336] Three Japanese drivers have achieved
podium finishes in Formula One, and drivers from Japan also have
victories at the Indianapolis 500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans, in
addition to success in domestic championships.[337][338] Super GT is
the most popular national series in Japan, while Super Formula is the
top level domestic open-wheel series.[339] The country also hosts
major races such as the Japanese Grand Prix, Japanese motorcycle
Grand Prix, Suzuka 10 Hours, 6 Hours of Fuji, FIA WTCC Race of

Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964 and the Winter Olympics in Sapporo in 1972 and
Nagano in 1998.[340] Further, the country hosted the official 2006 Basketball World Championship.[341]
Tokyo will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, making Tokyo the first Asian city to host the Olympics
twice.[342] The country gained the hosting rights for the official Women's Volleyball World Championship
on five occasions, more than any other nation.[343] Japan is the most successful Asian Rugby Union country,
winning the Asian Five Nations a record six times and winning the newly formed IRB Pacific Nations Cup
in 2011. Japan also hosted the 2019 IRB Rugby World Cup.[344]

See also
Index of Japan-related articles
Outline of Japan

Notes
a. The Japanese government does not collect data on ethnicity; these figures instead reflect the
origin of foreign residents. See Ethnic groups of Japan.
b. The official name of the country in English is simply "Japan". In Japanese, the name of the
country as it appears on official documents, including the country's constitution, is 日本国 (
Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku), literally meaning "State of Japan". Despite this, the name 日本
is often used in official and international contexts.
c. According to the Dentsu survey of 2006: 1% Protestants, 0.8% members of the Catholic
Church, and 0.5% members of the Orthodox Church.[259]

References
Citations

1. "National Flag and Anthem" (https://www.japan.go.jp/japan/flagandanthem/). JapanGov.

Government of Japan. Retrieved January 2, 2020.
 2. "在留外国人統計（旧登録外国人統計） / 在留外国人統計" (https://www.e-stat.go.jp/stat-searc
h/files?page=1&layout=datalist&toukei=00250012&tstat=000001018034&cycle=1&year=20190
&month=12040606&tclass1=000001060399&stat_infid=000031886380&result_back=1&cycle_
facet=cycle). e-Stat (in Japanese). Statistics Bureau of Japan. December 6, 2019. Retrieved
January 2, 2020.
3. "令和元年全国都道府県市区町村別面積調（１０月１日時点）" (https://www.gsi.go.jp/KOKUJY
OHO/MENCHO201910-index.html) (in Japanese). Geospatial Information Authority of Japan.
December 26, 2019. Retrieved January 2, 2020.
4. "Population Estimates Monthly Report (December 2019)" (https://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/ji
nsui/tsuki/index.html). Statistics Bureau of Japan. December 20, 2019. Retrieved January 2,
2020.
5. "2015 Population Census - Basic Complete Tabulation on Population and Households" (https://
www.stat.go.jp/english/data/kokusei/2015/final_en/pdf/s01.pdf) (PDF). Statistics Bureau of
Japan. October 2016. Retrieved January 2, 2020.
6. "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019" (https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/
2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=37&pr.y=18&sy=2017&ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=c
ountry&ds=.&br=1&c=158&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=).
IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
7. "Income inequality" (https://data.oecd.org/chart/5PyK). data.oecd.org. OECD. Retrieved
February 2, 2020.
8. "Human Development Report 2019" (http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/2019-human-development-
index-ranking) (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. December 10, 2019.
Retrieved December 10, 2019.
9. "Where does the name Japan come from?" (http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/japan.html). Retrieved
January 29, 2017.
10. Piggott, Joan R. (1997). The emergence of Japanese kingship (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=BruaJSZmjHcC). Stanford University Press. pp. 143–144. ISBN 978-0-8047-2832-4.
11. "Why Japan is Japan? How Japan became Japan?" (http://www.fuzita.org/jpculture/howmanyi/
howjapan.html). Retrieved January 29, 2017.
12. "Wa: The Spirit of Harmony and Japanese Design Today | Concept, Works, and Catalogue" (ht
tps://www.jpf.go.jp/e/project/culture/exhibit/oversea/wa/works.html). Japan Foundation.
Retrieved January 29, 2017.
13. Hoffman, Michael (July 27, 2008). "Cipangu's landlocked isles" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
180825151317/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2008/07/27/general/cipangus-landlocked-isle
s). The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times. Archived from the original (https://www.japanti
mes.co.jp/life/2008/07/27/general/cipangus-landlocked-isles/) on August 25, 2018. Retrieved
August 25, 2018.
14. Boxer, Charles Ralph (1951). The Christian century in Japan 1549–1650 (https://books.google.
com/books?id=2R4DA2lip9gC&pg=PAPA14). University of California Press. pp. 1–14.
ISBN 978-1-85754-035-2.
15. Word Histories and Mysteries: From Abracadabra to Zeus (https://books.google.com/books?id
=cZ88p_bSt1EC&pg=PAPA146). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. October 13, 2004. ISBN 978-0-
547-35027-1.
16. C.R. Boxer, The Christian Century In Japan 1549–1650, University of California Press, 1951.
11, 28–36, 49–51, ISBN 1-85754-035-2
17. Mancall, Peter C. (2006). "Of the Ilande of Giapan, 1565". Travel narratives from the age of
discovery: an anthology. Oxford University Press. pp. 156–157.
18. Batchelor, Robert K. (January 6, 2014). London: The Selden Map and the Making of a Global
City, 1549–1689 (https://books.google.com/books?id=giZnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA79).
University of Chicago Press. pp. 76, 79. ISBN 978-0-226-08079-6. In Richard Wille's 1577
book "The History of Travalye in the West and East Indies"
19. Keally, Charles T. (April 27, 2009). "Kofun Culture" (http://www.t-net.ne.jp/~keally/kofun.html).
www.t-net.ne.jp. Japanese Archaeology. Retrieved July 28, 2018.
20. Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (1987). On Understanding Japanese Religion (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=h1xcc4cGL5cC). Princeton University Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-691-10229-0.
Retrieved July 28, 2018. "emphasis on the undisrupted chronological continuity from myths to
legends and from legends to history, it is difficult to determine where one ends and the next
begins. At any rate, the first ten legendary emperors are clearly not reliable historical records."
21. Szczesniak, Boleslaw (1954). "The Sumu-Sanu Myth. Notes and Remarks on the Jimmu
Tenno Myth". Monumenta Nipponica. 10 (1/2): 107–126. doi:10.2307/2382794 (https://doi.org/
10.2307%2F2382794). JSTOR 2382794 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2382794).
22. Travis, John. "Jomon Genes" (http://www.pitt.edu/~annj/courses/notes/jomon_genes.html).
University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved January 15, 2011.
23. Mason, 14
24. Kuzmin, Y.V. (2006). "Chronology of the Earliest Pottery in East Asia: Progress and Pitfalls".
Antiquity. 80 (308): 362–371. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00093686 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0
003598x00093686).
25. Denoon, Donald; Hudson, Mark (2001). Multicultural Japan: palaeolithic to postmodern (https://
books.google.com/books?id=XUw6kiX9LQ0C). Cambridge University Press. pp. 22–23.
ISBN 978-0-521-00362-9.
26. "Road of rice plant" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110430010530/http://www.kahaku.go.jp/sp
ecial/past/japanese/ipix/5/5-25.html). National Science Museum of Japan. Archived from the
original (http://www.kahaku.go.jp/special/past/japanese/ipix/5/5-25.html) on April 30, 2011.
Retrieved January 15, 2011.
27. "Kofun Period" (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kofu/hd_kofu.htm). Metropolitan Museum
of Art. Retrieved January 15, 2011.
28. "Yayoi Culture" (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yayo/hd_yayo.htm). Metropolitan Museum
of Art. Retrieved January 15, 2011.
29. Takashi, Okazaki; Goodwin, Janet (1993). "Japan and the continent" (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=A3_6lp8IOK8C). The Cambridge history of Japan, Volume 1: Ancient Japan.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-521-22352-2.
30. Brown, Delmer M., ed. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 140–149.
31. Beasley, William Gerald (1999). The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=9AivK7yMICgC). University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-
520-22560-2.
32. Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615 (https://books.google.com/books?id=
0syC6L77dpAC). Stanford University Press. pp. 57, 68. ISBN 978-0-8047-0525-7.
33. Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACA
AJ). Blackwell. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
34. Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACA
AJ). Blackwell. pp. 64–79. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
35. Hays, J.N. (2005). Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=GyE8Qt-kS1kC). ABC-CLIO. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-85109-658-9.
36. Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACA
AJ). Blackwell. pp. 79–87, 122–123. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
37. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Kamakura-jidai" (https://books.google.com/books?id=p2Q
nPijAEmEC&pg=PA459&dq=) in Japan Encyclopedia, p. 459.
38. Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACA
AJ) (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 106–112. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
39. Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615 (https://books.google.com/books?id=
0syC6L77dpAC). Stanford University Press. pp. 42, 217. ISBN 978-0-8047-0525-7.
40. Turnbull, Stephen (2010). Toyotomi Hideyoshi (https://books.google.com/books?id=x8govgAA
CAAJ). Osprey Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-84603-960-7.
41. Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACA
AJ) (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
42. Toby, Ronald P. (1977). "Reopening the Question of Sakoku: Diplomacy in the Legitimation of
the Tokugawa Bakufu". Journal of Japanese Studies. 3 (2): 323–363. doi:10.2307/132115 (http
s://doi.org/10.2307%2F132115). JSTOR 132115 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/132115).
43. Howe, Christopher (1996). The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=XkCRcv0iXn0C). Hurst & Company. pp. 58ff. ISBN 978-1-85065-538-1.
44. Ohtsu, M.; Ohtsu, Makoto (1999). "Japanese National Values and Confucianism". Japanese
Economy. 27 (2): 45–59. doi:10.2753/JES1097-203X270245 (https://doi.org/10.2753%2FJES1
097-203X270245).
45. Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACA
AJ) (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 289–296. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
46. McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=8au8QgA
ACAAJ). Macmillan. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-333-71000-5.
47. A. Baran, Paul (1962). The Political Economy of Growth. New York: Monthly Review Press.
p. 160.
48. Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACA
AJ) (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 312–314. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
49. Herbert Norman, E. (1946). Japan's Emergence as a Modern State. New York: Inst. Pacific
Relations. p. 46.
50. Matsusaka, Y. Tak (2009). "The Japanese Empire". In Tsutsui, William M. (ed.). Companion to
Japanese History. Blackwell. pp. 224–241. ISBN 978-1-4051-1690-9.
51. Hiroshi, Shimizu; Hitoshi, Hirakawa (1999). Japan and Singapore in the world economy:
Japan's economic advance into Singapore, 1870–1965 (https://books.google.com/books?id=7
k0F8YoZ6P0C). Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-415-19236-1.
52. "Judgment International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Chapter VIII: Conventional War
Crimes (Atrocities)" (http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html). iBiblio.
November 1948.
53. Worth, Roland H., Jr. (1995). No Choice But War: the United States Embargo Against Japan
and the Eruption of War in the Pacific (https://books.google.com/books?id=ezBnAAAAMAAJ).
McFarland. pp. 56, 86. ISBN 978-0-7864-0141-3.
54. Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security. 18 (2): 154–201.
doi:10.2307/2539100 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2539100). JSTOR 2539100 (https://www.jsto
r.org/stable/2539100).
55. Watt, Lori (2010). When Empire Comes Home: Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar
Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=_F3AN6x6AQ8C). Harvard University Press.
pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-674-05598-8.
56. Coleman, Joseph (March 6, 2007). " '52 coup plot bid to rearm Japan: CIA" (http://www.japanti
mes.co.jp/news/2007/03/06/national/52-coup-plot-bid-to-rearm-japan-cia/). The Japan Times.
Retrieved April 3, 2007.
57. Ryan, Liam (January 1, 2000). "The "Asian economic miracle" unmasked: The political
economy of the reality". International Journal of Social Economics. 27 (7–10): 802–815.
doi:10.1108/03068290010335235 (https://doi.org/10.1108%2F03068290010335235).
58. "CIA Factbook: Japan" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.htm
l). Cia.gov. Retrieved August 27, 2019.
59. "Japan scraps zero interest rates" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/5178822.stm). BBC
News. July 14, 2006. Retrieved December 28, 2006.
60. Fackler, Martin; Drew, Kevin (March 11, 2011). "Devastation as Tsunami Crashes Into Japan"
(https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/12/world/asia/12japan.html). The New York Times.
Retrieved March 11, 2011.
61. "Japan's emperor thanks country, prays for peace before abdication" (https://asia.nikkei.com/S
potlight/Japan-s-Reiwa-era/Japan-s-emperor-thanks-country-prays-for-peace-before-abdicatio
n). Nikkei Asian Review. Retrieved April 30, 2019.
62. "Water Supply in Japan" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180126130519/https://www.mhlw.go.j
p/english/policy/health/water_supply/1.html). Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Archived
from the original (https://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/health/water_supply/1.html) (website)
on January 26, 2018. Retrieved September 26, 2018.
63. 離島とは(島の基礎知識) (https://web.archive.org/web/20071113053915/http://www.mlit.go.jp/cr
d/chirit/ritoutoha.html) [what is a remote island?]. MLIT (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism) (in Japanese). Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.
August 22, 2015. Archived from the original (http://www.mlit.go.jp/crd/chirit/ritoutoha.html) on
November 13, 2007. Retrieved August 9, 2019.
64. McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=8au8QgA
ACAAJ). Macmillan. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-0-333-71000-5.
65. 日本の領海等概念図 (https://web.archive.org/web/20180812151410/http://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.j
p/JODC/ryokai/ryokai_setsuzoku.html). 海上保安庁海洋情報部. Archived from the original (htt
p://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/JODC/ryokai/ryokai_setsuzoku.html) on August 12, 2018. Retrieved
August 12, 2018.
66. "Japan" (https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4142.htm). US Department of State. Retrieved
January 16, 2011.
67. "World Population Prospects" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070321013235/http://esa.un.org/
unpp/). UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Archived from the original (http://esa.u
n.org/unpp/) on March 21, 2007. Retrieved March 27, 2007.
68. "Reclaimed Land in Japan" (http://japanpropertycentral.com/real-estate-faq/reclaimed-land-in-j
apan/). Japan Property Central. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180226211747/http://
japanpropertycentral.com/real-estate-faq/reclaimed-land-in-japan/) from the original on
February 26, 2018. Retrieved September 26, 2018.
69. Barnes, Gina L. (2003). "Origins of the Japanese Islands" (https://web.archive.org/web/201104
28043510/http://shinku.nichibun.ac.jp/jpub/pdf/jr/IJ1501.pdf) (PDF). University of Durham.
Archived from the original (http://shinku.nichibun.ac.jp/jpub/pdf/jr/IJ1501.pdf) (PDF) on April
28, 2011. Retrieved August 11, 2009.
70. "Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070204064754/http://volca
no.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/north_asia/japan_tec.html). Oregon State University.
Archived from the original (http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/north_asia/japan_tec.ht
ml) on February 4, 2007. Retrieved March 27, 2007.
71. James, C.D. (2002). "The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and Fire" (https://web.archive.org/web/2007
0316050633/http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/tokyo1923.pdf) (PDF). University of California
Berkeley. Archived from the original (http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/tokyo1923.pdf) (PDF) on
March 16, 2007. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
72. Israel, Brett (March 14, 2011). "Japan's Explosive Geology Explained" (http://www.livescience.
com/30226-japan-tectonics-explosive-geology-ring-of-fire-110314.html). Live Science.
Retrieved June 17, 2016.
73. "2013 World Risk Report" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140816173655/http://www.worldriskr
eport.com/uploads/media/WorldRiskReport_2013_online_01.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the
original (http://www.worldriskreport.com/uploads/media/WorldRiskReport_2013_online_01.pdf)
(PDF) on August 16, 2014. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
74. Karan, Pradyumna Prasad; Gilbreath, Dick (2005). Japan in the 21st century (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=oze_mWihnU0C). University Press of Kentucky. pp. 18–21, 41. ISBN 978-
0-8131-2342-4.
75. "Climate" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110218041449/http://www.jnto.go.jp/eng/arrange/ess
ential/climate.html). JNTO. Archived from the original (http://www.jnto.go.jp/eng/arrange/essent
ial/climate.html) on February 18, 2011. Retrieved March 2, 2011.
76. "Record High in Japan as Heat Wave Grips the Region" (https://web.archive.org/web/2018072
3124113/https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2018/07/23/world/asia/ap-as-asia-heat-
wave.html). Archived from the original (https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2018/07/23/world/asi
a/ap-as-asia-heat-wave.html) on July 23, 2018. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
77. "Flora and Fauna: Diversity and regional uniqueness" (https://web.archive.org/web/200702130
35135/http://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/jicc/spotflora.htm). Embassy of Japan in the USA.
Archived from the original (http://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/jicc/spotflora.htm) on February 13,
2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
78. "The Wildlife in Japan" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110323165908/http://www.env.go.jp/nat
ure/yasei/pamph/pamph01/en.pdf) (PDF). Ministry of the Environment. Archived from the
original (http://www.env.go.jp/nature/yasei/pamph/pamph01/en.pdf) (PDF) on March 23, 2011.
Retrieved February 19, 2011.
79. "National Parks of Japan" (http://www.env.go.jp/en/nature/nps/park/). Ministry of the
Environment. Retrieved May 11, 2011.
80. "The Annotated Ramsar List: Japan" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110917191036/http://ww
w.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubs-annolist-japan/main/ramsar/1-30-
168%5E16573_4000_0__). Ramsar. Archived from the original (http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/
ramsar-pubs-annolist-japan/main/ramsar/1-30-168^16573_4000_0__) on September 17, 2011.
Retrieved May 11, 2011.
81. "Japan – Properties Inscribed on the World Heritage List" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/statespart
ies/jp). UNESCO. Retrieved July 5, 2011.
82. 日本の大気汚染の歴史 (https://web.archive.org/web/20110501085231/http://www.erca.go.jp/tai
ki/history/ko_syousyu.html) (in Japanese). Environmental Restoration and Conservation
Agency. Archived from the original (http://www.erca.go.jp/taiki/history/ko_syousyu.html) on May
1, 2011. Retrieved March 2, 2014.
83. Sekiyama, Takeshi. "Japan's international cooperation for energy efficiency and conservation
in Asian region" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080216005103/http://nice.erina.or.jp/en/pdf/C-
SEKIYAMA.pdf) (PDF). Energy Conservation Center. Archived from the original (http://nice.erin
a.or.jp/en/pdf/C-SEKIYAMA.pdf) (PDF) on February 16, 2008. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
84. "Environmental Performance Index: Japan" (https://epi.envirocenter.yale.edu/epi-country-repor
t/JPN). Yale University. Retrieved February 26, 2018.
85. "Japan sees extra emission cuts to 2020 goal – minister" (https://www.reuters.com/article/idUS
T191967). Reuters. June 24, 2009.
86. "Environmental Performance Review of Japan" (http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/0/17/2110905.p
df) (PDF). OECD. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
87. "The Constitution of Japan" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131214104438/http://www.kantei.g
o.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html). Prime Minister of
Japan and His Cabinet. November 3, 1946. Archived from the original (http://www.kantei.go.jp/
foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html) on December 14, 2013.
Retrieved February 14, 2014.
88. "The Anomalous Life of the Japanese Constitution" (https://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/a056
02/the-anomalous-life-of-the-japanese-constitution.html). Nippon.com. August 15, 2017.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190811213143/https://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/a
05602/the-anomalous-life-of-the-japanese-constitution.html) from the original on August 11,
2019. Retrieved August 11, 2019.
89. "Japan lowers voting age from 20 to 18 to better reflect young people's opinions in policies" (ht
tp://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/japan-lowers-voting-age-from-20-to-18-to-better-reflec
t-young-peoples-opinions-in). The Straits Times. June 20, 2015. Retrieved August 28, 2017.
90. Fackler, Martin (December 27, 2013). "Ex-Premier Is Chosen To Govern Japan Again" (https://
www.nytimes.com/2012/12/27/world/asia/shinzo-abe-selected-as-japans-prime-minister.html).
The New York Times. New York. Retrieved March 12, 2013.
91. Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system: text, cases & materials (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=lt9jB5CjfRIC) (2nd ed.). Cavendish. pp. 55–58. ISBN 978-1-85941-673-0.
92. Kanamori, Shigenari (January 1, 1999). "German influences on Japanese Pre-War
Constitution and Civil Code". European Journal of Law and Economics. 7 (1): 93–95.
doi:10.1023/A:1008688209052 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1008688209052).
93. "The Japanese Judicial System" (http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/judiciary/0620system.html).
Office of the Prime Minister of Japan. Retrieved March 27, 2007.
94. Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system: text, cases & materials (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=lt9jB5CjfRIC) (2nd ed.). Cavendish. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-85941-673-0.
95. In Japanese, 43 of the prefectures are called "ken" (県), Kyoto and Osaka are "fu" (府),
Hokkaido is a "dō" (道) and Tokyo is a "to" (都). Although different in name they are functionally
the same.
96. McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=8au8QgA
ACAAJ). Macmillan. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-0-333-71000-5.
97. "UK backs Japan for UNSC bid" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070221044357/http://www.cen
tralchronicle.com/20070111/1101194.htm). Central Chronicle. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.centralchronicle.com/20070111/1101194.htm) on February 21, 2007. Retrieved
March 28, 2007.
98. "Japan-Australia Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation" (http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia
-paci/australia/joint0703.html). Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved August 25, 2010.
99. "Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation between Japan and India" (http://www.mofa.go.jp/re
gion/asia-paci/india/pmv0810/joint_d.html). Ministry of Foreign Affairs. October 22, 2008.
Retrieved August 25, 2010.
00. "Statistics from the Development Co-operation Report 2015" (http://www.oecd.org/dac/japan.ht
m). OECD. Retrieved November 15, 2015.
01. "Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank" (https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/count
ry_rank.html). Lowy Institute. Retrieved April 1, 2018.
02. Michael Green. "Japan Is Back: Why Tokyo's New Assertiveness Is Good for Washington" (htt
p://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2007/03/japan_is_back_why_tokyos_new_a.html). Real
Clear Politics. Retrieved March 28, 2007.
03. "Japan's Foreign Relations and Role in the World Today" (http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/japan/j
apanworkbook/fpdefense/foreign.htm). Asia for Educators. Retrieved November 13, 2016.
04. "Japan and South Korea agree WW2 'comfort women' deal" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-
asia-35188135). BBC News. December 28, 2015. Retrieved July 8, 2017.
05. Ju, Hyujung (2014). "Transformations of the Korean Media Industry by the Korean Wave: The
Perspective of Glocalization". Korean Popular Culture in Global Context – via ProQuest ebrary.
06. "Abe and Moon hold first talks in Hamburg, agree to resume reciprocal visits" (http://www.japan
times.co.jp/news/2017/07/07/national/politics-diplomacy/tokyo-washington-seoul-vow-step-pre
ssure-pyongyang-amid-perceived-china-inaction/). The Japan Times Online. July 7, 2017.
ISSN 0447-5763 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0447-5763). Retrieved July 8, 2017.
07. "Japanese Territory, Northern Territories" (https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/europe/russia/territor
y/index.html). mofa.go.jp. MOFA. April 4, 2014.
08. "Japanese Territory, Takeshima" (https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/takeshima/index.htm
l). mofa.go.jp. MOFA. July 30, 2014.
09. "Japanese Territory, Senkaku Islands" (https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/senkaku/index.
html). mofa.go.jp. MOFA. April 13, 2016.
10. "The 15 countries with the highest military expenditure in 2009" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0110217084451/http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/resultoutput/milex_15).
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Archived from the original (http://www.sipri.
org/research/armaments/milex/resultoutput/milex_15) on February 17, 2011. Retrieved
January 16, 2011.
11. Institute for Economics and Peace (2015). Global Peace Index 2015. (http://www.visionofhuma
nity.org/sites/default/files/Global%20Peace%20Index%20Report%202015_0.pdf) Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20151006145259/http://www.visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/
Global%20Peace%20Index%20Report%202015_0.pdf) October 6, 2015, at the Wayback
Machine Retrieved October 5, 2015
12. "About RIMPAC" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130806203903/http://www.mindef.gov.sg/imin
def/mindef_websites/topics/exrimpac/abt_rimpac.html). Government of Singapore. Archived
from the original (http://www.mindef.gov.sg/imindef/mindef_websites/topics/exrimpac/abt_rimp
ac.html) on August 6, 2013. Retrieved March 2, 2014.
13. "Tokyo says it will bring troops home from Iraq" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070416075509/
http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/06/20/news/japan.php). International Herald Tribune. June 20,
2006. Archived from the original (http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/06/20/news/japan.php) on
April 16, 2007. Retrieved March 28, 2007.
14. "Japan business lobby wants weapon export ban eased" (http://in.reuters.com/article/2010/07/
13/idINIndia-50097320100713). Reuters. July 13, 2010. Retrieved April 12, 2011.
15. "Japan's Security Policy" (http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/security/). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Japan.
16. "Abe offers Japan's help in maintaining regional security" (https://web.archive.org/web/201405
31184828/http://www.japanherald.com/index.php/sid/222467193/scat/c4f2dd8ca8c78044/ht/Ab
e-offers-Japans-help-in-maintaining-regional-security). Japan Herald. Archived from the
original (http://www.japanherald.com/index.php/sid/222467193/scat/c4f2dd8ca8c78044/ht/Abe-
offers-Japans-help-in-maintaining-regional-security) on May 31, 2014. Retrieved May 31,
2014.
17. "Japan fires on 'intruding' boat" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1724913.stm). BBC.
December 22, 2001.
18. Herman, Steve (February 15, 2006). "Japan Mulls Constitutional Reform" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20060216032116/http://voanews.com/english/2006-02-15-voa12.cfm?renderforprint=
1&textonly=1&&CFID=30055922&CFTOKEN=90158930). Tokyo: Voice of America. Archived
from the original (http://voanews.com/english/2006-02-15-voa12.cfm?renderforprint=1&textonl
y=1&&CFID=30055922&CFTOKEN=90158930) on February 16, 2006.
19. Fackler, Martin (December 16, 2010). "Japan Announces Defense Policy to Counter China" (ht
tps://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/17/world/asia/17japan.html). The New York Times. Retrieved
December 17, 2010.
20. Supreme Court of Japan (2005). "Who will conduct the investigation?" (http://www.courts.go.jp/
saiban/qa_keizi/qa_keizi_09/index.html). Retrieved November 1, 2018.
21. National Police Agency Police History Compilation Committee, ed. (1977). Japan post-war
police history (in Japanese). Japan Police Support Association. p. 320.
22. National Police Agency Police History Compilation Committee, ed. (1977). Japan post-war
police history (in Japanese). Japan Police Support Association.
23. "Chapter IV. Maintenance of Public Safety and Disaster Countermeasures" (https://www.webcit
ation.org/5xSaWNCYB?url=http://www.npa.go.jp/english/kokusai9/White_Paper_2009_7.pdf)
(PDF). Japanese National Police Agency. Archived from the original (http://www.npa.go.jp/engl
ish/kokusai9/White_Paper_2009_7.pdf) (PDF) on March 26, 2011. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
24. "Brochure of Japan Coast Guard" (https://www.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/e/image/15_b%20of%20jcg.pdf)
(PDF). Japan Coast Guard. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190708235951/https://ww
w.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/e/image/15_b%20of%20jcg.pdf) (PDF) from the original on July 8, 2019.
Retrieved July 8, 2019.
25. "Diet tightens laws on knives, guns" (https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/11/29/national/di
et-tightens-laws-on-knives-guns/#.XS9faShKi01). Japan Times. November 29, 2008. Retrieved
March 21, 2016.
26. Fisher, Max (July 23, 2012). "A Land Without Guns: How Japan Has Virtually Eliminated
Shooting Deaths" (https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/07/a-land-without-gu
ns-how-japan-has-virtually-eliminated-shooting-deaths/260189/). The Atlantic. Retrieved
March 21, 2016.
27. UNODC. "Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime
Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Fifth Survey (1990 - 1994)" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20090729012918/http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html).
Archived from the original (http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html) on July
29, 2009. Retrieved August 26, 2008.
28. UNODC. "Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime
Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Sixth Survey (1995 - 1997)>Sorted by
variable" (http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Sixth-United-Nations-Survey-on-C
rime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html). Retrieved August 26,
2008.
29. UNODC. "Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime
Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Seventh Survey (1998 - 2000)>Sorted by
variable" (http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Seventh-United-Nations-Survey-o
n-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html). Retrieved August 26,
2008.
30. UNODC. "Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime
Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Eighth Survey (2001 - 2002)>Sorted by
variable" (http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Eighth-United-Nations-Survey-on-
Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html). Retrieved August 26,
2008.
31. UNODC. "Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime
Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Ninth Survey (2003 - 2004)>Values and
Rates per 100,000 Total Population Listed by Country" (http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-a
nd-analysis/Ninth-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Jus
tice-Systems.html). Retrieved August 26, 2008.
32. "Tokyo Stock Exchange ranked third in Asia in 2014" (https://web.archive.org/web/2015120811
2614/http://asia.nikkei.com/Markets/Equities/Tokyo-Stock-Exchange-ranked-third-in-Asia-in-20
14). Nikkei Asian Review. January 16, 2015. Archived from the original (http://asia.nikkei.com/
Markets/Equities/Tokyo-Stock-Exchange-ranked-third-in-Asia-in-2014) on December 8, 2015.
Retrieved December 5, 2015.
33. Inman, James (January 21, 2011). "China confirmed as World's Second Largest Economy" (htt
ps://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/jan/21/china-confirmed-worlds-second-largest-econ
omy). The Guardian. London. Retrieved January 21, 2011.
34. "World Factbook, Country comparison: Public debt" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/th
e-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html). CIA. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
35. "Manufacturing and Construction" (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c0117.htm#c0
6). Statistical Handbook of Japan. Statistics Bureau. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
36. Fackler, Martin (April 21, 2010). "Japan Tries to Face Up to Growing Poverty Problem" (https://
www.nytimes.com/2010/04/22/world/asia/22poverty.html). The New York Times. Retrieved
January 16, 2011.
37. "2008 Housing and Land Survey" (http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/NewListE.do?tid=0000010
28768). Statistics Bureau. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
38. "Economic survey of Japan 2008" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101109122744/http://www.o
ecd.org/document/17/0%2C3343%2Cen_2649_34111_40353553_1_1_1_1%2C00.html).
OECD. Archived from the original (http://www.oecd.org/document/17/0,3343,en_2649_34111_
40353553_1_1_1_1,00.html) on November 9, 2010. Retrieved August 25, 2010.
39. "Foreign investment in Japan soars" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4632747.stm). BBC.
June 29, 2005. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
40. "Japan's Economy: Free at last" (http://www.economist.com/node/7193984?
story_id=7193984). The Economist. July 20, 2006. Retrieved January 23, 2011.
41. "Activist shareholders swarm in Japan" (http://www.economist.com/node/9414552?story_id=94
14552). The Economist. June 28, 2007. Retrieved January 23, 2011.
42. "The 2018 World Cooperative Monitor: Exploring the Cooperative Economy" (https://www.ica.c
oop/sites/default/files/publication-files/wcm2018-printx50-227290600.pdf) (PDF).
www.ica.coop. International Co-operative Alliance. October 2018.
43. "Country/Economy Profiles: Japan" (http://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-report-2
015-2016/economies/#indexId=GCI&economy=JPN). World Economic Forum. Retrieved
February 24, 2016.
44. "Competitiveness Rankings" (http://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-report-2015-2
016/competitiveness-rankings/). World Economic Forum. Retrieved February 24, 2016.
45. "Japan Country Report" (http://www.gfmag.com/gdp-data-country-reports/247-japan-gdp-count
ry-report.html). Global Finance. Retrieved November 16, 2013.
46. "As Farmers Age, Japan Rethinks Relationship With Food, Fields" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20131121103417/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/social_issues/jan-june12/9billion_06-12.ht
ml). PBS. June 12, 2012. Archived from the original (https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/social_i
ssues/jan-june12/9billion_06-12.html) on November 21, 2013. Retrieved November 21, 2013.
47. "Trip Report – Japan Agricultural Situation" (http://www.pecad.fas.usda.gov/highlights/2012/08/
Japantrip/). US Department of Agriculture. August 17, 2012. Retrieved November 21, 2013.
48. Nagata, Akira; Chen, Bixia (May 22, 2012). "Urbanites Help Sustain Japan's Historic Rice
Paddy Terraces" (http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/the-people-who-sustain-japans-historic-terraced-ri
ce-fields). Our World. Retrieved November 21, 2013.
49. "With fewer, bigger plots and fewer part-time farmers, agriculture could compete" (https://www.
economist.com/news/asia/21576154-fewer-bigger-plots-and-fewer-part-time-farmers-agricultur
e-could-compete-field-work). The Economist. April 13, 2013. Retrieved November 21, 2013.
50. "How will Japan's farms survive?" (http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2013/06/28/editorials/h
ow-will-japans-farms-survive/). The Japan Time. June 28, 2013. Retrieved November 21,
2013.
51. "World review of fisheries and aquaculture"
(http://www.fao.org/docrep/w9900e/w9900e02.htm). Food and Agriculture Organization.
Retrieved January 18, 2014.
52. Brown, Felicity (September 2, 2003). "Fish capture by country" (https://www.theguardian.com/e
nvironment/datablog/2009/sep/02/fish-capture-country). The Guardian. Retrieved January 18,
2014.
53. "Japan" (http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_japan/en). Food and Agriculture
Organization. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
54. "World fisheries production, by capture and aquaculture, by country (2010)" (https://wayback.ar
chive-it.org/all/20170525161431/ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/STAT/summary/a-0a.pdf) (PDF). Food and
Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original (ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/STAT/summary/a-0a.pd
f) (PDF) on May 25, 2017. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
55. "The World Factbook" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html
#Econ). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
56. "UN tribunal halts Japanese tuna over-fishing" (http://www.atimes.com/oceania/AH31Ah01.htm
l). Asia Times. August 31, 1999. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
57. Black, Richard (June 22, 2005). "Japanese whaling 'science' rapped" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/
hi/science/nature/4118990.stm). BBC News. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
58. OICA (2016). "Production Statistics" (http://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/).
Retrieved November 13, 2016.
59. "Japan" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html#Econ). CIA
World Factbook. November 3, 2016. Retrieved November 13, 2016.
60. "Forbes Global 2000" (https://www.forbes.com/global2000/list/). Forbes. Retrieved
November 14, 2016.
61. "2015 Global 2000: The World's Biggest Auto Companies" (https://www.forbes.com/sites/andre
amurphy/2015/05/06/2015-global-2000-the-worlds-biggest-auto-companies/). Forbes. May 6,
2015. Retrieved November 13, 2016.
62. "Why the sun has yet to set on Japanese shipbuilding" (http://www.seatrade-maritime.com/new
s/asia/why-the-sun-has-yet-to-set-on-japanese-shipbuilding.html). Seatrade Maritime News.
Retrieved November 13, 2016.
63. "Fortune Global 500" (http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2013/full_list/?iid=G
500_sp_full). CNN Money. Retrieved November 16, 2013.
64. "The World's Biggest Public Companies" (https://www.forbes.com/global2000/list/#page:1_sort:
0_direction:asc_search:_filter:All%20industries_filter:Japan_filter:All%20states). Forbes.
Retrieved November 16, 2013.
65. "National Newspapers Total Circulation 2011" (http://www.ifabc.org/site/assets/media/National-
Newspapers_total-circulation_IFABC_17-01-13.xls). International Federation of Audit Bureaux
of Circulations. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
66. "The Keiretsu of Japan" (http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/keiretsu.htm). San José State
University.
67. Otake, Tomoko (January 19, 2016). "Visitors to Japan surge to record 19.73 million, spend all-
time high ¥3.48 trillion" (http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/01/19/national/japan-sets-new-
inbound-tourism-record-2015-comes-just-short-20-million-target/). The Japan Times Online.
68. "2016 Foreign Visitors & Japanese Departures" (https://www.jnto.go.jp/eng/ttp/sta/PDF/E2016.
pdf) (PDF). Retrieved January 29, 2017 – via Japan National Tourism Organization.
69. Otake, Tomoko (January 29, 2017). "Number of foreign visitors to Japan tops 20 million mark
for first time" (http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/01/10/national/number-foreign-visitors-ja
pan-tops-20-million-mark-first-time/). The Japan Times Online.
70. "Japan Total Visitor Numbers Over 24 Million in 2016!" (http://www.seejapan.co.uk/jnto_consu
mer/media/press-releases/press-release-detail/17-01-17/japan-total-visitor-numbers-over-24-m
illion-in-2016). Japan National Tourism Organization-UK Global Office. Retrieved January 29,
2017 – via Japan Times Online.
71. "Number of visitors to Japan" (https://www.japanmacroadvisors.com/page/category/economic-i
ndicators/gdp-and-business-activity/number-of-visitors-to-japan/). Retrieved January 29, 2017
– via Japan Macro Advisors.
72. "SMAM Market Keyword (No.139)" (http://www.smam-jp.com/documents/www/english/market_
info/2016/11/22/SMAM_Market_Keyword_No139.pdf) (PDF). SMAM-jp.com. Retrieved
January 29, 2017.
73. "UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2015 Edition" (Press release). UNWTO. June 25, 2015.
doi:10.18111/9789284416899 (https://doi.org/10.18111%2F9789284416899).
74. Silver, Nate (August 18, 2014). "The Countries Where You're Surrounded By Tourists" (https://fi
vethirtyeight.com/features/the-countries-where-youre-surrounded-by-tourists/). FiveThirtyEight.
Retrieved March 19, 2020.
75. "International tourism, number of arrivals - United States, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom,
France, Italy, Canada | Data" (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.ARVL?end=2014&lo
cations=US-JP-DE-GB-FR-IT-CA&most_recent_value_desc=true&start=1995).
data.worldbank.org. Retrieved March 19, 2020.
76. "The Bloomberg Innovation Index" (https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2015-innovative-coun
tries/). Bloomberg.
77. David Shamah (February 4, 2015). "Bloomberg: Israel Is World's 5th Most Innovative Country,
Ahead Of US, UK" (http://nocamels.com/2015/02/bloomberg-innovation-index-israel/). No
Camels. Retrieved October 29, 2016.
78. McDonald, Joe (December 4, 2006). "China to spend $136 billion on R&D". BusinessWeek.
79. "Invest in Israel – Where Breakthroughs Happen" (http://www.investinisrael.gov.il/NR/rdonlyre
s/D8B76E12-BC96-436A-9CA5-B53D9B8060E1/0/IsraelWhereBreakthroughsHappen.pdf)
(PDF). Investment Promotion Center. Industry, Trade and Labor Ministry. December 4, 2011.
p. 17. Retrieved October 14, 2012.
80. "Japanese Nobel Laureates" (http://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/profile/intro/honor/nobel.htm/). Kyoto
University. 2009. Retrieved November 7, 2009.
81. "Japanese Fields Medalists" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100310203313/http://www.kyoto-
u.ac.jp/en/profile/intro/honor/fields.htm/). Kyoto University. 2009. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/profile/intro/honor/fields.htm) on March 10, 2010. Retrieved
November 7, 2009.
82. "Statistics – IFR International Federation of Robotics" (https://web.archive.org/web/201603270
31517/http://www.ifr.org/industrial-robots/statistics/). Archived from the original (http://www.ifr.or
g/industrial-robots/statistics/) on March 27, 2016. Retrieved October 5, 2016.
83. Shteinbuk, Eduard (July 22, 2011). "R&D and Innovation as a Growth Engine" (http://sun.inc.h
se.ru/sites/default/files/Shteinbuk.pdf) (PDF). National Research University – Higher School of
Economics. Retrieved May 11, 2013.
84. Dutta, Soumitra; Lopez-Claros, Augusto; Mia, Irene. "Israel: Factors in the Emergence of an
ICT Powerhouse" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120416184212/https://www.investinisrael.go
v.il/NR/rdonlyres/61BD95A0-898B-4F48-A795-5886B1C4F08C/0/israelcompleteweb.pdf)
(PDF). investinisrael.gov.il. World Economic Forum. Archived from the original (https://www.inv
estinisrael.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/61BD95A0-898B-4F48-A795-5886B1C4F08C/0/israelcomplete
web.pdf) (PDF) on April 16, 2012.
85. Ettinger, Yoram. "Investing in Israel" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130509230619/http://www.
nyjtimes.com/Heritage/News/2003/Aug/InvestinginIsrael.htm). New York Jewish Times.
Archived from the original (http://www.nyjtimes.com/Heritage/News/2003/Aug/InvestinginIsrael.
htm) on May 9, 2013. Retrieved March 18, 2013.
86. "The era of Japanese consumer electronics giants is dead" (https://www.cnet.com/news/the-er
a-of-japanese-consumer-electronics-giants-is-dead). cnet. Retrieved November 13, 2016.
87. "What happened to Japan's electronic giants?" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-219927
00). BBC News. April 2, 2013. Retrieved November 13, 2016.
88. Boxer, Steve (March 2, 2012). "Feature: Is Japan's development scene doomed?" (http://www.
computerandvideogames.com/337455/features/is-japans-development-scene-doomed/).
ComputerAndVideoGames.com. Retrieved October 1, 2012.
89. "Why Japanese Games are Breaking Up With the West from" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
61110233340/http://www.1up.com/features/japanese-games-breaking-west). 1UP.com.
Archived from the original (http://www.1up.com/features/japanese-games-breaking-west) on
November 10, 2016. Retrieved October 1, 2012.
90. Lah, Kyung (February 8, 2012). "Japan's older generation turns gamers" (http://www.cnn.com/
2012/02/08/world/asia/japan-older-gamers/index.html). CNN. Retrieved June 19, 2014.
91. Herman, Leonard; Horwitz, Jer; Kent, Steve; Miller, Skyler (2002). "The History of Video
Games" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070929122934/http://uk.gamespot.com/gamespot/feat
ures/video/hov/index.html). GameSpot. Archived from the original (http://uk.gamespot.com/ga
mespot/features/video/hov/index.html) on September 29, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
92. Tabuchi, Hiroko (September 20, 2010). "Japanese Playing a New Video Game: Catch-Up" (htt
ps://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/20/technology/20game.html). The New York Times. Retrieved
June 19, 2014.
93. "PAX '07: Japanese Gaming Culture 101" (http://www.gamespot.com/articles/pax-07-japanese-
gaming-culture-101/1100-6177668/). GameSpot]. August 26, 2007. Retrieved June 19, 2014.
94. "GameSpy: Video Game Culture Clash" (https://archive.today/20130124171045/http://uk.game
spy.com/articles/719/719318p1.html). Uk.gamespy.com. Archived from the original (http://uk.ga
mespy.com/articles/719/719318p1.html) on January 24, 2013. Retrieved October 1, 2012.
95. Sambe, Yukiharu (2009). Japan's Arcade Games and Their Technology. Lecture Notes in
Computer Science. Entertainment Computing – ICEC 2009. 5709. p. 338. doi:10.1007/978-3-
642-04052-8_62 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-04052-8_62). ISBN 978-3-642-04051-
1.
96. Negishi, Mayumi (December 11, 2013). "Japan Tops World In Mobile Apps Revenue" (https://w
ww.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303330204579251221692606100). Wall Street
Journal. Wsj.com. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
97. Nutt, Christian. "Japan's game market hits record high as consoles decline and mobile grows"
(http://gamasutra.com/view/news/246644/Japans_game_market_hits_record_high_as_consol
es_decline_and_mobile_grows.php). Retrieved March 25, 2018.
98. "Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Homepage" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070321160
909/http://www.jaxa.jp/index_e.html). Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. August 3, 2006.
Archived from the original (http://www.jaxa.jp/index_e.html) on March 21, 2007. Retrieved
March 28, 2007.
99. "ESA Science & Technology: Fact Sheet" (http://sci.esa.int/bepicolombo/47346-fact-sheet/).
esa.int. Retrieved February 5, 2014.
00. "Japan Plans Moon Base by 2030" (http://www.moondaily.com/reports/Japan_Plans_Moon_Ba
se_By_2030_999.html). MoonDaily. August 3, 2006. Retrieved March 27, 2007.
01. "Japan Successfully Launches Lunar Explorer "Kaguya" " (https://web.archive.org/web/201104
30010519/http://www.japancorp.net/Article.Asp?Art_ID=15429). Japan Corporate News
Network. Archived from the original (http://www.japancorp.net/Article.Asp?Art_ID=15429) on
April 30, 2011. Retrieved August 25, 2010.
02. "Japan launches first lunar probe" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6994272.stm). BBC
News. September 14, 2007. Retrieved August 25, 2010.
03. "Japanese probe crashes into Moon" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8094863.stm).
BBC News. June 11, 2009. Retrieved April 12, 2011.
04. Pollack, Andrew (March 1, 1997). "Japan's Road to Deep Deficit is Paved with Public Works"
(https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?
res=9500E3DC1031F932A35750C0A961958260). The New York Times. Retrieved
January 16, 2011.
05. "Transport" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110427071603/http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/h
andbook/c09cont.htm). Statistical Handbook of Japan 2007. Statistics Bureau. Archived from
the original (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c09cont.htm) on April 27, 2011.
Retrieved March 2, 2014.
06. Chapter 12 Transport – Microsoft Excel Sheet (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/nenkan/1431-
12.htm), Statistical Handbook of Japan
07. "Road Bureau – MLIT Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism" (http://www.mlit.
go.jp/road/road_e/statistics.html).
08. "Transport in Japan" (http://www.iraptranstats.net/jp). International Transport Statistics
Database. International Road Assessment Program. Retrieved February 17, 2009. (subscription
required)
09. "About the Shinkansen – Safety" (http://english.jr-central.co.jp/about/safety.html). Central
Japan Railway Company. Retrieved October 17, 2011.
10. "Corporate Culture as Strong Diving Force for Punctuality- Another "Just in Time" " (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20080513230217/http://www.hitachi-rail.com/rail_now/column/just_in_time/i
ndex.html). Hitachi. Archived from the original (http://www.hitachi-rail.com/rail_now/column/just
_in_time/index.html) on May 13, 2008. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
11. "Maglev launch to be delayed to 2027" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101026015533/http://w
ww.asahi.com/english/TKY201004290320.html). Asahi Shimbun. April 30, 2010. Archived from
the original (http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201004290320.html) on October 26, 2010.
Retrieved June 10, 2016.
12. "Year to Date Passenger Traffic" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110111152406/http://www.air
ports.org/cda/aci_common/display/main/aci_content07_c.jsp?zn=aci&cp=1-5-212-218-222_66
6_2__). Airports Council International. November 11, 2010. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.airports.org/cda/aci_common/display/main/aci_content07_c.jsp?zn=aci&cp=1-5-212-218-2
22_666_2__) on January 11, 2011. Retrieved March 2, 2014.
13. Nakagawa, Dai; Matsunaka, Ryoji (2006). Transport Policy and Funding (https://books.google.
com/books?id=m09SySxAy2EC). Elsevier. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-08-044852-7.
14. "Port Profile" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101130050032/http://www.port-of-nagoya.jp/engli
sh/about_port.htm). Port of Nagoya. Archived from the original (http://www.port-of-nagoya.jp/e
nglish/about_port.htm) on November 30, 2010. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
15. "Energy" (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c0117.htm#c07). Statistical Handbook
of Japan 2013. Statistics Bureau. Retrieved February 14, 2014.
16. Tsukimori, Osamu (May 5, 2012). "Japan nuclear power-free as last reactor shuts" (https://ww
w.reuters.com/article/2012/05/05/us-nuclear-japan-idUSBRE84405820120505). Reuters.
Retrieved May 8, 2012.
17. "Nuclear power back in Japan for first time since Fukushima" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/
world-asia-33858628/nuclear-power-back-in-japan-for-first-time-since-fukushima). BBC News.
August 11, 2015.
18. "Can nuclear power save Japan from peak oil?" (http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/can-nuclear-power
-save-japan-from-peak-oil/). Our World 2.0. February 2, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
19. "Japan" (https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4142.htm). U.S. Department of State.
Retrieved March 15, 2011.
20. Waterworks Vision Summary (http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/health/water_supply/dl/3-1
a.pdf), June 2004, retrieved on January 6, 2011
21. Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare:Coverage (http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/health/w
ater_supply/1.html), retrieved on January 6, 2011
22. "Population Estimates Monthly Report June 2019" (https://web.archive.org/web/201906062033
15/http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/jinsui/tsuki/index.html). www.stat.go.jp. Statistics Bureau
Japan. June 20, 2019. Archived from the original (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/jinsui/tsuki/
index.html) on June 6, 2019. Retrieved July 18, 2019.
23. "Japan population drops by record number to 124.8 mil.: gov't" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
190711174837/https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20190710/p2g/00m/0dm/075000c). The
Mainichi. July 10, 2019. Archived from the original (https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/2019071
0/p2g/00m/0dm/075000c) on July 11, 2019. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
24. 平成22年国勢調査最終報告書 人口の地域分布 (http://www.stat.go.jp/data/kokusei/2010/final/pd
f/01-02.pdf) (PDF). The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications Statistics Bureau.
Retrieved October 14, 2015.
25. 東京都の人口（推計） (http://www.toukei.metro.tokyo.jp/jsuikei/js-index.htm) [Population of
Tokyo (estimate)]. Tokyo Metropolitan Government Bureau of Statistics Department. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20181002162446/http://www.toukei.metro.tokyo.jp/jsuikei/js-inde
x.htm) from the original on October 2, 2018. Retrieved October 22, 2018.
26. "Table 2.10 Population of Three Major Metropolitan Areas" (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/h
andbook/c0117.htm). Statistics Bureau of Japan. Retrieved November 26, 2013.
27. United Nations (March 12, 2017). "The World's Cities in 2016" (https://www.un.org/en/develop
ment/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2016_data_booklet.p
df) (PDF). United Nations.
28. " 'Multicultural Japan' remains a pipe dream" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110414035203/htt
p://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20070327zg.html). Japan Times. March 27, 2007.
Archived from the original (http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20070327zg.html) on April
14, 2011. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
29. Atsushi Kotani (2010). 日本文化論のインチキ [The Fascination of the Japanese Cultural
Theory]. Gentensei Shinko Shinbun. ISBN 978-4-344-98166-9.
30. Fogarty, Philippa (June 6, 2008). "Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/
2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm). BBC. Retrieved June 7, 2008.
31. "The Invisible Race" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910511,00.html).
Time. January 8, 1973. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
32. "Japan-born Koreans live in limbo" (https://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/01/news/01iht-nurse.ht
ml). The New York Times. April 2, 2005. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
33. Onishi, Norimitsu (November 1, 2008). "An Enclave of Brazilians Is Testing Insular Japan" (http
s://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/02/world/asia/02japan.html). The New York Times. Retrieved
January 16, 2011.
34. " 'Home' is where the heartbreak is for Japanese-Peruvians" (http://www.atimes.com/japan-eco
n/AJ16Dh01.html). Asia Times. October 16, 1999. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
35. "Registered Foreigners in Japan by Nationality" (https://web.archive.org/web/2005082419523
8/http://www.stat.go.jp/data/nenkan/pdf/y0213014.pdf) (PDF). Statistics Bureau. Archived from
the original (http://www.stat.go.jp/data/nenkan/pdf/y0213014.pdf) (PDF) on August 24, 2005.
Retrieved January 16, 2011.
36. "Table A.17" (https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_r
ev.pdf) (PDF). United Nations World Population Prospects, 2006 revision. UN. Retrieved
January 15, 2011.
37. "WHO: Life expectancy in Israel among highest in the world" (http://www.haaretz.com/news/wh
o-life-expectancy-in-israel-among-highest-in-the-world-1.276618). Haaretz. May 2009.
Retrieved January 15, 2011.
38. "Statistical Handbook of Japan 2013: Chapter 2 – Population" (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/dat
a/handbook/c0117.htm#c02). Statistics Bureau. Retrieved February 14, 2014.
39. "For the first time, 1 person in 5 in Japan is 70 or older" (https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/20
18/09/17/national/number-women-japan-aged-least-65-years-old-tops-20-million-first-time/).
The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times. September 17, 2018. Retrieved September 17,
2018.
40. Gonzalo Garland et al. "Dynamics of Demographic Development and its impact on Personal
Saving : case of Japan", with Albert Ando, Andrea Moro, Juan Pablo Cordoba, in Ricerche
Economiche, Vol 49, August 1995
41. Ogawa, Naohiro. "Demographic Trends and their implications for Japan's future" (http://www.m
ofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/socsec/ogawa.html). Transcript of speech delivered on March 7, 1997.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved May 14, 2006.
42. "frm_Message" (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_GraphicalDisplay.aspx?ListNames='Populatio
n,%20History%20and%20Forecast'&HistFor=True&GrpOp=0&Dim1=81&File=0). Retrieved
October 5, 2016.
43. Sakanaka, Hidenori (October 5, 2005). "Japan Immigration Policy Institute: Director's
message"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20070929222250/http://jipi.gr.jp/english/message.html). Japan
Immigration Policy Institute. Archived from the original (http://jipi.gr.jp/english/message.html)
on September 29, 2007. Retrieved January 5, 2007.
44. French, Howard (July 24, 2003). "Insular Japan Needs, but Resists, Immigration" (https://www.
nytimes.com/2003/07/24/international/asia/24JAPA.html). The New York Times. Retrieved
February 21, 2007.
45. 帰化許可申請者数等の推移 (http://www.moj.go.jp/TOUKEI/t_minj03.html) (in Japanese).
Ministry of Justice. Retrieved March 17, 2011.
46. "2012 saw record-high 2,545 people apply for refugee status in Japan" (http://www.japantimes.
co.jp/news/2013/03/20/national/2012-saw-record-high-2545-people-apply-for-refugee-status-in
-japan/). Japan Times. March 20, 2013.
47. "Presidential Memorandum – Fiscal Year 2012 Refugee Admissions Numbers and
Authorizations of In-Country Refugee Status" (https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/20
11/09/30/presidential-memorandum-fiscal-year-2012-refugee-admissions-numbers-and-). The
White House. September 30, 2011.
48. "New immigration rules to stir up Japan's regional rentals scene — if they work" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20190702124120/https://www.rethinktokyo.com/2019/03/27/new-immigration-vis
a-rules-japan-foreign-workers). REthink Tokyo. Archived from the original (https://www.rethinkt
okyo.com/2019/03/27/new-immigration-visa-rules-japan-foreign-workers) on July 2, 2019.
Retrieved July 2, 2019.
49. "A View of Religion in Japan" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160123023617/http://www.japans
ociety.org/a_view_of_religion_in_japan). Archived from the original (https://www.japansociety.o
rg/a_view_of_religion_in_japan) on January 23, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.
50. Reischauer, Edwin O.; Jansen, Marius B. (1988). The Japanese today: change and continuity
(https://books.google.com/books?id=BTPNlLIy2soC) (2nd ed.). Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-674-47184-9.
51. "Religion - Japanese Culture" (https://www.insidejapantours.com/japanese-culture/religion/).
Inside Japan Tours. Retrieved December 23, 2019.
52. "How religious are Japanese people?" (https://japantoday.com/category/features/opinions/how-
religious-are-japanese-people). Retrieved December 23, 2019.
53. Kisala, Robert (2005). Wargo, Robert (ed.). The Logic Of Nothingness: A Study of Nishida
Kitarō (https://books.google.com/books?id=LbwnrRmLqPoC). University of Hawaii Press.
pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-8248-2284-2.
54. Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACA
AJ) (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
55. Higashibaba, 2002. p. 1
56. Mariko Kato (February 24, 2009). "Christianity's long history in the margins" (http://www.japanti
mes.co.jp/news/2009/02/24/reference/christianitys-long-history-in-the-margins/). The Japan
Times Online. "The Christian community itself counts only those who have been baptized and
are currently regular churchgoers – some 1 million people, or less than 1 percent of the
population, according to Nobuhisa Yamakita, moderator of the United Church of Christ in
Japan"
57. "Christians use English to reach Japanese youth" (https://web.archive.org/web/201006110606
08/http://mnnonline.org/article/10318). Mission Network News. September 3, 2007. Archived
from the original (http://mnnonline.org/article/10318) on June 11, 2010. "The population of
Japan is less than one-percent Christian"
58. Heide Fehrenbach, Uta G. Poiger (2000). Transactions, transgressions, transformations:
American culture in Western Europe and Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=RB2goIg
xF68C&pg=PAPA62). Berghahn Books. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-57181-108-0. "followers of the
Christian faith constitute only about a half percent of the Japanese population"
59. 世界60カ国価値観データブック (http://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/honkawa/9460.html) [Sixty Countries'
Values Databook]. Dentsu Communication Institute, Japan Research Center. 2000.
60. Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society (2011) edited by Victoria Bestor,
Theodore C. Bestor, and Akiko Yamagata, p. 65 ISBN 978-0-415-43649-6
61. Kato, Mariko (February 24, 2009). "Christianity's long history in the margins". Japan Times.
62. "Emile A. Nakhleh, Keiko Sakurai and Michael Penn; "Islam in Japan: A Cause for Concern?",
Asia Policy 5, January 2008" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171010172651/http://www.nbr.or
g/publications/asia_policy/Preview/AP5_IslamJapan_preview.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the
original (http://www.nbr.org/publications/asia_policy/Preview/AP5_IslamJapan_preview.pdf)
(PDF) on October 10, 2017. Retrieved November 4, 2016.
63. Kawakami, Yasunori. "Local Mosques and the Lives of Muslims in Japan – The Asia-Pacific
Journal: Japan Focus" (http://www.japanfocus.org/-kawakami-yasunori/2436#sthash.4FOVJM
P9.dpuf). www.japanfocus.org.
64. "Table: Muslim Population by Country" (http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/table-muslim-pop
ulation-by-country/). Pew Research Center. January 27, 2011. Retrieved March 19, 2017.
65. バハイ共同体 【Japan Baha'i Network】 (https://www.bahaijp.org/).
66. Clarke, Peter, ed. (1993). The World's religions : understanding the living faiths (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=qhgY5oNoyQAC). Reader's Digest. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-89577-501-6.
67. Miyagawa, Shigeru. "The Japanese Language" (http://web.mit.edu/jpnet/articles/JapaneseLan
guage.html). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
68. Ellington, Lucien (September 1, 2005). "Japan Digest: Japanese Education" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20060427225148/http://www.indiana.edu/~japan/digest5.html). Indiana University.
Archived from the original (http://www.indiana.edu/~japan/digest5.html) on April 27, 2006.
Retrieved April 27, 2006.
69. Heinrich, Patrick (January 2004). "Language Planning and Language Ideology in the Ryūkyū
Islands". Language Policy. 3 (2): 153–179. doi:10.1023/B:LPOL.0000036192.53709.fc (https://
doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3ALPOL.0000036192.53709.fc).
70. "15 families keep ancient language alive in Japan" (https://web.archive.org/web/200801060624
19/http://www.un.org/works/culture/japan_story.html). UN. Archived from the original (https://w
ww.un.org/works/culture/japan_story.html) on January 6, 2008. Retrieved March 27, 2007.
71. Ellington, Lucien (December 1, 2003). "Beyond the Rhetoric: Essential Questions About
Japanese Education" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070405075716/http://www.fpri.org/footnot
es/087.200312.ellington.japaneseeducation.html). Foreign Policy Research Institute. Archived
from the original (http://www.fpri.org/footnotes/087.200312.ellington.japaneseeducation.html)
on April 5, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
72. "QS World University Rankings 2020" (https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/worl
d-university-rankings/2020). QS TopUniversities. 2019. Retrieved September 7, 2019.
73. Jiji Press Staff (June 10, 2016). "Compulsory nine-year school system kicks off in Japan" (htt
p://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/06/10/national/compulsory-nine-year-school-system-kicks
-off-japan/). The Japan Times. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
74. "Japan - Student performance (PISA 2015)" (http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?plott
er=h5&primaryCountry=JPN&treshold=10&topic=PI). OECD.
75. "Education at a Glance 2014" (http://www.oecd.org/education/Japan-EAG2014-Country-Note.p
df) (PDF). OECD. Retrieved August 16, 2019.
76. "PISA - Results in Focus" (https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf) (PDF).
OECD. p. 5.
77. "Japan" (http://gpseducation.oecd.org/Content/EAGCountryNotes/JPN.pdf) (PDF). OECD.
78. "Japan" (http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=JPN&treshold=10&topic
=EO). OECD. Retrieved August 16, 2019.
79. Rodwin, Victor. "Health Care in Japan" (http://www.nyu.edu/projects/rodwin/lessons.html). New
York University. Retrieved March 10, 2007.
80. "Health Insurance: General Characteristics" (http://www.ipss.go.jp/s-info/e/Jasos/Health.html).
National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. Retrieved March 28, 2007.
81. Strom, Stephanie (July 15, 1999). "In Japan, Mired in Recession, Suicides Soar" (https://query.
nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E1DB173FF936A25754C0A96F958260). The New
York Times. Retrieved September 20, 2008.
82. Lewis, Leo (June 19, 2008). "Japan gripped by suicide epidemic" (http://www.timesonline.co.u
k/tol/news/world/asia/article4170649.ece). The Times. Retrieved September 20, 2008.
83. Ozawa-de Silva, Chikako (December 2008). "Too Lonely to Die Alone: Internet Suicide Pacts
and Existential Suffering in Japan". Cult Med Psychiatry. 32 (4): 516–551. doi:10.1007/s11013-
008-9108-0 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11013-008-9108-0). PMID 18800195 (https://pubme
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18800195).
84. Britnell, Mark (2015). In Search of the Perfect Health System. London: Palgrave. p. 18.
ISBN 978-1-137-49661-4.
85. Haffner, John; Klett, Tomas; Lehmann, Jean-Pierre (2009). Japan's Open Future: An Agenda
for Global Citizenship. Anthem Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-84331-311-3.
86. "Administration of Cultural Affairs in Japan" (http://www.bunka.go.jp/english/index.html).
Agency for Cultural Affairs. Retrieved May 11, 2011.
87. Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard (2010). Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African, and Pacific
Art and the London Avant-Garde (https://books.google.com/books?id=MIBNXScRj3QC).
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959369-9.
88. Kinko Ito (February 2005). "A History of Manga in the Context of Japanese Culture and
Society". Journal of Popular Culture. 38 (3): 456–475. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.2005.00123.x
(https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0022-3840.2005.00123.x).
89. Tange, Kenzo; Kawazoe, Noboru (1965). Ise: Prototype of Japanese Architecture.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
90. Kazuo, Nishi; Kazuo, Hozumi (1995). What is Japanese Architecture?: A Survey of Traditional
Japanese Architecture with a List of Sites and a Map (https://books.google.com/books?id=oZl_
yEJGtUYC). Kodansha. ISBN 978-4-7700-1992-9.
91. Keene, Donald (2000). Seeds in the Heart: Japanese Literature from Earliest Times to the Late
Sixteenth Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=_DEwTJq3TbcC). Columbia University
Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11441-7.
92. "Asian Studies Conference, Japan (2000)" (http://www.meijigakuin.ac.jp/~ascj/2000/200015.ht
m). Meiji Gakuin University. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
93. "Windows on Asia – Literature : Antiquity to Middle Ages: Recent Past" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20051203034125/http://www.isp.msu.edu/asianstudies/wbwoa/eastasia/Japan/literatur
e.html). Michigan State University. Archived from the original (http://isp.msu.edu/AsianStudies/
wbwoa/eastasia/Japan/literature.html) on December 3, 2005. Retrieved December 28, 2007.
94. Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACA
AJ) (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 126–127. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
95. Royall, Tyler, ed. (2003). The Tale of Genji (https://books.google.com/books?id=AIUvc9FnZ5A
C). Penguin Classics. pp. i–ii, xii. ISBN 978-0-14-243714-8.
96. Keene, Donald (1999). World Within Walls: Japanese Literature of the Pre-Modern Era, 1600–
1867 (https://books.google.com/books?id=gwQTF-9axqoC). Columbia University Press.
ISBN 978-0-231-11467-7.
97. "Japanese Confucian Philosophy" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/japanese-confucian/).
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. May 20, 2008.
98. Parkes, Graham (January 1, 2011). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/japanese-aesthetics/) – via
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
99. Malm, William P. (2000). Traditional Japanese music and musical instruments (https://archive.o
rg/details/traditionaljapan0000malm/page/31) (New ed.). Kodansha International. pp. 31–45 (ht
tps://archive.org/details/traditionaljapan0000malm/page/31). ISBN 978-4-7700-2395-7.
00. See for example, Olivier Messiaen, Sept haïkaï (1962), (Olivier Messiaen: a research and
information guide, Routledge, 2008, By Vincent Perez Benitez, p. 67) and (Messiaen the
Theologian, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2010, pp. 243–265, By Andrew Shenton)
01. Campion, Chris (August 22, 2005). "J-Pop History" (https://www.theguardian.com/music/2005/
aug/21/popandrock3). The Observer. London. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
02. Martinez, D.P., ed. (1998). The worlds of Japanese popular culture: gender, shifting boundaries
and global cultures (https://books.google.com/books?id=6mqM8m-sJY4C) (Repr. ed.).
Cambridge University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-521-63729-9.
03. Takeo Doi, The anatomy of self (1985), p. 35.
04. Christine Genzberger (1994). Japan Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business
With Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ofvka_i08CAC&pg=PAPA155). World Trade
Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-9631864-2-3. Retrieved October 22, 2012.
05. Susan C. Bauman (994). In Search of the Japanese Spirit in Talent Education (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=j6epMhUlJQcC&pg=PAPA12). Alfred Music Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-
87487-767-0. Retrieved October 22, 2012.
06. Maynard, Michael L; Maynard, Senko K; Taki (1993). 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding
Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. McGraw Hill Professional. p. 113.
ISBN 978-0-8442-8496-5.
07. Richard J. Berenson, Neil deMause, The complete illustrated guidebook to Prospect Park and
the Brooklyn Botanic Garden (2001), p. 121.
08. Nishimura, Shoji; Nevgi, Anne; Tella, Seppo. "Communication Style and Cultural Features in
High/Low Context Communication Cultures: A Case Study of Finland, Japan and India" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20150319030459/http://www.helsinki.fi/~tella/nishimuranevgitella299.p
df) (PDF). Helsinki.fi. Archived from the original (http://www.helsinki.fi/~tella/nishimuranevgitell
a299.pdf) (PDF) on March 19, 2015. Retrieved December 23, 2014.
09. Cohen, Raymond (1977). Negotiating Across Cultures: Communication Obstacles in
International Diplomacy (https://archive.org/details/negotiatingacros00cohe). United States Inst
of Peace Pr (September 1, 1991). ISBN 978-1-878379-08-5.
10. "A Day in the Life: Seasonal Foods" (http://www.tjf.or.jp/eng/content/japaneseculture/pdf/ge09s
hun.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130116212751/http://www.tjf.or.jp/eng/conte
nt/japaneseculture/pdf/ge09shun.pdf) January 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine , The Japan
Forum Newsletter, September 14, 1999.
11. Lucy M. Long (July 17, 2015). Ethnic Food Today: A Cultural Encyclopedia (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=DBzYCQAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA329). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 329–.
ISBN 978-1-4422-2731-6.
12. Darra Goldstein (2015). The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=jbi6BwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA777). Oxford University Press. pp. 777–. ISBN 978-0-
19-931339-6.
13. Hiroko Fujita; Fran Stallings (2008). Folktales from the Japanese Countryside (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=p7nNJAt75XQC&pg=PAPA148). Libraries Unlimited. pp. 148–. ISBN 978-
1-59158-488-9.
14. Carl A. Batt (2014). Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (https://books.google.com/books?id=1
b1CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA846). Academic Press. pp. 846–. ISBN 978-0-12-384733-1.
15. Christopher Boulton; David Quain (2013). Brewing Yeast and Fermentation (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=QpDVsu-vaBcC&pg=PAPT20). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 20–. ISBN 978-1-
118-68534-1.
16. Hosking, Richard (1995). A Dictionary of Japanese Food - Ingredients and Culture. Tuttle.
p. 30. ISBN 0-8048-2042-2.
17. Nakamura, Akemi, "National holidays trace roots to China, ancients, harvests (http://www.japa
ntimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20080408i1.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200907132032
47/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20080408i1.html) July 13, 2009, at the Wayback
Machine", Japan Times, April 8, 2008.
18. "Public Holidays in Japan in 2016 – Office Holidays" (http://www.officeholidays.com/countries/j
apan/).
19. "The Japanese and Television, 2000" (https://web.archive.org/web/20041205020625/http://ww
w.nhk.or.jp/bunken/bcri-fr/h13-f1.html). Archived from the original (http://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/
BCRI-fr/h13-f1.html) on December 5, 2004. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
20. Australia, Barbara Gatzen, Australian National University (April 17, 2001). "Media and
Communication in Japan: Current Issues and Future Research" (http://www.japanesestudies.o
rg.uk/discussionpapers/Gatzen.html).
21. 2.新聞と読者 Newspapers and Readers (https://web.archive.org/web/20020418125404/http://
www.pressnet.or.jp/data/0202.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.pressnet.or.jp/data/0
202.htm) on April 18, 2002. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
22. Television Viewing and Media Use Today: From "The Japanese and Television 2015" Survey
(https://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/english/reports/pdf/report_16042101.pdf) NHK Broadcasting
Culture Research Institute, Public Opinion Research Division. April 2016.
23. 1.発行部数 Circulation (https://web.archive.org/web/20020418105725/http://www.pressnet.or.j
p/data/0101.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.pressnet.or.jp/data/0101.htm) on April
18, 2002. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
24. "Top 50 countries ranked by number of feature films produced, 2005–2010" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20121027152501/http://screenaustralia.gov.au/research/statistics/acompfilms.asp).
Screen Australia. Archived from the original (http://screenaustralia.gov.au/research/statistics/ac
ompfilms.asp) on October 27, 2012. Retrieved July 14, 2012.
25. If you want to know Japan, See Animation (http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&
mid=sec&sid1=103&oid=020&aid=0000322552) Dong-ah-news, November 5, 2005 language
= Korean
26. "Sumo: East and West" (https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/sumoeastandwest/sumo.html).
PBS. Retrieved March 10, 2007.
27. "Culture and Daily Life" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070317192109/http://www.uk.emb-japa
n.go.jp/en/facts/culture_dailylife.html). Embassy of Japan in the UK. Archived from the original
(http://www.uk.emb-japan.go.jp/en/facts/culture_dailylife.html#sports) on March 17, 2007.
Retrieved March 27, 2007.
28. Nagata, Yoichi; Holway, John B. (1995). "Japanese Baseball". In Palmer, Pete (ed.). Total
Baseball (4th ed.). Viking Press. p. 547.
29. "Soccer as a Popular Sport: Putting Down Roots in Japan" (http://www.tjf.or.jp/takarabako/PD
F/TB09_JCN.pdf) (PDF). The Japan Forum. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
30. "Previous FIFA World Cups" (https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/edition=4395/index.html).
FIFA. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
31. "Team Japan" (http://www.afcasiancup.com/team/en/Japan). Asian Football Confederation.
Retrieved March 2, 2014.
32. "Japan edge USA for maiden title" (https://www.fifa.com/womensworldcup/matches/round=255
989/match=300144437/summary.html). FIFA. July 17, 2011. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
33. Varcoe, Fred. "Japanese Golf Gets Friendly" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215517/htt
p://metropolis.co.jp/tokyo/604/sports.asp). Metropolis. Archived from the original (http://metrop
olis.co.jp/tokyo/604/sports.asp) on September 26, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
34. "Honda • STATS F1" (https://www.statsf1.com/en/moteur-honda.aspx). www.statsf1.com.
Retrieved February 21, 2020.
35. "WRC - World Rally Championship" (https://www.wrc.com/en/more/wrc-history/group-a/). WRC
- World Rally Championship. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
36. Sports, Dorna. "Japanese industry in MotoGP™" (https://www.motogp.com/en/news/2017/10/1
1/japanese-industry-in-motogp/241690). www.motogp.com. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
37. Nagatsuka, Kaz (June 14, 2017). "Sato revels in glow of historic Indy 500 triumph" (https://ww
w.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2017/06/14/more-sports/auto-racing/sato-revels-glow-historic-indy-5
00-triumph/). The Japan Times Online. ISSN 0447-5763 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0447-5
763). Retrieved February 21, 2020.
38. "Japan at the 24 Hours of Le Mans - Infographic" (https://www.lemans.org/en/news/japan-at-th
e-24-hours-of-le-mans-infographic/50293). lemans.org. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
39. Clarke, Len. "Japanese Omnibus: Sports" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215524/htt
p://metropolis.co.jp/tokyo/623/sports.asp). Metropolis. Archived from the original (http://metrop
olis.co.jp/tokyo/623/sports.asp) on September 26, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
40. "Olympic History in Japan" (http://www.joc.or.jp/english/historyjapan/history_japan_bid.html).
Japanese Olympic Committee. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
41. "2006 FIBA World Championship" (http://www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/06_wcm/). FIBA.
Retrieved May 10, 2017.
42. "IOC selects Tokyo as host of 2020 Summer Olympic Games" (http://www.olympic.org/news/io
c-selects-tokyo-as-host-of-2020-summer-olympic-games/208784). July 21, 2016. Retrieved
October 5, 2016.
43. "The Game – World Championships – FIVB Women's World Championships Finals" (http://ww
w.fivb.org/TheGame/TheGame_WorldChampionships.htm). FIVB. Retrieved June 13, 2017.
44. "rugbyworldcup.com" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131217224929/http://www.rugbyworldcu
p.com/rugbyworldcup2019/news/newsid%3D2069327.html). Archived from the original (http://
www.rugbyworldcup.com/rugbyworldcup2019/news/newsid=2069327.html#japan+reaches+res
t+asia) on December 17, 2013. Retrieved November 1, 2013.

Sources

Flath (2000). The Japanese Economy (https://books.google.com/books?id=RmujQgAACAAJ).

Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-877503-4.
Henshall (2001). A History of Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=hatYNQAACAAJ).
Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-23370-9.
Iwabuchi (2002). Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism
(https://books.google.com/books?id=k8ot27vLSV4C). Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-
8223-2891-9.
Jansen (2000). The Making of Modern Japan (https://books.google.com/books?id=9fJxAAAAM
AAJ). Belknap. ISBN 978-0-674-00334-7.
Kato; et al. (1997). A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'Yoshu to Modern Times (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC). Japan Library. ISBN 978-1-873410-48-6.
Perkins, Dorothy. Encyclopedia of Japan : Japanese history and culture, from abacus to zori
(1991) online free to borrow (https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofja00perk)
Pilling, David (2014). Bending Adversity: Japan and the Art of Survival (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=L6g2nwEACAAJ). London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-1-84614-546-9.
Samuels (2008). Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand Strategy and the Future of East Asia (https://
books.google.com/books?id=LkzT6ivxE7EC). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-
7490-3.
Silverberg (2007). Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times
(https://books.google.com/books?id=0XSFa0fbkG4C). University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-22273-1.
Sugimoto; et al. (2003). An Introduction to Japanese Society (https://books.google.com/books?
id=3C_BFE6YO6gC). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52925-9.
 Taggart Murphy, R. (2014). Japan and the Shackles of the Past (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=9byvBAAAQBAJ). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
984598-9.
Varley (2000). Japanese Culture (https://archive.org/details/japaneseculture00hpau).
University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2152-4.

External links
Government

JAPANGOV – The Government of Japan (http://www.japan.go.jp/)

Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet (http://japan.kantei.go.jp/index.html), official site
The Imperial Household Agency (https://web.archive.org/web/20161120104322/http://www.kun
aicho.go.jp/eindex.html), official site of the Imperial House of Japan
National Diet Library (http://www.ndl.go.jp/en/index.html)

General information

"Japan" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html). The World

Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Japan (https://web.archive.org/web/20090421051351/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/
for/japan.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Japan (https://curlie.org/Regional/Asia/Japan) at Curlie
Japan (https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan) Encyclopædia Britannica entry
Japan (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-14918801) profile from BBC News
Japan (http://www.oecd.org/japan/) from the OECD
Geographic data related to Japan (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/382313) at
OpenStreetMap

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan&oldid=952924388"

This page was last edited on 24 April 2020, at 19:49 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.