Shibayama, G., Franceschinis, R. D.

“Steam Turbines”
The Engineering Handbook.
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

 72
Steam Turbines
72.1 Types of Steam Turbines
72.2 Impulse versus Reaction Turbines
72.3 Thermodynamics
72.4 Stop and Control Valves
72.5 Water Induction Protection
72.6 Generators
72.7 Turbine Generator Auxiliaries
Steam Seals • Turning Gear • Lube Oil

George Shibayama
Doyen & Associates, Inc.

Robert D. Franceschinis
Doyen & Associates, Inc.

A steam turbine is a rotary device that converts thermal energy to mechanical energy. Steam
turbines are primarily used for driving electrical generators or driving mechanical equipment. This
chapter will focus primarily on steam turbines used for power generation; however, the basic
principals discussed also apply to turbines that are used to drive equipment. The subject of steam
turbine design, performance, and operation encompasses a large amount of detailed material that
is beyond the intent of this chapter. The reader is encouraged to review the texts given in the
"References" and "Further Information" sections for a comprehensive discussion of steam turbine
design, performance, and integration of the steam turbine in a modern power
cycle.

72.1 Types of Steam Turbines

Steam turbines are used to either drive an electrical generator for the purposes of producing
electric power or for driving mechanical equipment such as pumps, fans, chillers, and so on.
Turbines used to generate power are referred to as turbine generators. Steam turbines used to
drive equipment are referred to as mechanical drive turbines. Steam turbine generators range is
size from less than 1 MW to as high as 1300 MW. Mechanical drive turbines are usually
expressed in terms of horsepower. The more common size range for these machines is 5 hp to 15
000 hp.

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 A steam turbine consists essentially of several rows of blades or buckets arranged in series and
connected on a common shaft inside an enclosure called a casing. As the steam expands through
the turbine, the pressure and temperature decreases as the energy rotates the turbine shaft. The
simplest steam turbine has one inlet and one outlet. The steam enters the machine, gives up a
portion of its energy to rotate the rotor, and exhausts through the outlet.
A steam turbine that exhausts at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure is called a
noncondensing turbine. A steam turbine that exhausts below atmospheric pressure is called a
condensing turbine. In the latter case the steam turbine must exhaust to a heat exchanger that
condenses the steam at a subatmospheric pressure. Noncondensibles in the steam must be removed
from the condenser to keep the exhaust pressure and temperature low. High back-pressures not
only reduce turbine efficiency, but also can cause heating of the low-pressure section of the
turbine. Most turbine generators used for power generation are the condensing type; however, in
many industrial facilities, noncondensing back-pressure turbines are used to reduce pressures
between processes. Figure 72.1 shows a cross section of a straight condensing
turbine.

Figure 72.1 A cross-sectional view of a straight condensing turbine. (Source: Perry, R. H. and Green, D.
W. 1984. Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York. With permission.)

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 Steam can be extracted or inducted into a steam turbine at single or multiple points between the
inlet and outlet. Steam extraction at an intermediate pressure can be used for a process or for the
heating of feedwater to the steam boiler to improve the overall steam cycle
efficiency.
The extraction of steam can either be controlled or uncontrolled. In an uncontrolled extraction
the pressure of the extracted steam will decrease with an increase in extraction flow from the
turbine. In a controlled extraction the extraction pressure is kept constant as extraction flow is
increased or decreased. Most large utility-type steam turbines use uncontrolled
extraction.
Steam can also be inducted back into a steam turbine. This approach is used in combined cycle
plants where the exhaust heat from a gas turbine is recovered for the purposes of providing
electrical power and steam. Inducting excess steam into the steam turbine improves the efficiency
of the plant because some of the waste heat is used to generate lower-pressure steam, which
generates more power.
In a large utility reheat power station, steam turbines have high-, intermediate-, and
low-pressure casings or sections. As the names imply, the high-pressure steam enters the hp
section; gives up a portion of its energy; becomes reheated in the boiler; enters the IP section,
where more of the energy is given up; and finally enters the LP section, where some additional
power is obtained prior to entering the condenser.
Steam turbines can also be classified by their configuration. A steam turbine generator for
electrical power generation can be classified as a tandem compound or cross compound unit. A
tandem compound unit operates with all of the steam turbines rotating on a common shaft
connected to one generator. A cross compound unit has the steam turbines on two separate shafts.
In this case the HP and IP turbines are on a single shaft and connected to a single generator,
whereas the LP turbine is on a separate shaft connected to a separate generator. Virtually all new
steam turbine installations are the tandem compound type.
As shown in Table 72.1, standard designations have been adopted to indicate the types of
turbines. A TC2F-33.5 is a tandem compound turbine with two exhaust flows to the condenser,
and 33.5 inch last-stage blades. Similarly, the designation for a four-flow cross compound
machine with 38" blades would be CC4F-38. The number of exhaust flows to the condenser is a
function of the number of low-pressure turbine sections. Utility turbine generators can have two,
four, or six exhausts to the condenser.

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 Table 72.1 Typical Turbine-Generator Configurations

Data provided by the General Electric Company. TC = tandem compound. CC = cross compound. F = number of
flow ducts to condenser. LSB = last-stage blade.
Source: El-Wakil, E. M. 1984. Power Plant Technology. McGraw-Hill, New York. With permission.

Most steam turbines for nonnuclear power generation rotate at 3600 rpm. Nuclear turbines
operate at 1800 rpm since the blade rows are longer and a lower speed is necessary to reduce blade
stresses. A common misconception is that the electrical power output of a steam turbine generator
is related to speed. Steam turbine generators operate at a fixed speed. The power output from a
steam turbine is controlled by varying the control valve position on the steam chest, thereby
admitting more or less steam to the turbine. The increased torque on the steam turbine generator
shaft resulting from the increased steam flow produces the increase in power
output.
Mechanical drive turbines generally operate over a variable speed range. These turbines can be
very useful in driving equipment that frequently operates at lower loads. As the load on a pump or
fan is reduced, the turbine can slow down and reduce the capacity of the pump or fan. As the
demand increases, the turbine increases in speed as required to produce the flow. This infinite type

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of speed adjustment can result in a large power savings compared to the constant speed operation
of driven equipment.

72.2 Impulse versus Reaction Turbines

There are two fundamental types of steam turbines from the perspective of how energy is
transferred from the steam to the turbine shaft. As discussed previously, energy is transferred by
the steam expanding through a series of stationary and rotating blade sections. These blade
sections can be of the impulse and/or reaction types.
In an impulse turbine the steam is directed through nozzles to impact the buckets or blades
attached to the rotor shaft. The energy to rotate the turbine comes from the force of the steam
impacting on the buckets. A commonly used analogue is a child's pinwheel turning in the wind.
Figure 72.2 illustrates the principle of impulse blading.

Figure 72.2 An ideal single-stage impulse turbine. (Source: El-Wakil, E. M. 1984. Power Plant
Technology. McGraw-Hill, New York. With permission.)

In a reaction turbine the stationary nozzles and rotating blades are the same shape. The steam

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expands, increases in velocity, and loses pressure as it passes through the blade sections. The
resulting force generated by this velocity turns the rotor. A common analogue is releasing an
inflated toy balloon. The balloon speeds away due to the reactive force. Figure 72.3 illustrates the
principle of reaction blading.

Figure 72.3 A three-stage reaction turbine. (Source: El-Wakil, E. M. 1984. Power Plant Technology.
McGraw-Hill, New York. With permission.)

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

 Some manufacturers use impulse blading, whereas others use a combination of both reaction
and impulse blading. Both types of blading accomplish the same purpose of converting the
thermal energy of the steam into useful mechanical work.

72.3 Thermodynamics
The amount of power that can be generated by a steam turbine is a function of several variables.
The initial steam pressure and temperature, steam flow, exhaust pressure, and efficiency of the
machine all determine how much power can be generated. Additionally, mechanical bearing and
electrical generator losses in the turbine generator need to be considered, since these losses reduce
the power output.
The efficiency of a steam turbine is defined as the actual work produced divided by the work
produced by an isentropic expansion. An isentropic expansion is the amount of work that would
be produced if no change in entropy occurred. An isentropic process is an idealized process that
represents the amount of available energy. The second law of thermodynamics, however, states
that the conversion of this thermal energy to useful work cannot be 100% efficient. In practical
use, it will be less than 100% because of the second law and because of additional mechanical and
electrical losses in the turbine generator itself.
Expressed mathematically, the efficiency of a steam turbine is as follows:

E±ciency = Actual work =Work from isentropic expansion

(72:1)
= Used energy =Available energy

Figure 72.4 shows a Mollier chart in which the expansion of a single-stage turbine is illustrated.
The efficiency is a function of the machine type, size, manufacturer, and the steam inlet and
exhaust conditions.

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 Figure 72.4 A Mollier chart showing a turbine expansion.

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

 The first law of thermodynamics, written for a steam turbine, states that the power output will
be the mass flow rate of steam through the turbine multiplied by the difference in enthalpy across
the turbine, with the result converted to kilowatts or horsepower. The inlet enthalpy is known
from the steam conditions, whereas the exhaust enthalpy is a function of the efficiency of the
expansion. Expressed mathematically, the power output for a simple nonextraction steam turbine
would be as follows:

Power output (kW) = Steam °ow (lb=h) £ (Hin ¡ Hout )=3413 (72:2)

where Hin = enthalpy of steam at turbine inlet and Hout = enthalpy of steam at turbine outlet.
The calculation of power output for a steam turbine can be illustrated by a simple
example.

Example. An industrial, condensing, nonextraction steam turbine with a throttle pressure of 400
psig and 500 F and a steam flow of 100 000 lb/h exhausts to a condenser at 3:000 HgA. The
manufacturer states that the efficiency of this machine is 80.0%. Determine the power output from
this machine.
Solution. From steam tables:

Enthalpy of steam at 400 psig =500 F = 1243:2 Btu=lb (H1)

Entropy of steam at 400 psig =500 F = 1:522 5 Btu=lb (S1)
Enthalpy of steam at S1 and 3.0" HgA = 868:26 Btu=lb (H2S)
Exhaust enthalpy = [(H2S ¡ H1) £ 0:80] + H1 = 943:228 Btu=lb (H2)

Power output = (100 000 lb=hr £ (1243:2 ¡ 943:23))=3413 = 8789 kW

where 3413 is in Btu/kW-h

In this example, if testing of this turbine were contemplated, the enthalpy of the supply steam
could be determined from pressure and temperature measurements. The exhaust enthalpy,
however, would not be known. The determination of enthalpy in a two-phase region (where steam
and moisture coexist) by pressure and temperature measurements will only yield estimates of the
actual enthalpy since the actual moisture in the steam is not known. The exhaust enthalpy,
however, could be estimated by back-calculating, since the power output would be measured
during testing.
The above simplified example is based on a single-stage turbine with no steam extraction or
induction. All of the steam entering the turbine leaves the turbine exhaust and solely produces
power. In practice, steam can be extracted from or inducted to steam turbines for the purposes of
exporting steam to a process or improving cycle efficiency. Figure 72.5 shows a typical power
cycle with four extraction points. The extraction or induction of steam will affect the power output
and efficiency of the cycle and must be accounted for in the calculations.

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Figure 72.5 A typical cycle diagram for a small cogeneration facility.

In a large utility steam turbine cycle, up to seven extractions may be used for feedwater heating
and other uses. The extraction of this steam will affect the power output and efficiency of the
cycle because steam extracted from the turbine will not be used to generate power. When steam is
extracted for feedwater heating, a reduction in the number of feedwater heaters in service
increases the power output of the steam turbine, since more steam is passing through the turbine.
However, this power is not generated as efficiently, since the feedwater entering the boiler is at a
reduced temperature.
Frequently, turbine performance is expressed by another term, turbine heat rate. The heat rate is
defined as the number of Btus that must be added to the working fluid (the steam) to generate one
kW-h of electrical power (Btu/kW-h). The heat rate is not only a function of the process
conditions but also the type of cycle. In a power station the heat rate is affected by the number of
feedwater heaters in the cycle, in addition to steam pressure, temperature, exhaust pressure, steam
flow, the type of unit (reheat versus nonreheat), control valve position, and cycle
losses.
Turbine heat rate is mathematically defined as

Heat input to working °uid =kW output (72:3)

Heat rate can also be expressed in terms of efficiency, as follows:

Heat rate = 3413=(e±ciency ) (72:4)

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where efficiency is expressed as a decimal.
Two important but frequently misunderstood parameters are the expansion line end point
(ELEP) and the used energy end point (UEEP). The expansion line end point represents the
turbine exhaust enthalpy that would exist if there were no exhaust loss at the turbine exit.
However, in practice, the expansion of the steam from the low-pressure turbine into the condenser
results in a loss that is a function of the velocity through the turbine exhaust opening. In the
calculation of power output the UEEP should be used (not the ELEP) because the exhaust loss
does not contribute to the generation of power.
In the above example, if the exhaust enthalpy could be directly measured, this enthalpy would
be the UEEP and not the ELEP. Expressed mathematically, the exhaust loss is defined as
follows:

Exhaust loss = UEEP ¡ ELEP (Btu=lb) (72:5)

For many complicated power cycles, a heat balance program is utilized to perform the mass and
energy balances needed to calculate the performance. Simple cycles can be done manually; with
the complexity of power cycles and the availability of personal computers, however, the many
number of iterations required to balance the cycle can be performed more accurately and faster
with a heat balance program.

72.4 Stop and Control Valves

Stop valves are provided on the turbine to admit steam during normal operation or to shut off the
steam very quickly in the event of an emergency. These valves are normally fully opened or
closed. The control or governing valves are located in the steam chest at the turbine inlet and
control the flow of steam to the turbine. On larger units, multiple control valves are used to
provide better efficiency over the load range. The turbine control valves can be operated in either
a full arc admission or partial arc admission mode. In full arc admission, all of the control valves
are opened simultaneously, with the stop valve used to control flow. In this mode of operation,
more even heating of the turbine rotor and casing is possible. In partial arc admission, one control
valve is opened at a time (sequentially). The turbine is not as evenly heated; but the efficiency of
the turbine is better, since valve-throttling losses are reduced.

72.5 Water Induction Protection

The steam turbine is designed to generate power by expanding low-density steam through a series
of nozzles and blade rows. It is possible, however, to induct water into the turbine from cold
piping on a unit start-up, an extraction line, the boiler, or a desuperheater. Water induction
incidents are more likely to occur on unit trips or load changes. The dense water, in comparison to
the steam, can cause a considerable amount of damage to the blades and buckets on impact, and
the cold water in contact with hot turbine metal can cause cracking of metal or rubbing between
moving and stationary parts due to differential expansion.

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 The ASME has developed a standard that should be followed when designing systems
associated with a steam turbine. ASME TDP-1 provides design details on how to prevent water
induction. Although the standard applies mainly to steam turbine generators, the guidelines are
also applicable to mechanical drive turbines. Regardless of the size of the steam turbine, support
systems should be designed to prevent water induction, since the damage that can result can be
considerable.

72.6 Generators
The generator is a device that converts the mechanical work of the turbine into electrical power.
This conversion is accomplished by inducing an electromotive force by creating relative motion
between a conductor and a magnetic field. The stationary part of a generator is called a stator. The
moving part is called a rotor. In order to create the magnetic field, an exciter provides the DC
electricity to magnetize the rotor. The frequency of the power generated is equal to the speed of
the rotor in revolutions per unit time. A two-pole synchronous generator for a nonnuclear-type
power plant must revolve at 3600 rpm to generate a 60 Hz voltage, as the following equation
illustrates:

f = (P=2) £ (N=60) (72:6)

where f = frequency in Hz, P = the number of magnetic poles, and N = the speed of the rotor in
rpm. A nuclear turbine operating at 1800 rpm would require a four-pole generator to generate 60
Hz.
Generators must be cooled to remove the heat produced by the windings. Hydrogen gas is
usually used because it has a low density and high specific heat compared to air. Hydrogen,
however, is extremely flammable; precautions during filling and venting of the generator must be
followed. Hydrogen mixtures are explosive when the concentration of oxygen exceeds 5.0%.
Carbon dioxide is usually used as an inert gas during filling and purging of the generator to
prevent the hydrogen from becoming an explosive mixture. Some smaller turbine generators use
air instead of hydrogen for cooling.

72.7 Turbine Generator Auxiliaries

Many auxiliary systems that are required for operation are provided with a steam turbine. Some of
the major auxiliary systems are briefly discussed below.

Steam Seals
At locations where the steam turbine shaft penetrates the casing(s) of the turbine, a steam seal
system is used to prevent steam from leaking out of the seals which are above atmospheric
pressure, and air leaking into the seals which are below atmospheric pressure. A steam seal system
uses steam leak-off from the high and intermediate seals during operation to seal the low-pressure
seals. When the turbine is on-line, the machine is said to be "self-sealing." When the turbine is

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being brought on-line, a separate source of steam is used to seal the turbine prior to establishing a
condenser vacuum. Figure 72.6 shows the typical flow pattern for a steam seal system on a unit
start-up and during normal operation.

Figure 72.6 A typical steam seal flow diagram.

Turning Gear
During periods when the turbine is shut down and prior to start-up, the hot rotor must be rotated to
prevent bowing of the rotor shaft. This action is taken to prevent excessive vibration on start-up
and possible bearing damage and is usually accomplished with a motor-driven device operating at
3−5 rpm.

Lube Oil
The turbine generator must be provided with an oil lubrication system for the bearings. The
lubrication system consists of a number of shaft-driven and electric motor−driven pumps, filters,

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and oil coolers, which in most cases are mounted in an oil reservoir. The shaft-driven pump is
used when the turbine is at 90% of rated speed or above. Below this speed, the AC or DC
motor−driven pumps are used. The high-pressure control oil system, which operates the control
and stop valves and turbine governor, is supplied from the lube oil system.

This turbine was developed at the University of Pennsylvania in the late 1970s under USDOE
sponsorship for the purpose of producing power efficiently from low-temperature energy sources,
such as solar energy at 100± C or even lower. It was employed in a novel hybrid Rankine cycle, in
which steam was generated by solar energy at the ¼100± C temperature level (80% of the total
energy input), and heat was added (the remaining 20%) by a higher temperature source (such as
gas or solar concentrators) to superheat the steam to a top temperature of 550± C. The remarkable
feature of this power cycle was that this addition of 20% high-temperature heat doubles the cycle
efficiency, from about 9% for operation at the 100± C level to about 18% for operation as a
hybrid.
The turbine itself is based on the well-known counterrotating (Ljungström de-Laval) principle,
having two rotors rotating in opposite directions, at 15 300 rpm. Its uniqueness lies in its small
size (30 hp) and high efficiency (75%) for that size range. This was an experimental prototype.
Larger turbines of this type are used in both stationary and marine propulsion applications. (Photo
courtesy of Noam Lior, University of Pennsylvania.)

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Defining Terms
Buckets: Turbine blades.
Condensing turbine: Any turbine with an exhaust below atmospheric pressure.
ELEP: Expansion line end point; enthalpy of exhaust steam if the exhaust loss at the turbine exit
were neglected.
Enthalpy: A measure of the stored energy of a substance, expressed in Btu/lb.
Entropy: A measure of the ability of a substance to provide useful work from energy, expressed
±
in Btu/lb- F.
Feedwater heater: A heat exchanger that uses extraction steam to heat feedwater and condensate
in a power station.
Impulse turbine: A turbine that uses the force of the steam impacting on the blades or buckets to
rotate the turbine.
Mechanical drive turbine: A steam turbine connected to a pump, fan, or a similar device to
provide motive power.
Noncondensing or back-pressure turbine: Any turbine with an exhaust above atmospheric
pressure.
Reaction turbine: A turbine that uses the force generated by the velocity in the stages to rotate
the turbine.
Steam turbine: A rotary engine that converts thermal energy to useful mechanical work by the
impulse or reaction of steam.
Turbine generator: A steam turbine connected to an electrical generator to produce
power.
UEEP: Used energy end point; enthalpy of steam at the turbine exhaust.
Water induction: The admission of water into a steam turbine.

References
El-Wakil, E. M. 1984. Power Plant Technology. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Perry, R. H. and Green, D. W. 1984. Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New
York.

Further Information
The following texts are useful for their in-depth discussions on steam turbine
fundamentals.
Cotton, K. C. 1993. Evaluating And Improving Steam Turbine Performance. Cotton Fact,
Rexford, NY.
Elliott, T. C. 1989. Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Potter, P. J. 1959. Power Plant Theory And Design. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Salisbury, J. K. 1974. Steam Turbines and Their Cycles. Kreiger, Huntington, NY.
The following reference contains the guidelines recommended by the major turbine manufacturers
for water induction prevention.
ASME. 1985. Recommended Practices for the Prevention of Water Damage to Steam Turbines
Used for Electric Power Generation. ASME TDP-1-1985. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York.

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