Systems Analysis & Design

The systems Life cycle

Problem
Definition
Maintenance Feasibility
Study

Implementation Analysis

Design
Development

Sometimes known as Systems Engineering or the Systems Life Cycle, this refers to a
systematic approach to solving a problem in which the solution to a problem is divided into
several stages. Basically there are four stages to systems analysis and design but these stages
can be further split to say 5 or seven stages. We will start with the five stages and have a
brief rundown of what goes on at each of the stages then we will proceed to seven stages plus
a detailed look at the system life cycle.

Five stages for systems analysis & Design

1. Analysis
2. Design
3. Development
4. Implementation
5. Maintenance

1. Analysis
A study of the current system is carried out to identify the problems being faced by the
system. There are various methods used to study the current system these include,
Interview, Questionnaire, record inspection and , Observation.

2. Design
This involves planning of the output, input layouts, designing the files structures, and
deciding on the storage type.

3. Development
Development involves, Program development, coding of programs, testing of programs and
Equipment acquisition. Program development involves writing of program specifications by
the analyst or senior programmer while equipment acquisition refers to buying of equipment.

4. Implementation
This is the stage when the new system is put into use.

5. Maintenance
Maintenance involves looking after the system and correcting any errors. There are FOUR
types of maintenance, namely corrective maintenance, adaptive maintenance, preventive
maintenance and perfective maintenance.

The above stages can be further split into 7 stages:

1. Problem definition / Identification of the problem
2. Feasibility Study
3. Analysis / Investigation
4. Design
5. Development
6. Implementation
7. Maintenance / Review

Problem Definition.
This is the first stage in systems analysis, and the starting point is the user request where the
users of the system after having experienced problems with their system would talk with the
system analyst with the aim of having their problems solved. Results of this stage will be
written down and make up a document known as the terms of reference.

The terms of reference may contain:

- Objectives
- Constraints
- Timescale (when a solution is required)
- Reports or outputs required
- Problems (from the users’ point of view)
- Suggested solutions ( from the users’ point of view)

Feasibility Study.
The feasibility study is concerned with seven aspects: Technical, Economic, Organisational
Legal, Operational, Social and Time Schedule(TELOST)

Technical feasibility.
Technical feasibility involves checking to see if technology exists to implement the new
system. On technical feasibility people will be asking this question “With the available
technology will the system work?” Because of advances in technology a system which was
not feasible a couple of years ago is now feasible (Workable/ achievable)

Economic feasibility
Economic feasibility involves looking at cost –effectiveness of the proposed system. The
question asked at this stage is, “.. will the new system will be cost effective.” If the costs of
introducing the new system are by far higher than the economic benefits of the system , then
its not worth the hustle.

Legal feasibility
Legal feasibility checks the new system with the laws of the of the country to see if it will not
violate any laws.

Operational Feasibility
Operational feasibility looks at whether the current work practices are able to support the new
system and see if the new system is realistic.
Social feasibility
This is concerned with the effects on the workers and the customers. The questions asked
here are – will the introduction of the new system: _
- Result in redundancies or need retraining or re-location of some workforce?
- Result in de-skilling of some jobs

Timescale (Schedule)
Schedule feasibility is concerned with the time it will take to develop the new system and
checking whether the new system can be created within the required time frame.

If the feasibility study is accepted then the systems analyst moves to the next stage which is a
full analysis of the system.

Analysis
Sometimes known as the investigation stage where a study of the current system is carried
out to get a complete understating of the current system.

NB in all the above stages including the current stage analysis most of the tasks involve the
old system and there is no talk about the new system.

The analysis involves some or all of the following stages:

• Fact finding – this is usually done in four ways
• Understanding the current system
• Produce data flow diagrams
• Identify the user requirements
• Interpret the user requirements
• Agree the objectives with the user
• Collect data from the current system

To carryout a study of a system there are number of methods one can use, these are known as
fact finding methods/ techniques.
1. Observation
This involves watching the personnel using the existing system to find out exactly how it
works. There are a number of advantages and disadvantages of using this method to gather
information about the existing system:

Advantages - the analyst obtains reliable data

- it is possible to see exactly what is being done
- this is an inexpensive method compared to other techniques

Disadvantages - people are generally uncomfortable being watched and may work in a
different way
- what they are watching may not be representative of a typical day’s work
- if workers perform tasks that violate standard procedures, they may not do
this when being watched!!

2. Questionnaire
This involves sending out questionnaires to the work force and/or to customers to find out
their views of the existing system and to find out how some of the key tasks are carried out.
As with observation, there are a number of advantages and disadvantages in using this
technique:

Advantages.
 Useful when you want to collect data from a large number of people
 People may feel free to write their opinions
 questions can be answered quickly
 an inexpensive way of gathering data from a large number of people
 allows individuals to remain anonymous
 it is quick to analyse data

Disadvantages
 Difficult to compile effective questionnaires
 One will never know if the rightful people responded (some may delegate to their
kids)
 Rate of returning of questionnaires is usually poor as a number of people(respondents)
may forget to return the questionnaires.
 questions asked tend to be rather inflexible
 no immediate way to clarify a vague/incomplete answer to a question
 it is difficult to prepare a good questionnaire

3. Interview

This involves a one to one question and answer session between the analyst and
employee/customer. A good method if the analyst wants to probe deeply into one specific
aspect of the existing system.

Advantages
 Points raised can be immediately clarified
 Can verify what one is saying by looking at the body language
  Flexible as questions can be changed or modified during the course of the interview to
suite the needs.
 opportunity to motivate the interviewee to give open and free answers to the analyst’s
questions
 allows the analyst to probe for more feedback from the interviewee (easier to extend a
topic than it is when using questionnaires)

Disadvantages
 Time consuming especially if a number of people have to be interviewed
 People to be interviewed may be hostile or may not feel free to tell the truth (they will
tell you how things are supposed to be done instead of how things are done)
 can be expensive to carry out
 - unable to remain anonymous

Design
A design or plan of how the new system would function is made, this includes writing of
algorithms and drawing of systems flow charts.

The following is a list of tasks that are usually done (this is by no means an exhaustive list):
• design the data capture forms/input forms
• design the screen layouts
• design output reports
• produce systems flowcharts and/or pseudocode
• select/design any validation rules that need to be used
• select the most appropriate data verification method(s)
• file structures/tables need to be designed/agreed
• select/design the hardware requirements for the new system
• select/design the software requirements
• produce any algorithms or program flowcharts
• design a testing strategy/plan

The design of a computer system can be divided into four main areas:
(i) Output design
(ii) Input design
(iii) Files Design
(iv) System Processing and general program design

The stages are carried out in the order given above, starting with output design this is because
the output required for a system will determine the input design which will in turn determine
the files and the systems processing.

During output design fields to be used are identified and defined, before we look at examples
of fields lets define a few key terms here.

Field A single data entity in a record/ a collection of related characters which when grouped
together make up a record.
Record A collection of related fields
Database A collection of related record/files organized in a way that can be manipulated
by a database program.

At the design stage the system analyst will use a number of design tools some of the tools
include.
1. Top down design (Modular approach)
2. Prototyping
3. Application generator

Top down design

Also known as the modular approach, where a larger problem is first broken down into
smaller manageable problems which will be solved independently.

Advantages of using modules

1. They enable a program to be developed in stages/ programmers can concentrate on
one task at a time
2. Enables creation of a library of modules which can be used in other program without
having to re-write them.
3. Allows several programmers to work on one problem making it faster.
4. Modules can be tested individually
5. You can easily add a module
6. Easy to locate and correct errors in a program as the module with the error will only
need attention.
7. Modules can be tested independently.

Prototyping.
In prototyping you build a working model of the system in order to have it tested and approved before building the final
product.

Application Generator.
Applications generators are software tools which can be used to create systems. The user
describes the input, output, data and files, and what needs to be done. The application
generator will then use this information to generate a program or suite of programs.

DEVELOPMENT
At the development stage the programmers will code, test and debug the programs.

CODE PROGRAM
In short to code is to write a program. This is the process of converting our solution i.e. the
algorithm (flowchart/pseudo code) into an actual computer program. Here we choose a
suitable programming language and use the syntax and semantics of that language.

Syntax means the correct way or “grammar” of writing a command or series of commands,
including all the proper options and command-line statements.

Semantics means the logical meaning of a statement, separate from the grammatical structure.
(Rules and regulations that govern a particular language)
Testing
Standard Data.
Data within the range say for example on student marks which should range from 0 – 100
then standard data would include marks between 0 and 100 (e.g. 1,4,6,90 e.t.c). This data
should be accepted by the program

Extreme Data.
Data at the edges or boundaries, in our example above the example the extreme data would
be 0 and 100. This data should also be accepted by the program.

Abnormal Data
Out of range data, in our marks example abnormal data will include data such as -3, -7, 102,
180 e.t.c and this data must be rejected by the program.

IMPLEMENTATION
This is the stage when the new system is put into use. The main steps in implementation are
Equipment acquisition (buying of new office furniture, air conditioners, cabling, e.t.c)
Installing the hardware (Installation of the software)
Training and Education (Users will be trained on how to use the hardware and software)
Creation of Master files (Data for all master files has to be entered before the new system is
put into use)
Fully test the new system once installed
transfer the paper files across to the new system; this may involve the following:
- scanning in the documents
- keying in the data
- create databases etc. to allow downloading of files etc.

When putting into use the new system the systems analyst has to decide on the best method
of conversion (way of putting the new system into use).
Methods of conversion

Direct changeover
Old

New

This a complete replacement of the old system by the new system at one go where the user
stops using the old system today and starts using the new system the next day. Usually done
over the weekend. The advantage of this method is that it is fast and efficient, with minimum
duplication of work.

This method can be disastrous if the new system fails at any point
- however, the benefits are immediate and less time is wasted
- costs are reduced (only one system in use so save on staff costs)
- less likelihood of a malfunction since the new system will have been fully tested

Parallel conversion

Old

New

The old system continues alongside the new system for a few weeks or months. The
advantage of this method is that the results of the new system can be checked against the
known results and if any problems are noted operation may continue under the old system
while errors are being rectified. However the disadvantage is that it puts strain on staff as
there will be duplication of work (some on the old system others on the new system doing the
same work). In some instances say a supermarket checkout customers may resent the double
checkout system.

If the new system goes down for any reason, you still have the old system to fall back on so a
failure wouldn’t be disastrous
- it is possible to gradually train staff/time to get used to the new system
- more expensive than direct since need extra staff to run both systems
- more time consuming since both systems need to be run and evaluated
Phased changeover

Old System
New System

in this technique only part of the new system is introduced and only when it proves to work
satisfactorily is the next part introduced, and so on, until the old system is fully replaced
- if the latest part fails, only need to go back in the system to the point of failure;
hence a failure
isn’t disastrous
- more expansive than direct since it is necessary to evaluate each phase before
moving to the
 next stage
- can ensure the system works properly before expanding

This system is usually used with larger systems that can be broken down into individual
modules which can be implemented separately at different times. In this system a few
customer accounts can be put on the computerized system while the others remain on the old
(manual) system. Phased changeover can be direct or parallel. The main advantage of
phased changeover is that the burden of the workload is spread over time and gives users an
opportunity to learn from problems of a previous phase. However it is difficult to have
control over a system operating in two modes as different users will be treated differently for
the same operation.

Pilot Changeover
with this technique, the new system is introduced into one part of the company (e.g. into one
warehouse of a supermarket) and its performance assessed
- if the new system fails only one part is affected; the rest is still functional
- it is possible to fully train staff in one area only which is much quicker and less
costly than parallel
- the costs are also less than parallel since only one system is being used in the pilot
warehouse

The following table summarises the risks involved in all four methods:

Maintenance
Once a system is up and running it is necessary to do some evaluation and carry out
maintenance if necessary. This is summarised below:

• compare final solution with the original requirement

• identify any limitations in the system
• identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
• evaluate the user’s responses to using the new system
 • compare test results from new system with results from the old system
• compare performance of new system with performance of old system
• update hardware as new items come on the market or the company changes in
any way which requires new devices to be added/updated
• update software if necessary if company structure changes or legislation is
introduced which affects how the company operates

(text in bold refers to evaluation and text in normal refers to maintenance)

During maintenance the programmers will be looking after the new system and there
are three types of maintenance.

Perfective Maintenance
Is done when the system is running perfectly but there is room for improvement.
Adaptive maintenance
Done when the environment changes, e.g. change in tax policies, business grows
bigger, e.t.c
Corrective Maintenance
Done when errors are discovered in the system and they need to be corrected.

DOCUMENTATION
Documentation should not be viewed as a stand alone stage in the system life cycle,
instead it is a ongoing stating from the word go until maintenance because there is
need to keep records of everything done to help with maintenance at a latter stage.

There are two types of documentation.

1. User Documentation
Intended for the user with instructions on how to run/start the program, enter data, to
exit the program, samples of input data and output results, what problems to expect,
how to handle them, etc.

this usually consists of:

- how to load/run the software
- how to save files
- how to do a search
- how to sort data
- how to do print outs
- how to add, delete or amend records
- the purpose of the system/program/software package
- screen layouts (input)
- print layouts (output)
- hardware requirements
- software requirements
- sample runs (with results and actual test data used)
- error handling/meaning of errors
- troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs
- how to log in/log out
 2. Technical Documentation
Intended for the programmers with instructions on how to debug errors and will
consist of flowcharts/pseudo codes/, program listings and detailed written statements
of algorithms and procedures involved. Documentation is necessary for program
maintenance. Without proper documentation, it will be difficult to change a program
at a later date.

It is a misled notion that documentation is the last step in system development. In

fact, it should be interwoven with the entire phase of the programming process,
especially with the design and implementation, because documentation is supposed
to enable individuals to understand the logic of programs.

this usually consists of:

- program listing/coding
- programming language(s) used
- flowchart/algorithm
- purpose of the system/program/software
- input formats
- hardware requirements
- software requirements
- minimum memory requirements
- known “bugs” in the system
- list of variables used (and their meaning/description)
- file structures
- sample runs (with results and actual test data used)
- output formats
- validation rules