CERTC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING REVIEW R G S Review Guide Series Communications Fundamentals & Noise R G S 1

Take Home Exam 9. A three-stage amplifier has the following ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM v THE CHANNEL
specifications: Channel: Refers to the physical medium
I. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION that carries the information signal between
1. A 50Ω resistor operates at room temperature
of 21°C. How much noise voltage does it Stage Power Gain Noise Figure v Definition: Electronic communication is the two communication devices.
provide to a matched load over the bandwidth 1 10 2 transmission, reception and processing of n 2 General Categories of channel:
of a TV channel 6 MHZ. 2 25 4 information between two or more locations
A. 2.2 µV* C. 1.2 µV 3 30 5 using electronic circuits. 1. Wireline:
B. 3.4 µV D. 1.4 µV Assuming matched conditions, determine the Electrical {parallel wire (twisted pair),
equivalent noise temperature of the entire II. TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS coax, waveguide}
2. Determine the noise current for a diode with a cascaded system. Optical {optical fibers}
bias current of 15 mA, observed over a 25 kHz A. 382 K* C. 238 K A. According to Mode of Channel Operation:
bandwidth. Simplex 2. Wireless:
B. 283 K D. 832 K
A. 0.011 µA* C. 100 mA Half duplex RF Channel {EM waves of the RF
B. 0.010 nA D. 1.01 µA 10. At 17˚ C, the noise voltage generated by 5kΩ Full duplex portion from 300 kHz to 300 GHz}
resistor, operating over a bandwidth of 20KHz Optical Channel {EM waves in the
3. A 300Ω resistor is connected across the 300Ω is B. According to Mode of Signal Transmission higher portion of EM Spectrum, ex.
antenna input of a television receiver. The A. 1.3 nV C. 1.3 µV * Analog Infrared in remote control}
bandwidth of the receiver is 6 MHz, and the B. 1.3 pV D. 1.3 mV Digital Acoustic Wave Channel {System-
resistor is at room temperature of 68°F. Find C. According to type of transmitted signal specific media like underwater
the noise power applied to the receiver input. 11. The noise figure of the first circuit in tandem Baseband communication in sonar, or our actual
A. 22.4 fW C. 24.2 fW* connection is 10.5 dB while its power gain is Broadband room conversation uses acoustic
B. 42.2 fW D. 242 fW 15, what is the over all noise figure if the
wave channel}
second circuit has a noise figure of 11 dB? III. THE BASIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM: BLOCK DIAGRAM
4. A receiver produces a noise power of 200 mW A. 11.59 dB C. 10.79 dB * n Mathematical Model of Communication Channel:
with no signal. The output level increases to B. 11.23 dB D. 10.5 dB Shannon-Weaver Model:
5W when a signal is applied. Calculate 1. Additive Noise Channel Model
(S+N)/N as a power ratio in decibels. 12. Atmospheric noise or static is not a great
problem Output signal: r(t) = αs(t) + n(t)
A. 25 dB C. 14 dB*
B. 2.54 dB D. 45 dB A. at frequencies below 20 MHz 2. Linear Time-Invariant Filter Channel
B. at frequencies below 5 MHz
5. The signal power at the input to an amplifier is C. at frequencies above 30 MHz * Output signal: r(t) = S(t) ∗ h(t) + n(t)
100 µW and the noise power is 1 µW. At the D. at frequencies above 1 MHz
output, the signal power 1 W and the noise 3. Linear Time-Variant Filter Channel
power is 30 mW. What is the amplifier noise 13. The first stage of a two-stage amplifier has a
factor? voltage gain of 10, a 600 Ω input resistor, a Output signal: r(t) = S(t,τ) ∗ h(t) + n(t)
A. 5 C. 2 1600Ω equivalent noise resistance and 27kΩ
output resistor. For the second stage, these v THE TRANSMITTER
B. 3* D. 6 n Channel Bandwidth
values are 25, 81kΩ, 19kΩ, and 1MΩ, A transmitter is a collection of electronic Information Signal bandwidth
6. The signal at the input of an amplifier has an respectively. Calculate the equivalent input- components and circuits designed to convert
S/N of 42 dB. If the amplifier has a noise figure – The difference between the highest and
noise resistance of this two-stage amplifier. the information into a signal suitable for
of 6 dB, what is the S/N at the output ? lowest frequencies in the information
A. 2,518 kΩ C. 251.8 Ω transmission over a given communications
A. 26 dB C. 36 dB* B. 2,518 Ω * D. 12,518 Ω medium. Channel Bandwidth
B. 23 dB D. 32 dB – The difference between the highest and
14. The noise output of a resistor is amplified by a n Functions of a Transmitter lowest frequencies that the channel will
7. Determine the equivalent noise temperature of noiseless amplifier having a gain of 60 and a • It must provide some form of modulation allow to pass through.
an amplifier with a noise figure of 2 dB. bandwidth of 20 kHz. A meter connected at that causes the information signal to
A. 166.9 K C. 196.6 K the output of the amplifier reads 1mV RMS. If modify the carrier signal. n Information Capacity
B. 169.6 K* D. 199.6 K the bandwidth of the amplifier is reduced to
• Must generate a signal of the correct • Information capacity is a measure of how
8. The value of a resistor creating noise is 5kHz, its gain remaining constant, what does
frequency at a desired point in the much information can be propagated
doubled. The noise power generated is the meter read now?
spectrum. through a communication system.
therefore A. 0.5 mV * C. 5.0 mV
B. 0.5 µV D. 5.0 µV • It must provide sufficient power • Represents the number of independent
A. Halved C. Quadrupled amplification to ensure that the signal level symbols that can be carried through a
B. Doubled D. Unchanged* ----------------------END---------------------- is high enough so that it will carry over the system in a given unit of time.
desired distance.

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 CERTC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING REVIEW
Channel Capacity
n
Hartley’s Law
• States that information capacity is
directly proportional to bandwidth and
transmission time of the system.
I α BxT
Shannon’s Limit for Information Capacity
• States that information capacity is a
function of bandwidth and signal-to-
noise ratio of the system.
⎛ S⎞
I = Blog2 ⎜1+ ⎟
⎝ N⎠
⎛ S⎞
I = 3.32Blog10 ⎜1+ ⎟
⎝ N⎠
B = bandwidth
S/N = signal-to-noise ratio
v THE RECEIVER
Receiver: Reconstruct a recognizable form
of the message. Performs demodulation
n Functions of a Receiver
• Perform the inverse operation of
transmitters
• Amplify a low-level signal as received
from an antenna, separate it as much
as possible from noise and interference
• Demodulate the signal, and amplify the
baseband signal to a power level
sufficient for the intended application
n A. Receiver Parameter
Selectivity
• a parameter that is used to measure the
ability of the receiver to accept a given
band of frequencies.
Sensitivity
• the minimum RF signal level that can be
detected at the input and still produce a
usable demodulated signal.
Bandwidth Improvement
• the noise reduction ratio
achieved by reducing the bandwidth.
02
R G
Dynamic Range
• the difference in decibels between the
minimum input level necessary to
discern a signal and the input level that
will overdrive the receiver and produce
distortion
Fidelity
• measure of the ability of a
communications system to produce, at
the output of the receiver, an exact
replica of the original information.
n TRANSCEIVERS
A transceiver is an electronic unit that
integrates the transmitter and the receiver.
Examples: Telephones, fax machines, CB
radios, Cell phones, computer modems, etc.
V. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• ELF : Extremely Low Frequency
• VF : Voice Frequency
• VLF : Very Low Frequency
• LF : Low Frequency
• MF : Medium Frequency
• HF : High frequency
• VHF : Very High Frequency
• UHF : Ultrahigh Frequency
• SHF : Superhigh Frequency
• EHF : Extremely High Frequency
• Light Frequency
• X-RAYS, GAMMA RAYS, COSMIC RAYS
S Review Guide Series Communications Fundamentals & Noise R G S 1
Problem 7:
A receiver connected to an antenna where
SAMPLE PROBLEMS resistor is 50 ohms has an equivalent noise
resistance of 30 ohms. Calculate the receiver’s
Problem 1:
noise figure in db and its equivalent noise
Determine the Shannon limit for information
temperature
capacity for a standard telephone circuit with a
S/N of 30dB and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz.
Problem 8:
Problem 2:
For a nonideal amplifier and the following
For an electronic device operating at 17°C with a parameters,
bandwidth of 6 MHz determine the thermal noise
Input signal power = 2×10-10W
power.
Problem 3: Input noise power = 2×10-18W
Determine the rms noise voltage for a device with
Power gain = 1,000,000
100-Ω internal resistance, a 100-Ω load
resistance and operating at standard temperature Internal noise (Nd) = 6×10-12W
of 17°C with a bandwidth of 10 kHz. Determine:
Problem 4: (a) Input S/N ratio in dB
An R.F. amplifier is having an input resistor of 8
kΩ and works in the frequency range of 12 to (b) Output S/N ratio in dB
15.5 MHz. Calculate the r.m.s. noise voltage at (c) Noise factor and noise figure
the input to this amplifier at an ambient
temperature of 17°C. Problem 9:
The first stage of a two-stage amplifier has a
Problem 5:
voltage gain of 10, a 600-Ω input resistor, a 1600-
For a diode with a forward bias of 1 mA over a
100-kHz bandwidth, determine the following: Ω equivalent noise resistance and a 27-kΩ output
a. The shot noise current resistance. For the second stage, these values
b. The diode’s equivalent noise voltage are 25, 81 kΩ, 10 kΩ and 1 MΩ, respectively.
c. The total output noise voltage at 27°C if Calculate the equivalent input-noise resistance of
this two-stage amplifier.
the diode is in a circuit with 500 Ω
series resistance.
Problem 10:
Problem 6: Determine the total noise figure for a three
Two resistors, one100Ω at 300K and the other cascaded amplifier stages, each has a noise
200Ω at 400K are in series. Determine the total figure of 3 dB and a power gain of 10 dB.
noise voltage and noise power produced at the
load of 300Ω, over a bandwidth of 100 kHz. Problem 11:
An amplifier has a bandwidth of 200 kHz
Problem 7: determined by an LC tuned circuit at its input and
Determine the total harmonic distortion of the
operates at 22 C. determine the noise power
output spectrum shown below. input and the noise voltage if the input noise is
Vrms
generated by a 10 kΩ resistor.
6 Problem 12:
Determine the equivalent noise temperature for a
4
noise figure of 6 dB.
2
Frequency (kHz) -----------PROCEED TO TAKEHOME PROBLEMS!
2 6
4
V 1 1st V 2 2nd V 3 3rd
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
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 CERTC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING REVIEW R G S Review Guide Series Communications Fundamentals & Noise R G S 1

v CASCADED NOISE FIGURE: v THE RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM TELEVISION channels 2 – 13.
VII. SYSTEMS ANALYSIS: Noise Parameters Noise figure due to amplifiers in cascade
n Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)
– CH 2 – 6 ; (54 – 88 MHz)
(multistage systems) – CH 7 – 13 ; (174 – 216 MHz)
v SIGNAL-TO-NOISE POWER RATIO, S/N: ü 30-300 Hz range
ü Cordless Telephone (43–50 MHz)
ü AC Power Line
n Voice Frequency (VF) n UltraHigh Frequency (UHF)
ü 300-3000 Hz range ü 300-3000 MHz range
ü Normal range of HUMAN SPEECH. ü Used in UHF Television
ü Adult male fundamental frequency ( 85 – (CH. 14-83) (470 – 890 MHz)
to 155 Hz ) ü Used in LAND MOBILE
Normally, S/N ratio is a Signal to Noise ü Adult female fundamental frequency ( Communications and RADAR.
“power” ratio. Noting the fact that P=V2/R,
165 to 255 Hz ) ü Also called MICROWAVES.
we get: Friis’ Formula:
(Overall Noise Factor of Multistage System) n Very Low Frequency (VLF) ü Global Positioning System
2 2
S Ps V s Rin V s
ü 3-30 kHz range ü RFID – Radio Frequency Identification
= = 2 = 2 ; If Rin = Rout
N Pn V n Rout V n F2 −1 F3 −1 F4 −1 Fn −1 ü Used in some GOVERNMENT and
FT = F1 + + + + ...+ n Super High Frequency (SHF)
G1 G1G2 G1G2G3 G1G2G3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Gn−1 MILITARY Communications.
In dB: ü Used in NAVY to communicate with ü 3-30 GHz range
Where: SUBMARINES. ü Widely used in SATELLITE
⎛P ⎞ ⎛ V2 / R ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ Communications and RADAR.
⎛S⎞ Fn = noise factor for the n-th device ü Used in Alpha Navigation.
⎜ ⎟ = 10log ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ = 10log ⎜⎜ 2s in ⎟
⎟ = 20log ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (11.905 kHz), (12.649 kHz), (14.881 kHz) ü WLAN
⎝ N ⎠dB ⎝ Pn ⎠ ⎝ V n / Rout ⎠ ⎝ Vn ⎠ Gn = power gain of the n-th device (linear, not in dB) ü Wireless USB
Where: n Low Frequency (LF)
Also:
S/N = signal-to-noise power ration in dB ü 30-300 kHz range n Extremely High Frequency (EHF)
⎛S ⎞ ⎛S ⎞ ü Used as SUBCARRIERS.
Rin = input resistance ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟ + NFTotal ü 30-300 GHz range
Rout= output resistance ⎝ No ⎠dB ⎝ Ni ⎠ ü Subcarriers ü Includes Satellite communications and
Vs = signal voltage – SIGNALS which carry the SPECIALIZED RADAR.
Vn = noise voltage v EQUIVALENT NOISE TEMPERATURE: BASEBAND modulating ü Referred to as MILLIMETER Waves.
information but which in turn, ü Radio astronomy and Remote sensing
“Equivalent noise temperature is not a
v NOISE FACTOR and NOISE FIGURE, NF: MODULATE another higher-
physical temperature of amplifier, but a
frequency carrier. v THE OPTICAL SPECTRUM
Noise Factor (F) and Noise Figure (NF) are theoretical construct, that is an equivalent
ü Sometimes called LONG WAVES
figure of merits used to indicate how much temperature that produces that amount of Three Categories of Light
ü LORAN-C (100 kHz)
the S/N deteriorates as a signal passes noise power.” • INFRARED
ü DECCA Navigator System ( 70 kHz and
through a circuit or series of circuits. Noise 129 kHz ) • VISIBLE
factor is a ratio of input S/N to the output Friiss’ Formula for Cascaded Noise • ULTRAVIOLET
S/N. Temperature n Medium Frequency (MF)
T T Tn ü 300-3000 kHz range Infrared
¤ When expressed in ordinary ratio it is called Ttot = T1 + 2 + 3 + ...+ ü Major application is the AM RADIO ü Occupies the range between
G1 G1G2 G1G2G3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Gn−1 BROADCASTING (535 to 1605 kHz).
Noise Factor (F) or Noise Ratio (NR). 0.01 MILLIMETERS (mm) to
Also, ü Also for MARINE and AERONAUTICAL 700 NANOMETERS (nm)
S N Communications Applications. ü LONG INFRARED (0.01 mm to 1000
F = i i → Noise Factor Teq
So No Teq = To (F −1) ⇔ F = +1 nm)
To n High Frequency (HF)
¤ When expressed in dB it is called Noise Figure ü 3-30 MHz range ü SHORT INFRARED (1000 to 700 nm)
Where:
(NF) ü Known as SHORT WAVES.
Teq= equaivalent noise temperature in kelvin (K) Visible
⎛ S N ⎞ ü Used for AMATEUR RADIO and CB
To= environmental temperature or reference ü Occupies the range between
NF = 10log ⎜ i i ⎟ → Noise Figure Communications.
⎝ So No ⎠ temperature in kelvin 400 NANOMETERS (nm) to
= 290 K 700 NANOMETERS (nm)
NF = 10logSi Ni − 10logSo No n Very High Frequency (VHF)
F = noise factor (unitless)
ü 30-300 MHz Ultraviolet
or:
ü Used in MOBILE RADIO, FM RADIO ü Occupies the range between
NFdB = SNRinput(dB) − SNRoutput(dB) BROADCASTING (88-108 MHz) and 10 NANOMETERS (nm) to
400 NANOMETERS (nm)

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 CERTC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING REVIEW R G S Review Guide Series Communications Fundamentals & Noise R G S 1

ü Intermodulation Distortion Reactance Noise Effects SHOT NOISE

V. NOISE § Intermodulation distortion is the
§ Significant effect of reactive circuits on
Shot Noise Current:
Noise is generally described as any generation of unwanted sum and noise is their limitation on frequency

unwanted signal, which affects a wanted difference frequencies produced when two response.
In = 2qIDCB
signal. or more signal mix in a nonlinear devices § The equivalent bandwidth (∆feq) to be
(cross products) used in noise calculations with reactive Where:
components is In= shot noise (rms), amperes
q=electron charge
π IDC= dc current (A)
Δfeq = BW
2 B=bandwidth (Hz)

v UNCORRELATED TOTAL NOISE VOLTAGE DUE TO SEVERAL SOURCES
VI. NOISE CALCULATION
This type of noise exists regardless of § For two sources of thermal agitation noise R1

whether there is a signal present or not. THERMAL NOISE and R2 in series:
v FREQUENCY NOISE EFFECT:

§ Noise Power Spectral Density, No :

External: Noise from external sources over Low frequency effect: Excess Noise – is a form
Vn(total) = (Vn1)2 + (Vn2 )2
which we have no control of uncorrelated internal noise that occurs at
• Atmospheric or static low frequency (i.e audio frequencies) below No = kT = 4kTBR1 + 4kTBR2
• Extraterrestrial 1 kHz.
Where: = 4kTB(R1 + R2 )
• Man-made or industrial High frequency effect: Transit-time Noise- is a No = noise power density, W/Hz

Internal: Noise, which generates from within form of uncorrelated noise at high § General formula for several thermal noise
frequencies or at the vicinity of the device T= absolute temperature, K
the receiver or communication system source:
• Thermal noise high-frequency cut-off. k = Boltzmann's constant

• Shot noise Device Noise -23 Vn(total) = 4kTB(RT )

= 1.38´10 J/K
• Transit time noise

Total Thermal Noise Power, N: Where:

• Miscellaneous internal noise
Excess Transit time Johnson proved that thermal noise power is RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...in series
Noise effects proportional to the product of bandwidth and
v CORRELATED T = T1 = T2 = T3 = Tn
This type of noise exists only when the temperature.
Thermal and Shot
Note: For noise voltage due to several noise
signal is present. Noise
sources in parallel, find the total resistance by
N = kTB
ü Harmonic Distortion: standard method and used the same
Frequency
Harmonic distortion also called Amplitude 1kHz fcut-off Where: equation.
Distortion occurs when unwanted harmonics § For noise current in parallel sources:
v MISCELLANEOUS NOISE N = total thermal noise power,W
of a signal are produced through nonlinear

amplification (nonlinear mixing). Impulse Noise B = noise bandwidth, Hz 2

IT = In1 2
+ In2 2
+ In3 +⋅⋅⋅
§ Harmonic are integer multiples of Characterized by high amplitude peaks of

the original signal short duration (sudden burst of irregularly Noise Voltage, Vn : EQUIVALENT NOISE RESISTANCE DUE TO SEVERAL AMPLIFIERS
§ The original signal=first harmonic shaped pulses) in the total noise spectrum IN CASCADE
or fundamental frequency f1 Common Sources: Transient produced from
§ 2f1 = 2nd harmonic, 3f1=3rd electromechanical switches (relays and Vn(rms) = 4kTBR

harmonic, nf1=nth harmonic solenoids) , electric motors, appliances, R
electrical lights, power lines, poor-quality Where: RL
solder joints and lightning.

Interference Vn(rms) = noise voltage,V
Electrical interference occurs when
information signals from one source k=Boltzmann's constant
produces frequencies that fall outside T=absolute temperature For two-stage amplifiers:
their allocated bandwidth and interfere Vn
B = noise bandwidth, Hz R R
with information signal from another Req = R1 + 22 + 2 3 2
R= resistance,Ω A1 A1 ⋅ A 2
source.

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