Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49

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Gondwana Research

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Geochemical mapping of slab-derived fluid and source mantle along

Japan arcs
Hitomi Nakamura a,b,c,d,⁎, Hikaru Iwamori b,c,e, Mitsuhiro Nakagawa f, Tomoyuki Shibata g, Jun-Ichi Kimura b,
Takashi Miyazaki b, Qing Chang b, Bogdan Stefanov Vaglarov b, Toshiro Takahashi h, Yuka Hirahara i
a
Geological Survey of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
b
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka, Kanagawa 237-0061, Japan
c
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
d
Ocean Resources Research Center for Next Generation, Chiba Institute of Technology, 2-17-1 Tsudanuma, Narashino-shi, Chiba 275-0016, Japan
e
Earthquake Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
f
Division of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Hokkaido University, N10W8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0810, Japan
g
Department of Earth and Planetary Systems Science, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1, Kagami-yama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8546, Japan
h
Department of Geology, Niigata University, 8050, Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
i
Faculty of Creative Engineering, Chiba Institute of Technology, 2-17-1 Tsudanuma, Narashino-shi, Chiba 275-0016, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Although slab-derived fluid significantly affects melt generation and dynamics within subduction zones, its
Received 4 October 2018 amount and distribution are not sufficiently constrained at present. Herein, we use isotopic systematics of arc vol-
Received in revised form 15 January 2019 canic rocks, subducting materials, and intrinsic mantle components prior to metasomatism, to quantify the con-
Accepted 17 January 2019
tribution of the slab-derived fluid that metasomatizes the overlying mantle wedge beneath the entire area of
Available online 12 February 2019
Japan arcs. Simultaneous application of several multivariate statistical analyses (clustering analysis and princi-
Handling Editor: R.D. Nance pal/independent component analyses) to the isotopic data set allows Japan arcs to be broadly divided into east-
ern and western parts at the first order. Moreover, a clear higher-order inter-arc segmentation is observed,
Keywords: together with some intra-arc variations that possibly correspond to the heterogeneity of incoming plates.
Slab Inter-arc segmentation is shown to be primarily controlled by the geometrical parameters of the slab and the
Fluid arc (e.g., subduction of a single plate or double plates beneath either oceanic or continental crust), which results
Mapping in differences between mantle wedge and slab thermal conditions. Accordingly, the Kuril and Izu arcs, which
Volcano have thin arc crusts (~20 km), exhibit the lowest extent of slab-derived fluid addition (0.1 wt%) to the mantle
Arc magma
wedge, while the NE Japan arc, with a thicker arc crust (up to 36 km), features a higher value of 0.2 wt%, although
the slab thermal parameters for these three arcs are essentially the same. The Central Japan arc shows the highest
extent of slab-derived fluid addition (N1.0 wt%) because of the overlapping subduction of Pacific and Philippine
Sea slabs, while the SW Japan and Ryukyu arcs feature moderate values of ~0.5 wt%. Moreover, a clear exotic
plume zone and spots are observed in SW Japan and the Japan Sea. In addition to the variability of slab-
derived fluid composition, the intrinsic mantle composition (before slab-derived fluid–induced metasomatism)
shows a clear along-arc variation that is possibly caused by a large-scale mantle flow from the continental side.
Thus, slab-derived fluid addition and mantle composition variability equally contribute to inter-arc segmenta-
tion, which highlights the importance of both local and regional thermal flow structures of slab-mantle systems.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of International Association for Gondwana Research. This is
an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
The Japanese islands are located in a very active tectonic setting
where four plates physically and chemically interact to cause earth-
quakes and volcanism, with two oceanic (Pacific and Philippine Sea)
plates subducting beneath two continental (North American and
⁎ Corresponding author at: Geological Survey of Japan, National Institute of Advanced
Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan.
E-mail address: hitomi-nakamura@aist.go.jp (H. Nakamura).
Eurasian) plates (Fig. 1). These interactions lead to a complex geometry
of subducting slabs beneath the Japanese islands (Nakajima and
Hasegawa, 2007; Hirose et al., 2008). In this tectonic setting, fluids re-
leased from subducting slabs (slab-derived fluids) have been argued
to play essential roles in various along-arc geodynamic and geochemical
phenomena such as concentrated deformation from Central to SW
Japan (Iio et al., 2002), non-volcanic deep tremors in SW Japan
(Obara, 2002), systematic changes in arc magmatism from NE and Cen-
tral to SW Japan (Iwamori, 2007), the weakening of the plate boundary
where the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake occurred (Hasegawa et al., 2012),

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2019.01.007
1342-937X/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of International Association for Gondwana Research. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49 37

Fig. 1. Tectonic setting of Japan arcs. Red and pink thin lines show the depth contours of Pacific and Philippine Sea slabs, respectively (Nakajima and Hasegawa, 2007; Hirose et al., 2008).
Four areas colored translucent pink, blue, green, and yellow represent continental (North American and Eurasian) and oceanic (Pacific and Philippine Sea) plates related to Japan arcs.
Small red circles show Quaternary volcanoes including some Neogene volcanoes dated up to ~10 Ma in SW Japan. The six Japan arcs (Kuril, NE Japan, Central Japan, Izu-Bonin, SW
Japan, and Ryukyu) are shown in bold italics.

and the upwelling of the deep-seated Arima-type brine along tectonic
lines in SW Japan (Kusuda et al., 2014; Nakamura et al., 2014;
Morikawa et al., 2016). Along a trench-parallel 600-km-wide zone in a
non-volcanic fore-arc region of SW Japan, the deep low-frequency
tremors that occurred approximately 30–40 km above the subducted
Philippine Sea slab are thought to be related to a deep-seated fluid
(Obara, 2002) such as Arima-type brine (Kazahaya et al., 2014;
Nakamura et al., 2016), which is characterized by high chlorine and
rare earth element contents and high δ18O, δD, and 3He/4He isotopic ra-
tios (Matsubaya et al., 1973; Nagao et al., 1981; Masuda et al., 1985;
Nakamura et al., 2014, 2015).
Despite the potential importance of slab-derived fluids, their
amount, transportation path, and spatial-geographical distribution are
still poorly constrained at present. The maximum amount of water sup-
plied to the subduction zone has been constrained based on phase rela-
tions and the solubility of water in the hydrated subducting slab that
comprises sediments, oceanic basaltic crust, and peridotite (Schmidt
and Poli, 1998; Hacker et al., 2003), and the predicted dehydration loci
(i.e., locations where the water content of the slab exceeds the above
solubility) have been compared to the results of seismic observations
(e.g., the double seismic zone within the subducting Pacific slab; Kita
et al., 2006). It has been argued that subsequent fluid migration results
in the formation of a just-above-the-slab serpentinite layer (Iwamori,
1998; Kawakatsu and Watada, 2007) that is dragged down with the
subducting slab until chlorite and serpentine break down, with the ex-
tent/location of this breakdown depending on slab thermal structure.
After the breakdown, the released fluid enters the overlying wedge
and reacts with the convecting solid to cause flux melting at the high-
temperature core part of the mantle wedge. Fluid migration and fluid-
solid interactions, including melting, have been numerically modeled
and solved to obtain a viscosity and thermal flow structure (Horiuchi
and Iwamori, 2016) that agrees with the tomographic images showing
that the low-seismic-velocity zone parallel to the subducting slab is con-
tinuous near the Moho discontinuity (Nakajima and Hasegawa, 2004;
Zhao et al., 2009). However, seismic velocity is weakly sensitive to
water content and fluid fraction, and is strongly influenced by tempera-
ture and major element chemistry (Karato, 2011). Conversely, electrical
conductivity is more sensitive to water content, fluid fraction, connectiv-
ity, and fluid chemistry than seismic velocity (Watanabe and Higuchi,
2015; Sakuma and Ichiki, 2016), and recent three-dimensional (3D) im-
aging of regions beneath NE Japan has revealed the existence of a fluid
and/or melt transport pathway from the slab surface to the lower crust
(Ichiki et al., 2015). Based on these results, the water content of the
mantle wedge should equal 0.1–1 wt%, although the exact amounts
and spatial distribution of water feature large uncertainties (Karato,
2011).
Alternatively, geochemical approaches can be used to quantify water
distribution with high resolution (Ishikawa and Nakamura, 1994;
Taylor and Nesbitt, 1998; Kimura et al., 2009), even in complex settings
involving more than one subducting plate (Nakamura et al., 2008).
These approaches utilize petrological and geophysical knowledge
(e.g., phase relations of hydrous systems, element partitioning between
minerals and fluid melt, thermal flow structure of the slab and the sub-
duction zone, and water transportation agents and pathways) and are
 38
Table 1
Isotopic compositions of young volcanic lavas newly analyzed in this study.
87
Location Sample name Volcano/locality Sample ID Rock type/remarks Sr/86Sr 2SE 143
Nd/144Nd 2SE 206
Pb/204Pb 2SE 207
Pb/204Pb 2SE 208
Pb/204Pb 2SE

SW Japan TY01 Mobira 8561512 Basanitic rock 0.704216 0.000006 0.512741 0.000005 18.0782 0.0004 15.5193 0.0004 38.3533 0.0013
SW Japan SR01 Mejika 8560805 Alkali olivine basalt 0.704151 0.000007 0.512744 0.000006 18.0411 0.0003 15.5087 0.0004 38.3227 0.0010
SW Japan SR02 Zushi 8560904 Basanitic rock 0.704036 0.000007 0.512754 0.000007 18.0193 0.0004 15.4954 0.0004 38.2680 0.0012
SW Japan SR03 KrkwaMY 8561101 Transitional basalt 0.704494 0.000007 0.512641 0.000006 18.0314 0.0005 15.5471 0.0005 38.4427 0.0014
SW Japan SR04 UedaMY 8561108 Transitional basalt 0.704670 0.000006 0.512620 0.000005 18.0278 0.0005 15.5509 0.0005 38.4413 0.0013
SW Japan ON01 Shakuym 851114 Alkali olivine basalt 0.706203 0.000006 0.512545 0.000007 18.4009 0.0005 15.6075 0.0004 38.6785 0.0012
SW Japan HB01 Shinch2 8580709 Transitional basalt 0.705842 0.000007 0.512500 0.000005 18.4044 0.0005 15.6121 0.0005 38.6822 0.0013
SW Japan HB02 Sakane2 8580518 Alkali olivine basalt 0.705215 0.000006 0.512601 0.000006 18.3254 0.0005 15.5779 0.0005 38.5337 0.0013
SW Japan YT01 MENK2 8580605 Alkali olivine basalt 0.704923 0.000006 0.512544 0.000008 18.3137 0.0006 15.5870 0.0006 38.5420 0.0015
SW Japan YT02 Miyagra 8580201 Alkali olivine basalt 0.705277 0.000006 0.512549 0.000004 18.3623 0.0005 15.6041 0.0005 38.6450 0.0013
SW Japan MT01 Norol 8780301 Alkali olivine basalt 0.704901 0.000007 0.512721 0.000006 18.2433 0.0004 15.5642 0.0003 38.4266 0.0010
SW Japan MT02 Chausu 8780304 Alkali olivine basalt 0.704210 0.000006 0.512744 0.000007 18.2998 0.0004 15.5780 0.0004 38.4854 0.0011
Hokkaido H01 Yotei 232 New stage 0.704215 0.000006 0.512819 0.000005 18.5022 0.0005 15.5768 0.0005 38.5308 0.0013
Hokkaido H02 Yotei 216 Y.d-I 0.703895 0.000007 0.512869 0.000004 18.5106 0.0004 15.5727 0.0004 38.5228 0.0011
Hokkaido H03 Kariba TOP-COG Karibe lava 0.703217 0.000007 0.512900 0.000005 18.4618 0.0004 15.5605 0.0003 38.4689 0.0009
Hokkaido H04 Oshima-oshima B2 Nishiyama stage 0.703120 0.000007 0.512880 0.000005 18.3850 0.0005 15.5096 0.0005 38.1879 0.0013
Hokkaido H05 Oshima-oshima D2 Nishiyama stage 0.702949 0.000006 0.512882 0.000005 18.3841 0.0004 15.5214 0.0004 38.2383 0.0011

H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49

Hokkaido H06 Tarumae 4-4 Ta-d1 0.704225 0.000007 0.512839 0.000005 18.5161 0.0004 15.5770 0.0004 38.5304 0.0012
Hokkaido H07 Tarumae KMM-a9 Ta-c2 0.704184 0.000007 0.512873 0.000006 18.5019 0.0005 15.5744 0.0005 38.5136 0.0013
Hokkaido H08 Kuttara 37-3 Kt-Tk 0.704158 0.000006 0.512900 0.000006 18.5349 0.0005 15.5777 0.0005 38.5491 0.0013
Hokkaido H09 Mae-Furano-dake 14 Mae-Furano lower lava 0.703788 0.000007 0.512885 0.000006 18.4592 0.0004 15.5526 0.0005 38.3983 0.0012
Hokkaido H10 Furano-dake 20 Furano lower lava 0.703634 0.000006 0.512883 0.000004 18.4636 0.0004 15.5563 0.0004 38.4182 0.0010
Hokkaido H11 Tokachi-dake Tk-1-141-2 – 0.703558 0.000006 0.512880 0.000006 18.4359 0.0005 15.5579 0.0005 38.4057 0.0013
Hokkaido H12 Kita-Daisetsu 917-8 Hirayama 0.703607 0.000006 0.512895 0.000005 18.4359 0.0004 15.5499 0.0004 38.4008 0.0013
Hokkaido H13 Nipesotsu 93052401B – 0.703917 0.000006 0.512820 0.000004 18.4195 0.0004 15.5607 0.0004 38.4293 0.0012
Hokkaido H14 Daisetsu MK04l-3 – 0.703546 0.000006 0.512914 0.000004 18.4070 0.0005 15.5614 0.0005 38.4020 0.0013
Hokkaido H15 Daisetsu 0803-10inc – 0.703616 0.000007 0.512878 0.000003 18.4332 0.0005 15.5625 0.0005 38.4333 0.0013
Hokkaido H16 Musa-dake ON-6 – 0.703625 0.000007 0.512974 0.000006 18.4245 0.0005 15.5493 0.0005 38.3953 0.0012
Hokkaido H17 Oakan 070924-9-1 L1-1 0.703380 0.000006 0.512956 0.000005 18.4509 0.0004 15.5363 0.0004 38.3143 0.0012
Hokkaido H18 Oakan 070607-3-1 E2 0.703348 0.000006 0.512952 0.000006 18.4478 0.0005 15.5302 0.0005 38.2960 0.0013
Hokkaido H19 Shiretoko 516 – 0.703149 0.000006 0.512996 0.000006 18.3650 0.0004 15.5197 0.0004 38.2275 0.0012
Hokkaido H20 Unabetsu UNA8′-2 – 0.703311 0.000006 0.512940 0.000006 18.4209 0.0005 15.5394 0.0004 38.3173 0.0014
Hokkaido H21 Shari PK-2 – 0.703344 0.000006 0.512974 0.000005 18.4121 0.0005 15.5344 0.0004 38.2987 0.0013
Hokkaido H22 Shari CR-15 – 0.703329 0.000007 0.512969 0.000004 18.4099 0.0005 15.5312 0.0004 38.2816 0.0013
Hokkaido H23 Mashu Ns-9 Nishibetsu-dake 0.703365 0.000007 0.513031 0.000006 18.4353 0.0004 15.5301 0.0004 38.2895 0.0012
Hokkaido H24 Mashu Hokuheki lava-2 caldera wall 0.703373 0.000006 0.513040 0.000007 18.4306 0.0005 15.5340 0.0005 38.3093 0.0013

Location Sample name SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Nb ppm Pb ppm

SW Japan TY01 44.41 1.61 13.56 9.59 0.17 12.89 10.58 2.72 1.26 0.52 49.200 –
SW Japan SR01 46.19 2.25 14.47 10.79 0.17 9.92 9.43 2.86 1.76 0.64 57.300 –
SW Japan SR02 44.96 2.42 14.32 10.43 0.16 10.10 10.37 2.83 2.29 0.71 72.000 –
SW Japan SR03 49.56 2.35 16.24 9.66 0.16 4.70 6.92 4.22 2.32 0.68 52.800 –
SW Japan SR04 59.75 0.48 18.01 5.71 0.18 0.67 2.59 5.80 4.15 0.39 83.300 –
SW Japan ON01 48.80 1.27 15.12 8.11 0.13 10.98 9.37 3.35 1.44 0.66 30.700 –
SW Japan HB01 50.08 2.06 14.62 7.53 0.11 6.09 8.75 3.23 3.42 1.21 16.400 –
SW Japan HB02 49.53 1.26 17.48 7.45 0.13 8.30 9.16 2.67 1.44 0.29 12.300 –
SW Japan YT01 52.02 0.93 16.13 7.38 0.13 10.18 8.35 3.02 1.29 0.28 10.000 –
SW Japan YT02 48.44 1.26 15.74 7.44 0.12 9.05 9.81 2.80 2.40 0.80 16.600 –
SW Japan MT01 53.31 0.82 17.89 6.43 0.12 6.65 7.51 3.67 1.23 0.32 8.000 –
SW Japan MT02 52.27 1.13 16.82 6.71 0.11 8.27 7.96 3.55 1.46 0.24 9.000 –
Hokkaido H01 59.72 1.03 17.03 7.45 0.18 2.62 6.59 3.86 1.20 0.32 – –
Hokkaido H02 62.80 0.91 16.53 6.24 0.21 1.85 5.05 4.82 1.20 0.38 – –
Hokkaido H03 53.11 0.91 19.28 7.81 0.17 6.06 8.35 2.59 1.49 0.22 3.796 4.400
Hokkaido H04 48.23 0.74 14.04 8.61 0.16 15.30 9.93 1.69 1.02 0.28 1.690 –
Hokkaido H05 50.69 0.92 17.60 9.63 0.17 5.57 11.25 2.39 1.55 0.23 2.583 3.446
 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49 39

based on the mass budget of multiple elements and isotopes. Nakamura

5.396
6.282
6.539

4.312
9.060
4.957
7.489

3.415
3.801

4.082
8.566
3.458

5.539
2.898
– and Iwamori (2009) systematically applied a geochemical method to

–
the volcanic rocks of Japan arcs and discussed the regional composi-
tional variations of both slab-derived fluids and mantle wedges. This
study uses the same approach, applying it to a geochemical data set ex-
panded from that of Nakamura and Iwamori (2009) to cover the miss-
1.577
1.467
0.920

2.482
3.913
2.785
3.142

2.154
0.347

0.928
2.752
1.305

1.491
0.405
ing areas in Hokkaido, Chugoku, and northern Kyushu (Fig. 1, Table 1).
–

–
In addition, we subject the obtained data set to new statistical analyses
to objectively determine regional geochemical variations.
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.14
0.14
0.19
0.20
0.13
0.23
0.12
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.22
0.16
0.15
0.15
0.09
0.09
2. Tectonic setting of Japan arcs

The Japanese islands reside on two continental (Eurasian and North

American) plates that meet in central Japan along the Itoigawa-
Shizuoka Tectonic Line (Fig. 1). Beneath this site, two oceanic (Pacific
0.25
0.33
0.24
0.41
0.61
0.96
0.80
1.11
1.31
0.58
0.26
0.54
0.54
0.84
0.55
0.56
0.67
0.18
0.25

and Philippine Sea) plates with different ages and subduction velocities
subduct roughly from the east (Pacific plate) and the south (Philippine
Sea plate). The Pacific plate subducts beneath the North American and
Philippine Sea plates at the deepest Kuril–Japan–Izu-Bonin trench that
1.71
1.82
1.76
2.40
2.28
2.70
2.75
2.51
2.92
2.22
1.68
2.13
2.23
3.59
2.45
2.67
2.20
2.07
2.31

is 1500-km-wide from north to south (Goudie, 2013), while the

Philippine Sea plate subducts beneath the Eurasian plate at the Nankai
Trough parallel to the Median Tectonic Line, which is one of the largest
fault systems in Japan arcs. The subducted Pacific plate occupies a wide-
10.02
10.06

10.84
11.94

10.77

12.10
10.08

10.88
10.31
10.23
11.26
11.03
9.93

9.38

8.96
9.01
9.91

9.64
9.82

spread area beneath the Japanese islands and forms a stagnant slab that
partly overlaps with the subducted Philippine Sea plate beneath Central
to SW Japan (Fig. 1). The complex geometry of these plates, the interac-
tions among them, and the unstable torque balance near the triple junc-
tion are largely responsible for the evolution of Japan arcs (Takahashi,
5.91
6.00
6.27
5.84
6.16
4.97
5.15
4.98
4.81
6.07
4.69
8.12
6.16
2.55
5.65
3.24
5.64
5.23
4.11

2006).
Based on their tectonic setting, Japan arcs have conventionally been
divided into six areas, namely the Kuril, NE Japan, Central Japan, Izu-
Bonin, SW Japan, and Ryukyu arcs (from north to south), as shown in
Fig. 1. The Kuril arc stretches from northeast Hokkaido to the Kamchatka
0.17
0.21
0.18
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.19
0.17
0.15
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.17
0.18
0.17
0.18
0.20
0.20

Peninsula and features volcanoes located ~100–120 km above the

Wadati-Benioff Zone (WBZ) of the Pacific plate (Fig. 1). The central
part of Hokkaido features several (but not many) volcanoes located
150–300 km above the WBZ, while volcanoes in the western part of
10.73
11.95

11.41
11.67
10.02

14.21

10.86

10.03

10.51
10.28
10.67
9.74

9.98
8.65
8.72

9.64
9.65

8.13

9.72

Hokkaido and in NE Japan are located 100–150 km above this zone. In

the NE Japan to Izu-Bonin (via Central Japan) transitional area, the vol-
canic chain located 100 km above the WBZ gradually deflects westward
and then back eastward in the Izu arc. This phenomenon is caused by
the presence of the overlapping Philippine Sea plate that disturbs the
20.06
16.92
17.79
19.31
18.45
18.88
18.82
17.45
18.15
17.74
19.31
16.12
17.59
21.15
19.17
20.04
18.00
18.25
18.02

corner flow induced by the subduction of the Pacific plate and thus af-
fords a cold mantle wedge beneath the whole of Central Japan
(Iwamori, 2000). Within this transitional area, both plates strongly in-
fluence the tectonic setting, e.g., via the enhanced flux of slab-derived
0.75
0.89
0.64
1.22
1.21
1.24
1.25
0.98
1.06
1.49
0.71
0.65
0.77
0.92
0.98
1.01
0.96
0.91
0.87

fluids (Nakamura et al., 2008). The northern edge of the subducted

Philippine Sea slab can be regarded as the boundary between NE and
Central Japan, which is defined either seismically (as represented by
the northern limit of the Philippine Sea slab depth contour in Fig. 1) or
50.34
51.75
53.40
48.23
47.32
51.45
50.10
55.08
53.64
47.51
51.36
52.46
51.94
52.61
49.94
52.13
51.46
51.53
52.44

geochemically (as represented by the isotopic compositions of arc

magmas in Figs. 2 and 3). Nakamura et al. (2018) showed that these
two definitions are different, where the geochemical signature indicates
a gradual northward decrease of the Philippine Sea slab-derived fluid
⁎ Total iron expressed as ferrous oxide.

corresponding to the presence of the aseismic and northward thinning

Philippine Sea slab beyond the seismically defined boundary, up to
H06
H07
H08
H09
H10
H11
H12
H13
H14
H15
H16
H17
H18
H19
H20
H21
H22
H23
H24

~37 N° near Lake Inawashiro (Nakamura et al., 2018). The Izu-Bonin

arc features volcanoes located 100–150 km above the WBZ in an oceanic
arc setting associated with the subduction of the Pacific plate beneath
the Philippine Sea plate. Alternatively, in the Ryukyu arc, the oceanic
crust of the Philippine plate obliquely subducts beneath the continental
Eurasian plate from the Ryukyu Trench in conjunction with the adjacent
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Hokkaido

Nankai Trough (Nishizawa et al., 2009). This setting produces volcanic

islands in the south and on-land volcanoes in the north (in southern
Kyushu, Fig. 1).
40 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49
3. Analytical methods
3.1. Isotopic data and analyses
87
Sr/86Sr, 143Nd/144Nd, 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb iso-
tope ratios of young basaltic rocks (mostly Quaternary with SiO2 b 56 wt
%, including some Neogene samples from SW Japan dated ~10 Ma) were
analyzed. Neogene rocks from SW Japan are used to cover the whole
arcs, because the steady zonal structure in terms of magma genetic con-
ditions/configuration from ~10 Ma to the present is well characterized
(Iwamori, 1991, 1992). Therefore, the Neogene volcanic rocks in the
Chugoku district were included in this study to address the modern
magmatic provenance. The above data, which covered the entire Japan
arc area and included the neighboring areas of the Japan Sea and Jeju Is-
land for comparison, were taken from several sources (the GEOROC da-
tabase (http://georoc.mpch-mainz.gwdg.de/georoc/), previous reports
(Nakamura et al., 2008; Nakamura and Iwamori, 2009; Kimura et al.,
2014), and the results of measurements performed herein) to minimize
the effects of crustal assimilation and highlight sub-crustal signatures
(Fig. 2a–e).
Isotope ratios were determined using chemical separation and mass
spectrometry techniques following the methods previously reported for
Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes (Hirahara et al., 2009; Miyazaki et al., 2009;
Takahashi et al., 2009). Isotopic ratios of Sr and Nd were determined
using a thermal ionization mass spectrometer (Triton TI; Thermo Fisher
Scientific, Bremen, Germany) employing fractionation correction
(87Sr/86Sr = 0.1194 and 143Nd/144Nd = 0.7219). The isotopic standard
for Sr (Strontium carbonate NIST SRM 987) value was determined as
87
Sr/86Sr = 0.710249 ± 08 (two standard deviations (2 SD), n = 16),
and isotopic standard for Nd (JNdi-1) was obtained as 143Nd/144Nd =
Fig. 2. (a) 87Sr/86Sr, (b) 143Nd/144Nd, (c) 206Pb/204Pb, (d) 207Pb/204Pb, (e) 208Pb/204Pb ratio variations of young volcanic rocks along the Japan arcs. Selection for silica content b56 wt% and
age b3 Ma was performed, with some Neogene volcanoes dated up to ~10 Ma in SW Japan.
0.512097 ± 06 (2 SD, n = 10). Sample powders for Pb isotope analysis
were rinsed with 1 M HCl at room temperature, and Pb isotopic ratios
were determined using Multiple Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma
Mass Spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) and Neptune instrument (Thermo
Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Germany). Mass fractionation factors for Pb
were corrected using Tl as an external standard. Additional mass-
dependent inter-element fractionations were corrected by applying a
standard bracketing method using NIST SRM 981 as a standard
(Kimura et al., 2006). 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb values
used for repeated NIST 981 measurements equaled 16.9317 ± 09,
15.4852 ± 09, and 36.6793 ± 27 (2 SD, n = 54), respectively. The
206
Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/204Pb ratios employed after normal-
ization using SRM 981 values equaled 16.9416, 15.5000, and 36.7262,
respectively (Baker et al., 2004).
3.2. Statistical analyses
An isotopic data set consisting of 382 samples × 5 isotopic ratios
(87Sr/86Sr, 143Nd/144Nd, 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, 208Pb/204Pb) was ana-
lyzed by K-means cluster analysis (KCA), principal component analysis
(PCA), and independent component analysis (ICA). KCA is a widely used
classification method to partition multivariate data in such a way that
the total distance between the cluster mean and individual data points
in the cluster is minimized (MacQueen, 1967, and references therein).
PCA is commonly used to effectively specify uncorrelated base vectors
accounting for data variance, whereas ICA is a less common but power-
ful method of extracting independent base vectors that has been applied
to various problems in information and brain sciences (Hyvärinen et al.,
2001) including geochemical data informatics (Iwamori and Albarède,
2008; Iwamori et al., 2010). The important difference between PCA
 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49
Fig. 3. Results of K-means clustering analysis for 382 young volcanic samples × 5 isotopic ratios (87Sr/86Sr, 143Nd/144Nd, 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, 208Pb/204Pb) from the Japan arcs.
(a) Geographical distribution of clusters, (b) Clustering structures in 87Sr/86Sr, 143Nd/144Nd, 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb diagrams. Isotopic compositional ranges of the lower crustal base-
ment rocks in NE Japan (red squares, Kimura and Yoshida, 2006) and the Pacific sediments (blue squares) are also shown. The basement granitoid rocks in the southern part of NE Japan are
shown by the red and white striped pattern. See main text for methodology and details.
and ICA is that for a multivariate non-Gaussian distribution, PCA cannot
extract independent components (ICs), while ICA may identify ICs based
on non-Gaussianity (Hyvärinen et al., 2001). In fact, the basalt isotopic
data used in this study show clear non-Gaussianity (e.g., the frequency
diagrams for the Nd and Sr isotopic ratios, which are long-tailed on the
low Nd- and high Sr-sides, respectively), as is the case with the global
data set (Iwamori and Nakamura, 2015).
The goal of these statistical analyses was to understand how the
isotopic ratios correspond to different sources and processes related
to magma production by specifying clusters and decomposing data
into independent compositional vectors. KCA and PCA were directly
applied to the used data set, and 100 trails (i.e., 100 randomized ini-
tial conditions) were employed to find the global minimum for KCA.
Additionally, to compare the data of this study with the global struc-
ture, we decomposed the data in the global IC-space that includes
mid-ocean ridge basalts, oceanic island basalts, arc basalts, and con-
tinental basalts (Iwamori and Nakamura, 2015) and in which almost
all young (Quaternary plus several Neogene) basalts on Earth are
classified into eastern and western hemispheres (Iwamori and
Nakamura, 2012, 2015). Details of PCA and ICA procedures were
the same as those used by Iwamori and Nakamura (2015).
4. Results
The five isotopic ratios (87Sr/86Sr, 143Nd/144Nd, 206Pb/204Pb,
207
Pb/204Pb, 208Pb/204Pb) showed moderate variability across the 382
samples, with the averages and standard deviations determined as
0.70429 ± 0.00108, 0.51284 ± 0.00018, 18.351 ± 0.182, 15.551 ±
0.042, and 38.427 ± 0.303, respectively. Fig. 2 shows the geographical
distributions of isotopic ratios, revealing the presence of several sys-
tematic spatial variations and patterns, some of which were shared
by multiple isotopic ratios (e.g., depleted signatures in the east
and enriched signatures in the west were observed for Sr and Nd)
and some of which were unique to individual ratios (e.g., the varia-
tion of terrestrial Pb signatures). The correlation/decoupling of
these common and unique features in the multivariate composi-
tional space provides much more information than can obtained
41
by inspecting individual ratios separately or by using conventional
binary and ternary diagrams. For this reason, multivariate statistical
analyses were performed.
The results of PCA showed the overall data structure in composi-
tional space and afforded two major eigenvectors accounting for 64.3
and 26.3% of sample variance, while the third eigenvector accounted
for 4.9%. Therefore, the five isotopic ratios could be reduced to two- or
three-dimensional space without loss of essential structures and infor-
mation, and four or eight quadrants (for two- or three-dimensional
spaces) could therefore potentially appear. Based on PCA results, we
set the number of clusters to six for KCA, which described individual
and common isotopic signatures for Japan arcs and neighboring areas
including basalts in the Japan Sea and Jeju Island (Fig. 3). Coupled
with these clustering features, the characteristics of the isotopic compo-
sition of each arc and the transitional features among arcs can be
discussed. The Japan arcs could be broadly grouped into eastern and
western parts, with the former comprising the Kuril, NE Japan and
Izu-Bonin arcs, and the latter comprising the SW Japan and Ryukyu
arcs with a transitional region in Central Japan (Fig. 3). The western
part (including four clusters) showed more variability and a greater
number of radiogenic signatures than the eastern part (including two
clusters), as clearly shown in Fig. 3.
For the Kuril arc (including the Hokkaido area), a clear transition
boundary was observed at the eastern end of Hokkaido, where the con-
tinental arc with its enriched isotopic signature (green symbols) was re-
placed by the oceanic arc (orange symbols) consisting of small islands
with a depleted isotopic signature. This transition was also observed
for Nd and Pb isotopic ratios (Fig. 2b, d, e). This feature is well observed
in the results of KCA mapping (Fig. 3a). In Fig. 3, the volcanoes in NE
Japan are classified into two clusters (depleted as orange and enriched
as green), which correspond to the back-arc and frontal sides, respec-
tively. This structure is continuously observed in central Hokkaido and
Rishiri, but not in Kurile. The transition occurs rather sharply in eastern-
most Hokkaido. Based on this geometry, the arc–arc boundary in the
eastern part of Hokkaido is suggested to extend in the direction perpen-
dicular to the slab depth contour (i.e., parallel to the dip angle of the
subducting slab).
42 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49
The eastern region of Central Japan showed moderately radiogenic
signatures (green to pale-green symbols) and was interpreted as a
zone of transition to the NE Japan arc. This transition was relatively
clear in 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb plots (Fig. 2d, e), which may be re-
lated to the seismically observed edge of the Philippine Sea slab
(Sekiguchi, 2001). Recent geochemical studies in this transitional zone
have revealed that the aseismic Philippine Sea slab has the potential
to supply water for generating magma, as indicated in Fig. 3a by blue cir-
cles, beyond the seismically determined slab edge (Nakamura et al.,
2018). The transitional signature in this region was also observed in
the clustering map as piled-up blue and green symbols (Fig. 3a). In the
central region located in the north of the Izu Peninsula, the volcanic
rocks were significantly depleted in radiogenic components but were
more enriched in the same than those in the Izu arc, whereas extreme
enrichment was observed in the western region of Central Japan. This
behavior clearly indicated the existence of a depleted domain in the
central region and highlighted that this domain is neither an extension
of the Izu arc nor a succession to the NE Japan arc but rather corresponds
to the Fuji-Myoko region, as suggested in a previous study (Nakamura
et al., 2008). The western side of this domain is bound by the
Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line. The Pb-Sr-Nd isotopic compositions
across Central Japan showed overall wide variations comparable to
those of the entire Japan arcs, as depicted by various colors on the clus-
tering map (Fig. 3a).
In the Chugoku district of SW Japan, a broad east-west-trending
zonal structure (colored yellow and blue) was identified in the cluster-
ing map (Fig. 3a), although enriched signatures were detected over this
area to varying degrees (Fig. 2). Notably, according to ICA results, these
samples exhibited geochemical affinities to Jeju Island basalts. In the
Ryukyu arc, the isotopic signature seemed to be depleted in the conti-
nental segment and was enriched in the oceanic segment, exhibiting a
gradual change, as clearly observed for Pb isotopic compositions
(Fig. 2c–e). These observations suggested that the spatial variation
reflected the local tectonic and geochemical settings (including the na-
ture of related plates) on top of large-scale features such as the east-
west arc division.
5. Discussion
5.1. Isotopic composition of slab-derived fluid around Japan arcs
The clustering features described in the previous section for basaltic
rocks along Japan arcs mainly reflected three compositional factors:
(1) the composition of slab-derived fluid, (2) the amount of slab-
derived fluid added to the wedge mantle as a melting source region,
and (3) the composition of the intrinsic wedge mantle before fluid addi-
tion, potentially ranging from Pacific-type to Indian-type depleted
MORB-source mantles (Nakamura and Iwamori, 2009). In this section,
we discuss factors (1) and (2).
The across-arc variation of the mobile/immobile element ratio in or-
dinary arc volcanoes is thought to reflect the degree of fluid addition to
the magma source region in the mantle. For instance, the Pb/Nb ratios of
both the source mantle and volcanic rocks increase with increasing de-
gree of fluid addition, which allows one to deduce the Pb isotopic com-
position of slab-derived fluid assuming that this fluid has a negligible Nb
content (Ishikawa and Nakamura, 1994). The detailed fluid processes of
slab subduction, dehydration, fluid element migration, and reaction
with the convecting solid mantle wedge, as well as the formation of hy-
drous phases have been identified by fluid dynamical modeling
(Iwamori, 1998; Arcay et al., 2005; Cagnioncle et al., 2007; Hebert
et al., 2009; Ikemoto and Iwamori, 2014; Wilson et al., 2014; Horiuchi
and Iwamori, 2016). Among the hydrous phases, serpentinite, which
is formed just above the subducting slab and/or within the corner re-
gions (Fryer, 1996; Kamiya and Kobayashi, 2000; Kawakatsu and
Watada, 2007; Tonegawa et al., 2008) is thought to affect the subduc-
tion zone dynamics significantly and to account for the mechanical
decoupling between the slab–wedge interface down to a depth of
~70 km (Furukawa, 1993; van Keken et al., 2002; Wada et al., 2008),
as well as for melting in regions comparable to the observed volcanic
arcs (Horiuchi and Iwamori, 2016). Based on the evidence provided by
these models, the processes involved in the slab dehydration and the
mantle wedge hydration can be imaged as shown in Fig. 4. Although
the precise composition of the slab-derived fluid must change with
depth, the detailed study in NE Japan by Kimura and Yoshida (2006)
showed that it is relatively uniform across the arc.
In single Japan arcs, the 207Pb/204Pb ratio in the slab-derived fluid
was estimated as 15.561 for the Pacific plate in Izu-Bonin and as
15.576 in NE Japan, while the value for the Philippine Sea plate was es-
timated as 15.579 based on volcanoes in the south Kyushu volcanic
front (Fig. 5; Ishikawa and Nakamura, 1994). The above ratio was also
determined in Central Japan, where the two subducting slabs overlap
in a complex setting, equaling 15.562 for the Pacific slab and 15.62 for
the Philippine Sea slab (volcanoes where the Philippine Sea slab steeply
subducts were used; Nakamura et al., 2008). The regression line for the
Ryukyu arc is scattered, possibly because of the compositional variabil-
ity of the source mantle (ranging from Pacific-type to Indian-type with
some sediment input (Shinjo et al., 2000)). To minimize such effects, the
regression line for volcanoes in a limited area of the northern Kyushu
volcanic front (SK-VF) is also plotted for reference.
These observations suggested that the slab-derived fluid from the
Pacific slab has a relatively low 207Pb/204Pb ratio compared to that of
the Philippine Sea slab, although the specific value seemed to be distinct
in each arc segment (Moriguti et al., 2004; Nakamura and Iwamori,
2009). Given the initial compositions of subducted sediments and al-
tered oceanic crust (AOC) specific to individual arcs as well as the Pb iso-
topic composition of slab-derived fluid (Fig. 5), Nakamura and Iwamori
(2009) calculated the composition of the slab-derived fluid after multi-
stage dehydration as well as the amount of fluid added to the mantle to
best explain the observed trends for individual arcs in Pb-Nd isotopic
systematics. Within this context, the Nd and Pb isotopic ratios of arc ba-
saltic rocks, which exhibit a wide compositional range (Fig. 6), provide
quantitative measures for the composition and quantity of slab-
derived fluids for individual arcs that constitute broad yet specific
mixing trends the intrinsic wedge mantle and slab-derived fluid (Fig. 6).
Following the method of Nakamura and Iwamori (2009), we calcu-
lated the amount of fluid added to the mantle wedge for the new data
from Hokkaido and SW Japan. The new calculation results are shown
with the previously calculated results in Fig. 7. In NE Japan, the average
amount of slab-derived fluid was determined as 0.4 wt% H2O, while the
corresponding value for Izu-Bonin (26.3 to 34.8°N) and Kuril arcs was
remarkably small (0.1 wt% on average). In Central Japan, the above
amount was large (3.4 wt% on average), which was explained by the
high contribution of two subducting slabs (Fig. 1), and a relatively
large value was also observed for the Ryukyu arc (0.6 wt% on average).
The amount of slab-derived fluid was highest in Central Japan and grad-
ually decreased toward NE Japan and Hokkaido, reaching a very low
value in the Kuril arc that was nearly comparable to that in the Izu-
Bonin arc. It should be noted that the amount of slab-derived fluid is
still high beyond the seismic northern edge of the Philippine Sea slab,
which indicates that the contribution from the subducted Philippine
Sea slab is continuous in this area. The thermal effect of the convecting
mantle against the tip of slab could be a reason for the aseismicity
(Nakamura et al., 2018). Concerning the fluid amount, the geometry of
the subducting slab is the most important factor of influence, e.g., a
steeply dipping slab focuses the flux of fluid in a narrow region, as ob-
served for the western part of Central Japan (Ryohaku volcanic area,
Fig. 1) and for the north Ryukyu arc, producing arc lavas with a wide
Nd isotopic variety. The distribution of volcanoes in Kyushu above
70 km depth of WBZ is thought to be caused by relatively shallow dehy-
dration that reflects the relatively warm nature of the subducting
Philippine Sea slab compared to NE Japan. In addition, the relatively
steep subduction angle of the Philippine Sea slab beneath Kyushu, as
 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49 43

represented by the dense depth contours of the slab surface, may cause
dehydration in a narrower horizontal region, leading to more slab-
derived fluid for the Kyushu volcanoes. The current work includes
areas and data that have been previously analyzed for well-known
along-arc and across-arc variations in the Izu-Bonin arc (Taylor and
Nesbitt, 1998; Ishizuka et al., 2003, 2007). Considering the mechanism
responsible for differences between arcs, it was evident that a combina-
tion of a subducting oceanic plate and an immature arc is commonly ob-
served where the fluid amount is small (~0.1 wt% on average, Fig. 7),
while in the case of mature arcs, the fluid amount is moderately high
(0.5 wt%). In particular, the two overlapping subduction zones in Cen-
tral Japan feature enhanced fluid fluxes, up to 4 wt% water in the source
mantle rock. The central part of Central Japan contains a narrow linear
zone that continues from the Izu arc through the Fuji and Kurofuji Vol-
canoes to Myoko Volcano on the Japan Sea side and is characterized by
distinctly low amounts of slab-derived fluid (Fig. 7). This low-flux zone
is attributed to the negligible fluid contribution from the subducting or
colliding Philippine Sea slab, i.e., the former Izu arc, beneath the Fuji–
Myoko area (Nakamura et al., 2008). The crustal material of the Izu
arc mainly comprises relatively anhydrous rocks (Kawate and Arima,
1998) and may hardly generate any slab-derived fluid. Notably, the
oblique subduction in the southern part of the Kuril arc (Kimura,
1986) may result in slightly higher fluid amounts than those observed
for the Izu-Bonin arc, even in an oceanic arc (Figs. 6 and 7), because a
strong 3D flow is generated in the mantle wedge (Bengtson and van
Keken, 2012).
5.2. Intra-arc variation and inter-arc segmentation of slab-derived fluid
Recent studies have revealed detailed near-surface and inner struc-
tures of incoming plates. In particular, several remarkable structures
have been recognized on the surface of the Pacific plate, e.g., the Hok-
kaido and Shatsky outer rises bending up ~650 m from the normal
ocean floor (Levitt and Sandwell, 1995; Sager et al., 2013), the Kashima
and Nosappu fracture zones manifested by offsets of marine magnetic
anomalies (Nakanishi et al., 1992), and Kashima seamounts associated
with a great earthquake (Lallemand et al., 1989). These structural vari-
ations can be associated with those of lithological proportions and/or
water content and may hence result in compositional differences in
slab-derived fluids within the individual arc segments with a single

Fig. 4. (a) Water distribution predicted by the model calculation after Fig. 2b of Ikemoto and Iwamori (2014). The aqueous fluid generated from the subducting material migrates upwards
to enter and hydrate the mantle wedge above the slab, forming the serpentinite layer. This hydrated mantle layer starts to dehydrate at 150-km depth, producing aqueous fluid columns
through which the fluid migrates upwards to reach a high-temperature area at the central part of the mantle wedge. (b) Schematic image of multistage serpentinite dehydration along the
subducting slab (after Fig. 2b of Nakamura and Iwamori (2009)). Approximate depth ranges of fluid dehydration for NE Japan, Central Japan, and SW Japan arcs are also included. Note that
SW-J in the schematic image represents the area of northern Kyushu. After their genesis via dehydration of subducting materials (altered oceanic crust, AOC, and sediment that had
interacted with sea water), the produced fluids are incorporated into a serpentinite layer, and another type of fluid is then generated as a result of serpentinite breakdown at depths of
N100 km.
44 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49

Fig. 5. Nb/Pb-207Pb/204Pb diagram for Japan arcs. Data are taken from Moriguti et al. (2004) for NE Japan, Nakamura et al. (2008) for Central Japan, Ishikawa and Nakamura (1994) for Izu-
Bonin, and Shinjo et al. (2000) for Ryukyu. Bold lines indicate the two regression lines for Central Japan (orange line for volcanic rocks in the western region and green line for those in the
central region of Central Japan). The intercepts were interpreted as representing the compositions of slab-derived fluids from the Philippine Sea slab (orange star) and the Pacific slab
(green star). Other broken or dotted lines indicate the regression lines for the Izu, NE Japan, and Ryukyu arcs as labeled. In many arcs, the Nb/Pb ratio increased toward the back arc
side as the extent of fluid addition to the magma source region decreased. The Pb isotopic composition of the slab-derived fluid could be deduced from arc-specific regression lines assum-
ing that the fluid has a negligible Nb content (Ishikawa and Nakamura, 1994). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)

subducting slab (Fujie et al., 2013; Kodaira et al., 2014; Sano et al., 2012;
Miyoshi et al., 2015; Mochizuki et al., 2008). Such a potential connection
is observed in several places along Japan arcs. For example, the volca-
noes in the Sengan region of NE Japan exhibit larger isotopic variation
than those in the neighboring regions (Fig. 6), although the influence
is not as large as the first-order arc–arc variation (Fig. 7). Beneath the
Sengan region, an extended portion of the Kashima fracture zone is
likely subducted (Nakanishi et al., 1992; Nakanishi, 1993) and may
bring more water with thicker sediment trapped in fractures, which re-
sults in a higher and variable fluid contribution. In the southern part of
the Ryukyu arc, a distinct sedimentary contribution caused by the buoy-
ant nature of the Amami plateau has been reported (Shinjo et al., 2000),
resulting in a higher Pb isotopic signature (Fig. 6). These coherent vari-
ations certainly contribute to along-arc heterogeneity within a single-
plate setting, but even with such perturbation, the clustering features
and inter-arc segment signatures (Figs. 3 and 7) clearly exist, indicating
that the influence of perturbation is relatively small compared to those
of other factors that characterize the individual arc segment rather spe-
cifically and uniformly.
Based on the comparison of Kuril, NE Japan, and Izu-Bonin arcs,
where the same Pacific plate subducts but the amount of slab-derived
fluid is distinctly higher for the NE Japan arc (Fig. 7), we now discuss
the major factors that characterize individual arc segments. In general,
the subduction parameters (i.e., subduction velocity, dip angle, and
slab age) may affect arc magmatism and slab dehydration via thermal
and flow structures beneath the arc (van Keken et al., 2011). The
above three arcs feature similar slab ages (~110–135 Ma; Müller et al.,
1997), while the subduction velocity and dip angle of the Pacific plate

Fig. 6. Pb-Nd isotope systematics of volcanic rocks, slab-derived fluids, and wedge mantle for Japan arcs corresponding to clusters in Fig. 3. Two representative mantle components (cor-
responding to Indian MORB and Pacific MORB source mantle) are shown after the Shikoku Basin lavas (Hickey-Vargas, 1998) and Pacific Ocean ridge basalt (White et al., 1987). The curves
with arrows represent the mixing of slab-derived fluid and the depleted sources, which constrains the amount of slab-derived fluid in each volcano (Nakamura and Iwamori, 2009). For
instance, the volcanoes in Central Japan are more significantly influenced by the fluid derived from the subducting sediment than that from the oceanic crust. The “AOC” and “sediment”
areas enclosed by green or orange dotted lines correspond to the compositional ranges of AOC and sediment from the Pacific and Philippine Sea plates, respectively (Nakamura et al., 2008).
 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49 45

Fig. 7. Spatial distribution of the estimated amount of slab-derived fluid added to the melting source region beneath Japan arcs. The amount of slab-derived fluid added to the source man-
tle for each volcano is indicated by different colors. Multiple data for a single volcano are plotted in a staggered manner so as not to completely overlap. The average fluid amount of each
arc, indicated by translucent coloring, and the depth contours of the upper surfaces of the subducted Pacific and Philippine Sea slabs are shown to facilitate discussion.

at Izu, NE Japan, and Kuril arcs are markedly different, equaling 6.1, 8.3,
and 8.2 cm/year (NUVEL-1A, DeMets et al., 1994) and 46.1°, 28.7°, and
46.4°, respectively (Syracuse et al., 2010). Considering that the
shallower subduction angle and faster subduction rate observed for
the NE Japan arc result in a “slab thermal parameter” (Kirby et al.,
1996) similar to those of the two other arcs (Nakamura and Iwamori,
2009), these variations may not be the primary cause for arc segmenta-
tion (Fig. 7).
Alternatively, the crustal thickness of the overlying plate, associated
with arc maturity, could be a significant factor of influence determining
the differences of thermal structures. In the relatively mature NE Japan
arc, the geothermal gradient along the subducting slab is expected to
be more gentle than in less mature Kuril and Izu-Bonin arcs because of
the higher continental crust thickness in the former case (~36 vs.
~20 km; Zhao and Hasegawa, 1993; Takahashi et al., 1998; Kodaira
et al., 2004). A thick crust prevents the slab from being heated by the
corner flow in the mantle wedge, which results in the establishment
of a gentle geothermal gradient along the interface and therefore in-
duces the subduction of more water to the volcanic arc, as in the NE
Japan arc. Conversely, the thinner crust of Izu-Bonin and Kuril arcs
may promote dehydration in a shallow area beneath the fore-arc region,
and less water may be supplied to the volcanic arc. For Izu-Bonin and
Kuril arcs, serpentine diapirs have been reported to exist in the fore-
arc region (Kimura, 1986; Kimura and Tamaki, 1985; Fryer et al.,
1990), which probably reflects the occurrence of significant dehydra-
tion at shallow depths. Such a difference in slab dehydration could
also account for the lower proportion of sediment in the slab-derived
fluid of Izu-Bonin and Kuril arcs (as shown in Fig. 6) compared to that
observed for NE Japan (Hanyu et al., 2006; Moriguti et al., 2004;
Ishikawa and Nakamura, 1994; Nakamura and Iwamori, 2009), since
the near-surface layer of the subducting slab (i.e., the sediment layer)
undergoes more extensive dehydration along a warmer slab. In addi-
tion, the NE Japan arc lacks an accretionary prism in its fore-arc region
(Clift and Vannucchi, 2004), which may also contribute to the high pro-
portion of sediment in the subducted slab and slab-derived fluid.
5.3. Mantle heterogeneity around Japan arcs
In addition to the variability of slab-derived fluid, the mantle wedge
also exhibits along-arc variations in composition. Two types of mantle
have been identified in the Izu-Bonin arc: higher Nd and Sr isotopic ra-
tios (similar to those of the Pacific-type MORB mantle) are observed in
the southern part, while lower ratios (similar to those of the Indian-type
MORB mantle) are observed in the northern part (Hickey-Vargas, 1998;
Ishizuka et al., 2003). Within the Ryukyu arc, Shinjo et al. (2000) found
along-arc isotopic variation of DMM in addition to the along-arc varia-
tion of the sedimentary component.
To map the compositional variability of the mantle wedge, we used
ICA (Hyvärinen et al., 2001), which is useful for identifying different
mantle sources that had undergone distinct differentiation processes
and exhibit different long-term (i.e., longer than 100 Ma) radiogenic in-
growth (Iwamori and Albarède, 2008). Two major independent compo-
nents (IC1 and IC2) were detected based on the ICA of the global basalt
data including those pertaining to oceanic, arc, and continental basalts
(Iwamori and Nakamura, 2012, 2015). IC1 represents the amount of
melt component inherited in the source mantle and discriminates
plume-type OIB (with positive IC1) from MORB (with negative IC1),
while IC2 represents the amount of anciently subducted aqueous fluid
46 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49
component inherited in the mantle and geographically differentiates
basalts into eastern- and western-hemisphere ones. A third minor inde-
pendent component representing a continental crustal component
(IC3) was also identified. By applying the method to the whole of
Japan arcs, we obtained the spatial distribution of the three ICs (Fig. 8)
and showed that it exhibits several interesting features.
Fig. 8b shows that the overall IC2 values were distinctly lower in the
eastern arcs (Kuril, Northeast Japan, and Izu-Bonin) and were higher
and variable in the SW Japan arc. The Central Japan arc exhibited a tran-
sitional signature indicating a continuous east-to-west change in the
mantle source signature. In the SW Japan arc, extremely high IC2 values
were sporadically distributed, and the corresponding basalts, including
alkaline basalts in SW Japan (Iwamori, 1991; Sakuyama et al., 2014) and
Jeju Island basalts (Tatsumi et al., 2005; Choi et al., 2006), were deci-
sively classified as OIB-type based on their positive IC1 (Fig. 8a). In the
Chugoku district of SW Japan, the OIB-type basalts occur in the
San-yo zone and the Japan Sea region (including Oki Island), interca-
lating the San-in zone volcanic rocks with moderate IC2 values. Such
a sandwiched structure is consistent with a hydrous plume model,
rather than being a product of Philippine Sea or Pacific slab subduc-
tion from the south or the east (Iwamori, 1992; Richard and
Iwamori, 2010). A relatively low IC2 value was locally observed be-
tween southern Kyushu and Okinawa along the Ryukyu arc, corre-
sponding to a DMM variation described by Shinjo et al. (2000).
It should be noted that all these variations (including the east-west
Japan arc division and local variations in SW Japan) were within the
positive IC2 range (Fig. 8b), reflecting the fact that the entire Japan arc
area was located in the “eastern hemisphere” of the global IC2-
positive domain (Iwamori and Nakamura, 2012, 2015). The IC2 varia-
tions found in this study add some details concerning source mantle
heterogeneity to the large-scale east-west hemispherical structure and
possibly represent the flow of the highly IC2-rich mantle from the
sub-Eurasian continental region, as was first broadly discussed by
Nakamura and Iwamori (2009). A recent mantle convection simulation
with the formation of a stagnant slab (Nakao et al., 2016) suggests that
slab stagnation should be accompanied by trench retreat from the sub-
continental region toward the ocean side. The Pacific slab may have in-
duced such horizontal flow, bringing high-IC2 mantle to the east and
currently intruding beneath the Japan arcs from the west.
While IC2 showed a systematic geographical and genetic variation,
the IC3 values for arc basalts may reflect two different contributions
from (i) continental arc crustal materials and (ii) their components
recycled by subducting slabs (Iwamori and Nakamura, 2012). While
the presence of high-IC3 rocks may be attributed to crustal contamina-
tion, the presence of such rocks in the Central Japan arc was explained
by the significant addition of slab-derived fluids from the two
subducting slabs to enhance the signature from (ii) (Nakamura and
Iwamori, 2013). Moreover, the observation of relatively high-IC3 suites
along the Ryukyu arc was attributed to the specific sediment input de-
scribed by Shinjo et al. (2000). Although Izu and Kuril are similar in
that both are broadly in oceanic settings and show depleted signatures,
the IC3 value in Izu (light blue in Fig. 8) is slightly but systematically
higher than that in Kurile (purple–blue in Fig. 8). This difference be-
tween Izu and Kurile could be attributable to the differences in thick-
ness and composition of the subducting sediments, which are thicker
and more siliceous with higher 87Sr/86Sr in Izu than in Kuril (Asahara
et al., 1995; Plank and Langmuir, 1998). Subducted sediments with
higher 87Sr/86Sr contribute to the higher IC3 of arc basalts (Iwamori
and Nakamura, 2012, 2015), which may explain the difference between
Izu and Kuril. Notably, the IC1 values of arc basalts were weakly corre-
lated with IC3 values (although they were independent in the global
data set) possibly due to flux melting with slab-derived fluid of high
IC3, as pointed out by Iwamori and Nakamura (2012). To investigate
the intrinsic IC1 variation, we plotted the IC1 values for samples with
negative IC3, minimizing the effect of IC3 on IC1 (Fig. 8a). As discussed
above, the plume-type basalts in SW Japan, the Japan Sea, and Jeju Island
showed distinctly high values, while other samples showed zero or neg-
ative values, with only minor variations.
Evaluating crustal contamination, particularly intermediate/mafic
contaminant, which is derived from lower crustal material or a rela-
tively large degree of melting of lower crustal material, to basaltic
magma is a difficult task, partly because the contributions from such
crustal materials and subducting materials may be isotopically similar
and are not easy to distinguish (Iwamori and Nakamura, 2012). To dem-
onstrate this situation, the isotopic compositions of the crustal rocks in
NE Japan (red squares, Kimura and Yoshida, 2006) and the Pacific sedi-
ments (blue squares, Kimura and Yoshida, 2006) are plotted in Fig. 3.
Both may roughly explain the compositional trend of Cluster 4 (light
green in Fig. 3). However, the crustal rocks are within the trend itself,
whereas the Pacific sediments are located broadly along the extension
of the trend. These relationships in terms of mass balance suggest that
(i) a large amount of crustal contamination (or pure crustal melt with
20%–40% melting, Kimura and Yoshida, 2006), (ii) a small amount of
sediment-derived fluid (less than a few percent in this study), and
(iii) a combination of (i) and (ii) may account for these observations. Al-
though the considerable amount of heat that is required to digest and/or
melt the large amounts of crustal materials is not readily explained in
the cold tectonic setting of double plate subduction (Iwamori, 2000;
Nakamura et al., 2018), these three cases cannot be ruled out. The esti-
mated amount of slab-derived fluid in this study provides an upper
bound, except for Akagi, which shows a distinct Sr-Nd isotopic trend
that completely overlaps that of the granitoid (red and white striped
pattern in Fig. 3) exposed on the surface (Kobayashi and Nakamura,
2001; Kimura and Yoshida, 2006).
The compositional variability described above contributed to inter-
arc segmentation primarily because of IC2 variation and owing to the
distinct “sandwich-like” or “spotty” structure of wet plume magmatism
in SW Japan. Both fluid contribution (Fig. 7) and mantle compositional
variability (Fig. 8) were responsible for the clustering features, as
shown in Fig. 3. Considering the mantle and fluid compositional varia-
tions shown in the Nd-Pb isotopic diagram and assuming a variation
standardized by its standard deviation, the effects of fluid (measured
by the length of the mixing curve for each arc segment) and mantle
compositional variability (represented by the two components of Pacific
and Indian type) were shown to be almost equal in their magnitudes
(Fig. 6). The spatial patterns of clustering results (Fig. 3) and intrinsic
mantle composition represented by IC2 (Fig. 8) were quite similar,
and one might argue that the effect of slab-derived fluid is insignificant.
However, this similarity is a result of the following coupled factors: the
arcs characterized by small IC2 values (e.g., Izu and Kuril) exhibit a small
extent of fluid addition and retain the relatively “depleted” mantle sig-
nature, whereas those characterized by high IC2 values (e.g., NE and
Central Japan) exhibit a larger extent of fluid addition, which enhances
the “enriched” signature. For instance, beyond the seismic edge of the
Philippine Sea slab, the signature of IC2 is continuously high from Cen-
tral Japan, which also supports the classification of this area as “Central
Japan”, concerning not only fluid influence but also enriched mantle. As
a result, the spatial pattern of IC2 (Fig. 8) and clustering features (Fig. 3)
exhibit a certain similarity in that the intrinsic compositional variation
of the mantle is not erased by the present fluid contribution but is rather
enhanced. Therefore, both slab-derived fluid and intrinsic mantle vari-
ability effects contribute almost equally to the compositions of arc
magmas over the Japan subduction zones.
6. Conclusion
Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic data from arc lavas across the entire area of Japan
arcs (Kuril, NE Japan, Izu-Bonin, Central Japan, SW Japan, and Ryukyu
arcs) was subjected to multivariate statistical analyses (KCA, PCA, and
ICA), which allowed for clear inter-arc segmentation/classification and
revealed some intra-arc variation. The most notable segmentation iden-
tified by KCA was the division of Japan arcs into eastern and western
 H. Nakamura et al. / Gondwana Research 70 (2019) 36–49 47

Fig. 8. ICA results for 382 young volcanic samples × 5 isotopic ratios (87Sr/86Sr, 143Nd/144Nd, 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, 208Pb/204Pb) from Japan arcs. (a) IC1 (amount of melt component
inherited in the source mantle) for lavas with IC3 b 0 (see main text for details). The plume-type OIB with positive IC1 was discriminated from MORB with negative IC1. The OIB-type
volcanoes with high IC1 were distributed in SW Japan. (b) IC2 (amount of anciently subducted aqueous fluid component inherited in the mantle), based on which the mantle was globally
divided into the eastern hemisphere (positive IC2) and the western hemisphere (negative IC2) (Iwamori and Nakamura, 2012, 2015). (c) IC3 (continental crust component). For the IC1
plot in (a), the samples with positive IC3 were excluded to show the intrinsic IC1 variation (see main text for details).

parts joined rather smoothly across Central Japan. The overlap of hy-
drous plume activities in SW Japan was found to add a systematic
zonal structure to the overall pattern. Some intra-arc variations were
also seen, possibly corresponding to the heterogeneity of incoming
plates. Analyses and modeling of the slab-derived fluids as well as ICA
results suggested that (i) the variability (in amount and composition)
of slab-derived fluids added to the melting source region in the mantle
wedge and (ii) the compositional variation of the pristine mantle before
fluid addition contribute approximately equally to arc segmentation, re-
vealing the importance of both local and regional thermal flow struc-
tures of the slab-mantle system in subduction zones.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. Yasuhiro Kato, Dr. Mie Ichihara, and Dr. Tatiana
Churikova for their constructive and long-term discussions on the sub-
duction system. This study was supported in part by Grant-in-Aid for
Scientific Research on Innovative Areas (21109006, Generation and
migration dynamics of geofluids; 2108, Geofluids: Nature and dynamics
of fluids in subduction zones) and a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research
(A) (26247091, Characterization and genesis of mantle compositional
hemispheres) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
(JSPS).
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