11.

Chinese

11.0.1. We provide the modern neutral pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese

[pàto«huà /¶phu5thu˙6hwa/ (çp·u^thU,7˜wa), çcommon languageÇ, based on Pe-
kin{g}ese), by using the o‚cial transliteration [pinyin /5phin5jin/ (^p·I~5jIn)), ac-
companied by a careful phonetic transcription (which is necessary to show and ac-
quire a good pronunciation) and by a phonemic transcription (established ac-
cording to precise descriptive and teaching strategies).
Chinese has various (especially vocalic) taxophones and a syllabic structure with
definite phonotactic limitations. ˛erefore, in the presentation of phonemes it is
always useful to deal with all the various possible syllables, especially when they
have peculiar characteristics.
We maintain the criterion that Chinese syllables have a consonantal initial be-
fore a final element, which –in addition to a vocalic nucleus (/i, y, M, u÷ e, X, o÷
a/)– may have an intermediate consonantal element (/j, ¥, w/ i˚ ü˚ u) — a termi-
nal one (which can be vocalic: /i, e÷ u, o/; or consonantal: /n, ˙, >/).

11.0.2. We will see that Chinese syllables always begin with a contoid, even
when they lack a real initial. In the case of close vowels, //òi, òy, òu// (whereas /M/
only occurs after the initials /q[h], s/}, we actually have /ji, ¥y, wu/ (recognized by
pinyin too: yi˚ yu˚ wu).
˛e other vowels, /e, X, o, a/, are preceded by (ö) (or, but less advisably, by the
following voiced phones (y, H, r, «) – respectively, velar semi-approximant, {lenis}
laryngeal approximant, uvular tap, and semi-provelar nasal).

11.0.3. Let us observe that the Chinese phonetic çtraditionÇ still follows the
phonic çfantasiesÇ of the Swedish sinologist Karlgren, who thought that Mandarin
had two çretroflexÇ (or çapicalÇ) vowels, rendered with çq, QÇ. Actually, the former
is simply a back-central vocoid, (M) (where neither çretroflexionÇ nor the lamina
are active); the latter, on the other hand, is precisely a postalveolar approximant
contoid found in the initial (⁄) />/ r˚ changed into the corresponding intense
(çsyllabicÇ) contoid, (Ö). ˛e same çphonetic traditionÇ also lists another rare
çretroflex (mid) vowelÇ, rendered with çæ&Ç which in actual fact is just the sequence
(öX⁄) /X>/ er˘ It seems surprising, to say the least, that the Journal of the Internation-
al Phonetic Association has accepted and published (in 2003), as an çillustration of
the IPAÇ, a paper which still proposes çq, QÇ –although ipa-like masqueraded as ç(≥)Ç
in both cases!– by describing them as ç(apico-)laminal denti-alveolarÇ (where no
groove is rightly mentioned) and çapical post-alveolarÇ approximants respectively.
˛e latter is correctly described (¤ can(Ö)), while the former is still not (¤ can(¡));
there is a great (articulatory, auditory, and acoustic) di‡erence between (¡) and
(M).
11. chinese 345

Continuing our review of the peculiarities of this kind of phonetics çà la chi-

noiseÇ (done in China) and based on a çKarlgrenizedÇ pinyin, we will then see a
real phonetic transcription (whose appropriate symbols we will present here in
square brackets, ( )). In the West, some things can be rectified, but generally oth-
ers are messed up… ˛erefore, Mandarin would have seven vowels: first, i (i, I, ¤)
/i/, but with two additional çvariantsÇ –incorrectly placed among front vowels (be-
cause of the grapheme i]– èq¶ (M) /M/, in zi (qM) /qM/, ci (qhM) /qhM/, si (sM)
/sM/, and èQ¶ (Ö) /ˇ/, in ˜i (fiÖ) /fiˇ/, >i (fihÖ) /fihˇ/, ´i (ßÖ) /ߡ/, ri (⁄Ö) />ˇ/; how-
ever, they are true phonemes, not çvariantsÇ. ˛en, ü (y, Y) /y/ and u (u, U) /u/,
with the additional çvariantÇ (y, Y) /y/, in yu˚ ju˚ qu˚ xu÷ where the only actual vari-
ant would be just the grapheme: u instead of ü˚ after çpalatalÇ consonantal graph-
emes, since –as a phoneme– /y/ is always /y/, irrespective of the way it is spelled.

11.0.4. Continuing, we have e (X, É, ‘, x, ∑) /X/, with its çvariantÇ (™) /e/, in con-
tact with /j, ¥, i/, and (É) in /ae/. But it is decidedly safer to consider /X/ and /e/ as
two separate phonemes, given the great phonetic di‡erence, because of interpho-
nemic reasons (even if, from an intraphonemic point of view, ¤ just within the
Chinese language, they could –or should– be considered as taxophones of the
same phoneme). In addition, o (ø, Ö) /o/, with its çvariantÇ (U) /u/ – which, on the
contrary, is a di‡erent phoneme. Instead, o –in contact with labials [mo˚ bo˚ po˚
fo˚ ou˚ wo/Cuo]– could be considered as a variant of /X/, as many Chinese phonolo-
gists do, by using ç(X, È)Ç. However, the occurrence of the syllables o˚ yo˚ lo (al-
though rare) requires that a phoneme /o/ is introduced, which will obviously oc-
cur near labials as well. ˛en we have a (a, Å, A) /a/, with its variants (jEn, ¥Än),
for ian˚ üan˘
≈nally, this phonetics çà la chinoiseÇ even has a çzero (graphic) vowelÇ, when
pinyin çsmartlyÇ economizes on vowels, by writing un for /wXn/ (w‘n), and iu for
/jou/ (jPU), ui for /wei/ (wÙI), where a vowel is definitely present, phonically! No
doubt, uen˚ iou˚ uei would have been much better. ˛anks to the use of diapho-
nemes, then, more realistically we will also have the diphthongs /ae, ao/ (ÅÉ, AÖ),
instead of a more abstract representation as /ai, au/: ai˚ ao (pinyin stays on the
fence: -i˚ -o)!
11.0.5. We will now present the o‚cial romanization. Starting from the (conso-
nantal) initials, which are 23 (with a double occurrence of y˚ with two di‡erent
values), we will not present them alphabetically, but by logical phonic groups, ac-
companied by their phonemic and çsimpleÇ phonetic transcriptions. ˛e latter is
çsimpleÇ, because it shows only one variant (whereas, below, we will provide all
necessary details):
b /p/ (p), p /ph/ (ph), m /m/ (m), f /f/ (f)÷
d /t/ (t), t /th/ (th), n /n/ (n), z /q/ (q), c /qh/ (qh), s /s/ (s), l /l/ (l)÷
˜ /fi/ (fi), > /fih/ (fih), ´ /ß/ (ß), r />/ (⁄)÷
j /q/ (Â), q /qh/ (Âh), x /s/ (¿)÷
g /k/ (k), k /kh/ (kh), h /h/ (˜)÷
w /w/ (w), y /j/ (j) “ /¥/ (¥).
346 a handbook of pronunciation

11.0.6. ˛e finals are 39 (with a triple occurrence of i˚ with three di‡erent val-
ues). ˛ey are presented according to their graphic syllabic nucleus. ˛is time,
they are given in alphabetical order, even in the seven cases where the romaniza-
tion has not been a happy one (as we will show in >ç Ç≥). Also the exclamations e
/e/ (™), yo /jo/ (jø) occur (with various tonemes, including çzeroÇ). ˛e three finals
which do not occur without an initial are marked with an asterisk (*):
å
a /aò/ (a), ia˚ òya /jaò/ (ja), ua˚ òwa /waò/ (wa)÷
ai /ae/ (ÅÉ), uai˚ òwai /wae/ (waÉ)÷ yai /jae/ (sole word, yái)
an /an/ (Ån), ian˚ òyan /jan/ (jEn), uan˚ òwan /wan/ (wÅn), üan˚ òyuan (j/q/x +
uan) /¥an/ (¥Än)÷
a« /a˙/ (a,), ia«˚ òya« /ja˙/ (ja,), ua«˚ òwa« /wa˙/ (wA,)÷
ao /ao/ (AÖ), iao˚ òyao /jao/ (jaÖ).
™
e /Xò/ (X, Xx|, ’x|), ie˚ òye /jeò/ (j™), üe˚ òyue (j/q/x + ue) /¥eò/ (¥™)÷
ei* /ei/ (™I) {(ÉI)}, en /Xn/ (Én), er /X>/ (X⁄)÷
e«* /X˙/ (x,), ue«˚ òwe« /wX˙/ (w∑,) {(wø,)}.
¤
i /iò, òjiò/ (i, ji), (s-/z-/c-) /Mò/ (M) > ï (with ü]≥, (´-/˜-/>-) /ˇò/ (Ö) > ï ≥÷
in˚ òyin /in/ (In, òjIn)÷ i«˚ òyi« /i˙/ (¤˙, òj¤˙)÷
ui˚ òwei /wei/ (wÙI) {(w¤i)} > uei ≥.
ø
o /oò/ (ø, øx|), ou /ou/ (øU) {(∑U)}, uo˚ òwo /woò/ (wø, wøx|) {(w∑, w∑x)}÷
o«* /u˙/ (U,) > u« ≥, io«˚ òyo« /ju˙/ (jU,) {(¥U,)} > iu«˚ yu« ≥.
¨
u˚ òwu /uò, òwuò/ (u, wu)÷ ü˚ òyu (j/q/x + u) /yò, ò¥yò/ (y, ò¥y)÷
un˚ òwen /wXn/ (w‘n) > uen ≥; ün˚ òyun (j/q/x + un) /yn, ò¥yn/ ([ò¥]Yn) {([ò]¥In,
[òj]Yn)}÷
iu˚ òyou /jou/ (jPU) {(j¨u)} > iou ≥.

Vowels

11.1.1. In our analysis, Chinese has eight vowel phonemes: /i, y, M, u÷ e, X, o÷

a/ (û 11.1). Instead, û 11.2.å-∫ show the thirteen taxophones (¤ contextual allo-
phones – grey markers), which are very important for a good neutral pronuncia-
tion of Mandarin Chinese.
On the other hand, û 11.8 presents the most recommendable realizations for
an çinternationalÇ pronunciation, which is slightly simplified, but not distorted.
Of course, this çinternationalÇ pronunciation will not use the realizations shown
in û 11.2-7, which however are very important, because the foreign speakers who
can recognize them will be greatly helped in better understanding spoken Chinese
(though they need not be able to use actively those shown in û 11.6-7).
Let us start then, by systematically considering each phoneme, with all the taxo-
11. chinese 347

phones belonging to neutral pronunciation (indicating some possible phonetic

variant as well, again more to for recognition than for actual use, û 11.4).

11.1.2. We first find the close front phoneme, /i/: /[òj]i, [òj]in, [òj]i˙/ ([òj]i, [òj]In,
[òj]¤,) (C/y)i˚ (C/y)in˚ (C/y)i«\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi˚ ([~ii) /¶ni/ n`˚ (4jIn) /•jin/ yìn˚ (5ÂIn)
/5qin/ jin˚ (7j¤¥) /6ji˙/ yí«˚ (5¤,) /5qi˙/ ji«˘
˛e close front-central rounded, /y/, has a fairly limited distribution, ju˚ qu˚ xu˚
yu˚ nü˚ lü (with or without -n), /[¥]y, [¥]yn/ (¥y, ¥Yn) [variants with -n˚ (¥In, jYn)]:
(5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ ([·yy) /¶qhy/ qà˚ (7¿y) /6sy/ xú˚ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (5ÂYn, 5Â¥In)
/5qyn/ jun˚ (4·Yn, 4·¥In) /•qhyn/ qùn˚ (7¿Yc, 7¿¥Ic) /6syn/ xún˚ (4¥Yn, 4¥In,
4jYn) /•¥yn/ yùn˘
More conveniently, pinyin could have used çzü˚ cü˚ sü˚ yüÇ, by phonemically in-
terpreting these syllables as we do: (Ây, Âhy, ¿y) /qy, qhy, sy/. It could also have
avoided introducing an allograph without dieresis, by using yü for o‚cial yu (¥y)
/¥y/ as well. Indeed, /¥y/ could even be /jy/; but since the phoneme /¥/ is present,
it is more adequate to use it. In this way, as it seems convenient, it could also be
used to show –even phonemically– the possible oscillations between (¥Yn, jYn,
¥In): /¥yn/, and ç/jyn, ¥in/Ç). ˛erefore, it could have been possible to write
çz/c/siu«Ç, instead of the o‚cial j/q/xio« for (ÂjU,, ÂhjU,, ¿jU,) /qju˙, qhju˙,
sju˙/ (thus also è-u«¶˚ instead of the o‚cial -o« for (0U,) /0u˙/).

11.1.3. ˛en we find the close back-central (without lip rounding!), /M/, which
only occurs in /qM, qhM, sM/ (qM, qhM, sM) zi˚ ci˚ si\ (7qœ) /6qM/ zí˚ (4q·M)
/•qhM/ cì˚ (5sM) /5sM/ si (but we could extend its use to a sequence like ç/M>/Ç, in
place of /ˇ/, for /fiˇ, fihˇ, ߡ, >ˇ/ (fiÖ, fihÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö) ˜i˚ >i˚ ´i˚ ri\ ([fiÎÎ) /¶fiˇ/ ˜`˚
(5fi·Ö) /5fihˇ/ >i˚ (4ßÖ) /•ßˇ/ ´ì˚ (7⁄Î) /6>ˇ/ rí]˘
˛e last close phoneme is back rounded, /u/ (u, U), and we are obliged to use
two di‡erent graphemes, because of the nature of pinyinization: u˚ o« (instead of
a more logical u«]\ ([wuu) /¶wu/ wà˚ (4lu) /•lu/ lù˚ (5kU,) /5ku˙/ go«˚ (7fiU¥) /6fiu˙/
˜ò«˘

û 11.1. Mandarin vowels.

/[òj]iò/ ([òj]i) (òy)i /M/ (M) (z/c/s)i
/[ò¥]yò/ ([ò¥]y) (l/n)ü˚ yu (“ j/q/x + u] /[òw]uò/ ([òw]u) (òw)u
/Xò/ (X, Xx|) (ò)e˚ /X>/ (X⁄) (ò)er
/jeò/ (j™) ie˚ òye /[w]oò/ ([w]ø, [w]øx|) (u)o˚ ò(w)o
/¥eò/ (¥™) (l/n)üe˚ òyue (“ j/q/x + ue]

/aò/ (a) (ò)a÷ /jaò/ (ja) ia˚ òya÷ /waò/ (wa) ua˚ òwa

11.1.4. ˛e inventory of the vowels of neutral Chinese continues with three

mid vowels. We always find /e/ (™) e in the sequences /jeò, ¥eò/ (j™, ¥™) ye/Cie˚
yue/Cüe\ (4j™) /•je/ yé˚ (5tj™) /5tje/ die˚ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘˚ (7¥™) /6¥e/ yuè.
˛en, /X/, with the following distribution /Xò, X>, [w]Xn, [w]X˙/ (öX[x|], öX⁄, Én,
348 a handbook of pronunciation

w‘n, x,, w∑,) e˚ er˚ en˚ un/wen˚ e«˚ ue«/we«. ˛e last one has the variant (wø,)
(which, if necessary, could be indicated as /wo˙/): (7ö$[*|]) /6X/ è˚ (5öÉn) /5Xn/ en˚
(4öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ (7fËc) /6fXn/ fèn˚ ([w‘‘c) /¶wXn/ w‘n˚ (7f*¥) /6fX˙/ fè«˚ (5w∑,÷ 5wø,)
/5wX˙/ we«˚ (7w≤¥÷ 7wø¥) /6wX˙/ wè«˘
≈nally, we have /o/ (öø[x|]) o˚ which can occur in the syllables /o, jo/ (ø[x|], jø[x|]),
in addition to normal /mo, po, pho, [0]wo/ ([ø[x|], (ø[x|], (hø[x|], [0]wø[x|]), mo˚
bo˚ po˚ wo/Cuo\ (5[ø[x|]) /5mo/ mo˚ (4(ø[x|]) /•po/ bó˚ (7(·ø[*|]) /6pho/ pò˚ ([wøø,
[wø*|) /¶wo/ wœ˚ (5fiwø) /5fiwo/ ˜uo˚ (Ò˜A,5jø) /•ha˙5jo/ há«yo˚ (7öø[x|]) /6o/ ò! ‹en
final, before a pause, /X, o/ normally have the accompaniment (x), as can be seen from
various examples. Instead of /mo, po, pho/, we could even pose /mwo, pwo, phwo/,
for ([ø[x|], (ø[x|], (hø[x|]), while maintaining /mou, phou/ (møU, phøU) (/pou/
does not occur), by dissimilation.

11.1.5. Lastly, we find the open vowel, /a/, with its distributions and various
taxophones, /[0]aò, jan, ¥an, [w/0]an, [j]a˙, wa˙/ (öa, jEn, ¥Än, [w/0]Ån, [j]a,, wA,):
(5öa&ëa) /5aqa/ aza˚ (7t·a) /6tha/ tà˚ (4jEn) /•jan/ yán˚ ([tjEEc) /¶tjan/ di∑n˚ (7¥Éc)
/6¥an/ yuàn˚ (5·¥Än) /5qh¥an/ quan˚ ([öÅÅc) /¶an/ ∑n˚ (4p·Ån) /•phan/ pán˚ (4p·a,)
/•pha˙/ pá«˚ ([wÅÅc) /¶wan/ w∑n˚ (5ja,) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ ([wAA¥) /¶wa˙/ w∑«˘

û 11.2.å. Important taxophones.

/[òj]in/ ([òj]In) (òy)in /[ò¥]yn/ ([ò¥]Yn) {([ò]¥In), [òj]Yn)} yun

(“ j/q/x + un, “ lün)
/Xn/ (Én) (ò)en
/jan/ (jEn) ian˚ òyan /wXn/ (w‘n) un˚ òwen
/¥an/ (¥Än) yuan
(“ + j/q/x + un, “ lüan] /[w]an/ ([w]Ån) (u)an˚ ò(w)an

û 11.2.∫. Further important taxophones.

/u˙/ (U,) ong

/[òj]i˙/ ([òj]¤,) (òy)ing /ju˙/ (jU˙) {(¥U,)} iong˚ òyong
{/[w]oò/ ([w]∑, [w]∑x|) (u)o˚ ò(w)o]
/X˙/ (x,) eng /’Xò|/ (x) e /wX˙/ (w∑,) {(wø,)} ueng˚ òweng

/[j]a˙/ ([j]a,) (i)ang˚ ò(y)ang /wa˙/ (wA,) uang˚ òwang

Diphthongs

11.1.6. Moving to diphthongs (Ô û 11.3), we have /[w]ei, [w]ae, [j]ao, [j]ou/ (™I,
wÙI, ÅÉ, waÉ, jaÖ, AÖ, øU, jPU) ei˚ ui˚ (u)ai˚ (i)ao˚ ou˚ iu÷ for /[w]ei, [j]ou/ there are
also the possible variants (shown in û 11.4, which are not necessary for a good
pronunciation, and will be given only here), (ÉI, w¤i, ∑U, j¨u): (5f™I÷ 5fÉI) /5fei/ fei˚
(5twÙI÷ 5tw¤i) /5twei/ dui˚ ([öÅÅË) /¶ae/ ∑i˚ (7waË) /6wae/ wài˚ ([öAAÖ) /¶ao/ ∑o˚ ([˜AAÖ)
11. chinese 349

/¶hao/ h∑o˚ (4jaÖ) /•jao/ yáo˚ (5öøU÷ 5ö∑U) /5ou/ Ou˚ ([møøU÷ [m≤≤U) /¶mou/ mœu˚
(5tjPU÷ 5tj¨u) /5tjou/ diu˘
û 11.3. Mandarin diphthongs.

/wei/ (wÙI) ui˚ òwei /jou/ (jPU) iu˚ òyou

/ei/ (™I) ei /ou/ (øU) (ò)ou
/ae/ (ÅÉ) (ò)ai /jao/ (jaÖ) iao˚ òyao
/wae/ (waÉ) uai˚ òwai /ao/ (AÖ) (ò)ao

û 11.4. Possible diphthong variants.

{/wei/ (w¤i) ui˚ òwei] {/jou/ (j¨u) iu˚ òyou]

{/ei/ (ÉI) ei] {/ou/ (∑U) (ò)ou]

Vowels with final in />/ (⁄) -r

11.1.7. ˛is characteristic is typical of Peking (Beijing). It enjoys prestige, but

is not completely accepted into neutral language, pàto«huà, although it is regular-
ly indicated in dictionaries and grammars. Actually, the Pekinese themselves often
try to avoid it; whereas the other Chinese (whether Mandarin or non-Mandarin)
have not fully master of its use, fluctuating considerably.
However, its true and genuine distribution shows very substantial neutraliza-
tions, since the segments that actually occur (besides /ˇ/, preceded by /fi[h]-, ß-, >-/:
(fiÖ, fihÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö) ˜i˚ >i˚ ´i˚ ri, already seen in § 11.1.3) are /X>, X˙>, a>, a˙>/ (X⁄,
≈⁄, å⁄, ˙⁄), as shown in û 11.5 (which includes (öX⁄) /X>/ er˚ § 1.4). ˛ey are repre-
sented in pinyin either by e(n)r˚ e«r˚ a(n)r˚ a«r˚ or by the original syllables with
the addition of -r˚ although their pronunciation is reduced to the four already seen,
which can be preceded by the middle consonants /j, ¥, w/, often deriving from
original /i, y, u/. Let us see at once the four types: (5kX⁄) /5kX>/ ger˚ ([p$$Y) /¶pX>/
b‘nr˚ (4˜≈⁄) /•hX˙>/ hé«r˚ ([nååY) /¶na>/ n∑r˚ (7påY) /6pa>/ bànr˚ (5q˙⁄) /5qa˙>/
za«r÷ (5˜wå⁄) /5hwa>/ huar˚ (7mjåY) /6mja>/ miànr˘
We will now consider those with etymological writing, but which are always re-
alized as /X>, X˙>, a>, a˙>/ (X⁄, ≈⁄, å⁄, ˙⁄), preceded –or not– by /j, ¥, w/ (some-
times /¥, w/ correspond to ü and u/o]\ (4p·å⁄) /•pha>/ páir˚ (7·¥$Y) /6qh¥X>/ qúr˚
(7ßw$Y) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ (7q·$Y) /6qhX>/ cír˚ ([q$$Y) /¶qX>/ z`r˚ (5kwå⁄) /5kwa>/ guanr˚
(5kw≈⁄) /5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ (5sw‘n&~¥X⁄, -~&~-) /5swXnn¥X>/ sunnür˚ (4¿i&fwX⁄) /•sifwX>/
xìfur˚ (^fiÖ4ljX⁄) /5fiˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ (4ÂjX⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ (5˜a2bå[t·w$$Y) /5hapa¶thwX>/
habatu`r˚ (7tU¥œ¸j<Y) /6tu˙qjX˙>/ dò«ji«r˚ (7j$Y) /6jX>/ yínr˚ ([s$$Y) /¶sX>/ s`r˚ (5˜X⁄)
350 a handbook of pronunciation

/5hX>/ heir˚ (5t·jå⁄) /5thja>/ tianr˚ (4mjå⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ (7q·w$Y) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚
(4t·wX⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ (^ßÅm5p·wX⁄) /5ßan5phwX>/ ´anpor˘
û 11.5. Vowels with />/ (⁄) -r.

/X>/ (X⁄) -e(n)r…

/X˙>/ (≈⁄) -engr…
/a>/ (å⁄) -a(n)r…
/a˙>/ (˙⁄) -angr…

11.1.8. O‚cial orthography separates the forms which in Chinese characters

are çnormalÇ plus ér˘ ˛erefore, non-Mandarin people tend to pronounce the two
syllables separated and with their tones (as in a sort of çinternationalÇ Mandarin).
In addition, many non-Pekinese Mandarin people join the two syllables into one,
but with less neutralizations. Hence, besides the four genuine syllables (with or
without middle consonants), we can also find the following ones, excluding those
with front close vowels, /i, y/ (i, I, ¤÷ y, Y), that articulatorily do not adapt to (⁄),
which is postalveolar. ˛us, we mark them with an asterisk, to advise that, al-
though it is possible to hear them pronounced in that way by Chinese people, they
do not fall within neutral pronunciation: *(7ßuY) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚ *(5kU⁄÷ 5kÚ⁄)
/5kwX˙>/ go«r˚ *(4¿i&fu⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ *(^fiÖ4ljPU⁄÷ -4lj¨u⁄) /5fiˇ•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚
*(4Âj™⁄÷ 4ÂjÉ⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ *(5˜abå[t·wÙÙY) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ *(5˜™⁄÷ 5˜É⁄)
/5hX>/ heir˚ *(4mjaÖ⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ *(7q·wøY÷ 7q·w≤Y) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ *(4t·øU⁄÷
4t·∑U⁄) /•thwX>/ tóur˚ *(^ßÅm5p·ø⁄) /5ßan5phwX>/ ´anpor˘ In any case, of course,
these pronunciations are not to be imitated.

Vowel reductions

11.1.9. In syllables with neuter/zero tonemes (Ô § 11.3.3.4), some timbric re-

ductions occur (together with shortenings), mainly in di‡erent positions from
word-final ones, or in intonemes. As a matter of fact, in actual language, apart
from in slow and accurate speech, some neutralizations occur too. It is fundamen-
tal to know them, at least to understand spoken Chinese (well). ˛ey need not be
used actively, although an appropriate use of them decidedly improves pronuncia-
tion. In order to adequately show the behavior of di‡erent unstressed syllables (for
vowel, consonant, and pitch reductions), sometimes we also had to use rare words,
rather than omitting something significant.
û 11.6 shows the most important reductions, which actually occur in non-tonic
syllables (¤ in the real sense of çdeprived of any of the four basic tonemesÇ, Ô §
11.3.3.1-3). ˛e examples given are to be interpreted as in a sort of decreasing scale,
starting from a prepausal position, in an intoneme (for the first variants), up to
modifications produced within a sentence, in a preintoneme (for the others). As
11. chinese 351

can be seen, (¤) applies to /i[n/˙], y[n]/: (7tiœ∂i), (-3d¤) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwÅ~&ñi), (-3B¤)
/5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœ¸y), (-3¸i, -3©¤) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu÷ and (û), to /M[>], u[˙]/: (7ji-
œΩœ), (-3zŒ) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄Ë∫œËÎ), (-3ΩŒ) /6>Xnߡ/ rèn´i˚ (5ßu&Ñu), (-vû) /5ßufu/ ´ufu˘
û 11.6. Reductions in syllables with çzeroÇ tones.

/i, y/ (¤) /M, u/ (û)

/Xn, e/ (È), /[w]ei/ ([j]Ȥ) /X[˙], o/ (X), /[j]ou/ ([ã]X¨)

/a[n]/ (å[n]), /[w]ae/ ([j]åÉ) /a˙/ (√,), /[j]ao/ ([ã]√Ö)

In syllables with a çzeroÇ tone, in quick speech, not in an intoneme

(whereas, in an intoneme, the distinct timbres of û 11.1-3 are used).

11.1.10. In addition, we have (È), for /[j/¥]e, [w]Xn/, and (Ȥ) for /[w]ei/: ([Âj™™-
^©ã™), (-1©ã™, -1©ãÈ) /¶qjeqje/ ji‘jie˚ (7öÅËœ⁄Ëc), (-3⁄Ëc, -3⁄Èc) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚ (7m™I-
œm™I), (-3mȤ) /6meimei/ mèimei÷ then (X), for /X, [w]X˙, [w]o/, and ([j]X¨), for
/[j]ou/: (5kX&âX), (-2gX) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çt¤¥^2X), (-1"X) /¶ti˙fiX/ d`«˜e˚ (5¿jEN&Ëx,),
(-2ΩX,) /5sjanßX˙/ xian´e«˚ (7Âj™œm$), (-3m$) /6qjemo/ jièmo˚ (çnwÅ©^∆jø), (-1hjX)
/¶nwanhwo/ nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥U¥œ∂øU), (-3d$¨) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (4p·x,&jøU), (-2ãX¨)
/•phX˙jou/ pé«you˘
Lastly, we have: (å) in /a[n], [w]a, [w]ae/: (7paœÊa), (-3bå) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5ma&ma),
(-2må) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^∆wan), (-1hjån) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (7t·ÅËœthaË), (-3tåË)
/6thaethae/ tàitai÷ and (√) in /a˙, [j]ao/: ([wÅÅ∫^Ëa,), (-1Ω√,) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑n´a«˚
(5fiÖ&∂AÖ), (-2d√Ö) /5fiˇtao/ ˜idao˘
û 11.7. Further reductions in syllables with çzeroÇ tones.

/i, y, M[>], u/ (¢)

/ae/ (É), /ja/ (jÉ) /ou, uo, ao/ (∑)
/X, -X-÷ a, -a-/ (‘)

In syllables with a çzeroÇ tone, in even quicker speech, not in an intoneme.

˛en, the realizations of û 11.6 are also possible in an intoneme.

11.1.11. In û 11.7 other attenuations are shown, or neutralizations too, which

are possible in even faster –but still çnormal and genuineÇ– speech.
We find (¢) for /i, y, M, u÷ >/ (z/c/s˚ ˜/>/´)i˚ ü˚ u\ (7tiœ∂i), (-3d¤, -3d^) /6titi/ dídi˚
(5kwÅ~&ñi), (-2B¤, -2B^) /5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœ¸y), (-3©i, -3©¤, -3©^) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu˚
(7jiœΩœ), (-3zŒ, -3z^) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄Ë∫œËÎ), (-3ΩŒ, -3Ω^) /6>Xnߡ/ rèn´i˚ (5ßu&Ñu), (-2vŒ, -2v^)
/5ßufu/ ´ufu÷ and (∑) for /ou, uo, ao/: (çnwÅ©^∆wø), (-1hjX, -1h∑) /¶nwanhwo/ nu∑n-
huo˚ (7¥U¥œ∂øU), (-3d$¨, -3d≤) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (4p·x,&jøU), (-2ãX¨, -2ã∑) /•phX˙jou/
pé«you˚ (5fiÖ&∂AÖ), (-2d√Ö, -2d∑) /5fiˇtao/ ˜idao˘
352 a handbook of pronunciation

Besides, (É) in /ae, ja/ (É, ãÉ): (7t·ÅËœthÅË), (-3tåË, -3tË) /6thaethae/ tàitai˚ (4⁄É~-
&¸ãa), (-2©ãå, -2©ãÉ) /•>Xnqja/ rénjia÷ and (‘) for /X/ an for any other /a/ a: (5kX&âX),
(-2g‘) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çt¤¥^ËX), (-1Ω‘) /¶ti˙ßX/ d`«˜e˚ (7öÅËœ⁄*c), (-3⁄‘c) /6ae>Xn/ àiren˚
(5¿jEN&Ëx,), (-2Ω‘,) /5sjanßX˙/ xian´e«˚ (7paœÊa), (-3bå, -3b‘) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5maœma),
(-3må, -3m‘) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^∆wan), (-1hjån, -1hj‘n, -1hÏn) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚
(çwÅ∫^Ëa,), (-1Ωå,, -1Ω‘,) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑n´a«˘

£International Mandarin∞ vowels

11.1.12. û 11.8 shows the vowel realizations that are su‚cient for an çinterna-
tionalÇ pronunciation of Chinese, without taxophones (thus, without either atten-
uations or neutralizations such as those given in û 11.6-7; equally, we do not even
mark creaky voice, which is çsuperfluousÇ in an international kind of pronuncia-
tion). So we have only eight monophthongs (and four diphthongs, obtained by
combining five of the eight basic ones). ˛ey are a satisfactory result, once (M, x)
have been learned.
˛erefore, we have: (5ji) /5ji/ yi˚ ([~ii) /¶ni/ n`˚ (•jin) /•jin/ yìn˚ (5Âin) /5qin/ jin˚
(7ji˙) /6ji˙/ yí«˚ (5Âi˙) /5qi˙/ ji«˘
˛en: (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ ([Âhyy) /¶qhy/ qà˚ (7¿y) /6sy/ xú˚ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (5Âyn)
/5qyn/ jun˚ (•Âhyn) /•qhyn/ qùn˚ (7¿yn) /6syn/ xún˚ (•¥yn) /•¥yn/ yùn˘
Besides: ([wuu) /¶wu/ wà˚ (•lu) /•lu/ lù˚ (5ku˙) /5ku˙/ go«˚ (7fiu˙) /6fiu˙/ ˜ò«
(•j™) /•je/ yé˚ (5tj™) /5tje/ die˚ (7¥™) /6¥e/ yuè˚ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘÷ and (7öx) /6X/ è˚ (5öxn)
/5Xn/ en˚ (•öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ (7fxn) /6fXn/ fèn˚ ([wxxn) /¶wXn/ w‘n˚ (7fx˙) /6fX˙/ fè«˚ (5wx˙)
/5wX˙/ we«˚ (7wx˙) /6wX˙/ wè«˘
More: (5mø) /5mo/ mo˚ (•pø) /•po/ bó˚ (7phø) /6pho/ pò˚ ([wøø) /¶wo/ wœ˚ (5fiwø)
/5fiwo/ ˜uo˚ (Òha˙5jø) /•ha˙5jo/ há«yo˚ (7öø) /6o/ ò! and (5öa&qa) /5aqa/ aza˚ (7tha)
/6tha/ tà˚ (•jan) /•jan/ yán˚ ([tjaan) /¶tjan/ di∑n˚ (7¥an) /6¥an/ yuàn˚ (5Âh¥an)
/5qh¥an/ quan˚ ([öaan) /¶an/ ∑n˚ (•phan) /•phan/ pán˚ (•pha˙) /•pha˙/ pá«˚ ([waan)
/¶wan/ w∑n˚ (5ja˙) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ ([waa˙) /¶wa˙/ w∑«˘

11.1.13. And with />/: ([fiÖÖ) /¶fiˇ/ ˜`˚ (5fihÖ) /5fihˇ/ >i˚ (•ßÖ) /•ßÖ/ ´ì˚ (7⁄Ö) /6>ˇ/
rí÷ (5kx⁄) /5kX>/ ger˚ ([pxx⁄) /¶pX>/ b‘nr˚ (•h≈⁄) /•hX˙>/ hé«r˚ ([naa⁄) /¶na>/ n∑r˚
(7pa⁄) /6pa>/ bànr˚ (5qÅ⁄) /5qa˙>/ za«r÷ (5hwa⁄) /5hwa>/ huar˚ (7mja⁄) /6mja>/
miànr÷ and (•pha⁄) /•pha>/ páir˚ (7Âh¥x⁄) /6qh¥X>/ qúr˚ (7ßwx⁄) /6ßwX>/ ´úr˚
(7qhx⁄) /6qhX>/ cír˚ ([qxx⁄) /¶qX>/ z`r˚ (5kwa⁄) /5kwa>/ guanr˚ (5kw≈⁄) /5kwX˙>/
go«r˚ (5swxn&n¥x⁄) /5swXnn¥X>/ sunnür˚ (•¿i&fwx⁄) /•sifwX>/ xìfur˚ (^fiÖ•ljx⁄) /5fiˇ-
•ljX>/ ˜iliùr˚ (•Âjx⁄) /•qjX>/ jiér˚ (^ha2pa[thwxx⁄) /5hapa¶thwX>/ habatu`r˚ (7tu˙-
œÂj≈⁄) /6tu˙qjX˙>/ dò«ji«r˚ (7jx⁄) /6jX>/ yínr˚ ([sxx⁄) /¶sX>/ s`r˚ (5hx⁄) /5hX>/ heir˚
(5thja⁄) /5thja>/ tianr˚ (•mja⁄) /•mja>/ miáor˚ (7qhwx⁄) /6qhwX>/ cuòr˚ (•thwx⁄)
/•thwX>/ tóur˚ (^ßam5phwx⁄, -n5p-) /5ßan5phwX>/ ´anpor˘
For diphthongs, we have: (5f™i) /5fei/ fei˚ (5tw™i) /5twei/ dui˚ ([öaa™) /¶ae/ ∑i˚
(7wa™) /6wae/ wài˚ ([öaaø) /¶ao/ ∑o˚ ([haaø) /¶hao/ h∑o˚ (•jaø) /•jao/ yáo˚ (5öøu) /5ou/
Ou˚ ([møøu) /¶mou/ mœu˚ (5tjøu) /5tjou/ diu˘
11. chinese 353

11.1.14. In a type of çinternationalÇ pronunciation, even vowel reductions are

not so necessary; thus (fairly safely) we have: (7ti3ti) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kwa~&¿i, -n&¿i)
/5kwansi/ guanxi˚ (7¿jaœÂy) /6sjaqy/ xiàqu÷ and (7jiœsM) /6jisM/ yísi˚ (7⁄xNœßÖ, -nœßÖ)
/6>Xnߡ/ rèn´i˚ (5ßu&fu) /5ßufu/ ´ufu˚ ([Âj™™^Âj™) /¶qjeqje/ ji‘jie˚ (7öa™œ⁄xn) /6ae>Xn/
àiren˚ (7m™iœm™i) /6meimei/ mèimei.
In addition: (5kx&kx) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (çti˙^fix) /¶ti˙fiX/ d`«˜e˚ (5¿jaN&ßx˙, -n&ßx˙)
/5sjanßX˙/ xian´e«˚ (7Âj™œmø) /6qjemo/ jièmo˚ (çnwa˙^hwø, çnwan-) /¶nwanhwo/
nu∑nhuo˚ (7¥u˙œtøu) /6¥u˙tou/ yò«tou˚ (•phx˙&jøu) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you÷ also (7pa-
œpa) /6papa/ bàba˚ (5ma&ma) /5mama/ mama˚ (ç¿i^hwan) /¶sihwan/ x`huan˚ (7tha™-
œtha™) /6thaethae/ tàitai÷ and (çwaN^ßa˙, -n^ßa˙) /¶wanßa˙/ w∑n´a«˚ (5fiÖ&taø) /5fiˇ-
tao/ ˜idao˘
û 11.8. çInternational Mandarin ChineseÇ vowels.
/i[n/˙]/ ([òj]i[n/˙]) /M/ (M)
/y[n]/ ([ò¥]y, [ò¥]yn) /u/ ([òw]u), /[j]u˙/ ([j]u˙)
/je/ (j™), /¥e/ (¥™), /[w]ei/ ([w]™i) /X/ (x), /[w]Xn/ ([w]xn), /[w]X˙/ ([w]x˙)
/[w]o/ ([w]ø), /[j]ou/ ([j]øu)
/[j/¥/w]a[n/˙], [w]ae, [j]ao/
([j/¥/w]a[n/˙], [w]a™, [j]aø)

Consonants

11.2.0. ˛e consonant system of (Mandarin) Chinese has some interesting pe-

culiarities, as we will see, including some alternative possibilities of phonemic anal-
ysis. ˛e most important one regards the choice on the phonemic status of (Â,
Âh, ¿); in fact, pinyin has chosen their ço‚cialÇ acknowledgement –as j˚ q˚ x– to
the detriment of vowels, which are rendered as i˚ u˚ after (Â, Âh, ¿), with the fol-
lowing values: /i, y÷ j, ¥/. On the contrary, it would have been su‚cient to system-
atically use ï˚ ü (instead of fluctuating between yu˚ ju˚ qu˚ xu and nü˚ lü] – that is
always yü˚ jü˚ qü˚ xü˚ nü˚ lü (all the more so because with nü˚ lü both a dieresis and
tone-accents must be used). Besides, zï˚ cï˚ sï˚ (fiM, fihM, ßM) would have been use-
ful as well, by producing even greater coherence (which is always useful). Conse-
quently, also ˜ï˚ >ï˚ ´ï˚ rï ought to have been used (instead of the pinyin o‚cial
˜i˚ >i˚ ´i˚ ri]˚ with the value of (fiÖ, fihÖ, ßÖ, ⁄Ö).
At this point, having seen the vowel phonemic inventory (which we have estab-
lished, Ô § 11.1.1-5), it is obvious that our analysis prefers to consider (Â, Âh, ¿)
as the result of the assimilation of /q, qh, s/ in contact with /i, y÷ j, ¥/. All this, of
course, is irrespective of morphological considerations, which are lexically derived,
since they are not at all absolute (rather, they are quite capricious indeed). ˛us,
even for native speakers, the o‚cial choices have only limited (or seeming) advan-
tages; therefore, we are convinced that the possibility of considering (Â, Âh, ¿) as
realizations of /k, kh, h/ is much less preferable – even though sequences like */ki,
khi, hi, ky, khy, hy/ do not occur, which would allow to speak of complementary
354 a handbook of pronunciation

distribution. Phonology, in order to be useful, must be explicit and not at all eso-
teric (although this would not be wrong diachronically).
In the table of û 11.9, which gives the consonantal articulations of Mandarin
Chinese, to save space, we show as /05/ (whereas here we use ç/0[h]/Ç = /0, 0h/)
the consonants which are distinct phonemically. In fact, simple consonants oppose
çaspirationÇ sequences (Ô Stops, § 11.2.2, and Stopstrictives, § 11.2.3).
Instead, û 1.9-15 show the orograms, grouped by manners of articulation, of
all the contoids given in the chapters of this handbook for the 12 languages dealt
with, including secondary, occasional, or regional variants.
û 11.9. Table of Chinese consonants.

palatal (* prepalat.)

postpalatal rounded
labiodental round.
bilabial rounded

bilabialized pre-

velar rounded
postalveolar
labiodental

laryngeal
alveolar
bilabial

palatal

uvular
dental

velar
ö m ([) (M) (n) n (N) (~)* (˙) ,
F p5 (b) ((5 {) t5 (d) k5 (g) (ö)
Ô q5 (Q) fi5 (") (Â5 ©)
ƒ f (v) (5 ç) (·)
_ s (z) ß (Ω) (¿ B)
ß ⁄ j|(ã) ¥|(%) (∆) w|(j) (˜) h
‹ l
/˙/ (,), />/ (⁄), /h/ (·, h, ˜, ∆)

Nasals

11.2.1.1. ˛ere are three nasal phonemes, /m, n, ˙/ (m, [÷ M, n, N, ~, ˙÷ ,) m˚

n˚ «˘ In syllable-final position only /n, ˙/ occur; and the latter always maintains
its uvular articulation ((,)) even before any consonants. Instead, /n/ regularly as-
similates (except in very slow and accurate pronunciation), even if assimilation is
only partial for /nj, n¥, nw/ (~j, ~¥, ˙w) (instead of *(Nj, N¥/”¥, ˙w) which are
theoretical). However, let us notice the reduced forms of wœmen and tamen, which
become monosyllabic, with /mò/ (Ô § 11.3.1.2). ˛e tendency of /nò/ to assimila-
tion is so strong that we can find cases such as: (¿ÒÂj™5˜j‘n2lX&ma31, -j‘l2lX-) /•qje-
5hwXnlXma?/ Jié hun le ma? Mandarin has /n/ (~) + /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (although Pekinese
presents instead (n), which can be used fairly safely). On the other hand, we need
not use a more specific symbol, ((˙)), before dentals /t, th, q, qh, s/. On the contra-
ry, it is useful to choose ([) in /mo/ (which could be rendered as /mwo/ ([ø[x]),
whereas /mou/ is (møU), by dissimilation). Syllable- and word-final nasals always
have an inaudible release, even before a pause: ((næ, ,æ)). (˛is is quite normal for
other oriental languages such as Cantonese, ˛ai, Cambodian, cetnamese,
Tagalog, Malay, and Indonesian – even for final voiceless stops, which Mandarin
has lost.)
11. chinese 355

11.2.1.2. Here are some examples: (5mAÖ) /5mao/ mao˚ (5[ø) /5mo/ mo˚
([nAAÖ) /¶nao/ n∑o˚ (4p·Én) /•phXn/ pén˚ (4p·x,) /•phX˙/ pé«÷ (œ˜Ëc7ö$[*|]) /¶hXn6X/
h‘n è˚ (Ò·¥Än[t·ii) /•qh¥an¶thi/ quánt`˚ (œÂIc[qAAÖ) /¶qin¶qao/ j`nz∑o˚ (0twÅn-
7ljEc) /6twan6ljan/ duànliàn˚ (Ò⁄Ém4mIn) /•>Xn•min/ rénmìn˚ (Òlw‘m5pÅn) /•lwXn-
5pan/ lùnban˚ (0k·aM[faa) /6khan¶fa/ kànf∑˚ (^pjE~4Âi) /5pjan•qi/ bianjì˚ (0ÂIN[fiÎÎ)
/6qin¶fiˇ/ jín˜`˚ (0p·ÅÊ4Â¥™) /6phan•q¥e/ pànjué˚ (œpjEÊ4¥y) /¶pjan•¥y/ bi∑nyù˚
(ÒkÅ∫[⁄ÅÅc) /¶kan¶>an/ g∑nr∑n˚ (ÒpI˙[kwÅÅc) /5pin¶kwan/ bingu∑n˚ (0ÂjE˙7wA¥)
/6qjan6wa˙/ jiànwà«˚ (ÒljE,5˜wÅn) /•ljan5hwan/ liánhuan˘
©th /˙/: (Òji7lu Òp·¤,5öÅn) /•ji6lu •phi˙5an/ yìlú pì«'an˚ (^fx,7mjEc) /5fX˙6mjan/
fe«miàn˚ (œ2k·U¥7pu) /¶khu˙6pu/ kœ«bú˚ (0la,7f™I) /6la˙6fei/ là«fèi˚ (^fx,[tii) /5fX˙-
¶ti/ fe«d`˚ (œ2k·U¥7¿i) /¶khu˙6si/ kœ«xí˚ (Òp·¤,4¥y) /•phi˙•¥y/ pì«yù˚ (^ßx,7⁄Î) /5ßX˙-
6>ˇ/ ´e«rí˚ (^fx,7ßÅc) /5fX˙6ßan/ fe«´àn˚ (Òp·¤,[kwøø, -[kwø*|) /•phi˙¶kwo/ pì«-
guœ˘
In an çinternational-likeÇ pronunciation, it is su‚cient to use (˙), instead of (,),
and also (n) before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (and, possibly, before other consonants too]˘

Stops

11.2.2.1. We have three voiceless phonemes, /p, t, k/, which occur as either
plain, /0/, or in çaspirationÇ sequences, /0h/, with distinctive values. Before see-
ing some examples, we have to explain the nature and consistency of both voice-
lessness and çaspirationÇ.
In fact, except in slow (or very accurate) speech, /pé, té, ké/, are realized as (p,
t, k) only in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), whereas in half-stressed sylla-
bles they are (Ê, ∂, â) or, in unstressed syllables, even (b, d, g). On the other hand
–in a parallel way– /phé, thé, khé/, in fully stressed syllables (or after pauses), are
sequences of voiceless stops and a laryngeal constrictive (decidedly çstrongÇ, (p·,
t·, k·) (however, it is possible to find a semi-constrictive as well, ((0Ö)), which is
weaker). In half-stressed syllables, we have sequences with a laryngeal approximant,
(ph, th, kh); whereas, in unstressed syllables, we can even find plain voiceless stops,
(p, t, k). We choose to adopt this kind of normalized transcription (although os-
cillations are frequent indeed, including sequences with a voiceless laryngeal semi-
-approximant, ((0h))).
A degree of distinctivity between çaspirationÇ and çnon-aspirationÇ, however, is
guaranteed. In fact, we have: /0h/ ('=·, &=h, ’=), /0/ ('=, &Ò, ’Ê), with strong and
weak extremes meeting, as (=). Although they coincide phonetically, they remain
distinct functionally, from a phonemic point of view. Before /o/ (not /ou/, by dis-
similation) we find ((), which sounds rather di‡erent from the common (p) of
other languages.

11.2.2.2. Let us now see the following examples: (5pIn) /5pin/ bin˚ (4(ø) /•po/
bo˚ (7(·ø) /6pho/ pò˚ (4tj™) /•tje/ dié˚ (4k·wÙI) /•khwei/ kuì˚ (^p·¤,5p·a,) /5phi˙-
5pha˙/ pi«pa«˚ (0t·jAÖ[wuu) /6thjao¶wu/ tiàowà˚ (5k·x,) /5khX˙/ ke«÷ (7paœÊa|,
7pa3bå) /6papa/ bàba˚ (7tiœ∂i|, 7ti3dI) /6titi/ dídi˚ (5kX&âX|, 5kX2gÈ) /5kXkX/ gege˚ (7ßÎ-
356 a handbook of pronunciation

œphÅË|, 7ßÎ3påË) /6ߡphae/ ´ípai˚ (4p·u&thAÖ|, 4p·u2t√Ö) /•phuthao/ pùtao˚ (4p·u2t√Ö-

[ÂjÕÕU÷ -2t∑-) /•phuthao¶qjou/ pùtaojià˚ (7q·œœkh$|, -3kÈ) /6qhMkhX/ cíke˘
As we have seen (§ 11.0.2 “ § 11.2.1), there is also a laryngeal stop, which is im-
portant though not phonemic (with some less advisable alternative variants, (y, H,
r, «)). It is useful to adequately maintain the articulatory identity of final conso-
nants (/n, ˙, >/) before initial vowels.

Stop-strictives

11.2.3. As far as this manner (of articulation) is concerned, in our analysis (with
the same normalized characteristics of voicing and çaspirationÇ as for Chinese
stops) we have /q, qh/ ('q, &ë, ’Q÷ 'q·, &qh, ’q) z˚ c˚ in addition to ('Â, &¸, ’©÷ '·,
&Âh, ’Â) j˚ q˚ before /i, y÷ j, ¥/ (Ô § 11.2.0), and /fi, fih/ ('fi, &2, ’"÷ 'fi·, &fih, ’fi) ˜˚
>˘
Here are some examples (expressly chosen with final syllables without tonemes):
(5qÅÉ) /5qae/ zai˚ (7q·wÅc) /6qhwan/ cuàn˚ (5Ây) /5qy/ ju˚ (4·¥U,÷ 4·jU,)
/•q¥u˙/ qió«˚ (7fi™I) /6fiei/ ˜èi˚ (4fi·Ö) /•fiˇ/ >ì÷ (4pi&ëM|, 4pi2Qû) /•piqM/ bìzi˚
(4¥Yn&qhÅÉ|, 4¥Yn2qåÉ÷ 4jYn-) /•¥ynqhae/ yùncai˚ (7tjEÊœ¸i|, 7tjEÊ2©¤) /6tjanqi/ diàn-
ji˚ (5t·jE~&Âhi|, 5t·jE~¤) /5thjanqhi/ tianqi˚ (4q·ÅÉ&2Ö|, 4q·ÅÉ2"Ö) /•qhaefiˇ/ cái-
˜i˚ (4p·™I&fihÉn|, 4p·™I2fiÈn) /•pheifihXn/ péi>en˘

Constrictives

11.2.4. ˛ere are three constrictive phonemes. Again they are all phonemically
voiceless, but with the usual voicings which depend on syllable-strength attenua-
tion. ˛us we have: /f/ ('f, &Ñ, ’v) f, /s/ ('s, &Ω, ’z) s and ('¿, &ñ, ’B) x, /ß/ ('ß, &Ë, ’Ω) ´\
(4fu) /•fu/ fù˚ (4ma&ÑÅn|, 4mavån) /•mafan/ máfan˚ (7swÙI÷ 7sw¤i) /6swei/ suí˚ (5fx,&Ωu|,
5fx,2zû) /5fX˙su/ fe«su˚ (4¿¥™&ñi|, 4¿¥™2B¤) /•s¥esi/ xuéxi˚ (5ßu) /5ßu/ ´u˚ (4lja,&ËÖ|,
4lja,2ΩÖ) /•lja˙ߡ/ liá«´i˘ Before /o/ (not /ou/) we find (5) (as happens for other la-
bial phonemes): (45ø{x}) /•fo/ fó˘ ˛erefore, we could even pose /fwo/ instead of /fo/
(but /fou/ (føU), by dissimilation).

Approximants

11.2.5.1. Chinese has five approximant phonemes in our analysis. ˛e first is

postalveolar, />/ (⁄): (4⁄Én) /•>Xn/ rén˚ (4⁄w‘c) /•>wXn/ rún˚ (4öX⁄) /•X>/ ér˚ ([ßÎÎ) /¶ßˇ/
´`˘ (British English />/ (>) is laterally contracted and has a certain amount of lip
rounding, thus is di‡erent – Ô English ('>a;Ö) /'<aO/ row çdisputeÇ and Chinese
(7⁄AÖ) /'>ao/ rào çcoilÇ.)
Besides, we have: /j/ (j, ’ã), /¥/ (¥, ’%), /w/ (w, ’j), with çattenuatedÇ variants in
weak syllables, that is unstressed, because with çzeroÇ toneme (provided it is not
before a pause), respectively: semi-palatal (ã), semi-postpalatal rounded (%), and se-
11. chinese 357

mi-velar rounded (j): (5ja,) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ (4tj™) /•tje/ dié˚ (5Âj™) /5qje/ jie˚ (çli^ÊjEn|,
çli1bãEn, -1bãÉn) /¶lipjan/ l`bian÷ ([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (7·¥™) /6qh¥e/ què˚ (7tiœñ¥U¥|, 7ti-
3B%U¥) /6tis¥u˙/ díxio«÷ (4wA,) /•wa˙/ wá«˚ (5˜wÙI÷ 5˜w¤i) /5hwei/ hui˚ (çt·AÖ-
^lw‘n|, çt·AÖ1ljÈn) /¶thaolwXn/ t∑olun˘
≈nally, we find /h/ ('˜é, &∆é, ’hé) (in addition to ('0·, &0h, ’0`), already seen for
stops and stop-constrictives): ([˜AAÖ) /¶hao/ h∑o˚ (5öÉ˙&∆AÖ|, 5öÉn2h√Ö) /5Xnhao/ en-
hao˘ In theory, we could have two di‡erent phonemes in the inventory of conso-
nants: ç/x, h/Ç, with ç/x/Ç = ('˜é, &∆é, ’hé); but it is better to have only one, with
the taxophones already seen (which are di‡erent although auditorily quite simi-
lar, but with a phone of contact, (h)). Traditionally, the Chinese prefer to consid-
er initial consonants in a unitary way, with ç/05/Ç di‡erent from /0/, intraphone-
mically; but this choice does not present any real advantage from an interphone-
mic point of view, which is interested in several languages of the world – quite the
contrary!

£International Mandarin∞ consonants

11.2.5.2. In a kind of international pronunciation (as for vowels, Ô § 11.1.12-

14), it is su‚cient to always use the basic forms, independently of stress: (j, ¥, w),
even for (ã, %, j), and (h) for /h/, without variations, also in /0h/ (0h) (against /0/
(0)), and again without creaky voice: (5ja˙) /5ja˙/ ya«˚ (çli^pjan) /¶lipjan/ l`bian÷
([¥yy) /¶¥y/ yà˚ (7tiœ¿¥u˙) /6tis¥u˙/ díxio«÷ (4wa˙) /•wa˙/ wá«˚ (5hw™i) /5hwei/
hui˚ (çthaÖ^lwxn) /¶thaolwXn/ t∑olun˘ However, it is important to be able to hear
di‡erent realizations, in order to understand spoken Chinese (better). Obviously,
to achieve a more genuine pronunciation, it would be decidedly better to appro-
priately acquire and use all the characteristics we describe.

Laterals

11.2.6. For the last manner (of articulation) necessary for Mandarin, we find
just one phoneme, /l/ (l) (which remains unchanged even before /i, y÷ j, ¥/): (4lÅÉ)
/•lae/ lái˚ (4lU,) /•lu˙/ ló«˚ ([ljEEc) /¶ljan/ li∑n˚ (7ly) /6ly/ lǢ

Structures

11.3.0. We will deal, in particular, with the typical tones (tonemes as distinctive
elements), including a çzeroÇ ton(em)e and their combinatory variants (taxotones),
in addition to degrees of stress, and finally intonation, which overlaps tone charac-
teristics, by changing them further (as we will see).
A typical Mandarin Chinese pronunciation shows a particular kind of voice
with a paraphonic setting with raised larynx §Æ@, not only for wemen. Other Chi-
nese languages, instead, use a normal (or modal) laryngeal setting, or else one with
358 a handbook of pronunciation

a lowered larynx. ˛ese paraphonic di‡erences can be a good cue in identifying

the origins of Chinese people, even when they speak English or other foreign lan-
guages.

Taxophonics

11.3.1.1. As regards possible reductions, especially in weak syllables, we have

already illustrated those of vowel and consonant timbres, in particular, in § 11.1.9-
11 and û 11.6-7, and here and there in § 11.2.0-6.
We would like to underline here that in fast speech, in a preintoneme, two oth-
er types of reduction are possible, which can make Chinese less easy to understand.
˛us it is important at least to know their mechanisms. Should foreign learners
want to apply them in an appropriate manner, naturalness would certainly be im-
proved.
˛erefore, obviously not in an intoneme again, after di‡erent consonants from
sonants (¤ after /p[h], t[h], k[h]÷ q[h], fi[h]÷ f, s, ß, h/), and with tone 4 (above all
when it is complete, /6/ (7), see below), close vowels, /i, y, M, u/ (i, I, ¤÷ y, Y÷ M÷ u,
U), can be devoiced, (î, Ù, î÷ ÿ, Î÷ ¯÷ ¨, Û). We will show this fact only here (and
just for partial devoicing): (0p·î4⁄u) /6phi•>u/ pírù˚ (0p¨[faa) /6pu¶fa/ búf∑˚ (0t·î5ßÉn)
/6thi5ßXn/ tí´en˚ (0t¨[k·øøU) /6tu¶khou/ dúkœu˚ (0Âÿ4t·wÅn) /6qy•thwan/ jútuán˚
(0k·¨[fi·aa) /6khu¶fiha/ kú>∑˚ (0k¨7k·$) /6ku6khX/ gúkè˚ (0q·¯5Âi) /6qhM5qi/ cíji˚
(0q¯[muu) /6qM¶mu/ zímà˚ (0fi·¨7fÅc) /6fihu6fan/ >úfàn˚ (0Âî,7qwø) /6qi˙6qwo/
jí«zuò˚ (0f¨7pu) /6fu6pu/ fúbú˚ (0¿Ù~[jaa¥) /6sin¶ja˙/ xíny∑«˚ (0¿ÿ[·yy) /6sy¶qhy/
xúqà˚ (0ߨ4fu) /6ßu•fu/ ´úfù˚ (0˜¨7fiAÖ) /6hu6fiao/ hú˜ào˘
Besides, in syllables with çzeroÇ tones, but not in an intoneme, approximant re-
alizations are possible: (¸, ã), for /s/ (s, z÷ ¿, B), and (⁄) for /ß/ (ß, Ω), but also for
(q[h], Q÷ Â[h], ©) and (fi[h], "): (7kAÖœzœ|, 7kAÖ3¸Œ, -3¸^) /6kaosu/ gàosu˚ (5p™I&QM|,
5p™I2¸û, -2¸¢) /5peiqM/ beizi˚ (4q·øU&QøU|, 4q·øU2¸û, -2¸¢) /•qhouqhou/ cóucou˚
(5tU,&Bi|, 5tU,2ã¤, -2ã¢) /5tu˙si/ do«xi˚ (çjaa¥^©¤,|, çjaa¥1ã¤,, -1ã¢,) /¶ja˙qi˙/ y∑«ji«˚
(5fi·u&Ây|, 5fi·u2ã¤, -2ã¢) /5fihuqhy/ >uqu˚ (5fiÖ&ΩÖ|, 5fiÖ2⁄Ö) /5fiˇßˇ/ ˜i´i˚ (5pa,&"u|,
5pa,2⁄û, -2⁄¢) /5pa˙fiu/ ba«˜u˚ (5·¤,&fiu|, 5·¤,2⁄û, -2⁄¢) /5qhi˙fihu/ qi«>u˘

11.3.1.2. As we have said, Chinese words are formed by initial and final ele-
ments. However, their combinations have some limitations; in fact, among all the-
oretical possibilities, only 55% are actually used, for slightly over 400 typical sylla-
bles (which are regularly indicated in teaching textbooks, with some oscillations
for the less frequent ones). Here we will report only the most remarkable character-
istics.
(öX⁄) /X>/ er occurs with no initial; /f/ has a fairly limited distribution: it does
not occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥÷ w/ and some other phonemes; whereas, only in loan-
words /v/ is found (which is thus a xenophoneme added to the (v) taxophone of
/f/). Besides, (Â[h], ¿) (with other variants already seen) are taxophones of /q[h],
s/, which only occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥/, and are spelled j˚ q˚ x˘ Equally, /M/ only oc-
curs after /q[h], s/; and /ˇ/ after /fi[h], ß, >/÷ /o/, only after /m, p[h], f, w/ (and in
11. chinese 359

some particular forms after /j, l/ or with a çzeroÇ segment); and /y/, only after /j,
¥÷ l/, /n/ (~), or after /q[h], s/ (Â[h], ¿).
≈nally, we would like to add that /m, p[h], f/ do not occur before /X, M, w÷ y,
¥÷ >÷ [j]u˙/ or some other segments; neither do /fi[h], ß/ occur before /i, j÷ y, ¥/ (or
some others), nor /k[h], h/ before /i, j÷ y, ¥/ or /o, wX˙/. ˛ere are some other more
specific limitations; but this is the spirit of Mandarin phonotactics – /n, ˙/ are the
only, very frequent, syllable-final consonants (besides, />/, which is extremely rare).
˛ere are some remarkable reductions of words such as the following (which are
quite normal, except in intonemes or in formal speech): (4ßXm, 4ßXõ, 4ßX2mÈ, 4ßX-
2mX) /•ßXnmX/ ´énme˚ ([q$$C, çq$1õ, çq$1mÈ, çq$1mX) /¶qXnmX/ z‘nme˚ ([wøøC,
çwøøõ, çwø1mÈn, -1mÉn) /¶womXn/ wœmen˚ (5t·am, 5t·aõ, 5t·amÈn, -mÉn) /5tha-
mXn/ tamen˘ Contrary to some other Chinese languages, in Mandarin there is a
somewhat exceptional occurrence of /m/ in final position, as indeed that of (õ),
which we find in : (4õ) /•Xm/ µ çreally?/what??Ç, (7≠) /6Xm/ û çyes/I understandÇ.

Stress

11.3.2.1. At the end of the previous section, as well as in § 11.1.9-11, we saw a

few words with çweakÇ syllables too, ¤ without either a toneme or a strong stress
(at most they had a secondary stress on posttonic syllables). We will see below that
weak syllables may also occur before the last one, and that generally even gram-
memes (or grammatical particles) are weak.
On the contrary, in most Mandarin words all syllables bear one of the four
marked tonemes (Ô § 11.3.3.1-3). Among these, two-syllable words have the follow-
ing stress pattern (&I'I): (^fiÖ4¥Än) /5fiˇ•¥an/ ˜iyuán˚ (ÒljE~7¿i) /•ljan6si/ liánxí˚ (^˜™I-
[pÅÅc) /5hei¶pan/ heib∑n˚ (0ÂjAÖ5ßÖ) /6qjao5ߡ/ jiào´i˘
Chinese writing has separate characters (çideogramsÇ), but without separation
between words, phrases, and sentences, except for punctuation (which also in-
cludes a çmini-commaÇ (˝) that is used to separate words in a list, but it is used less
and less). In trisyllables, without any weak syllables, we have the pattern ('I&I'I):
(5jPU0[ø[kÅÅc) /5jou6mo¶kan/ youmòg∑n˚ (•fx,0⁄ËÊ5Âi) /•fX,6>Xn5qi/ fé«rènji˚
(ç˜wø^fihX7fiÅc) /¶hwo5fihX6fian/ huœ>e˜àn˘
‹en Chinese words reach four or five syllables, lexical compounding coincides
with syntactical composition. In fact, the various components are simply juxta-
posed. However, there is a way to manage to show lexicalization better, within sen-
tences.
As a matter of fact, if –for instance– we separately have (0qœ[muu) /6qM¶mu/ zí-
mà çletter, graphemeÇ, (^p·I~5jIn) /5phin5jin/ pinyin çsyllabificationÇ, when we put
the two words together, we obtain (5p·I~^jIn 0ëœ[muu) /5phin5jin 6qM¶mu/ pin-
yin zímà çromanization, transliteration, alphabetic writing (to show pronuncia-
tion)Ç, instead of a çsimplerÇ –but more artificial– (^p·I~5jIn 0ëœ[muu); consider
also (6ti0∂i0∂AÖ7tAÖ) /6ti6ti6tao6tao/ dídídàodào˘
360 a handbook of pronunciation

11.3.2.2. In sentences, however (as will be seen from the text in § 11.4.2.2 as
well), there are frequent oscillations with regard to actual stresses on di‡erent sylla-
bles, both for rhythmic reasons and prominence interplay, and even for communi-
cative purposes, even when they are not çdistinctiveÇ. ˛us, for instance, /5ßa˙¶kan-
¶fiu6ji¶fiX/ ´a«g∑n˜ày협 can have two frequent realizations, (5ßa,œâÅ∫çfiu0ji-
[fi$$, 5ßa,œâÅ∫œ2u7jiœ2$); equally, even forms such as the following often oscillate:
(0ji[tjEEc, 7jiœ∂jEc) /6ji¶tjan/ yídi∑n˚ (0(ø4f™I, 7(ø&Ñ™I) /6po•fei/ pòféi˚ (^qM7wÙI, 5qM-
0wÙI) /5qM6wei/ ziwèi˚ (0¿Iü[fuu, 7¿IüœÑu) /6sin•fu/ xínfù˚ (^ÂIn5t·jEn, 5ÂIn^thjEn)
/5qin5thjan/ jìntian˚ (0öÅË[lii, 7öÅËœli) /6ae¶li/ àil`˚ (^kÅm5p™I, 5kÅm^Ê™I) /5kan5pei/
ganbei!
All this can happen both in intonemes and preintonemes. And, what is more,
even opposite cases are frequent, that is syllables with çzeroÇ tone which bear a
strong stress, verging on mid pitch (again independently of any intoneme): (4p·x,-
&jPU, &p·x,'jPU) /•phX˙jou/ pé«you˚ (7tÅNœËÎ, 0∂ÅN'ßÖ) /6tanߡ/ dàn´i˚ (4ßÖ&∆øU, &ßÖ-
'˜øU) /•ßÖhou/ ´ìhou˘ In addition, even forms bearing a tone (even written) are
weakened, as happens to the grammemes and locatives in the following examples:
(5fiwø0Ëa¥, -&Ëa,) /5fiwo 6ßa˙/ ˜uo ´à«˚ (6ti0ñja, -&ñja) /6ti 6sja/ dí xià˚ (5wuœli, 5wu-
&li) /5wu ¶li/ wu l`˚ (4t·¤,œli, -&li) /•thi˙ ¶li/ tì« l`˘

Tones

11.3.3.1. ˛e most remarkable aspect of the various Chinese languages (and one
of the most serious problems for foreigners) resides in the use of çtonesÇ. In fact, in
languages such as Mandarin, a di‡erent pitch on a syllable is able to make its mean-
ing change completely. ˛erefore, we have to speak of tonemes for distinctive ele-
ments of a phonemic system, and of tones for their actual realizations, including
taxotones, ¤ combinatory variants, as can be seen from the examples given below.
In order to draw attention to their importance, and not to confuse concepts and
words, let us choose the example of ([mÅÅË) /¶mae/ m∑i çto buyÇ and (7mÅË) /6mae/
mài çto sellÇ. We now add some classical examples (giving some of the most fre-
quent meanings, among the possible ones, since transliterations may unify di‡er-
ent words {as phonic transcriptions do too}, represented by di‡erent characters,
or çideogramsÇ): (5ma) /5ma/ ma çmotherÇ, (4ma) /•ma/ má çhempÇ, ([maa) /¶ma/
m∑ çhorseÇ, (7ma) /6ma/ mà çscold, curseǢ
As some transcriptions have already shown, tonemes 3 and 4 are realized with
creaky (or laryngealized) voice, when their çlowÇ taxophones occur: ([), (ç) and (7)
(with secondary stress, (0)), but not when the çhighÇ ones occur: (•) and (6). To-
nemes 1 and 2, which are çhighÇ, (5), (4), always have normal voice quality.
A prudential warning is necessary about some diagrams which appeared in cer-
tain publications, not only in çtourist-likeÇ books, since they are too often com-
pletely wrong – so they are of no help at all to unfortunate readers…
Mandarin is relatively simple, in comparison with other Chinese languages, al-
so as far as taxotones are concerned. In fact, Mandarin has only four marked to-
nemes, traditionally indicated and listed as 1 (5) /5/ >1≥ o\ (5ji) /5ji/ yi÷ 2 (4) /•/ >Q≥ ó\
11. chinese 361

(4wu) /•wu/ wù÷ 3 ([) /¶/ >5≥ œ\ ([¿¥™™) /¶s¥e/ xu‘÷ 4 (7) /6/ >Z≥ ò\ (7·ja¥) /6qja˙/ qià«˘
û 11.10 shows –for the four tonemes– the four basic tones, in addition to three
taxotones, which are as important phonetically (or rather çtoneticallyÇ): in addi-
tion to ç3=2 (¤ 3+3 = 3+2)Ç (•) /¶/ >5≥ œ (¤ a toneme 3 –occurring before another
3– which becomes almost a tone 2 {although it is generally –but falsely– identified
with an actual tone 2}), we have a çhalf 3Ç, (ç) /¶/ >5≥ œ (¤ a 3 before one of the oth-
er three), and a çhalf 4Ç, (6) /6/ >Z≥ ò (¤ a 4 before another 4). As can be seen, from
both tonograms and phonetic transcriptions which will follow, the last two are ac-
tually realized as the first half of their full forms.
In a kind of çinternationalÇ pronunciation, toneme 2 can be realized as (•) (in-
stead of (4) ((-1))), as the o‚cial taxotone of /¶/ followed by another /¶/. ˛e pitch
characteristics of the other ton(em)es ought to be very similar to the o‚cial ones,
even for the çzeroÇ toneme, as we have done in our transcriptions (although for
the latter, somehow, a realization of mid pitch {and weak stress} could be su‚cient,
(2), again in this type of çinternationalÇ pronunciation).
û 11.10. Mandarin tonemes and tones.

1 /5/ (5) >1≥ 2 /•/ (4) >Q≥ 3 /¶/ ([) >5≥ 3‘ /¶/ (ç) >5≥ 3“ /¶/ (•) >5≥ 4 /6/ (7) >Z≥ 4‘ /6/ (6) >Z≥

11.3.3.2. Obviously, although at first all this might seem to be a useless compli-
cation, in actual fact, it is a real facilitation for contextual realizations. As a mat-
ter of fact, it is a simplification, from a tonetic point of view, which is visible on-
ly thanks to accurate phonetic (or rather phonotonetic) transcriptions, whereas
phonemic (¤ phonotonemic) transcriptions, as well as graphemic renderings, do
not change at all, since their entity, their essence, remains the same.
As can be seen from the following examples, and –above all– from û 11.11, the
allotones (¤ taxophones) of tonemes 3 and 4 present a simplification, by assimila-
tion.
û 11.11. Fundamental taxotones.

/¶ 5/ = (– 5)

/¶ •/ = (– 4)

/¶ ¶/ = (Ò [)

/¶ 6/ = (– 7)

/6 6/ = (0 7)
362 a handbook of pronunciation

In fact, toneme 3, ([) = (ç), /¶/ >5≥˚ shortens (even as its segmental duration does),
when it occurs before tonemes which are di‡erent from itself: (œ˜wø5fi·X) /¶hwo-
5fihX/ huœ>e˚ (œt*¥4¥y) /¶tX˙•¥y/ d‘«yù˚ (œk·AÖ7ßÖ) /¶khao6ߡ/ k∑o´í÷ on the other
hand, when it occurs before itself, /¶ ¶/ >5 5≥˚ it has the taxotone (•): (ÒßøU[pjAAÖ)
/¶ßou¶pjao/ ´œubi∑o˘
Even in this case, it is right to keep its tonemic and graphemic representation
unchanged, since, should we modify them, they would lead us to think of di‡er-
ent structures, not only from a phonic point of view, but also lexically and, then,
semantically.
Toneme 4 resorts to a (halved) taxotone before itself: (0fa,7Âja) /6fa˙6qja/ fà«-
jià˘ Tonemes 1 and 2 do not have any variants; and, although the taxotone of 3 (+
3) is tonetically (more) similar to toneme 2, it nevertheless remains a taxotone of
toneme 3 (except in the çinternationalÇ accent {which is a simplification}).
û 11.12. Taxotones of particular tonemic sequences.

/5 • 5/ = /5 5 5/ (5 — 5)

/5 • •/ = /5 5 •/ (5 — 4)

/5 • ¶/ = /5 5 ¶/ (5 — [)

/5 • 6/ = /5 5 6/ (5 — 7)

û 11.13. Taxotones of other tonemic sequences.

/• • 5/ = /• 5 5/ (4 — 5)

/• • •/ = /• 5 •/ (4 — 4)

/• • ¶/ = /• 5 ¶/ (4 — [)

/• • 6/ = /• 5 6/ (4 — 63)

û 11.14. Further taxotones of tonemic sequences.

/5&¶ ¶/ = (5 Ò [) = (5 — [)

/•&¶ ¶/ = (4 Ò&[) = (4 — [)

/¶ ¶ ¶/ = (• Ò&[) = (• — [)
11. chinese 363

11.3.3.3. As far as sequences of three tonemes are concerned, there are some
di‡erences (and they must be indicated and applied too) in comparison with tone-
mic (and graphemic) representations. û 11.12 shows what happens to sequences
of /5 •/ followed by one of the other four tonemes: (5tU,^nÅM5fx,) /5tu˙•nan5fX˙/
do«nán-fe«˚ (5sÅ~^~jE~4Âi) /5san•njan•qi/ sannián-jì˚ (5¿jEN^⁄É~[Âjaa¥) /5sjan•>Xn-
¶qja˙/ xianrén-ji∑«˚ (5¿i^∆U,7ßÎ) /5si•hu˙6ߡ/ xihó«´í.
û 11.13 shows sequences of /• •/ followed by one of the other four tonemes:
(4m™I^laM5fa,) /•mei•lan5fa˙/ Méi Lánfa«˚ (4˜ÅÉ^m™I4lÅÉ) /•hae•mei•lae/ hái méi
lái˚ (4wÅ~^Âh¥Än[tUU¥) /•wan•qh¥an¶tu˙/ wánquán dœ«˚ (4¿Y~^ja,7ÂjEc) /•syn-
•ja˙6qjan/ xùnyá«-jiàn˘
≈nally, û 11.14 shows the behavior of the sequence /¶ ¶/ preceded by one of the
first three tonemes: (5sÅ~^jEn[Âj<<Y) /5san¶jan¶qjX˙>/ Sany∑n Ji‘«r˚ (4˜ÅN^Ëu-
[pjAAÖ) /•han¶ßu¶pjao/ hán´àbi∑o˚ (•wø^j™[jÕÕU) /¶wo¶je¶jou/ wœ y‘ yœu˘

11.3.3.4. In addition, there is a çzero toneÇ, which is realized in four di‡erent

ways (that are representable, however, with only three signs), according to the pre-
vious toneme. It is much simpler to refer to û 11.15, which shows that a çzero
toneÇ has mid pitch after tonemes 1 and 2, although –strictly speaking– after to-
neme 1 pitch is [lower] mid, whereas it is [upper-central] mid after toneme 2: (5pi-
&(hø) /5pipho/ bipo˚ (4pi&Âhi) /•piqhi/ bìqi˘ After a toneme 3, the unmarked to-
neme is [lower] high; whereas, it is [lower-central] low, after a toneme 4: (çpi^Ña,)
/¶pifa˙/ b`fa«˚ (7piœ∆wÙI) /6pihwei/ bíhui˘
As we have said, three symbols are necessary (and su‚cient), since –as we will
see shortly– intonation slightly modifies and compresses what we are explaining
here, which refers to an çidealÇ pronunciation – and is used in isolated forms, out-
side actual communicative contexts.
‹en two unmarked tonemes occur after a marked one, their pitch is as shown
in the tonograms of û 11.16: (5k·ÅÉ2lÅÉœl$) /5khaelaelX/ kailaile˚ (4na2lÅÉœl$) /•na-
laelX/ nálaile˚ (çqøU1lÅÉ^lX) /¶qoulaelX/ zœulaile˚ (7sU¥3lÅËœl$) /6su˙laelX/ sò«laile˘
Lastly, û 11.17 shows how a çzeroÇ toneme behaves when it occurs between
marked tonemes (by observing its tonetic logic as a gradual transition): (5t·jE~1©i-
7wÙI) /5thjanqi6wei/ Tianjiwèi˚ (4˜a,1"øU7ßÎ) /•ha˙fiou6ߡ/ H᫘ou´í˚ (çli2hU,-
5fia,) /¶lihu˙5fia˙/ L`ho«˜a«˚ (çlja,2gX4⁄Én) /¶lja˙kX•>Xn/ li∑«ge rén˚ (6k·Ån2dX-
7ÂjEc) /6khantX6qjan/ kàn-de-jiàn˘

û 11.15. Contextual pitches of a çzeroÇ tone in bisyllables.

/5 ”/ (5 &) /• ”/ (4 &) /¶ ”/ (ç —) /6 ”/ (7 –)

û 11.16. Contextual pitches of two çzeroÇ tones in trisyllables.

/5 ” ”/ (5 2 –) /• ” ”/ (4 2 –) /¶ ” ”/ (ç 1 —) /6 ” ”/ (7 3 –)
364 a handbook of pronunciation

û 11.17. Contextual pitches of an internal çzeroÇ tone in trisyllables.

/5 ” 6/ (5 1 7) /• ” 6/ (4 1 7) /¶ ” 5/ (ç 2 5) /¶ ” •/ (ç 2 4) /¶ ” •/ (ç 2 7)

11.3.3.5. To conclude about tones, we must indicate some syntactic-lexical vari-

ations, which have to be memorized as they are. We are talking about three num-
bers: (5ji) /5ji/ yi çoneÇ, (5·i) /5qhi/ qi çsevenÇ, (5pa) /5pa/ ba çeightÇ, and the nega-
tion (7pu) /6pu/ bú çno, notÇ. ˛e three numbers are realized with a tone (6) before
one of the first three tonemes (/5, •, ¶/): (6ji, 6·i, 6pa), but with tone (•) before a 4
(/6/): (•ji, •Â·i, •pa) (but now even (5·i) is acceptable). Also /6pu/, before a 4, be-
comes (•): (•pu). Besides, (5ji) /5ji/ yi becomes (4) /•/, even before a zero toneme,
which derives from (7) /6/, as in (4ji&âX) /•jikX/ yìge.

Intonation

11.3.4.1. Although Chinese is a tone language, ¤ with relevant and distinctive

syllable pitch, it uses intonation too, as non-tone languages do. Obviously, in this
case, things are more complicated, since the basic tonemes with the taxotones we
have seen (Ô § 11.3.3.1-5) are slightly modified by intonation, which superimpos-
es on tones. In fact, it makes them change according to the typical movements of
the intonemes.
û 11.18 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of Mandarin, with their charac-
teristics. ˛e preintonemes force the pitch of every single tone to be canalized in-
to the shapes indicated (which, in a more sophisticated than really necessary no-
tation, could even be indicated with some small rings, as we will see shortly). A
normal preintoneme is compressed (/ / ( ), ((” ))), an interrogative one is raised (/¿ /
(¿ ), ((» ))), whereas an imperative one is falling (/¡ / (¡ ), ((»’ ))); finally, an emphatic
preintoneme is extended, non-compressed, (/˚ / (˚ ), ((ˇ ))).
û 11.18 also shows the modifications undergone by the intonemes: the conclu-
sive is falling (/./ (13)), the interrogative is rising (/?/ (31)), the continuative one is
compressed (/,/ (2)), whereas the suspensive is extended (/2/ (^)).
û 11.18. Mandarin preintonemes and intonemes.

/ / ( ) ((” )) /./ (13)

/¿ / (¿ ) ((» )) /?/ (31)

/¡ / (¡ ) ((»’ )) /÷/ (^)

/˚ /(˚ ) ((ˇ )) /,/ (2)

11. chinese 365

11.3.4.2. Besides çisolatedÇ tones (typical of separate words {as examples are}
and of a suspensive intoneme, and of an emphatic preintoneme as well, which are
given in black), û 11.19 also shows the taxotones (given in grey) of the four
marked tonemes, as they are modified when they are realized in conclusive (/./ (13)),
interrogative (/?/ (31)), and continuative (/,/ (2)) intonemes. It is obvious that the to-
netic notation used is –necessarily– just an indication of the deformation under-
gone by actual tones. Of course, in non-tonal languages, the use of tonetic sym-
bols is –automatically– much more precise, since it is free from any phonemic val-
ue applied to lexical pitch.
In addition, û 11.20 shows in grey all the allotones occurring in the four prein-
tonemes. ˛e four marked in black, in the emphatic preintoneme, correspond to
the four çisolatedÇ tones. ˛ey are also useful for comparisons, which must be
done very carefully, in order to appropriately memorize and master them in actu-
al sentences (at first as a simple identification step, then as active drills as well).
Undoubtedly, they require a good deal of commitment and constancy. But any
e‡ort will certainly be rewarded. Of course, paraphonics further modifies things
depending on attititudes, feelings, Â.

11.3.4.3. Lastly, we will see three examples to start an accurate analysis of into-
nation which is always in an indissoluble relation with tones. Given the complex-
ity of this enterprise, we will use the same basic sentence, with the same tonemes.
Of course, other tonal combinations are to be experimented as well, on the basis
of the examples provided:
/./: (5t·a0ËÎ 4ji2gX Ò∆X7ßÅc2dX 5ku&~ja,13) /5thaߡ •jikX •hX6ßantX 5kunja˙./ Ta ´í yìge
hé´àn de gunia«.
/?/: (¿5t·a0ËÎ 4ji2gX Ò∆X7ßÅc2dX 5ku&~ja,2ma31) /¿5thaߡ •jikX •hX6ßantX 5kunja˙ma?/
Ta ´í yìge hé´àn de gunia« ma?
/÷/: (5t·a0ËÎ 4ji2gX Ò∆X7ßÅc2dX 5ku&~ja,^ 7tÅ∫3ΩÎ çwø1bu 7öÅËœtha13) /5thaߡ •jikX •hX6ßan-
tX 5kunja˙÷ 6tanߡ ¶wopu 6aetha./ Ta ´í yìge hé´àn de gunia«, dàn´i wœ bù ài ta.
û 11.19. ˛e four tonemes combined with the four intonemes.

the 4 tones with /./ (13)

the 4 tones with /?/ (31)

the 4 tones with /,/ (2)

the 4 tones with /÷/ (^)

366 a handbook of pronunciation

û 11.20. ˛e seven allotones combined with the four preintonemes.

//()

/¿/ (¿ )

/¡/ (¡ )

/˚/ (˚ )

Text

11.4.0. ˛e story †e North Wind and the Sun follows, given in four di‡erent
çnormalizedÇ versions. We start with the (neutral) Chinese pronunciation of (neu-
tral British) English – this is the first step of the phonetic method (the written text
is given in § 2.5.2.0). ˛e Chinese translation follows, in its neutral and çinterna-
tionalÇ versions.
Please, note the creaky vowels before pauses (¤ with creaky phonation type, or
laryngealization, (ü); whereas in Mandarin creaky voice is in relation with low
tones, also for the voiced consonants belonging to the same syllable coda). ˛ese
creaky vowels confer great çauthenticityÇ, together with a (paraphonic) postdorsal
setting, that is with a slight but permanent –or frequent– raising of the dorsum
towards the velum together with the raising of the larynx §# Æ@.
At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronuncia-
tion of Chinese, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Chinese (after prolonged
contact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who
have adequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use seg-
mental and intonation elements which are typical of neutral British English (for
reference purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Ob-
viously, the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciation of English, giv-
en first.
Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Chi-
nese pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Chinese, as an excel-
lent exercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of
course, speakers of other languages could do the same thing. ˛e author would be
happy to receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help –should
they need it– and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our
website on canIPA Natural Phonetics – Ô § 0.12).
11. chinese 367

Chinese pronunciation (of English)

11.4.1. §Æ #@ (2tX'n∏s 'jin2 2Xn2∂X'san2 2jX2∂is'phju2ti, 'jiÂæ 2jXs2∂Xs'thl∏˙2â$13| 'jÄn

2öX'thlÄV2lX2 'kh™Im 2X'l∏,2 ì'lÄpæ 2öin2öX'j∏m 'khløUkæ13œ| 2∂™IX'âli∂æ2\ 2∂Ä2∂X'jan 2˜u'fXs
2sXk'¿i∂i∂2 2öin'm™I2ki, 2∂X'thlÄV2lX2 'th™Ikæ 2˜is'khløUkæ 'ö∏f^| &¿ãu2Êi2kXn'¿i2∂X∂æ 2sX"thl∏˙-
2gX 2∂Xn2∂i'a2∂$13||
'∂Än2 2∂X'n∏s 'jin2 'Êlu2 2˜Xs'˜aX∂æ2 2öX2¿i'khu∂æ13| 2ÊX2∂X'[∏ 2˜i'Êlu^| 2∂X'[∏ 'khløUs2li2
&∂i2∂X'thlÄV2l$2\ '5øU∂æ 2˜is'khløUkæ öX'lA∏n2∂iC13| ì2öXn2Xtæ'las2œ\ 2∂X'n∏s 'jin2 'â™I 'Vapæ 2∂iX-
'thÉCpæ13|| ì'∂Än2œ 2∂X'san '¿ã∏n 'öA∏tæ13 ì'j∏m2li13œ| 2öXn2öi'mi∂iÈ2tli2\ ˚2∂X'thÄV2lX 'thukæ 'ö∏f3 3
˚2˜is'khløUkæ13|| ì2öXn'søU2œ 2∂X'n∏s 'jin2 2jXs2X'blÅĸæ 2tX2kXM'fÉs2| 2∂X2∂X'san13 2jXs2∂Xs-
'thl∏˙2âX13 ì2öX2∂X'thu13œ||
¿&∂i2¸ju'lÅÄkæ31 ¿2∂Xs'th∏li2| ¿2¸ju'j∏n 2tX'˜iX2litæ 2öX'âÉc31|||)

Mandarin text

11.4.2. Yœu yí huì b‘ife« gen tàiyá« ˜è«zàinar ˜e«lún ´éide b‘n´i dà,
´uo˜e ´uo˜e láile yìge zœudàorde, ´en´a« >uan˜e yìjiàn hòu páozi. Tamen
li∑ jiú ´a«lia« h∑o le ´uo, è´éi né« xian jiào ˜ège zœudàorde b∑ tade páozi tuo-
le xiàlai a, jiú suàn ´éide b‘n´i dà¶.
H∑o, b‘ife« jiú ´`qi dà jín lái j`ngua j`ngua, k‘´í ta guade yuè líhai, nèige rén
b∑ páozi guœde yuè j`n; dào mòli∑or b‘ife« méile fázi, ˜`h∑o jiú suànle. Yíhu`r tài-
yá« jiú >ulái rèrerde yì ´ài, nèi zœudàorde m∑´à« jiú b∑ páozi tuole xiàlai. Suœ-
y` b‘ife« bú né« bú >é«rèn dàod` hái´i tàiyá« b` ta b‘n´i dà.
N` x`huan ˜è ´œu érge ma? Wœmen zài >à« yì biàn ma?

Neutral Mandarin Chinese pronunciation

11.4.3. §Æ #@ (ìœjÕU7jiœ∆wÙI^œ| œÊ™I5fx,2 2gÉn7t·ÅË&ja,2\ 6fix,&ëÅÉ3nåY ^2x,7lw‘c13|

4ß™I2dX çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13|| ì5ßwø2"X^ßwø2"X2œ| 4lÅÉ2lX &ãi2gXœëøU7tåY3d$13|| 5ßÉN&Ëa,2 5fi·wÅN-
2"X2 4ji0¸jE¥ 7˜øU 4p·AÖ2Qû13|| 5t·am [ljaa2\ 0¸jÕU5ßa,2lja, ç˜AÖ1lX 5ßwøx2|| ^4ß™I &nx,-
5¿jE~0¸jAÖ2\ 7fi$3g$œëøU7tåY3d$2| œpa5t·a2dX 4p·AÖ2Qû2| 5t·wø2lX 7¿ja3lÅËœa2|| 0¸jPU-
7swÅ∫2 4ß™I2dX çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13Œ||
[˜AAÖ^|| œp™I5fx,2 0¸jÕUçßÎ1©i 7ta2 7ÂIc&lÅÉ2 œ¸I©5kwa2 œ¸I©5kwa13|| çk·$1ΩÖ5t·a^||
5kwa2dX 7¥™ 7li3hÅË2 0n™I3g$4⁄Én^|| [paa2| 4p·AÖ2Qû2 çkwø1dX 0¥™[ÂIIc13|| 7tAÖ 0[ø[ljååY^||
œp™I5fx, 4m™I2lX 4fa2Qû13|| 4fiÖœ∆AAÖ2 0ÂjÕU7swÅc3l$13|| 0ji[˜w$$Y^|| 7t·ÅËœja, 0¸jÕU-
5fi·u&lÅÉ2|| 0⁄$5⁄X⁄2dX Òji7ßÅË13|| nȤœëøU7tåY3d$2|| œma7ßa¥2 0ÂjÕU[paa 4p·AÖ2Qû2 5t·wø-
2lX 7¿ja3lÅË13|| ì•swøœji2œ| œp™I5fx,2|| 0pu4nx,0Êu Òfihx,7⁄Ëc^|| ì7tAÖœ2∂ii2œ 4˜ÅÉΩÖ 7t·ÅË&ja,2|
œpi5t·a2 çpË∫1ΩÖ 7ta13||
¿Ò~iç¿i^∆wÅN 7fi$œßøU œö$Y5kX2ma31|| ¿œwøC7qÅË2 ¿7fi·a¥ Òji7pjEC3ma31|||)
368 a handbook of pronunciation

£International∞ Mandarin Chinese pronunciation

11.4.4. (ìçjøu0ji4hw™i^œ| œp™i5fx˙2 kxn0tha™4ja˙2\ 0fix˙7qa™3na⁄ ^fix˙7lwxn13| 4ß™i2tx

çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13|| ì5ßwø2fix 5ßwø2fix2œ| 4la™2lx 4ji2kx œqøu7ta⁄3tx13|| 5ßxN&ßa˙2 5fihwaN2fix2 Òji-
7Âjan 7høu 4phaø2qM13|| 5tham[xn] [ljaa2\ 0Âjøu5ßa˙2lja˙ çhaø1lx 5ßwø2|| ^4ß™i &nx˙5¿ja~
7Âjaø2\ 7fiX3kX œqøu7ta⁄3tx2| œpa5tha2tx 4phaø2qM2| 5thwø2lx 7¿ja3la™œa2|| 0Âjøu7swaN2
4ß™i2tx çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13Œ||
[haaø^|| œp™i5fx˙2 0ÂjøuçßÖ1Âi 7ta2 0Âin4la™ œÂi˙5kwa2 œÂi˙5kwa13|| çkhx1ßÖ5tha^||
5kwa2tx 7¥™ 7li3ha™2 7n™i3kx 4⁄xn^|| [paa2| 4phaø2qM2 çkwø1tx 0¥™[Âiin13|| 7taø 0mø[ljaa⁄^||
œp™i5fx˙2 4m™i2lx 4fa2qM13|| ÒfiÖ[haaø2 0Âjøu7swan3lx13|| 0ji[hwxx⁄^|| 0tha™4ja˙ 7Âjøu-
^fihu4la™2|| 0⁄x5⁄x⁄2tx Òji7ßa™13|| n™iœqøu7ta⁄3tx2|| œma7ßa˙2 0Âjøu[paa 4phaø2qM2 5thwø2lx
7¿ja3la™13|| ìÒswø[jii2œ| œp™i5fx˙2|| 7pu&nx˙7pu Òfihx˙7⁄xn^|| ì0taø[tii2œ 4ha™ßÖ 0tha™4ja˙2|
œpi5tha2 çpxN1ßÖ 7ta13||
¿•ni œ¿i5hwaN 0fix[ßøøu œöx⁄5kx2ma31|| ¿œwø2m[xn]7qa™2 ¿7fiha˙ Òji7pjam3ma31|||)

English pronunciation of Chinese

11.4.5. (ìj‘¨'jI;i&hw™I32œ| b™I'få˙:2 gûn'ThaÙ&jå˙:2\ 5chå˙&tsaÙnÈ &Gå˙l¯'‘:n3 3| 5S™IDÈ

'ph™‘~ZÈ 'ThA:3 3|| ìS¯'‘¨GÈs¯&‘¨Gå2œ| 5laÙlÈ &jIigûts‘¨'ThA;Då3 3|| 'S‘;n&Så˙:2 c¯'A;~GÈ2 5jIi-
Gi&™˙ 'h‘;¨ 'phaÖts¨3 3|| 5ThA:m li'A:2\ G‘¨5Så˙li&å˙ 'haÖlÈ S¯'ø:2|| ^5S™;I nå˙Si'™nGi&aÖ2\
'c‘;gû ts‘¨'ThA;Då2| phA;5ThA;DÈ 'phaÖts¨2| Th¯5‘¨lÈ Si'A;laÙå2|| Gi&‘¨s¯'πn2 'S™IDÈ
'ph™‘~SÈ 'ThA:3 3Œ||
'ha;Ö32|| b™I'få˙:2 Gi‘¨'S‘;Gi 'ThA:2 'ch¤n&laÙ2 &G¤˙k¯'A: &G¤˙k¯'A:3 3|| 5kh‘;ZÈ 'ThA:32||
kh¯5A;DÈ 'j™;I 'lIi&haÙ2 &n™Igû'>‘:n32|| 'phA:2| 'phaÖts¨2 'khw‘¨DÈ j™I'ch¤n:3 3|| 5Tha;Ö &m‘¨-
li'A:32|| b™I5få˙ 'm™IlÈ 'fA;ts¨3 3|| 'ch‘:&haÖ2 ci&‘¨'swπnlå3 3|| &jIi'hw‘:32|| 5Tha;Ù&jå˙ Gi&‘¨-
'ch¯ulaÙ2|| >È'>‘;DÈ &jIi'Sa;Ù3 3|| &n™Its‘¨'thA;Då2|| mA;'Så˙:2 ci‘¨5phA: 'phaÖts¨2 5Thwø;lÈ Si-
'A;laÙ3 3|| ì'swø;jIi2œ| b™I5få˙:2|| &ph¯u5nå˙&ph¯u chå˙'>‘:n32|| ì'ThaÖDi2œ 5haÙZÈ 'Tha;Ù&jå˙2|
phIi'ThA:2 5ph‘;~ZÈ 'ThA:3 3||
¿nIi5SIi&hwπn 'ch‘;S‘¨ û'kh‘;må21|| ¿&w‘¨m'tsa;Ù2 ¿5chå˙ &jIipi'™nmå21|||)

A short appendix

11.4.6. (6ta0ëM7pAÖ) /6ta6qM6pao/ dàzíbào˚ (5kU,&Ñu) /5ku˙fu/ go«fu (çkung

fuÇ, Ô § 11.1.9 for (-2vû)), (0·i5kU,) /6qhi5ku˙/ qígo«˚ (7tAÖ) /6tao/ dào˚ (4Âj™-
ÒÂh¥Än7tAÖ) /•qje•qh¥an6tao/ jiéquándào (çjeet kune doÇ), (5t·ÅÉÒ¸i4·¥Än)
/6thae•qi•qh¥an/ tàijìquán˚ (5pa0âwa[fiaa¥) /5pa6kwa¶fia˙/ baguà˜∑«˘
Besides: (^fiU,4kwø[x]) /5fiu˙•kwo/ ˆo«guó çChinaÇ˚ (œp™I5¤,) /¶pei5qi˙/ B‘i-
ji«, (5t·jEn^öÅm4mÉ˙ ÒâwA¥[fi·aa¥) /5thjan5an•mXn ¶kwa˙¶fiha˙/ Tian'anmén
Gu∑«>∑«˚ (0sœ5fi·wÅn) /6sM5fihwan/ Sí>uan˚ (Òt·ÅÉ5wÅn) /•thae5wan/ Tái-
11. chinese 369

wan˚ (œkwA¥5tU,) /¶kwa˙5tu˙/ Gu∑«do« çCantonÇ˚ (0ßa¥[˜ÅÅË) /6ßa˙¶hae/ Øà«-

h∑i˘
More: (4mAÖ^ëX5tU,) /•mao•qX5tu˙/ Máo Zédo«˚ (4¥ÄN0⁄ÉN7fiAÖ) /•¥an6>Xn-
6fiao/ Yuán Rèn ˆào (traditionally: Yuen Ren ≥ao ]˚ (5fiøU ^öÉn4lÅÉ) /5fiou 5Xn-
•lae/ ˆou Enlái˚ (7t*¥ œñjAÖ4p·¤,) /6tX˙ ¶sjao•phi˙/ Dè« Xi∑opì«˚ (ÒlIm5pjAÖ) /•lin
5pjao/ Lìn Biao˚ (•ljPU œËAÖ4·i) /•ljou ¶ßao•qhi/ Liù Ø∑oqì˘
Lastly: (5sÅnœli4t·w‘n, -4t·wX⁄) /5san¶li•thwXn, -•twX>/ Sanl`tùn(r)˚ (0ku5kU,) /6ku-
5ku˙/ Gúgo«˚ (Òfi·a,4fi·x,) /•fiha˙•fihX˙/ ≥á«>é«˚ (4jiÒ∆X4¥Än) /•ji•hX•¥an/
Yìhéyuán˚ (5fia, 0ji4[øU) /5fia˙ 6ji•mou/ ˆa« Yímóu˚ (œkU¥7li) /¶ku˙6li/ Gœ« Lí˚
(^öøU5fiøU) /5ou5fiou/ Ou˜ou çEuropeÇ, (Òlw‘n5tw‘n) /•lwXn5twXn/ Lùndun çLon-
donÇ, (—j¤,4kwø[x]) /5ji˙•kwo/ Yi«guó çEnglandÇ, (5suÒâX4lÅn) /5su•kX•lan/ Sugélán
çScotlandÇ, (6ji0∂a7li) /6ji6ta6li/ Yídàlí çItalyÇ, (Òlø[maa) /•lo¶ma/ Lóm∑ çRomeÇ, (5wÙI-
^~i5sM) /5wei•ni5sM/ Weinìsi çVeniceÇ, (7p™I—∂wø5fÉn) /6pei5two5fXn/ Bèiduofen
çBeethovenÇ.